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{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive\nin 2007 witii funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nlittp://www.arcliive.org/details/addressesproce1912natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nAND ADDRESSES\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\n"}
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{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\"^\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE UNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF THE\n\nFIFTIETH ANNUAL\nHELD\n\nMEETING\n\nAT\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILLINOIS\n\nJULY 6-12\n1912\n\n'^\n\n3\n\n\\\\\n\npubllsbeO bBI9I2\ntbe Hssociatlon\nSECRETARY'S\n\nOFFICE, ANN\n\nARBOR,\n\nMICH-\n\n^\n^\nv\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\\^''-'\n\nc.\n\nL\nI/A \\\n\n13\n\nComposed and Printed By\nThe Universit>' of Chicago Press\nChicaec Illinois, U.S.A.\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nPAGS\n\nAct of Incorporation\nBy-Laws\nCertificate of Incorporation\nCalendar of Meetings\nOfl&cers for 1911-12\nOfl&cers for 191 2-13\nReport of Treasurer\nReport of Board of Trustees\nAnnual Meeting of Active Members\nMinutes of Meetings of Board of Directors for 191 i-i 2\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 191 2-13\nMinutes of Meetings of Board of Trustees\nNecrology\nSecretary's, Minutes of General Sessions\nGENERAL\n\ni\n5\nn\n13\n15\n19\n23\n27\n30\n74\n96\n106\n114\n\n' .\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n117\n\nAddress of Welcome — Blair\nResponse to Address of Welcome — Harris\n.\n.\nPresident's Address — Pearse\nTopic:\nThe National Education Association*— The Half-Century Mark\nA. Brief Historical Sketch of the First Teachers Association Held in Chicago,\n111. — Pickard\nB. The Rebirth of the Association in 1884 — Bicknell\nC. The Ideals of Half a Century — Redway\nD. The Monuments: The Achievements of Fifty Years — Greenwood\n.\n.\nE. The Coming Half-Century — Sahin\nTopic:\nThe American High School\nA. Its Relation to the Schools Below — Siders\nB. Mortality\nin the Early Years: Some\nAdministrative\nRemedies —\nBaylor\nC. The Specialized or Vocational vs. the Composite High School — Call\nD. Social Organization in the High School — Potter\nE. What the Public May Expect in Dividends: Material, Civic, and Social\n— Clark\nF. The Worship of the \"Standard\" — Mearns\nTopic:\nA National University\nA. The National Association of State Universities and the National University— James\nB. A National University a National Asset;\nan Instrumentality for\nAdvanced Research — Van Hise\nC. A National University as Related to Democracy — Baker ....\nD. Ways and Means: The Next Steps — Thompson\nTopic : The Relation of the Public Schools to the Movement for Recreational, Social, and Civic Opportunity\nA. How a Community May Find Out and Plan for Its Recreation Needs —\nHaynes\n\n125\n127\n130\n\nSESSIONS\n\nV\n\n137\n139\n145\n151\n157\n161\n168\n174\n181\n187\n193\n\n201\n210\n220\n225\n\n230\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "VI\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nB. The Relation of Schodlhouse Architecture to the Social Center Movement\n— Perkins\nC. The PubUc Library, the Public School, and the Social Center Movement\n— Bostwick\n.\nD. The Organization and Administration of Recreation and Social Center\nWork — Stern\nE. The Social Center and the Rural Community — Quick\n.\nTopic:\nThe Pubuc Schools and the Public Health\nA. The Duty of the State in the Medical Inspection of Schools; Results\nWhich the Public May Rightfully Expect — Dresslar ....\nB. The Teaching of Personal Hygiene in the Schools — Jordan\n.\n.\n.\nC. Sanitary Education in Rural Communities — North\nD. The Medical Inspection of Schools and Medical Freedom — Reed\n.\n.\nE. Some Problems in Education as Related to the Public Health — Wiley\nTopic:\nRural Life Conditions and Rural Education\nA. A Social and Educational Survey of the Rural Community — Wilson .\nBi. What Is Being Done to Meet the Problem by the Schools of Guilford\nCounty, N.C.—Foust\nB2. What Is Being Done to Meet the Problem by the State of Oregon —\nAlderman\nB3. What Is Being Done to Meet the Problem by the State of North Dakota\n— Worst\nC. The Humanity of Highways — DeGarmo\nD. The School, the College, and the English Farmer — Russell\n.\n.\n.\nThe Best Next Thing for the Teaching Profession — Winship\nPeace and Arbitration — von Suttner\nCamp Fire Girls — Sebbelov\nThe Camp Fire Girls and the New Relation of Women to the World — Gulick\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\n234\n240\n246\n250\n\n257\n264\n267\n273\n278\n281\n286\n291\n29s\n301\n307\n313\n316\n320\n322\n\n(St. Louis Meeting, 191 2)\n\nSecretary's Minutes — Updegraff\nAddress of Welcome — Cave\nTopic:\nOrganization Affecting the CotniSE of Study and Economy of Time\nA.\nB.\nC.\nD.\n\nWaste and Efficiency in School Studies — Elson\nDepartmental Teaching in the Elementary Grades — Stephens .\n.\nThe Child versus Promotion-Machinery — Phillips\nSome Adjustments and Changes in the Course of Study and School\nOrganization Suggested by the Needs and the Capacities of Children\nThat Vary from the Standards Set for Average Pupils — Christensen\nE. A Reorganization of Our School System — Francis\nTopic:\nThe Determining of School Efficiency\nA. The Value of the Educational Commission in Determining the Efficiency\nof a City School System — Kendall\nB. The Relation of an Urban Commimity to Its Public-School System —\nBrumbaugh\nC. How May a Commimity Leam Its Unmet School Needs ?— Allen .\n.\nD. Quantitative Tests in Education — Chatfield\nThe Function of the Kindergarten in the Public-School System — Wheelock\n.\nTopic:\nProblems Relating to Child Welfare\nA, The Duty of Superintendents in the Enforcement of Child-Labor Laws\n— Lovejoy\nB. How Far Shall the Public-School System Care for the Feeble-Minded ?\n— Van Sickle\n\n329\n335\n335\n343\n349\n\n355\n368\n\n376\n381\n384\n387\n395\n\n401\n408\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nC. The City Trade School — ^An Important Instrumentality for Improving\nthe Vocational Need of the City Child — Pearse\nD. How Should the School System Contribute to an Intelligent Choice of\nVocation on the Part of the Pupil ?— Knox\nE. The Education of Girls — Harvey\nVocational Guidance — Bloomfield\nThe Schoolhouse as the Civic and Social Center of the Community — Ward . .\nThe Bookman in His Relation to the Textbook Problem — Fitzpatrick . . .\nThe Effect on Education and Morals of the Moving-Picture Shows — Fulk\nThe Standardization of Janitor Service — Wilson\nThe Relative Cost of Education of High- and Elementary-School Pupils — Holland\nround tables\nRound Table of State and County Superintendents:\nTopic : Agriculture in the Rural School\nThe Educational Value of Agriculture — Barnes\nThe Next Step in Teaching Agriculture in Rural Schools — Bishop\n.\nRound Table of Superintendents of Larger Cities:\nTypes of Special Schools in the Larger American Cities — Edson ....\nA Definite Propaganda to Impress upon the American Mind the Necessity of an\nExpansion of the Field of Education to Provide as Ample Facilities for\nEducation by Work and Education by Play as Are Now Provided for\nEducation by Study — Brumbaugh\nRound Table of Superintendents of Smaller Cities:\nThe Scientific Study of Arithmetic Work in School — Giles\nUtilization of the School Plant — Wirt\nNATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nConstitution\nOfl&cers and Members\n\nvii\n\n411\n417\n425\n431\n436\n449\n456\n462\n467\n\n471\n474\n480\n\n487\n(\n488\n492\n\n499\n501\n\nSecretary's Minutes (St. Louis Meeting, 191 2)\nTopic: Economy of Time in Education\nA. Baker\nB. Van Sickle\nC. Wilson\nD. Thompson\nE. Francis\nPreliminary Report of Committee on Special High-School Preparation of Candidates for Normal-School Training — Felmley\nHealth Problems in Education — Wood\nThe School's Responsibility for Providing Healthful Environment and Program\n— Corwin\nPreliminary Report of Committee on Rural-School Education — Fairchild\n.\n.\nTopic: By What Standards or Tests Shall the Efficiency of a School\nOR System of Schools Be Measured?\nA. Strayer\nB. Elliott\n\n504\n\nSecretary's Minutes (Chicago Meeting, 19 12)\nFinal Report of the Committee on High-School Preparation of Students for\nNormal Schools\nEducational Progress of the Year — Shawan\n\n575\n\nDEPARTMENT\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Montessori Method — Ward\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n507\n509\n510\n513\n517\n526\n540\n\n545\n549\n\n560\n564\n\n577\n59c\n607\n609\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "viii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe Presentation of Montessori Material — Byoir\nThe Basic Philosophy of Froebel — James\nThe Kindergarten and Its Relation to Retardation — Bradford .\n.\n.\nLive Stock in Public Schools — Downing\nDEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\n\n.\n\n.\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Need of Standards for Measuring Progress and Results — Bagley\n.\n.\n.\nSuggestions from Cases of Unusually Rapid or Irregular Progress in Public Schools\n— Jones\nPractical Arts and Vocational Guidance — Prosser\nDEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Report of the Committee on the Articulation of High School and College —\nKingsley\nUnrest and Wreckage — Hanna\nThe Relation between Supply and Demand for High-School Teachers — Cofman .\nThe Professional Training of High-School Teachers — Bagley\nThe Influence of Prolonged and Carefully Directed Work — Caldwell\n.\n.\n.\nReport of the Committee on Cosmopolitan High-School Curriculum — Smith\n.\nROUND-TABLE\n\n613\n621\n624\n631\n\n633\n634\n640\n645\n\n663\n667\n673\n681\n686\n691\n700\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nA. English —\nReport of the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements in English\n— Basic\nTopic: Ways and Means of Increasing the Effectiveness of Instruction in\nEnglish Composition\nA. Vocational and Moral Guidance thru English Composition in the\nHigh School — Davis\nBi. Oral Themes — Sheldon\nB2. An Attempt to Make Oral' Composition Effective — Courtenay\n.\nB. Ancient Languages —\nA Plan to Reduce Failures in Latin — Chenowelh\nC. Modem Languages —\nA. Methods of Teaching German and the Personality of the Teacher —\nNix\nB. The Place of Phonetics in High-School German — Prokosch\n.\n.\nD. Mathematics —\nThe Relation of the Suggested Geometry Course to the Manual-Training\nCourse in High School — Jordan\nE. Science —\nA. The High-School Course in General Science — Barnes\nB. Method in the General Science Course — Coulter\nJoint Round-Table Conference of the Departments of Higher Education,\nNormal Schools, and Secondary Education:\nTopic: The Significance of Recent Investigations in the Field of English\nAx. The Labor and Cost of Composition Teaching: The Present Conditions— Hopkins\nA2. Methods of Amelioration — Clapp\nA3. Methods of Amelioration — Paul\nB. Desirable Equipment for English Work — Coulter\nC. Progress in Articulating School and College English — Hosic\nD. Progress in Standardizing the Measurement of Composition — Noyes .\n\n707\n\n713\n718\n721\n725\n\n728\n733\n\n735\n738\n742\n\n747\n751\n755\n758\n761\n763\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nA Suggestion of a Method for Improving the Relations of Colleges and Secondary\nSchools — Angell\nThe Municipal University and Its Work — Dabney\nThe Relation of the State University to Other Parts of the System of Public\nInstruction — James\nHow to Reach the Individual Student in Our Colleges and Universities — Avery\nHow Our Colleges and Universities Maintain Personal Relations with the Individual\nStudents: A Report of an Investigation Under the Auspices of the Department of Higher Education of the National Education Association — Mead\nThe Report of the Committee on Policy of the Department of Higher Education\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nA. In Academic Education — Keith\nB. In the Special Training of Teachers for the Rural Schools — Hayes .\n.\nC. In Relating Theory and Practice Teaching so as to Secure Teaching\nEfficiency — Thompson\nD. In Training Teachers for the Public Welfare — Civic, Social, Moral,\n• Religious — Dearmont\nSecuring and Maintaining Efl&ciency in the Teaching Force of Normal Schools\n— Crabhe\nFirst Report of the Committee of Eleven on a Plan of Normal School Statistics\n— Seerley\n,\nTopic:\nCity Training Schools and Their Management\nThe Function of the Normal School in Training Public-School Supervisors in\nTechnical Subjects: Drawing, Manual Training, Household Arts, Music,\netc. — Grumbine\n. • .\n.\n.\n.\nThe Problem of Relating Theory to Observation and Practice in the Training of\nTeachers for City Schools — Willard\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n,\n.\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n767\n768\n773\n780\n783\n\n790\n803\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes (St. Louis Meeting, 1912)\nThe Attitude of the Normal Schools toward Education — Hawkins .\n.\n.\nThe Work of the Normal School in the Reorganization of the Elementary-School\nCurriculum — Bohannon\nThe Place of the Normal School in Agricultural Education — Balcomb\n.\n.\n.\nStandards of Measuring the Efficiency of Normal-School Students — McKenny .\nPreliminary Report of the Committee of Eleven on a Plan of Normal-School\nStatistics — Seerley\n.\n.\n.\nSecretary's Minutes (Chicago Meeting, 19 12)\nTopic: The Function of the Normal School\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nix\n\nAND\n\nART\n\n809\n810\n817\n823\n839\n845\n850\n853\n856\n862\n866\n872\n880\n\n885\n890\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n897\nCitizenship in Industrial Education — Cornidley ...\n. .\n899\nThe Relation of the Elementary School to Subsequent Industrial Education —\nBawden\n.\n.- .\n.\n.\n...\n907\nReport of Committee on College-Entrance Requirements\n9^5\nThe Significance of the Industrial Arts in the Schools— 3fcMMrry\n.\n.\n.\n. 918\nSome Sociological Phases of the Movement for Industrial Education— L«ow/<\n. • 921\nNeeded Changes in Manual Arts— CrawiAaw . . . -. ■-. . -. ' . 932\nIs the Introduction of Technical Subjects in the Eighth Grade Advisabler?-^\n- Henderson\n,\n,\n. ••.• ' ; • .\n. 'i.\"\" 94^\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe Manufacturers' Viewpoint of Industrial Education — Dooley\n.\n.\n.\n.\nModem Apprenticeship Training — Pralt\nDistribution of Income, $500, $1,000, and $2,000 per Year for Family of Five\n— Snow\nDietetic Standards for These Various Households — Bevier\nThe Place of Art in the High School of Commerce — Griffith\nThe Value of Art in the Industrial School — Sargent\n\n952\n955\n\nThe Dresden Congress — Ellis\nVocational Training Old and New — Morse\n\n992\n994\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n..'....\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nA Presentation of the High-School Course Which Was Adopted by the Music\nSupervisors' National Conference: What It Is and How to Administer It —\nEarhart\nMusical Appreciation — How Is It to Be Developed ?— Lutkin\nThe Making of a Musician — Smith\nThe Principles of Scientific Management Applied to Teaching Music in the Public\nSchools — FuUerton\nROUND-TABLE\n\n966\n974\n984\n988\n\nlooi\n1004\n1009\n1014\n1017\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nReport of Committee on Terminology\nThe Awakening Festival Spirit in America — An\n\n102 1\nEducational Opportunity —\n\nDykema\n\n1023\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n103 1\nPresident's Address — A Partial Forecast of the Report of Committee on Research,\nStandardization, and Correlation — McKinney\n1034\nEfficiency in the Business Department of the High School — Beveridge\n.\n. 1037\nTraining in Salesmanship — Towsley\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.' .\nAn Education for Business — Pearson\nThe Educational Value of the High-School Commercial Course — Owen .\n.\n.\nCommercial Geography — Whitbeck\nBusiness Courses for High Schools of Smaller Cities — Fee\nAccountancy in Relation to Business Organization and Management — Walton\n.\nEssentials of Practical Penmanship — Bachtenkircher\nA Practical Demonstration of the Relation of a Modern Adding Machine to\nAccountancy in the High-School Course — Brecheen\nround-table conference\nTopic:\nShorthand and Typewriting\nA. Efficiency in Practical Details, or Technique, of the Highest Importance\n— Bohlinger\nB. Specialization with Expert Instruction Reqmsite in Order to Meet the\nNeeds of the Business World — Moran\nIntercomHiunication Business Practice — Frederick\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\n1043\n1046\n105 1\n1057\n1065\n1069\n1075\n1079\n\n1084\n1088\n1092\n\nHYGIENE\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n■.\nThe Problems of Child Hygiene, and the Contribution of Hygiene to Education\n~-Burnham\nThe Hygiene of Rural Schools — Dresslar\n\nlog^\n\n1096\nX103\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nxi\n\nThe Testing of Children for Mental Efficiency — Bruner\nmo\nSchool Diseases — Jordan\n.1118\nStoop Shoulders and Flat Chest in School Children — Reed\n1125\nround-table conference\nTopic:\nHow Far Are Teachers Responsible for the Morbidity and\nMortality of School Children?\n\nA. Abt\nB. Cohen\nC. nines\n\n1132\n1136\n1138\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Influence of Play Activities on Racial Physique and Morals — Bowen\n.\n.\nThe Influence of Faculty Supervision on the Moral Effects of Athletics in High\nSchools and Colleges — Hicks\nAthletics an Essential Moral Factor — Ehler\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\n1146\n11 50\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nPresident's Address — Jordan\nEugenics — McKeever\nA Psychological Classification of PubUc-School Pupils — Dawson\n.\n.\n.\n.\nCommunal Chemistry: How May the Teaching of Chemistry Promote the WeilBeing of the Community ?— Allyn\nChemistry and Household Science — Snell\nApplied Botany — Works\nPhysics and the Equipment Problem — Randall\nA Study in Adolescent Efficiency — McCurdy\nDEPARTMENT\n\n1141\n1142\n\n1153\n11 54\n1156\n1161\n1 166\n1171\n11 76\n1181\n1186\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nFacilities for Industrial Education — Prosser\nContinuation Schools — Cooley\nSchool Architecture — Itlner\nroxtnd-table conference\nTopic A: Can the Administration Department of a School System Serve\nAS A Laboratory for the Industrial Training of Children?\n\n1195\n1196\n1203\n1207\n\nA. Wulfing\nB. Riordan\nTopic B : What School Facilities Should Be Provided for Instruction\nby Means of Motion-Picture Machines, Stereopticon Lanterns,\nPhonographs, Player-Pianos, etc.?\nA. Ives\nB. Clark\nC. Uses of the Victor and Player-Pianos in Schools and Social Centers —\nBenson\n\n1224\n1228\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1230\n1234\n1237\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nEducational By-Products in Library Work — Legler\nThe Plans and Scope of the New Normal Course in Library Training, Pratt Institute School of Library Science — Hopkins\n\n1239\n1 241\n1246\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "xii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\nThe Book That Teacher Says Is Good— £/y\n1253\nReport of the Committee on Normal-School Libraries: A Syllabus of Library\nInstruction in Normal Schools — Mendenhall\n1 258\nThe Educated Librarian — Bostwick\n1262\nThe Use of the Library in Vocational Guidance — Davis\n1267\nReport of the Committee on High-School Libraries — Hall.\n.\n.\n.- .\n.1273\nROU>fD-TABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nCourses in Literature for Children — Black\nIs There Need for a Course in the Choice and Use of Books in Our High Schools ?\n— Hopkins\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\n1 289\n1 290\n1296\n1301\n1306\n131 2\n1318\n\nOF SCHOOL PATRONS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nSexual Reproduction in Animals: The Purpose and Methods of Teaching It —\nBlount\nThe Physical Growth of the Child and Its Hygiene — Evans\nThe Selection of Physical Exercise as Determined by the Laws of Growth —\nBurnham\nReport of the Committee on School Revenue — Hefferan\nSummary of State Reports of Joint Committees and Affiliated Organizations —\n1911-12\n\n1323\n1324\n1327\n1333\ni339\n1341\n\nOutside Co-operation with Public Schools — Allen\nCivic and Social Center Development — Ward\nDEPARTMENT\n\n1285\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Segregation of the Defective Classes — Emerick\nThe Training of the Feeble-Minded Deaf, Based upon Impressions Gained Abroad\n— Wetlstein\nThe Training of Native Impulses — Henderson\nReport of Conmiittee on the Prevention of Blindness and Conservation of Vision\n— Shawan\nThe Possibilities and Limitations of the Deaf Mind — Walker\nSome Features of the Education of the Blind in Public Schools — Curtis\n.\n.\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n1281\n\nOF RURAL\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\n135 1\n1353\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n. 1365\nThe Betterment of Rural Schools thru Agriculture: the Ohio Plan — Miller .\n1366\nThe Betterment of Rural Schools thru Boys' and Girls' Clubs: the Nebraska\nPlan — Delzell\n1373\nThe Work of the National Committee on Agricultural Education — Seerley\n. 1375\nRural School Gardens Differentiated from City School Gardens — Kilpatrick .\n1377\nProgress of Agricultural Education in Ontario, Canada — McCready\n.\n.\n. 1380\nThe Home Garden and Experimental Plots — Downing\n1381\nForestry and the Public Schools — Jackson\n1386\nReport of the Committee on Courses of Study in Agriculture — Bishop .\n.1391\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nOF\n\n1857-1870\n\nThe National Teachers\n\nAssociation\n\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nPurpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession\n. of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates.\nThe name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August\n15, 1870, to the \"National Educational Association.\"\n1870-1907\nNational Educational Association\nIncorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name, \"National Education Association,\" which was\nchanged to \"National Educational Association,\" by certificate filed November 6,1886.\nNational Education Association of The United States\n1907Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\" The charter was\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAN ACT\n\nTO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nOF THE UNITED\nSTATES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled:\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now ofi&cers and directors\nand trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews,\nof Arizona; John H. Hineman, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, Josiah\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of\nDelaware;\n*J. Ormond Wilson, *William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District\n• Deceased.\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann,\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A.\nMott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V.\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot,\n*Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White,\nWilliam H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of\nMinnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood,\nWilliam J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of\nNebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M.\nGreen, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; * James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\nPitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs,\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas;\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nL. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Grifl&ths,\nof Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia\nby the name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of\nEducation and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by\norganization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth,\nof Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth,\nof Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education;\neleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science\nInstruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department;\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education\nmay be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any\ncourt of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make By-Laws not\ninconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorj)oration; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Colimibia,\n'Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation;\nprovided, however. That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation\nwhich shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational\npurposes of the corporation; and, provided further , That the corporation shall annually\nfile, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\nin detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\nSec. S- That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\nmembers — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation.\n^ Sec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and\na Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of a President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as\nshall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\nas may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\nex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\none trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\nshall forfeit his membership.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nfunds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the\nprincipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a twothirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been\napproved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed\nexpenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the\nPermanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of ihe\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAssociation and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the\ndonation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and\nSecretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. Wheti\npracticable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after\npaying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed\nexpenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\noflBce for a period not to exceed four years.\nSEa 8. That the principal oflBce of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia; provided, That the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and\nan office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the By-Laws.\nSec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew By-Laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said\nAssociation shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until\nthe expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until\ntheir successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the\nNational Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the\ncharter granted by this act and adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Education Association of the United States\"; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\nperson having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees\nof the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the\npresiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted\nby this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day\nof July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be\nextended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District\nof Columbia.\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the payment of any siun due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corpxjration hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities,\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nand contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action\nor proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued byreason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorix>ration, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested\nor impaired.\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the Constitution of the National Education Association of\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual\nsession at Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Amended at meeting of active members held in Chicago, 111., July 10, 191 2)\nARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP\nSection i. Teachers, others actively engaged in educational work, and educational\ninstitutions as defined in Section 2, may become active members of the National Education\nAssociation of the United States upon the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars\nand the annual dues for the current year.\nSec. 2. Educational institutions shall include schools, school boards, library\nboards, educational publishers, and such clubs and similar organizations as are distinctly\neducational or have educational departments properly organized with a definite membership.\nSec. 3. Educational institutions as defined in Section 2 may be enrolled as active\nmembers and represented by any person regularly connected with or a member of the\ninstitution, and such representative may exercise all the rights and enjoy all the privileges\nof active membership, including the right to vote at business meetings; provided, That\nsuch representative presents a certificate showing that the person named therein has been\nregularly elected as such representative of the faculty or membership of such institution;\nbut no person shall under any circumstances have the right to cast more than one vote.\nSec. 4. The annual dues of active members are two dollars, which shall be paid\nat the time of the annual meeting of the Association, or shall be sent to the Secretary\nbefore November i of each year. An active member may discontinue his membership\nby giving written notice to the Secretary before November i. An active member\nforfeits his membership by being two years in arrears. Those who have forfeited or\ndiscontinued their membership may exercise the option of renewing the same by paying\nall arrears and getting the published Proceedings of the intervening years, or of becoming\nmembers on the same terms as new members. Active members shall be entitled to the\n. published Proceedings without coupon or other conditions.\nSec. 5. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members,\nand shall have all the rights and privileges of such members without the payment of the\nannual dues.\nSec. 6. The right to vote and to hold office in the Association, the Council, or the\ndepartments is open to all active members whose dues are paid.\nSec. 7. Any person may become an associate member for one year by paying a\nmembership fee of two dollars.\nSec. 8. Eminent educators not residing in America inay be elected, by the Board\nof Directors, corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at\nno time exceed fifty. They shall not pay any dues.\nSec. 9. The ijames of active and corresponding members shall be printed in the\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\npublished Proceedings, or the Yearbook of the Association, with their respective educational titles, oflSces, and addresses.\nARTICLE\n\nII— ELECTION\n\nOF OFFICERS.\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the\nNational Education Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active\nmembers of the Association by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of\nthe votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in ofl&ce until the close\nof the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen,\nexcept as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their\nduties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall\nnot be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for\nwhich they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— DUTIES\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and\nshall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association.\nIn his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence\nof all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall\nprepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association,\nand with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place\nof the general meeting of the Association and of the varioys departments not definitely\nfixed by these By-Laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in\nthe programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the\nannual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and\nchairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all\nbills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized\nby the Executive Conmiittee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the\nexpiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the\nensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication.\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and\nof the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided\nin the Articles of Incorporation and the By-Laws, and in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee and in the\nabsence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the\nPresident, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same\neach month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the\nBoard of Directors or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings\nof the Board of Directors or on the approval of the President acting under authority of\nthe Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records\npresent at all meetings of the active members of the Association, of the Board of Directors,\nand of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members as required by Section\n9 of Article I of these By-Laws and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary\nof the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be\nthe custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and\nthe Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his\nduties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report\nto the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the\nAssociation, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual\nmeeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all\nmoneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the .Association. The\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nSecretary shall not print, publish, or distribute any official report or other document\nwithout the approval of the publication committee.\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of\nthe Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall\npay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of\nthe Association and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds\nin his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts\nand expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirtieth\nday of June of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than\nJuly I , and when approved by said committee, they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the\nweek of the annual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nThe Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be\nrequired by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall\ntransfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association.\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed\nby Section 8 of Article I of these By-Laws, shall elec^ members of the National Council\nof Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these By-Laws, shall have power\nto fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to\nthe Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association,\nthe Council of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve\nall bills incurred under authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee,\nor the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or\nExecutive Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts\nof money ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting for the work\nof all special committees of investigation and research authorized and provided for by\nsuch active members at their annual business meeting, shall make a full report of the\nfinancial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the\nTreasurer, and the Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business\nmeetmg, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable\ninstitution.\nSec. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging\nfor the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council\nof Education, and of the various departments.\nThe Executive Committee shall recommend to active members at their annual\nbusiness meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research,\nthe subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active\nmembership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments; it\nshall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations. When\nsuch special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the active members at\ntheir annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision\nof them ; shall receive and consider all reports made by them and shall print such reports,\nand present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer,\nand the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon,\nto the active members at their annual business meeting. All such special committees\nshall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association.\nThe Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers\nof the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the\noffice of Secretary.\nSec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds\nof such amount as may be determined by said board, for the faithful performance of their\nduties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Com-\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nmittee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report\nshall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first\nregular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Itshall choose annually its own chairman and secretary.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions\nof public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to\ntime, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual\nmeeting on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year\"; and in other ways use its\nbest efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education\nin general.\nSec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hvmdred and\ntwenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education\nAssociation. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the\nCouncil, and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected.\nSec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time\nof the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association\nshall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall\nfill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, or district in the United\nStates shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council.\nSec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the\nannual meeting of the Association.\nSec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings\nof the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons\nwhose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary\nmembers of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association,\nwith the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its\ndiscussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council.\nSec. 6. The oflScers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\na secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of\nwhom shall be regular members of the Coimcil. The secretary of the Council shall, in\naddition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the\nAssociation a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication.\nSec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws\nor its government not inconsistent with the Act of Incorporation or the By-Laws of the\nAssociation; provided, That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board\nof Directors of the Association before they shall become operative.\nSec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council\nabolished upon a two-thirds vote of the Association taken at the annual business meeting\nof the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the\npreceding annual business meering of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nV— DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. The following departments are now (191 2) in existence, to wit: The\ndepartments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary\nEducation; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training, Art, and Technical\nEducation; sixth, of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of\nSecondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Study; eleventh,\nof Physical Education; twelfth, of Natural Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nAdministration; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education;\nsixteenth, of School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural and Agricultural Education.\nSec. 2. The active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each\ndepartment of the Association.\nSec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of\nthe annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence and\nthe Department of Normal Schools, which may hold their annual meeting in February\nof each year or at such other times as may be determined by said departments, subject to\nthe approval of the Board of Directors of the Association.\nSec. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs\nof these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and\nunder the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall\nbe limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session for business or informal round-table\nconference may be held at the discretion of the department ofiicers.\nSec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\nand a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve\none year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their\nelection, be active members of the Association.\nSec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the\nduties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of\nthe proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication.\nSec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception\nstated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section i of this article in the\norder of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each\ndepartment may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent\nwith the Act of Incorporation or these By-Laws.\nSec. 8. A new department may be established by a two- thirds vote of the Board\nof Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the active\nmembers at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said\ndepartment, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular\nmeeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding\nannual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the\nfield of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be estabUshed. A\ndepartment already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a\ntwo-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members\nat any business meeting of the active members; provided, That announcement has been\nmade of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at\nthe preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it\nfails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— COMMITTEES\n\nSection i . On the first day of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions, consisting of seven active members, and a\nCommittee on Necrology, consisting of five active members, and on the third day of\nsuch meeting he shall appoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active\nmember from each state, territory, and district represented at the meeting. Each state,\nterritorial, and district representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active\nmembers in attendance from said state, territory, or district; provided. That three or\nmore active members participate in said nomination in accordance with these By-Laws;\nand provided further, That in case of the failure of the active members of any state, terri-\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntory, or district, to nominate a member of the nominating committee in accordance with\nthese By-Laws, the President shall appoint an active member from said state, territory,\nor district, to serve on said committee. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors\non the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee\nconsisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a\ntrustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided\nin Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of\nactive members. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be designated\nby the President of the Association at the time of its appointment.\nSec. 2. The meetings of active members present from the several states, territories,\netc., to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held on the first day of\nthe annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated\non the annual program by the President of the Association.\nSec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the fourth day of the annual\nmeeting at 9:00 a.m., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall\nnominate persons for the following offices in the Association, to wit: one person for President, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from\neach state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Directors. It shall report to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nSec. 4, The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting\nof active members, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to\nsaid committee, without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all\nresolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time\nduring the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold\na meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the purpose\nof receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them.\nSec. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the published Proceedings\na list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accompanied by memorial sketches whenever practicable.\nSec. 6. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do\nbusiness as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts,\npapers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and\ncompare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by\nthe Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by\nhim submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to ihe Board of Directors,\nat their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and\nof each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined\nby the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance\nwith these By-Laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies\nmay be omitted for an extraordinarj'^ cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of\nthe directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee.\nSec. 2. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held in July, beginning on\na day determined by the Executive Committee. Two sessions shall be held daily, unless\notherwise ordered by the President of the Association. The annual business meeting of\nthe active members shall be held on the fourth day of the annual meeting at 11 :oo a.m.\nA regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\n\nII\n\nmeeting at 10:30 a.m. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be\nheld as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session\nof the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in the printed\nprogram. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient\ntime and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to\nabove in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman,\nand shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice o£»\nall meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the board by\nthe secretary thereof.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— PROCEEDINGS\n\nSection I. The proceedings of the meeting of the Association, the Council, and\nthe departments shall be published under the direction of a committee consisting of the\nPresident, the First Vice-President, and the Secretary, the First Vice-President acting\nas chairman of the committee; provided, That in the opinion of the Executive Committee\nthe funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association\nshall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Associate members must make written\napplication to the Secretary on or before November i for a copy in order to obtain it.\nCorresponding members, and active members whose dues are paid, will receive the\npublished Proceedings without written application.\nSec. 2. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any\nof the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President\nof the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or\naddress be published in the Proceedings, without the approval of the Executive Committee.\n\nARTICLE IX— ELECTIONS, QUORUM\nSection i. The certificate of membership, in connection with the official list of\nactive members, shall be accepted as evidence that members are entitled to vote.\nSec. 2. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute\na quorum in all meetings of active members and of the Board of Directors.\nARTICLE\n\nX— AMENDMENTS\n\nSection i. These By-Laws may be altered or amended at the annual business\nmeeting of the active members by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the\nactive members present if the alteration or amendment shall have been substantially\nproposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action\nis taken; due announcement of the proposed action shall be made in the annual published\nProceedings.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNOW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nKNOWN\n\nAS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nTHE\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June\n30, 1906.\n\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C. SchaeflFer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard,\nthe secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Asso-\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "12\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nciation held ne^ after the passage of an act of Congress entitled \" An Act to Incorporate\nthe National Education Association of the United States,\"\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\nand accepted the Charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said act of Congress, and adopted By-Laws as provided in said act and elected\nofficers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said Charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted By-Laws, and is\nthe lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding OJUer\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nVERIFICATION\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nJULY\n\nlO,\n\nI907\n\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the Charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the Charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed By-Laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said\nmeeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \"1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize\nunder the Charter granted by the act of Congress.\nFiled in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Coliunbia, September 4,\n1907.\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nTEACHERS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nt8s7— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\njAtfES L. Ends, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\n1864— OGDENSBURG, N.Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\ni8s8— CINCINNATI, OHIO\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFP, Treasurer.\n\ni86s— HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1859— WASHINGTON, D.C\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. Bui.KLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\ni866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. Wickersham, President\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\n.\n\ni860— BUFFALO, N.Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1867 — No session.\n1868— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\n\n1 86 1, 1862 — No session.\n\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n1869— TRENTON, N.J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\n*\n\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1871— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. Pickard, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. a. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. WnrrE, President.\nS. H. WnrrE, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1878 — No session.\n\n1873— ELMIRA, N.Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. WnrrE, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1874— DETROIT. MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary,\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n187s— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\n1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer.\n1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Pre.sideni.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\ni88i— ATLANTA,\n\nGA.\n\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n13\n1882— SARATOGA\n\nSPRINGS,\n\nN.Y.\n\nG. J. Orr, Pre.sident.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1884— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n189s— DENVER. COLO.\nNicholas Mitrbay BtrrLSR, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1 88s— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nF. I.onis SoLDAN, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1896— BUFFALO. N.Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty. President\nIrwin Sheparo, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1886— TOPEKA, KANS.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1887— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasxirer.\n\n1898— WASHINGTON, D.C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett. Treasurer.\n\n1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1889— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1900— CHARLESTON, S C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\n1890— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\n\\V. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1901— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasurer,\n\n1801— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood. Treasurer.\n\nigoi— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilliam M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n\n189J— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1903— BO.STO.V, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n\n1893— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress <rf Education)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shefard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1904— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\n\n1894— ASBURY PARK, N.J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n190S— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE,\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\nIrwin Shepard, .Secretary.\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n\nN.J.\n\n1906 — No session.\n1907— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nNathan C. Schaeffei. President.\nIrwin Shepard. Secretary.\nJ. N. WaKiNSON, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCHANGED\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTO\n\nOF THE UNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nEdwin G. Cooley, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain. Treasurer.\n\nlOio— BOSTON. MASS.\nJames Y. Joyner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlaim. Treasurer.\n\n1909— DENVER, COLO.\nLorenzo T). Harvey, President.\nIrwin Shepard. Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\nlOix— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nElla Flagg Young, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nDuRAND W. Sfringex, Treasurer.\n\n191a— CHICAGO, ILL.\nCarroll G. Pearse, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nKatherine D. Blake, Treasurer\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\nGENERAL\n\nCaksoix G. Pearse . . .\nIrwin Shepard\nKatherine D. Blake.\n\nFOR\n\n1911-12\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nWinona, Minn.\nNew York, N.Y.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nEiXA Flagg Yomio, Superintendent of Schoob\nGeorge H. Carpenter, Superintendent of Schoob\nCharles F. Philbrook, Superintendent of Schoob\nHelen Marsh Wdcson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSaitoel Andrews, Superintendent of Schoob\nR. H. Wilson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nS. S. Stockwell, Superintendent of Schoob\nEdwin D. Ressler, State Agricultural College\nEdward Hyatt, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nVaughan MacCaughey, Territorial Normal School\nJaues Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nBOARD\nJakes Y. Joyner\nJaues M. Greenwood, Chairman\nJ. Stanley Brown\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nCarroll G, Pearse\nCarroll G. Pearse\nElla Flagg Yoitno\nKatherine D. Blake\nJakes M. Greenwood\nJohn H. Phillips\nIrwin Shepard .\n\nOF\n\nChicago, HI.\nBrownwood, Tex.\nBisbee, Ariz.\nDenver, Colo.\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nOklahoma City, Okla.\nCheyenne, Wyo.\nCorvallb, Ore.\nSacramento, Cal.\nHonolulu, H.I.\nRaleigh, N.C.\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nRaleigh, N.C\nKansas City, Mo\nJoliet, 111\nOrono, Me\nMilwaukee, Wb\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\nPresidetU\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board 0/ Trustees\nMember by Election\nSecretary\n\n:\n\nTerm expires igu\nTerm expires 1913\nTerm expires 1914\nTerm expires 19x5\nEx officio\nMilwaukee. WU.\nChicago, 111.\nNew York, N.Y.\nKansas City, Mo.\nBirmingham, Ala.\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS\nDirectors ex officio\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wb.\nElla Flagg Yoxtng, Chicago, 111.\n\nKatherine D. Blake, New York, N.Y.\nJahes M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nliife Directors\nBicKNELL, Thoiias W., Providence, R.I.\nGreen, Jaues M., Trenton. N.J.\nBoard or Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nGreenwood, James M., Kansas City, Mo.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, New York, N.Y.\nHarvey, ISLorenzo D., Menomonie, Wb.\nBxTTLER, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\nClaxton, P. P., Washington, D.C.\nJoyner, James Y., Raleigh, N.C.\nCook, John W., De Kalb, 111.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nCooLEY, ^dwin G., Chicago, HI.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Milb, W.Va.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N.Y.\nEuoT, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nPickard, Josiah L., Cupertino, Cal.\nGrahak, H. a.. Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nPiKX. Joshua, Jerseyville, HI.\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nScHAXFFER, Nathan C, HamsbuTg, Pa.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\nSdnner, Ceasi.es R., New York, N.Y.\nTeachers iNsrrnjTE, Phfladelphia, Pa.\nState Teachers Association op Iujnois\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nYoung, Ella Flagg, Chicago, HI.\nDirectors by Blection\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDist. of Col\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOr^on\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\n\nJohn H. Phillips. Superintendent of Schools\nBirmingham\nA. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School\nTempe\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Little Rock\nMark Keppel, County Superintendent of Schools\nLos Angeles\nJames B. Ragan, Principal of High School\nSterling\nFrederick A. Verplanck, Superintendent of Schools\nSo. Manchester\nGeorge W. TwmnrER, Superintendent of Schools\nWilmington\nWilliam M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools\nWashington\nClem Hampton, State Depmrtment of Education\nTallahassee\nMrs. F. S. Whiteside, 46 Columbia Avenue\nAtlanta\nGrace M. Shepherd, State Supt. of Public Instruction\nBoise\nWilliam H. Campbell, Princir»al, Wentworth School\nChicago\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nRichmond\nO. P. Bostwick, Superintendent of Schools\nClinton\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\nTopeka\nW. P. King, Superintendent of Schools\nBellevue\nThomas D. Boyd, President, State University\nBaton Rouge\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono\nA. C. Wcllison, County Superintendent of Schools\nCumberland\nRobert J. Fuller, Superintendent of Schools\nNorth Attleboro\nE. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools\nIshpeming\nS. L. Heeter, Superintendent of Schools\nSt. Paul\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools\nGreenville\nJohn R. Kirk, President, State Normal School\nKirksville\nC. A. Duniway, President, University of Montana\nMissoula\nGeorge W. A. Luckey, Professor, University of Nebraska . . . Lincoln\nMrs. L. C. Booth, Principal, Orvis Ring School\nReno\nHenry C. Morrison, State Supt. of Public Instruction\nConcord\nM. P. E. Groszmann. Educational Director, N. S. S. E. E. C. Plainfield\nW. E. Garrison, President, New Mexico College\nAgri. College\nGrace C. Strachan, District Supjerintendent of Schools\nBrooklyn\nF. M. Harper, Superintendent of Schools\nRaleigh\nW. E. Hoover. Superintendent of Schools\nFargo\nEdward M. Van Cleve, Superintendent, School for the Blind Columbus\nWnxLUf F. Ramey, Superintendent of Schools.\nChickasha\nL. R. Alderman, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Salem\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy Supt. of Public Instruction\nHarrisburg\nGeorge F. Weston, Principal of High School\nProvidence\nDavid B. Johnson, President, Winthrop College\nRock Hill\nM. M. Ramer, Superintendent of Schools\nPierre\nJ. J. Keyes, Superintendent of Schoob\nNashville\nFelix E. Smith, Supjerintendent of Schoob\nSan Angelo\nGeorge N. Child, Supervisor of Schools. .■\nSalt Lake City\nMason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Montpelier\nMaurice M. Lynch, Superintendent of Schools\nWinchester\nC. E. Beach, Superintendent of Schools\nOlympia\nM. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Charleston\nEmma J. Gardner, Vice-Principal, 12th District School No. a. Milwaukee\nCO. Merica, President, University of Wyoming\nLaramie\nWillis T. Pope, Superintendent of Public Instruction\nHonolulu\nG. N. Anderson, Division Superintendent\nSamar, Manila\nDEPARTMENT\nOFFICERS\nNational Council\n\nPresident\nCharles H. Keyes, Ex. Sec., Com. on Safety, City of N.Y. . . New York. N.Y.\nVice-President\nWilliam M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools\nWashington, D.C.\nSecretary\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\nExecutive Committee . . Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Chancellor, New York University New York, N.Y.\nExecutive Committee . . Joseph Swain, President, Swarthmore College\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nExecutive Committee . . James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools\nKansas City, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\n17\n\nKindergarten\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nStella L. Wood, Supt., Kindergarten Normal School\nCora L. English, Supervisor, Public School Kindergarten\nA. Jessie Davis, Kindergarten Director, City Schools\n\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nKansas City, Mo.\nSuperior, Wis.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nH. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools\nJulian C. Bryant, Principal, Madison School\nGertrude Longenecker, University of Chicago\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJohn Calvin Hanna, Principal of High School\nEdward L. Brown, Principal, North Side High School\nClarence D. Kjngsley, Manual Training High School\n\nOak Park, 111.\nDenver, Colo.\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHigher\nSamuel Avery, Chancellor, University of Nebraska\nJohn H. T. Main, President, Iowa College\nFletcher Harper Swipt, University of Minnesota\n\nLincoln, Nebr.\nGrinnell, Iowa\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nW. J. Hawkins, President, State Normal School\nA. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School\nMartha Buck, Southern Illinois State Normal School\n\nElementary\nDecatur, HI.\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nChicago, 111.\n\nSecondary\n\nIformal\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nTempe, Ariz.\nCarbondale, HI.\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nCharles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nDenver, Colo.\nFirst Vice-President . . O. J. Kern, County Superintendent of Schools\nRockford, III.\nSecond Vice-President. H. J. Willingham, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Montgomery, Ala.\nSecretary\nHarlan Updegraff, Bureau of Education\nWashington, D.C.\nManual\n\nand Art\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nClifford B. Connelley, Carnegie Technical Schools\nIsabel Bevier, University of Illinois\nW. A. Dunn, Principal, Polytechnic High School\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nUrbana, Dl.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nC. A. Fullerton, Iowa State Teachers College\nJulia E. Crane, Normal Institute of Music\nArthur G. Wahlberg, Supervisor of Music\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWinfield S. McKinney, Commercial Dept., Englewood H.S. Chicago, 111.\nCharles Hart, Business High School\nWashington, D.C.\nThomas L. Brecheen, Commercial Dept., Fremont High School Oakland, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWilliam H. Burnham, Professor of Pedagogy, Clark Univ . . . Worcester, Mass.\nWilliam C. Bagley, School of Education, Univ. of Illinois\nUrbana, HI.\nTheda Gildemeister, Supervisor of Training, Normal School. Winona, Minn.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n'. . Wilber P. Bowen, Prof, of Physical Ed.. State Normal School Ypsilanti, Mich.\nGeorge E. Johnson, Prof, of Play, University of Pittsburgh. . Pittsburgh, Pa.\nBlanche Trilling, Asso. Dir. of Phys. Train., Chi. Nor. Sch. Chicago, 111.\n\nMusic\nCedar Falls, Iowa.\nPotsdam, N.Y.\nFresno, Cal.\n\nBusiness\n\nChild Hygiene\n\nPhysical\n\nScience\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDavid Starr Jordan, President, Leland Stanford Junior Univ. Stanford Univ., Cal.\nWilliam Orr, Deputy Commissioner of Education\nBoston, Mass.\nH. L. Terry, State High School Inspector\nMadison, Wis.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWillum A. Wirt, Superintendent of Schoob\nGary, Ind.\nHarlan Updegraff, Bureau of Education\nWashington, D.C.\nWilliam George Bruce, Editor, Am. Sckool Board Journal. . . Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nSchool Administration\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "18\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLibrary\nPresident\nVice-Preiident\nSecretary\n\nEdwin Whtte Gaillaw), New York Public Library\nW. L. Brown, Librarian, Buffalo Public Library\nMaria A. Newberry, Public School Library\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nBuffalo, N. Y.\nYpsilanti, Mich.\n\nPresident\nVia-President\nSecretary\n\nSpecial\nJohn W. Jones, Supt., Ohio State School for the Deaf\nColumbus, Ohio\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, N. S. S. E. E. C. Plainfield, N.J.\nCarrie B. Levy, Supervisor of Classes for the Blind\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMrs. O. Shepard Barnttu, Principal, Cumnock School\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nMrs. Wm. S. Hefteran, Ch'n, Edu. Com., Nat. Cong, of Mothers . . Chicago, M.\nKatherine E. Dopp, Lecturer, University of Chicago\nChicago, HI.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBenjamin M. Davis, Professor, Miami University\nOxford, Ohio\nCyril A. Stebbins, University of California\nBerkeley, Cal.\nErnest E. Balcomb, State Normal and Industrial College. . . Greensboro, N.C.\n\nSchool Patrons\n\nBural and Agricultural\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR 1912-13\n\nGENERAL\nEdwakd T. Fairchild\nDiJBAND W. Springer\nGrace M. Shepherd\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nCarroll G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools\nGuy Potter Benton, President, University of Vermont\nMartha Stromberg, School No. 22\nWaitman T. Barbe, Professor of English, University of West Virginia\nBurr W. Torreyson, University of Arkansas\nHelen Marsh Wdcson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nL. R. Alderman, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nAgnes E. Howe, State Normal School\nAda Van Stone Harris, Assistant Superintendent of Schools\nAmelia C. Fruchte, First Assistant, Central High School\nCoRNELU S. HuLST, English Department, Central High School\nBOARD\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nJ. Stanley Brown\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nJames Y. Joyner\nEdward T. Fairchild\n\nDuRAND W. Springer.\n\nDurham, N.H.\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nBoise, Idaho\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nBurlington, Vt.\nBaltimore, Md.\nMorgantown, W.Va.\nLittle Rock, Ark.\nDenver, Colo.\nSalem, Ore.\nSan Jose, Cal.\nRichmond, Va.\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nGrand Rapids, Mich.\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nKansas City, Mo\nJoliet, 111\nOrono, Me\nRaleigh, N.C\nDurham, N.H\nEXECUTIVE\n\nEdward T. Fairchild\nCarroll G. Pearse\nGrace M. Shepherd\nJames M. Greenwood\nGeorge B. Cook\n\nOF\n\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1915\nTerm expires in 1916\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\n\nDurham, N.H.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nBoise, Idaho\nKansas City, Mo.\nLittle Rock, Ark.\n\nSecretary\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\nEdward T. Fairchild, Durham, N.H.\nGrace M. Shepherd, Boise, Idaho\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nDuRAND W. Springer, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nLife Directors\nBicKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R.I.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N.J.\n19 James M., Kansas City, Mo.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, New York, N.Y.\nGreenwood,\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis.\nClaxton, p. p., Washington, D.C.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\nCook, John W., De Kalb, 111.\nJoyner, James Y., Raleigh, N.C.\nCooley, Edwin G., Chicago, 111.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W.Va.\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N.Y.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "iO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPearse, Cassoix G., Mflwaukee, Wis.\nPiCKARD, JosiAH L., Cupertino, Cal.\nPncE, Joshua, Jerseyville, HI.\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C, HarrisbuTg, Pa.\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N.Y.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nState Teachers Association ot Illinois\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, HI.\nTeachers Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nYoung, Ella Flagg, Chicago, 111.\n\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDist. of Col\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\n\nJohn\"H. Phillips, Superintendent of Schools\nBirmingham\nA.J. Matthews, President, State Normal School\nTempe\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Little Rock\nA.J. Cloud, Deputy Superintendent of Schools\nSan Francisco\nJames B. Ragan, Principal, Industrial Arts High School\nSterling\nWalter D. Hood, Principal, Gilbert School\nWinsted\nGeorge W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools\nWilmington\nWnjJAM M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools\nWashington\nCleu Hampton, State Dejjartment of Education\nTallahassee\nAubrey Matthews, Princip)al of High School\nGainesville\nWalter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schook\nPocatello\nWilliam H. Campbell, Principal, Wentworth School\nChicago\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nRichmond\nO. P. BosTWiCK, Superintendent of Schools\nClinton\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\nTopeka\nJ. G. Crabbe, President, State Normal School\nRichmond\nThomas H. Harris, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Baton Rouge\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono\nCharles J. Koch, First Assistant Superintendent of Schools. Baltimore\nRobert J. Fuller, Superintendent of Schools\nNorth Attleboro\nE. E. Scribnbr, Superintendent of Schoob\nIshi)eming\nJulia H. Vaughan, 625 E. Franklin Ave\nMinneapolis\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schoob\nGreenville\nWilliam P. Evans, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Jefiferson\nWard H. Nye, Superintendent of Schools\nBillings\nJames E. Delzell, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Lincoln\nWalter J. Hunting, Superintendent of Schoob\nCarson City\nHenry C. Morrison, State Supt of Public Instruction\nConcord\nCalvin N. Kendall, State Commissioner of Education\nTrenton\nW. E. Garrison, President, New Mexico College\nAgri. College\n\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth DakoU\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\n\nGeorge M. Forbes, University of Rochester\n'.. Rochester\nF. M. Harper, Superintendent of Schoob\nRaleigh\nGeorge A. McFarland, President, Sute Normal School. . . Valley City\nJohn F. Smith, Superintendent of Schoob\nFindlay\nW. A. Brandenburg, Superintendent of Schoob\nOklahoma City\nGrace DeGraff, President, Grade Teachers' Association\nPortland\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy Supt. of Public Instruction\nHarrisburg\nGeorge F. Weston, Principal of High School\nProvidence\nDavid B. Johnson, President, Winthrop College\nRock Hill\nC. G. Lawrence, Sute Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Pierre\nJ. J. Keyes, Superintendent of Schoob\nNashville\nWilliam B. Bizzell, President, College of Industrial Arts . . . Denton\nG. N. Child, Supervisor of Schoob\nSalt Lake City\nGuy Potter Benton, President, University of Vermont\nBurlington\nMaurice M. Lynch, Superintendent of Schoob\nWinchester\nC. E. Beach, Superintendent of Schoob\nOlympia\nM. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Charleston\nL. P. Benezet, Superintendent of Schools\nLa Crosse\nM. E. Shuck, Superintendent of Schoob\nRawlins\nWillis T. Pope, Superintendent of Public Instruction\nHonolulu\nG. N. Anderson, Division Superintendent\nSamar, Manila\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCharles H. Keyes, President, Skidmore School of Arts. . . Saratoga Springs, N.Y.\nJames Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Raleigh, N.C.\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nExecutive Committee . . Joseph Swain, President, Swarthmore College\nExecutive Committee . , James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nExecutive Committee . . ^Ellen C. Sabin, President, Milwaukee-Downer College\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\n21\n\nKindergarten\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n*M.\\ry B. Page, Director, Chicago Kindergarten Institute. . Chicago, 111.\nGrace Fulmer, Supervisor of Kindergartens\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nMary B. Fox\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nStcretary\n\nL. D. Coffman, Professor of Education, University of Illinois Urbana, 111.\nLivingstone McCartney, Superintendent of Schools\nHannibal, Mo.\nGertrude Longenecker, State Normal School\nSan Diego, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nM. H. Stuart, Principal, Manual Training High School\nIra M. Allen, Principal of High School\nWilliam C. Hill, Principal, Central High School\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWilliam O. Thompson, President, Ohio State University . . . Columbus, Ohio\nGuy Potter Benton, President, University of Vermont\nBurlington, Vt.\nC. A. Duniway, President, University of Wyoming\nLaramie, Wyo.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nJohn A. H. Keith, President, State Normal School\nOshkosh, Wis.\nWilliam E. Wilson, Principal, Washington State Normal\nSchool\nEllensburg, Wash.\nHenry\nG. Williams,\nDean State Normal College, Ohio\nUniversity\nAthens, Ohio\n\nElementary\n\nSecondary\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nWichita Kans.\nSpringfield, Mass.\n\nHigher\n\nNormal\n\nSecretary\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nF. B. Dyer, Superintendent of Schools\nBoston, Mass.\nFirst Vice-President . . . Samuel Hamilton, Superintendent of Schools of Allegheny\nCounty\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nSecond Vice-President. Mrs. Ellor Carlisle Ripley, Assistant Superintendent of\nSchools\nBoston, Mass.\nSecretary\nBurr Walter Torreyson, State Department of Education. Little Rock, Ark.\nManual\n\nTraining\n\nand Art\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nArthur L. Williston, Director, Wentworth Institute\nBoston, Mass.\nLillian S. Cushman, School of Education, University of\nChicago\nChicago, 111.\nSecretary\nIrene E. McDermott, Director of Household Economics. . . Pittsburgh, Pa.\nCorresponding Secretary R. W. Selvidge, Professor of Manual Arts, Teachers College,\nUniversity of Missouri\nColumbia, Mo.\nMusic\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n*Will Earhart, Director of Music, Public Schools\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nAgnes Benson, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools\nChicago, 111.\nElizabeth Casterton, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools. Rochester, N.Y.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nThomas L. Brecheen, High School\nCalistoga, Cal.\n*C. H. Preston, Department of Commerce, University of\nMinnesota\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nW. A. Sheaffer, Head of Commercial Department, West\nDivision High School\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nBusiness\n\nSecretary\n\nChild Hygiene\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n• Resigned.\n\nW. A. Jessup, Dean, School of Education, University of\nIndiana\nBloomington, Ind.\nF. B. Dresslar, Specialist in School Hygiene, U.S. Bureau of\nEducation\nWashington, D.C.\nAnna Irene Jenkins, Director of Roosevelt Kindergartens. Pasadena, Cal.\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPhysical\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nW. E. Day, Director, Deseret Gymnasium\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n*Georce W. Ehler, Professor of Physical Education, University of Wisconsin\nMadbon, Wis.\nMabel M. Wright, Director, Physical Education for Girb,\nCarl Schurz High School\nChicago, 111.\nScience\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nH. L. Terry, State High School Inspector\nMadison, Wis.\nJohn F. Woodhuix, Professor of Physical Science, Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University\nNew York, N.Y.\nJesse L. Smith, Superintendent of Schoob\nHighland Park, 111.\nSchool Administration\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJ. H. Francis, Superintendent of Schools\nC. A. Wait, President, Board of Education\nFrank M. Bruce, American School Board Journal\nLibrary\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMary E. Hall, Librarian, Girls' High School\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\nJames V. Sturges, Principal, State Normal School\nGeneseo, N.Y.\nEfpie L. Power, Supervisor of Children's Work, Public\nLibrary\nSt. Loub, Mo.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nDecatur, 111.\nMilwaukee, Wb.\n\nSpecial\nCarrie B. Levy, Supervisor of Classes for Blind, Public\nSchools\nMilwaukee, Wb.\nHarris Taylor, Principal, Institution for the Improved\nInstruction of Deaf Mutes\nNew York, N.Y.\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional\nChildren\nPlainfield, N.J.\nSchool Patrons\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n* Resigned.\n\nMrs. William S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers Chicago, 111.\nMrs. L. L. Blankenberg, General Federation of Women's\nClubs\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nMrs. Louis Hertz, Chairman, California State Joint Committee, 2647 Pierce St\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nBural and Agricultural\nErnest E. Balcomb, State Normal and Industrial College . . Greensboro, N.C.\nF. W. Howe, Professor, Syracuse University\nSyracuse^N.Y.\nE. C. Bishop, Schools Section, Iowa State College\nAmes, Iowa\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nor THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJuly i, 1911, to Jxjne 30, 1912\n\nTo the Board of Directors, National Education Association:\nIn presenting my report to the Board of Directors, I desire first to thank the Secretary,\nDr, Irwin Shepard, for his courteous co-operation, willing and able help at all times during\nmy year's work as Treasurer. He is practically the Secretary-Treasurer, or Financial\nSecretary, of the Association, and the work would be done more satisfactorily, expeditiously, and economically, if that fact were recognized in the By-Laws, and the financial\naffairs left entirely in the hands of the Secretary, the treasurership abolished, and instead\nof a Treasurer, a Corresponding Secretary elected whose duty it should be to issue all\nmembership certificates. This, with the President, the Board of Trustees, and the annual\naudit, would be a quite sufficient check upon the work of the Financial Secretary. Whether\nthis change in the charter is made or not, I believe that all the certificates of membership\nshould be in the hands of the Treasurer or Corresponding Secretary and issued by him.\nAt present we are fortunate in having a Secretary of honesty and ability, but the time\nmight come when we would have a young Napoleon of finance instead of Dr. Irwin Shepard\nand under present conditions it would be easy for him to materially reduce the income of\nthe Association without detection. I therefore recommend that the membership certificates infuture be entirely in the hands of the Treasurer, that the Secretary acknowledge\nthe payment of dues on a printed form stating that the Treasurer will send membership\ncertificate later. This would give the Association a second roll of active members, and\nas the Treasurer's roll would be kept in a different place from that of the Secretary, it\nwould remove the present danger of having the records completely destroyed in case of\nfire.\nI recommend further that the bond for the Treasurer be reduced to a minimum.\nThe Treasurer at present has no check-book, and cannot draw on the funds of the Association. The $10,000 bond now issued is therefore unnecessarily expensive.\nLastly, I recommend that the present regulation limiting the funds at the disposal\nof the State Directors to $20 each be amended so as to allow the State Director to draw on\nthe Association for actual expenses incurred to an amount not to exceed 25 per cent of\nthe annual dues of the active members in the state for the year of his administration.\nI make this recommendation on the advice of several successful business men as being\nin line with modern business methods. Such a policy would doubtless largely increase\nthe membership and the income of the Association. That the present arrange23\nment is unfair will be borne out by the following\nstatistics of the San Francisco\nconvention:\nThere were 921 active members present at San Francisco. The expenses of the State\nDirectors aggregated $538.59. This was an average of 58 cents per active member\npresent.\nSix states together sent 20 members and the expenses of the six State Directors\namounted to $106.50, an average cost of $5.33^ per active member present.\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\n\n6 States\n\nI*\n10\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nActive\nMembers Present\n\nExpenses\nState\nDirectors\n\n0.13 Cost\nAverage\nper Active Member\n\n148\n146\n\n$324-74\n30.00\n165.\nOS\n\n$2.19\n3.94\n\nit\n* Eleven of the 20 states sending 148 members lay either on a line with, or west of, the one state sending\n146 members to the convention.\nt With two exceptions, all of the 10 states sending 42 members lay on a line with, or west of, the one state\nthat sent the same number of members 4a\nas the 10 put together.\n\nA study of convention figures\n4» shows that the attendance at conventions is purely a\n•question of the amount of interest aroused in the several states. You cannot arouse\ninterest in a convention without incurring expenses. The State Directors should not be\nin their present impecunious condition, but should feel free to spend a reasonable amount\nin \"publicity and promotion,\" knowing that it will be repaid in the percentage of membership dues. The present allowance of $20 for each State Director, if the funds were all\nused, would amount to $960. The cost of 25 per cent on active membership dues would\nhave amounted to $3,444. 50, according to the figures of 191 1. This would be a material\nincrease, but I believe that it would pay for itself in the interest aroused in the dififerent\nstates, and would lift the State Directors from the present necessity of petitioning for\nmoney to pay for state headquarters from associations, either state or local, in which they\nwere interested. The National Education Association is big enough to have all its oflacers\nfreed from the cares that come with lack of funds.\nThe following is a tabulated statement of the year's receipts and expenditures:\nKatherine D. Blake, in Account with the National Education Association\nBALANCE\n\nON\n\nHAND,\n\nJULY\n\nI,\n\nigil\n\nBalance brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ending June\n30, 1911\n\n$ 4,030.13\n\nRECEIPTS\nFrom Annual Meeting:\nAdvance enrollment —\nFrom Felton Taylor, received by Treasurer Springer\nFrom Felton Taylor, received by Treasurer Blake\n\n$10,484.00\n934 .00 $11,418.00\n\nConvention Registration, received by Treasurer Springer\nConvention Registration, received by Treasurer Blake\nAfter Convention Registration, received by Treasurer Springer.. . .\nAfter Convention Registration, received by Treasurer Blake\nFrom Railroads:\nSouthern Pacific Company\nSan Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Ry\nAtchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry\nPacific Navigation Company\nNevada, California, Oregon Ry\nWestern Railway Company\n\nTotal from San Francisco Convention\nFrom membership, St. Louis Meetings of Department of Superintend^^^^\nFrom Secretary's office during the year:\nMembership fees\nEnrollment fees\nExchange\nSale of back volumes\nSale of Committee Reports, etc\nExpressage refunded\nConvention literature (Boston meeting)\n„\n.\n.\n^\nFrom mterest on Permanent Fund\n•\nFrom interest\nroyalty on\nof Reports\nCommittees of Ten and Fifteen\nFrom\non sale\ndeposits\nin FirstofNational\nBank of Chicago\n\n$732 .00\n32 .00\n86 . 00\n102 . 00\n2 .00\n2 .00\n\n12,172.00\n37.00\n917.00\n205 .00\n\n956.00\n\n$25.705 .00\n1,634.00\n\n$11,348.00\n3S2 .00\n6.2$\n777 .33\n82.11\n12.46\n7.01\n$12,785.16\n» 096.80\n'■—\n' 33 ^40 $20,266.88\n351^52\n\n$51,636.01\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\n25\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nBoard of Trustees:\nFor investment\nFor expenses\n\n$10,000.00\n436-66\n\n$10,436.66\n\n$226.00\n189.50\n129.34\n241 . 24\n7S • \"S\n300 . 96\n\n$1,162.09\n\nExecutive Committee expenses:\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer Springer\nTreasurer Blake\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by election\nGeneral Secretary's office:\nSalary of Secretary\nPostage\nTelegrams\nFreight and express\nClerical services\nExchange\nStationery and office supplies\nTraveling\nRent\nMiscellaneous:\n\n$4,000.00\n1,89s . 90\n80 . 23\n16 . 60\n3,078 . S4\n3.50\n86 .85\n3S9-9S\n600 . 00\n\nRent of post-office box\nRefund of Report (University of Chicago)\nStenographic services (reporting Executive Committee meeting)\nReimbursement for check not made good\n\n$1 . 00\n3 . 69\n19.23\n2 .00\n\nTwo Teachers' Directories\n\n4 . 00\n\n$29.94\n\n$io,isi.Sr\nPrinting:\nVolumes of Proceedings (11,500 copies)\nYearbooks (7,350 copies)\n\n$8,505 .08\n1,829.18 $10,334.26\n\nReprints from volume\nSpecial Reports (including Proceedings of Department of Superintendence, $541 . 8s)\nExecutive\nCommittee\nBulletins\n(including\nannouncements\nof\nDepartment of Superintendence, $279.35)\nMiscellaneous Getterheads, blanks, envelopes, etc.)\n\n74 ■ 00\n689 . 86\n1,635.54\n650.35 $13,384.01\n\nExpress and freight:\nDistribution of volumes and reports\nMiscellaneous\nSpecial appropriations:\nCommittee on Rural Schoob\n,\nCommittee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions\nCommittee on Uniform Records and Reports\nCommittee on Geometry Syllabus in Secondary Schools\n\n$3,77o. 51\n106 . 80\n$838 . 49\n894. 71\n282 . 96\n300.00\n\n^\n\n$3-877-31\n\n$2,316.16\n\nConventions:\nDepartment of Superintendence:\nClerical services:\nRegistration\nTypewriting\nBadges\nPrinting:\nPrograms\nMiscellaneous\nMiscellaneous:\nExpenses of President\nSundry expenses of Secretary at headquarters\n\n$136 . 25\n12 .00\n93-31\n75 -oo\n29 • 25\n\n—\n\n62 .00\n21 . 80\n\n$4i.7S7-3S\n\nAnnual Convention:\nDepartment expenses\nState Directors and Managers\nCarried forward\n\n$429-61\n\n$353 - 61\n538 . 59\n$892.20 $41,757.35\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBrought forward\nClerical services:\nRegistration Bureau\nStenographers and typewriters\n\nASSOCIATION\n$892.20\n$1,200. 15\n466 .00\n\nPrinting:\nPrograms\nMiscellaneous\nExpress and freight\nStationery\nTelegrams\nMiscellaneous:\nDistribution of Bulletins (James A. Barr)\nPostage for departments\nRubber stamps\nExpenses of speaker\nSundry expenses\n\n$4i,757-3S\n\n$1,666.15\n609 . 20\n38 . 7S\n6 .05\nS9 • 95\n21 .86\n\n$367.60\n4.30\n17.10\n200.00\n100.77\n\n$ 869.77\n\nUnclassified disbursements:\nAuditing books of Secretary and Treasurer\nExamination of securities\nOffice furniture\nPress clippings\nRefunds of irregular membership fees\nPurchase of back volumes\n. Bonds of Secretary and Treasurer\nExpense sending delegate to meeting Mexican Centennial\n\n$ 30.00\n25 .00\n19 . 20\nI IS . 80\n73 .00\n19 . 00\n50.00\n100.00\n\nExchange of typewriters at Secretary's office\nCopies of Reports (International Audit Company)\n\n50.00\n30.00\n\nSUMMARY\nReceipts\nBalance brought forward from the Treasurer's report for year ending June 30, 1911\nReceipts for year July i, 1911, to June 30, 1912\n\n$3,983.93\n\n$512.00\n\n$46,253.28\n$ 4,030.13\n47,595.88\n\n$51,636.01\n\nDisbursements\nTotal expenses for the year\nTransferred to the Permanent Fund\nBalance in treasury, June 30, zgia\n\n$36,253 . 28\n$10,000.00 $46,253.28\n$5,382 . 73\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nKatherine D. Blake, Treasurer\nTo the Beard of Trustees, National Education Association of the United States:\nWe have audited the books of the National Education Association of the United States, and the accounts\nof the Treasurer, Katherine D. Blake, and the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, for the year ended June 30, 191 2.\nWe hereby certify that the foregoing statement of Receipts and Disbursements is in accordance with the books\nand is correct.\nMarwick, Mitchell, Peat & Company\n_ ,\nChartered AccourUatits\nJuly s, 1913\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "TWENTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD\nOF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nASSOCIATION\nFOR THE YEAR JULY I, 191I, TO JUNE 30, I912\nChicago, Illinois, July 6, 191 2\nTo the Board of Directors^of the National Education Association:\nThe Board of Trustees of the National Education Association has the honor to\nsubmit for your information its report on the Permanent Fund of the Association for\nthe year ending June 30, 1912.\nThe several amounts collected as income from the Permanent Fund, and the disposition made of the same, are shown in detail in the Income Account. The amount of the\nnet income paid to the Treasurer of the Association is $7,096 . 80.\nDuring the year the sum of $10,000 has been added to the Principal of the Fund in\naccordance with the provisions of Article 7 of the Act of Incorporation.\nThe Permanent Fund invested now amounts to $190,000 including, cash on hand\nawaiting investment, June 30, 191 2, $3,397. 50.\nNew investment for the fund as shown in the Principal Account consists of $10,000\nKansas City, Mo., School Bonds falling due 1925, purchased at 95 per cent, and bearing\n3^ per cent interest payable semi-annually.\nThe report shows a complete statement of the securities held for the Permanent\nFund, June 30, 191 2.\nStatement A shows the gross income of the property at 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago,\nto be $360 and the disbursements $207 . 20, leaving a net income of $152 . 80, an increase\nof $113 .82 over the previous year.\nThe account and statements which follow set forth in detail the financial operations\nof the year and the present state of the Permanent Fund:\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE FUNDS OF THE NATIONAL\nASSOCIATION\nFROM\n\nJULY I, 1911, TO JUNE\nPRINCIPAL ACCOUNT\n\nEDUCATION\n\n30, 1912\n\nRECEIPTS\nCash on hand for investment June 30, 1911\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111., bonds due November\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman, Board of Trustees\n\n$\ni, 1911\n\n3g7 . 50\n2,500.00\n10,000.00\n\n$12,897.50\nDISBDRSEUENTS\n$10,000 Kansas City, Mo., School District 3§ per cent bonds at 95\nCash on hand awaiting investment June 30, 1912\n\nINCOME ACCOUNT\n\n$ 9,500.00\n3,397 . so\n$12,897.50\n\nBLECEIPTS\n$ 7,000\niS.ooo\n30,000\n10,000\n17,000\n2,500\n1,000\n\nSt. Louis and San Francisco R.R. Co. refunding bonds, 1951, at 4 per cent\n$ 280.00\n27\nTerminal R.R. Association of St. Louis general refunding\nbonds, 1953, at 4 per cent. . .\n600.00\nPittsburgh, Lake Erie and West Virginia System ref imding bonds, 1941 , at 4 per cent . .\n800 . 00\nOregon Short Line R.R. Co. guaranteed refunding bonds, 1929, at 4 per cent\n400.00\nCity of New York registered bonds, 1957, at 4i per cent\n765 .00\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111., gold bonds, 1911 ).» .„.,„„„.\ni\n56.25\nViUage of Morgan Park, lU., gold bonds, 1913 ^ aU* per cent\n-^\n^^ ^\nCarried forward\n$2,946 . 25\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\ni,ooo\n10,000\n40,000\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBrought forward\nLemont, 111., school bonds, 1912-13, at $ per cent\n\n$2,946.23\nSo.oo\n\n8S^i^SlSDSK;!^;?[-t4Percent\n\n2,000.00\n\n^'^•^\n\n°^\n9(^^^p««\nS;;Sax^:\n^^^^8So;R.R.\nPennsylvania\nCo. convertible\nbonds, 1915, at 3§ per cent\n\n9,000\n10,000\n10,000\n10,000\n10,000\n\n330.00\n400.00\n\nAtlantic Coast Line R.R. first consolidated bonds, 1952, at 4 per cent\nChicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co. guaranteed consolidated bonds, 1956, at\n4 per cent\nManhattan Ry. Co. consolidated mortgage bonds, 1990, at 4 per cent\nInterest on cash balance in First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago\nAccrued interest on Kansas City, Mo., bonds (advanced by Dr. Greenwood)\nNet income of property 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago (see Statement A)\n\n4,000\n\n400 . 00\n160.00\n98.38\n156.53\n1 s 2 . 80\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\nFee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, 111., for care of principal of Permanent Fund. . . . $\nAccrued interest on $10,000 Kansas City, Mo., School District bonds purchased\nNet income paid to the Treasurer of the National Education Association (refunded)\n\nSTATEMENT\nREAL\n\nESTATE\n\n156.53\n17,473-96\n220.63\n\n7,096.80\n$7,473.96\n\nA\n\nACCOUNT\n\nRECEIPTS\n\nRents received by First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, 111\n\n$\n\n1. 8s\n\n$\n\n84.0s\n360.00\n27.6s\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nTaxes for 191 1\nSpecial assessment (paving 47th Street)\nSpecial assessment (paving Lake Avenue)\nRepairs\nFee of 5 per cent of First Trust and Savings Bank on $360 rents collected\nNet income\n\n18.00\n\n75.65\n\n152.80\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nOF SECURITIES\n\n^\n\nSecurity\n\n$ 8,000\n\nCity of New York registered\ngold bonds, due November\n1, 1957, Nos. 554 to 561. . .\nCity of New York gold bonds\ndue Nov. I, X957, Nos.\n26816 to 26824\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111.,\ngolds bonds due July r,\n1913, Nos. 4 and s. Series 0.\nLemont, 111., school bonds,\nNos. 30 and 32, payable\n$500 Dec. 1, 1912, and\nDec. 1, ipi3\nSanitary District of Chicago\ndrainage bonds, Nos. 245 1 6\nto 24525, due Dec. i, 1916.\nSanitary District of Chicago\ndrainage bonds, Nos. 24591\nto 2462s to 24636 to 24640,\ndue Dec. i, 1917\nWest Chicago park bonds,\nNos. iioi to 1 109, due\nApril I, 1918\nWest Chicago park bonds,\nNos. 615, 629-31, 124348, due April i, 1919\nKansas City, Mo., School\nDist. Bonds, Nos. 312729, 3133, 3135-36, 319092 and 3200, due July 1,\n1925\n\n1,000\n1,000\n\n10,000\n40,000\n\n9,000\n10,000\n10,000\n\n$98,000\n\nFOR THE\n\nJUNE 30, 191 2\nMUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL\n\nPar Value\n\n9,000\n\nHELD\n\nAcquired\n\nPERMANENT\n\n$ 360.00\nFUND\n\nBONDS\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\n4i % May and Nov.\n\n$ 8,sio\n\nFebruary 29, 1908\n1895\nJune 12, 1908\n1897\n\n4i % May and Nov.\n4i% Jan. and July\nx,ooo\n9,810\n\n1905\n\n5% June and Dec.\n4% June and Dec.\n\n10,000\n\n1904\n4% June and Dec.\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% April and Oct.\n\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% April and Oct.\n\nJune 12, 191 2\n\n10,07s\n9.045\n40,000\n\n3i% Jan. and July\n$98,940\n9,500\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nRAILROAD\nPar Value\n$ 7,000\n\nSecurity\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nBONDS\nInterest\n\nAcquired\n\nSt. Louis and San Francisco\nR.R. Co., refunding gold\nbonds Nos. 47435, 47457,\n47337,49012,40070,57373,\nS7SI4. due\nJulyAssoc;ation\ni, 1951. .\nTerminal\nR.R.\nof St. Louis, general refunding sinking fund gold\nbonds, Nos. 16311-16325,\ndue Januanr 1, 1955\nPittsburgh, Lake Ene and\nWest Virginia System refunding gold bonds Nos.\n13496-13500,21236-21250,\ndue Nov. I, 1941\nOregon Short Line R.R. Co.,\nguaranteed refunding gold\nbonds, Nos. 4013-4017,\n4025-4027, 4976, 13810,\ndue Dec. i, 1929\nPennsylvania R.R. Co., convertible bonds, Nos. B22823 to B-22838 inclusive, B-27655, B-27671,\nB-27672 and B-II2S8,\ndue Oct. I, 1915\nChicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co. bonds,\nNos. _ 11386 to 11394\ninclusive and 13786, due\nJan. I, 1956\nAtlantic Coast Line Railroad\nCo., 1st. Cons, bonds Nos.\n5130, 6494, 11638, 1 1639,\nI433S, 14339. 17579,\n24601, 37565, and 50251,\ndue July i, 1952\nManhattan Railway Co.\nCons. mortgage gold\nbonds, Nos. 2843, 6522,\n16083 and 16087, due\nApril I, 1990\n\nBook Value\n\n* S,77S\n\nJanuary 3, 1907\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\nJanuary 30, 1905\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\nJanuary 13, 1906\n\n4% May and Nov.\n8,895\n\nFebruary 3, 1908\n\n4% June and Dec.\n\nJanuary 11, 1909\n\n3i% June and Dec.\n\nJanuary 18, 1909\n\n( August 3, 1909\n\\ June 5, 1911\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\n*\n(\n\nJune 5, 1911\n\n9,Soo\n\n4% March and Sept.\n\n9,600\n\n4% April and Oct.\n\n$82,162.50\n\n$86,000\n\nREAL\nSecurity\n\nESTATE\nInterest\n\nAcquired\n\n4762 Lake Ave., Chicago, 111. (Hord\n\nBook Value\n\n1907\n\nRent $30 monthly\n\nCash on hand awaiting investment\nTotal of the Permanent Fund\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n\n$ 5,500\n$ 3, 397. 50\n$\n\n190,000\n\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nJames Y. Joyner\nJ. Stanley Brown\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nCarroll G. Pearse\nBoard of Trustees\n\nTo the Trustees of the National Education Association:\nGentlemen: The above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the Nationa I\nEducation Association of the United States as the same appears on the books of this bank.\nFirst Trust and Savings Bank,\nChicago, 111., June 27, 1912\n(Signed)\nBy Louis BoisoT, Trui/ Q^cer\nTo the Board of Directors, The National Education Association of the United States:\nWe have examined the books and records of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association\nof the United States, and certify that, in our opinion, the foregoing statement correctly reflects the condition\nof the Permanent Fund as at June 30, 1912. We also certify that we have this day examined the securities\nlisted in the foregoing statement, deposited in the custody of the First Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago,\nIllinois.\nMarwick, MrrcpEii, Peat & Company\nJuly 5, 191a\nChartered Aecoitntanfj\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF ACTIVE MEMBERS\nOF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nFOR THE YEAR\n\n1911-12\n\nChicago, III., Wednesday, July 10, 1912\nThe annual meeting of the active members for the election of ofl&cers and other\nbusiness was called to order at the Auditorium Theater by President CarroU G. Pearse\nat 11:15 A.M., July 10, 191 2.\nPresident Pearse: The first item in the order of business is the reading of the\nminutes of the last meeting.\nSecretary Shepard : The minutes of the last meeting were printed in the last annual\nvolume and Yearbook and have been distributed to the members. Is it desired that they\nbe read at this time ?\nOn motion it was ordered that the reading of the minutes be dispensed with and that\nthey be approved as printed in the volume and Yearbook for 191,1.\nPresident Pearse: The next item in the order of business is the report of the\nBoard of Trustees.\nJames M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, chairman of the Board of Trustees, presented\nthe report of the Board of Trustees with the statement that it was printed and in the\nhands of all present.\nThere being no questions asked, on motion, duly seconded, it was ordered that the\nreport of the Board of Trustees be accepted and adopted and printed in the volume of\nProceedings and Yearbook, for the current year.\nPresident Pearse: The report of the Treasurer, Miss Katherine D. Blake, is next\nin order.\nKatherine D. Blake, of New York City, Treasurer: As the report is printed and\nis in your hands, I will spare you any statistics and will merely say that in the report\nI have made several recommendations. One is that the Treasurer hereafter hold all the\nmembership certificates and that the Secretary acknowledge the payment of dues on a\nprinted form stating that the Treasurer will send membership certificate later. I also\nrecommend that the bond of the Treasurer be reduced to a minimum. I state also that\nI think that the State Directors ought to be able to pay for headquarters without petitioning other associations.\nOn motion, duly seconded, the report of the Treasurer was accepted and adopted\nand ordered printed.\nPresident Pearse: The next item in the order of business is the \"Statement of the\nWork and Proposals\" of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, from\nDecember, 1911, to July, 1912. President Joseph Swain, who is chairman of the committee, will read a proposed resolution.\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa. : The members have printed copies of the rep>ort. I\nwish to quote a few paragraphs from the report. We ask the passage of the following\nresolutions:\nBe it resolved, I. That the National Education Association approves the proposed\nIntemarional Commission on the Cost of Living, and authorizes the Committee on\nTeachers'\nSalaries\nand ofCost\nof Living\nall proper\nsteps\nto bring\nthis matter effectively to the\nattention\nCongress\nand tothetake\nPresident\nof the\nUnited\nStates.\nn. We also ask the passage of a resolution to be presented Wednesday, July 10,\nproviding the necessary financial means for the continuance of the work of the committee\nas outlined above, and for the publication and distribution of the data thus secured.\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n31\n\nMr. Greenwood : I wish to move the adoption of the resolution read by President\nSwain, if the motion is in order.\nPresident Pearse : The motion is in order and is seconded. I am asked by President Swain to recognize two members of the committee, Miss Strachan and Miss Haley.\nGrace C. Strachan, of New York City: At the request of President Swain I wish\nto say a few words in regard to this resolution: That a further appropriation of three\nthousand dollars be made to conduct this work. I suppose the fact that for six years we\nhave been working for better salaries for teachers justifies my asking your support of this\nresolution. We are not afraid when we speak of salaries that we shall be accused, as\nteachers, of speaking only of our pocketbooks. I think everybody who gives the matter\na moment's thought realizes that the teacher will do his best work when not oppressed by\nthe weight of extra work in connection with the struggle to make both ends meet.\nThe other parts of the work submitted to this committee, those dealing with tenure\nand pension, I think are of vital interest to every member of our profession. During the\nsix years' fight by sixteen thousand women in the city of New York, I am probably the\nonly woman who feared that she might lose her position. You can, therefore, understand\nthat the New York teachers can be independent and can wage a fight in opposition to their\nown board of education and all others. In New York City we have secured by act of\nlegislature security of tenure. Any teacher who has completed three years of service that\nis recognized as satisfactory is sure of his or her position and cannot be removed except on\ncharges, and those charges must be general inefficiency, insubordination, or gross misconduct. You will be interested to know that for some years marriage seemed to be\nconsidered gross misconduct. The board of education had in its by-laws said that when\na female teacher married the act constituted resignation. That went on and was obeyed\nby hundreds of female teachers for years, and then a teacher married who thought,\n\"Why do I lose my position? The state law says that I shall not, since I have a permanent license, unless guilty of general inefficiency, insubordination, or gross misconduct.\"\nSo she got a lawyer and took the case to the courts. The records showed that she was\nvery efficient and so there was nothing that she could be charged as guilty of, except of\ngross misconduct. The judge, I believe, was a married man. You can readily see what\nthe result was. So, now, teachers can marry and remain in the system if they choose to\ndo so. The reason that my position was not secure is that I was elected for a term and\nmy term expiring during the fight, the board might refuse to re-elect me.\nI mention the tenure because I think one of the most desirable positions, especially\nin a teacher, is that of being free and independent and you cannot be free and independent and stand for your ideals and your position if you fear losing your position.\nThe matter of pensions needs no explanation or advocacy. We all realize that our\nprofession is one that limits us generally to a salary which, as yet, is very inadequate and\ntherefore we should be protected in the future of our lives after giving up teaching, so that\nwe need not worry. I therefore hope that there will be a unanimous support given to\nthe resolution offered by President Swain.\nMargaret Haley, of Chicago: Mr. President and members of the Association: I\nam sure that the Chicago teachers rejoice with the teachers of the United States that it\nis in our city that we receive the first report that has come before the National Education\nAssociation — I mean the Association as a whole — on this question of salaries, tenure of\noffice, and pensions. The resolution creating the committee was presented at San\nFrancisco last year and we who have been working for more than ten years to get this\nresolution before the National Education Association rejoiced when it passed. We\nrejoice this morning to see the unanimity that we have in the approval of the report and\nthe extension of the work as proposed. I believe there is no subject today that needs\nmore attention from educational bodies than the question of the teachers' condition of\nliving and working. I believe our first duty is not the expounding of theories, but the\nfinding of better conditions for the people who are trying to improve the conditions under\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nwhich our teachers work. Our reports show that the standard of living and therefore the\nstandard of efficiency of the teaching force has been lowered. When you lower the\nstandard of living you lower the standard of efficiency and the pubUc schools are suffering\nwith the teachers. We hope that you will adopt this report and that you will not only\nadopt the report, but that you will also bring to the attention of the teachers of the\nUnited States, when you go back, the fact that this National Education Association has\ntaken up the subject of tenure of office, pensions, and other questions vitally connected\nwith living; especially the question whether the increase in salaries has kept pace with\nthe increase in the cost of living.\nI feel that you understand this question so well that I need say no more, except a\nword to urge the teachers to bring these subjects before your officials, your board of\neducation, and thus complete a great and splendid piece of work. I thank you.\nPresident Pearse: You have heard the motion of Mr. Greenwood to adopt the\nresolution of Chairman Swain. He informs me of his knowledge that the Committee on\nInvestigations and Appropriations will have no further meeting during the session. You\nhave heard the motion, which motion has been seconded and has been spoken to by Miss\nStrachan and Miss Haley. If there are no further remarks, those in favor of the adoption\nof the motion wiU say Aye.\nThe motion was carried unanimously.\nPresident Pearse : The next item on the program is the report of the Committee on\nNominations, of which President Robert J. Aley is chairman.\nMiss Blake: Before that report is made I request that the unfinished business\ncome before this house. It is customary in most organizations — I think parliamentary\npractice will prove that I am right — to transact all business before electing officers.\nI ask this because I should hke to have a chance to show exactly where we stand on the\nBy-Laws. I move, Mr. President, that we take from the table the By-Laws that were\npresented at San Francisco last summer.\nThe motion was seconded by various members.\nPresident Pearse : The motion has been made and seconded that we depart from\nthe regular order, the order which is customary in the National Education Association\nbusiness meeting, and that we now take up the item of unfinished business.\nWilliam H. Chamberlin, of Chicago: I beg to offer this suggestion, that these ByLaws are quite extensive in the amendments proposed. There will no doubt be debate.\nIt is a question whether we can reach a conclusion or a vote on these proposed amendments in today's session. Some of them may have to go over to another session. It\nappears to me that the election of officers would be the better procedure and I move that\nthis motion be laid on the table.\nThe motion was seconded.\n\nHanna Wehle, of New York City: There is a motion before the house now, and I\nrise to a point of order.\nPresident Pearse: A motion has been made to take up the unfinished business out\nof its order. The Chair will rule that this special motion to lay the first motion upon the\ntable is in order. The motion to lay on the table is not debatable. As many as favor the\nmotion to lay on the table will say Aye. Those opposed will say No. The motion to lay\non the table appears to be carried; it is carried. We will now have the report of the\nCommittee on Nominations.\nRobert J. Aley, of Orono, Me.:\n\nTo the President and Active Members of the National Education Association:\nYour Committee on Nominations presents the following report:\nFor President\nEdward T. Fairchild\nKansas\nFor Treasurer\nGrace M. Shepherd\nIdaho\nFor Vice-Presidents\nCarroll G. Pearse\nWisconsin\nGuy Potter Benton\nVermont\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nFor Vice-Presidents\n\nMEMBERS\n\nMartha Stromberg\nWaitman T. Barbe\nB. W. ToRREYSON\nHelen M. Wixson\nL. R. Alderman\nAgnes E. Howe\nAda Van Stone Harris\nAmelia C. Fruchte\nCornelia S. Hulst\n\n,\n\n'\nFor State Directors:\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth CaroHna\nNorth Dakota.\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\n\".\n\n33\n\nMaryland\nWest Virginia\nArkansas\nColorado\nOregon\nCalifornia\nVirginia\nMissouri\nMichigan\n\nJohn H. Phillips\nBirmingham\nA. J. Matthews\nTempe\nGeorge B. Cook\nLittle Rock\nA. J. Cloud\nSan Francisco\nJames B. Ragan\nSterling\nWalter D. Hood\nWinsted\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nWilmington\nWilliam M. Davidson\nWashington\nClem Hampton\nTallahassee\nAubrey Matthews\nGainesville\nWalter R. Siders\nPocatello\nWilliam H. Campbell\nChicago\nThomas A. Mott\nRichmond\nO. P. BosTwiCK\nClinton\nJohn MacDonald\nTopeka\nJ. G. Crabbe\nRichmond\nT. H. Harris\nBaton Rouge\nRobert J. Aley\nOrono\nCharles J. Koch\nBaltimore\nRobert J. Fuller\nNorth Attleboro\nE. E. Scribner\nIshpeming\nJulia H. Vaughan\nMinneapolis\nE. E. Bass\nGreenville\nWilliam P. Evans\n-.Jefferson\nWard H. Nye\nBillings\nJames E. Delzell\nLincoln\nWalter J. Hunting\nCarson City\nHenry C. Morrison\nConcord\nCalvin N. Kendall\nTrenton\nW. E. Garrison\nAgri. College\nGeorge M. Forbes\nRochester\nF. M. Harper\nRaleigh\nGeorge A. McFarland\nValley City\nJ. F. Smith\nFindlay\nW. A. Brandenburg\nOklahoma City\nGrace DeGraff\nPortland\nReed B. Teitrick\nHarrisburg\nGeorge F. Weston\nProvidence\nD. B. Johnson\nRock Hill\nC. G. Lawrence\nPierre\nJ. J. Keyes\nNashville\nWilliam B. Bizzell\nDenton\nG. N. Child\nSalt Lake City\nGuy Potter Benton\nBurlington\nMaurice M. Lynch\nWinchester\nC. E. Beach\nOlympia\nM. P. Shawkey\nCharleston\nL. P. Benezet\nLa Crosse\nM. E. Shuck\nRawlins\nWillis T. Pope\nHonolulu\nG. N. Anderson\nManila\nRespectfully submitted,\nRobert J. Aley, Chairman\nA Member:\nMr. Chairman, I move that the Secretary be instructed to cast the\nballot of the Association for the officers named by the committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe motion was seconded.\nPresident Pearse : You have heard the motion as made and seconded.\nMiss Blake: Mr. President, I wish to enter objection to that motion. One objection will stop that motion, I believe.\nPresident Pearse:\nYes.\nMiss Blake: i desire to make a motion to substitute in place of the name of Mr.\nE. T. Fairchild of Kansas the name of Miss Grace C. Strachan, of New York.\nMany seconded the motion.\nPresident Pearse:\nYou have heard the motion to amend.\nMiss Blake: I wish to speak on my motion before a vote is taken. I think that\nAmericans as a rule stand for fair play. I feel proud, friends, very proud, that two years\nago I had the honor of nominating in Boston your own superintendent and of making\nbefore the audience of active members of the Association the nomination of Mrs. Young\nas President of the Association. You found then that the only way that the name of a\nwoman for a high office in this Association could be brought before this body was by a\nsubstitute motion. We were told in San Francisco that the only way that a woman's\nname could be brought before the body was by a substitute motion and it was so proved.\nWe have been told here that the only way that a woman's name can come before this\norganization is by a substitute motion and it has again so been proved.\nA Member:\nNo, it has not been so proved.\nMiss Blake: I said for a high office. In presenting Miss Strachan's name here I\npresent the name of the member who has done the biggest piece of educational work that\nhas been done for a long time. In gaining equal pay for the teachers of New York City\nshe gained what is far greater than a political victory — an economic victory. As the\nrepresentative of the teachers of her own organization she, more than anyone else, accomplished that work. In her report this morning she was too modest to tell you that she\nwas the only one of the members of that organization who stood in any danger. She did\nnot tell you of the abuse and threats that met her in that work. She refrained from saying\nto you that in order that this great work might be carried on, and because she was standing\nfor a principle, she worked against an increase of salary for herself. For the past three\nyears she has received $i,ooo a year less than she would have received had she worked\nfor herself instead of for the classroo-m teachers. I think that is a record that is pretty\nhard to match. It was Miss Strachan alone of all the district superintendents who stood\nfor the continuance of the $5,000 salary instead of for the raise to $6,000, because she\nwould not have her salary raised xmtil the classroom teacher received adequate compensation for her work.\nFriends, in presenting the name of Miss Strachan, I present the name of a leader in\neducational affairs. This organization needs a leader into new paths. Miss Strachan\ncan be that leader. In the schools she has always been a leader; in school associations\nshe is a leader, and she has been a leader in the charity work of her city. She has the\nmind to grasp new issues and to meet them.\nThings have been said here which I think you will all deplore later, because intentions\nhave been misinterpreted. In the heat of debate even friends sometimes misunderstand\neach other. Miss Strachan has not been asked for her position on the By-Laws. It was\nfor that reason that I tried to bring the By-Laws before you a few minutes ago, so that\nyou could hear from her own hps where she stood. I am sorry that you did not vote to\nallow her. I am sorry that you were unwiUing to discuss the By-Laws and thus give her\na chance to show you her attitude in reference to them.\nFriends, Miss Strachan stands not merely for the upUfting of the teacher thru her\nsalary. She has under her care thirty thousand children in New York City. She has one\nof the most progressive districts, one of the best districts in the city, and one of the freest.\nHer teachers are happy and enthusiastic under her. They are free to do as they like.\nInitiative is not repressed. Miss Strachan stands for individual liberty, for the friendly\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n35\n\ncomradeship of teacher and child. In her district, if you choose to visit it, you will find\nclasses for the blind, for the anaemic, for the crippled, for the deaf, for the defective, as\nwdl as the most advanced and progressive work for the normal child. Miss Strachan is\na leader in the vanguard of school work. In asking you to give your votes for Miss\nGrace C. Strachan today, I am asking you to do honor to this body. I am not asking\nyou to honor her — 'she needs no further honor. This Association is coming, to a certain\nextent, to the parting of the ways. We must in the future travel a different path from\nthat of the past. You need a wonderful organizer. In Miss Strachan you have a wonderful organizer. She has organized the biggest teachers' organization in the world, with a\npaid-up membership of fourteen thousand members in it. Miss Strachan has worked in\nharmony with friends, and with people who seemed not like friends, in New York, and has\nbrought order out of chaos and we want votes for her for that reason also.\nI nominate Miss Strachan for the presidency of the greatest educational organization\nin existence today, and I so nominate her hoping that this National Education Association\nwill not fail to elect her and that the women of this organization will honor themselves in\nhonoring her.\nThomas W. Bicknell, of Rhode Island: Mr. President, there are a few points\nconcerning which I wish to say a word. I have met here today a great many members\nwhom I have never met before and I congratulate the Association upon its splendid\ncondition and its splendid prospects for the future. Among those distinguished people\nwho have come to my attention has been Miss Grace C. Strachan, of New York; of great\nability, of great organizing power, and of great strength in very many directions, and if\nshe lives and if this Association lives, it is certain that she will stand at its head. But\ntoday, as a friend of this lady so distinguished, I, for one, representing the past of the\nAssociation as well as the present, feel that the hour has come for a continued policy\nalong the lines laid down by those who have led in the past and who have been great in\nservice to this Association.\nMiss Strachan appears for the first time here, and she is a splendid representative of\nour work and of her own efficiency. But I think that in our present position she, as a\nleader, can afford to wait; that she had better wait for another time and another occasion.\nMy voice and my influence at some time in the next few years will be raised for her; but\nI believe that we should recognize the regular order of procedure at this convention. I\nbelieve that the report of this regularly appointed committee which we have named from\nthe many states should be adopted.\nMiss Blake: There was to be a minority report, but we have moved to amend the\nmajority report. I have the minority report here.\nMr. Bicknell: The majority report recognized one of the great men of the states;\nand his name stands known and recognized. I, for one, feel it my duty to say that while\nI would most gladly vote for Miss Strachan under other conditions, under the present\nconditions I must vote for Mr. Fairchild, of Kansas.\nThere were calls for \"the question\"; President Pearse asked if there were any\nother remarks.\nMathilde C. Ford, of the Department of Finance, New York City: Like my\nfriend who has just spoken, I too have been facing the past until a few weeks ago when I\nstood on Fifth Avenue and watched the women parade. Up to that time I had never had\nany enthusiasm over the suffrage movement but as I stood there I felt myself quivering\nwith emotion and seemed to have a vision of the women of the future. And so I leave\nmy chair and come forward to speak a word for Miss Grace C. Strachan because she, more\nthan any other woman whom I have met in my far-reaching contact with the teachers of\nthis country, seems to represent this new and coming order of things.\nBeing outside the school system and therefore able to speak impartially, I desire,\nwith Miss Strachan's permission, to make one or two apologies. It is rather a delicate\ntask but I feel that in the light of all that has happened it is due to our friends in Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFirst, I want to apologize for Miss Strachan's having called upon His Honor the Mayor,\nand in explanation to say that at home she is so accustomed to associating with the\nmayor, the governor, and the members of the legislature that she did not deem it a\ncrime to call upon the mayor when she came to Chicago.\nIf my dear friends, the New York teachers, will forgive me, I desire to offer an\napology for them also. I had never attended a meeting of their Interborough Association\nof Women Teachers until three weeks ago when a representative from Chicago came to\nNew York to ask Miss Strachan to withdraw from this race. After hearing what :his\nrepresentative had to say I asked permission to attend a special meeting of that -association\nwhich had been called to consider the matter. It was granted. We are more generous\nin many ways — pardon me — than you are in Chicago. I could not get into the caucus\nwhere your deliberations were held, but since coming into this meeting I have been called\noutside and taken behind the curtain. I said, \" Come out into the open, we don't do\nbusiness in New York behind a curtain.\" In educational politics as well as in national\npolitics, the time has come when nothing short of publicity will win. Publicity is the\ncorrective force in the social body and I predict that from this time on no candidate,\nwhether in a political or an educational convention, can win by any other method than\nfull and free publicity.\nTo continue my story, I attended the meeting of the Interborough Association and\nheard Miss Strachan assert that she did not want to be a candidate for the presidency of\nthe National Education Association. She is not seeking honors. She is overloaded with\nthem at home. How, then, does she come to be a candidate ? Let me tell you. I have\nwitnessed a quickening of the spirit in the educational world during recent months and I\ncame to this meeting hoping to find it in evidence here. The moving picture is destined\nto become the greatest educational instrument since the invention of the printing press.\nThe Montessori method of which we heard yesterday is going to revolutionize the work of\nteaching young children. Now it would appear that Miss Strachan has invented a\nMontessori method of handling teachers. She keeps herself in the background and\nallows them self-expression. They said, \"We want you to be a candidate; we want you\nto go to Chicago as the representative of the teachers of New York City.\" If there has\nbeen any lack of finesse on the part of these young women who have conducted her\ncampaign it has been because they were expressing their new-found freedom without\ninterference.\nIn presenting the name of Miss Strachan for President, we also desire to apologize for\nher not having been active in the Association for the past twenty-five years. It is not\nher fault that she is not old enough for this. Despite her alleged lack of years, she has\ndone most extraordinary educational work and to an unprecedented degree she has\nbecome a leader among women.\nAnd so I ask you to vote for her.\nCalls for \"the question.\"\nPresident Pearse: The Chair feels that the Association — altho it is warm and\naltho we have much business — can afford to take a few minutes more. We can well afford\nto be courteous to the sisters from New York. I believe that Miss Stromberg desires the\nfloor. She shall have it unless the house forbids.\nMartha\n\nStromberg, of Baltimore, Md.:\n\nMr. Bicknell acknowledges Miss\n\nStrachan's great abilities, but he says, use them in the future. Why not use these great\nabilities at once ? Why put off for tomorrow what you can do today ? Everybody\nacknowledges that this is a time when we need great talent. Why not then use all this\ngreat talent arid these great abilites of Miss Grace C. Strachan?\nPresident Pearse : The Chair desires to state, in the matter of the publicity which\nhas been referred to, that every arrangement has been made to procure the fullest publicity\nfor the proceedings of this meeting; as an evidence, please notice the representatives of\nthe press of the nation, seated at my left.\nMary O'Reilley, of Chicago: I ask for the floor to say that the teachers really\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n37\n\nhave not heard all that they want to hear. I, for one, would like to hear from the candidates and how they stand on the amendments. I hope that the house will not call for\nthe question and will not cut off debate until we have heard from Miss Strachan and from\nMr. Fairchild on the amendments. We are not here to vote on anybody's personality.\nIt has been said that Miss Strachan has not had an opportunity to declare herself on\nthe amendments.\nMiss Haley:\nI rise to a point of order.\nPresident Pearse:\nState it, please.\nMiss Haley: The point of order is that the question as to how the candidates stand\non these amendments is not a pertinent question at this time. The subject of the amendments should come later.\nPresident Pearse : Will Miss O'Reilley continue ?\nMiss O'Reilley : I continue in my request that the members of the organization\nshould be allowed to know how the candidates stand.\nMiss Strachan: There are some things that I think should be explained\nbefore any vote is taken at this meeting. Somebody said to President Pearse that she\nwanted Miss Strachan to speak this morning. He inquired, \"In advocacy of her own\nelection?\" I am not speaking \"in advocacy of my own election.\" Those who know\nme know that my chief desire always is for truth. So many things have been said, so\nmany charges made — in the press and elsewhere — that I want to clear the atmosphere, if\npossible, by stating some facts. I do not want any person to vote for me who has the\nslightest doubt as to the truth of these charges.\nI am sorry to say I am not so young as Mrs. Ford thinks I am. I first attended a\nconvention of the National Education Association in 1891, twenty-one years ago. I\nhave attended many of the conventions since. No doubt in those early years, like so\nmany of the women memberS; I was an associate member. But I have attended conventions.went\nI\nto see if I could find anything better about the teaching of mathematics,\nto see what I could learn about the exceptional child, and so on. I confess that, altho\naccording to the Yearbook, I have been an active member since 1903, 1 have never spoken\nfrom the platform at the business meetings except in 1910 when I took the platform to\nadvocate the, election of Mrs. Young, of Chy:ago. I do not regret that action. Miss\nBlake, of New York, had in obedience to the instruction of the New York committee in\nBoston, made the minority report in favor of Mrs. Young. I took the platform to second\nit. As you know, the report of the nominating committee was set aside, for the first time\nin the history of the Association, and Mrs. Young was elected. If for supporting her in\nthat convention I am — as has been charged — the candidate of the \"Old Guard,\" I must\nacknowledge that the \"Old Guard\" is very generous.\nWhen I went to Boston I went simply and solely, I confess, to work for the election\nof Mrs. Young and I took New York teachers with me for that purpose. Our Association\nhad appropriated money enough to send ten of us to Boston and pay our expenses there\nfor that purpose. Beside that, we had sent to every school in New York — and there\nare 520 of them — a letter requesting teachers to go to Boston and aid in the election of\nMrs. Young of Chicago; and I am told that there were eighty of us there from New York\nCity. I felt that since the majority of the members of this Association were women,\nand that since the greater part of the money in the treasury of this Association was\ncontributed by women, it was not asking too much that for the first time in forty-eight\nyears the Association elect a woman President.\nI apologize for nothing that was done in Boston by the New York committee. I\napologize for nothing that was done in connection with setting aside the report of the\nnominating committee. We come here to Chicago two years after — I did not attend the\nconvention last year at San Francisco because the legislature in Albany was in session\nand I remained home to do important work there, but we got up a special party to go to\nSan Francisco to work with Mrs. Young and Miss Blake and the people who have become\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nknown as \"Progressives.\" Now, in Boston, I did not stop to ask, \"Are you a member\nof the Old Guard?\" or, \"Are you a Progressive?\" I did not know who was which, and\nI did not care at that time. I was there to put into the oflSce of President the person who I\nthought was best fitted at that time for that position. I do not think that the National\nEducation Association ought to continue this division, if there is one, between the \"'Progressives\" and the \"Old Guard.\" This is a professional association, not a political\nassociation. I never heard in Boston about the \"Progressives\" or about the \"Old Guards.\"\nI never thought of members as such.\nA member of the Hospitality Committee here said to me: \"I hope that you are\nenjoying your stay in Chicago.\" I said, \"I am Scotch-Irish and I am blunt and so I\ntell you that I am not, and that I think I am not being fairly treated.\" He said, \"How\nis that?\" I said, \"I hear indirectly that there is a caucus of the Chicago Principals'\nClub here at four o'clock. Now, I am the regularly elected director for the state of New\nYork — the state that has the greatest number of active members in this association —\nand it should not be a question as to whether I am Grace C. Strachan, or whether I am\nmentioned for oflSce here; but if there is a conference, I should be notified of that and\ngiven the privilege either of attending or staying away.\" He said he was sorry that I\nfelt that way. I confess now I am sorry that I came to Chicago. I would have had a\nmuch finer opinion of many people in Chicago if I had stayed away.\nHowever, some members of the New York delegation attended the caucus in the\nChicago Principals' Club and the statement was made there, either by President Hall\nor by Mr. Owen, \"Chicago controls the situation. We have — I don't know the exact\nnumber of active members — nine hundred or a thousand and if necessary in half an hour\ncan make that figure six thousand.\" Whereupon one lady who was there sdid, \"Then\nwe'd better change that 'N'.in the N.E.A. to 'C.'\" Some one made the retort, \"If j'ou\nhave the convention in New York, I suppose it will be the 'I.E.A.,'\" referring to the\nInterborough Association of Women Teachers of which I am president. I hope that I\nhave influence enough with my fourteen thousand to prevent their degrading the National\nEducation Association by making it in its business conduct or in its educational departments a catspaw of any local organization in what happens to have been chosen as the\nmeeting-place. For fear that I might not have such control, I shall work hard, if I continue in this Association, to prevent the meeting of the National Education Association\nin the city of New York or any other large city.\nAs one of the speakers has said, I was not a willing candidate. I do not seek honors.\nI accomplished something for teachers that I set out to do, and many thought that I\nwas therefore the logical candidate for the presidency of the National Education Association. Such was my feeling until three weeks ago Sunday. Then a lady came to New York\n— I am noted for being very frank, it was Miss Haley — and said to Miss Blake and myself\nand four others at a luncheon at the Waldorf which I had arranged — you need not be in\nthe dark, anything that I do I am perfectly willing to talk about — this lady said, \"The\nNational Education Association committee of the Chicago Principals' Club has considered\nMiss Strachan as a possible candidate for the presidency this year, and has decided that\nit would be unwise.\"\nI do not know how many here will understand why I resented that.\nI resented it because Miss Blake, who certainly has fought shoulder to shoulder with\n\"Progressives\" since there has been any such name for any portion of this Association,\nboth as Treasurer and as member of the Executive Committee, had not been taken into any\nconference which should come to that decision. If Miss Blake had come to me and said,\n\"You know, Miss Strachan, that for three years I have been wanting you to be President\nof the National Education Association, but President Pearse and Mrs. Young and myself,\nand maybe others, have been talking over the interests of the Association and we have\ndecided that it would be better not to name you this year,\" I should have been very thankful, very thankful. But to be informed that a club — I am sure I don't know how many\nmembers there are in it— the Chicago Principals' Club — I am told that there are men and\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n39\n\nwomen in it, and I am told that Mr. Hall is president — that a very small club consisting\nof a very small proportion of the membership of the National Education Association had\ndecided whether I could be nominated as a candidate or not, was not to be tolerated.\nNow the Chicago Principals' Club arrogates too much to itself — you see I am seeking\nthe Chicago vote. Not only does it assume the right to say who shall be the candidate\nthis yesLT, but it has also decided who shall be the candidate next year; and they say I\nam to be the candidate next year.\nThe statement has been made over and over again by Chicago teachers to New York\nteachers that Miss Strachan is against the By-Laws, that Miss Strachan won't say that\nshe is for these amendments, intimating that that has biased their opinion on the presidency. Now that is not true. Miss Haley reported the decision of the Chicago Principals' Club before she showed us the amendments to the By-Laws. Now, how could I\nhave passed my opinion on the amendments to the By-Laws when at that luncheon it\nwas said what the Chicago Principals' Club decision was, before I had had opportunity\nto pass upon these amendments? When asked why the Chicago Principals' Club had\ndecided Miss Strachan couldnot be President this year, she said, \"The Chicago Principals'\nClub is very much interested in the By-Laws, but it feels that it should not ask too much.\"\nMiss Blake said, \"I don't know why the candidacy of Miss Strachan should conflict with\nthe By-Laws,\" and she said, \" Chicago does not feel that it should upset the report of the\nnominating committee.\" I said, \"That is really funny, coming from Chicago.\" \"However,\" said,\nI\n\"let us hurry up with this luncheon and get to those By-Laws. They must\nbe very serious.\" And we spent the rest of Sunday afternoon studying the By-Laws, or\nas much of them as we could get into the time.\nI suppose I should not talk about By-Laws. Probably I shall be declared out of\norder. However, the first one is one that was presented by a New York teacher at\nSan Francisco. It is not doubtful what my attitude would be on that. Ever since coming to Chicago I have said to every New York teacher that I could reach, \"You must not\nsay what my attitude is on the By-Laws; I will not enter into even the semblance of a\ndeal. I do not want the presidency of this Association so much that I will get it thru any\ndeal. For you to say that you will be for the By-Laws if they will be for me as President\nis not in my line of conduct in any campaign.\"\nBut, however, that is aside from the subject because this decision by the Chicago\nPrincipals' Club antedated any discussion of the By-Laws to which I was invited. These\namendments to the By-Laws were in press before the messenger came to New York.\nNow, here, at that caucus Saturday, it was decided that there should be a caucus on\nSunday night at eight o'clock and three men were selected to get attendance at that\nSunday evening caucus. One of them happened to be Mr. O'Donnell of New York.\nI do not know whether that is the reason that that caucus was abandoned. When\npeople went to the Chicago Principals' Club Sunday night at eight o'clock, they found\na notice on the door, \"Caucus abandoned by mutual consent.\" I do not know by\nwhose mutual consent it was. Neither do I care, except that I regret that the conduct of the National Education Association has to be decided in caucuses. We learned\non Monday morning that later on Sunday night there had been a caucus. We were\ninformed that seventeen states were represented. I assure you that New York was not\nasked to have a representative there, but it would have been very glad to have had a\nrepresentative there. There is so much mystery that we cannot find out what states\nwere there.\nA Member:\nOklahoma was pne of them.\nMiss Strachan: Oklahoma is likely to be in the forefront of everything. However,\na Chicago woman member said to a New York woman member after the caucus,\nwhen asked if Miss Strachan's name was there presented, \"No.\" Then the New York\nmember said, \"Then you asked only those who were opposed to Miss Strachan. But\nsuppose Miss Strachan's name was presented at the annual meeting, could you not vote\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfor her?\" and the Chicago member said, \"No, I cannot vote for her because we pledged\nourselves at that caucus to vote for Fairchild.\" It seems to me very much like the\nunit rule at Baltimore.\nIf the report of this nominating committee had been made without these previous\nirregular caucuses, notice of which was not sent to every state headquarters, I possibly\nmight not even have asked for the pnivilege of explaining some things and would let this\nactive meeting go ahead and vote, even if it were voting in the dark. But I have the\nreputation of liking the truth, and for wishing to clear the atmosphere, and I do not\nwant any woman or man to vote for me today if she or he stands any way in doubt as\nto the advisability of doing it.\nThe silly accusations that are made with reference to my calling on your mayor seem\nbeneath notice. There have been apologies made here this morning for various things.\nI think that I shall have to apologize to our splendid mayor, Mayor Gaynor, for innocently\ndragging his name into the inane tactics that seem to permeate this Association. I do\nnot wish Mayor Harrison to have a wrong impression. The papers last week said that\nI had gone to ask Mayor Harrison to ask Mrs. Young to get .the Chicago teachers into\nline to vote for me. When I saw Mayor Harrison, Miss Blake was with me — Miss\nBlake, Miss Bayer, Mrs. Ford, and Mrs. Moriarity. We invited him to our reception\nlast night. In Boston the New York committee got up a reception in honor of Mrs.\nYoung, and I with a member of our committee went down to the City Hall to ask Mayor\nFitzgerald to attend — to attend the reception in honor of Mrs. Young — and Mayor\nFitzgerald did attend and stood nearly two hours in line.\nMayor Harrison said he was sorry we did not ask him sooner. I have since learned\nthat there are some differences in opinion between the Mayor and teachers here.\nAgain I saw my name associated with the book trust. I have been a superintendent\nfor twelve years; I suppose I might influence the selection of books in my schools. But I\nshould not be afraid to ask every principal, man or woman, that I have ever supervised\nto take oath as to whether I have ever said, \"I wish you would favor so-and-so or would\nnot favor so-and-so.\" I have no doubt that there are some men connected with book\nfirms who will vote for me. One is the head of the firm of D. C. Heath & Co. He is one\nof two men at this convention who are privileged to call me Grace. They are privileged\nby an acquaintance with my people for over twenty years. I know that even some A.B.C.\nmen voted for Mrs. Young. Therefore I am ready to put on record the active members\nof this Association as to whether they wished to vote for me as the President this year or\nnot. I do not plan for next year. There are hundreds of men and women who went\ndown on the \"Titanic\" the other night when they thought they were having a party.\nHow foolish it is for any Chicago Principals' Club, for any \"Old Guard\" or for any \"Progres ives\" tosay what we shall do next year. '\nA Member:\nI move the previous question.\nThe motion was seconded by several members.\nPkesident Pearse: It has been moved and seconded that the main question be\nnow put.\nMiss Blake: I rise to a question of personal privilege. In voting for this, you are\nvoting for the next President of the National Education Association. Mr. President,\nI have been here for some time and I have heard again and again the statement that\nChicago does not want to control this Association. I. would request, therefore, that this\nvote be as it should be, by ballot, and that our Chicago friends who are so willing to let\nthe rest of the country decide and do not want to control, refrain from voting.\nMr. President, I am afraid that that request is misunderstood, I say that I demand\nthat it shall be by ballot, so that no one can be prevented from voting as his or her individual inclination determines.\n\nThe Chair ruled that the question of the form of vote and whether by ballot or not\nshould be passed upon by the house at the close of the debate.\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n41\n\nMary A. O'Connor, of New York: I seek information. My question is this: In\nvoting on the previous question I should like to know what the vote will be. The second\nis, What action is necessary with the present motions before the house, and with the\npresent amendments, to obtain the individual vote of this Association on the President ?\nPresident Pearse: The ruling of the Chair is that the first vote is on the previous\nquestion — that the questions before the house be put to vote without further debate.\nAfter this has been decided, if it is decided in the aflfirmative, the questions will be put,\nin their proper order.\nMiss Blake: Will the Chair state again what will be the result? The first ballot\nis on the previous question; and if the previous question be ordered when the vote is\ntaken, the debate will cease and the questions before the house will be voted upon in their\norder; first the amendment, then the main question with or without amendment, as may\nbe decided.\nPresident Pearse: The first motion was that the Secretary be instructed to\ncast a ballot for the nominees of the committee— those named in the report of the nominating committee. This was objected to. The question was then on the motion that the\nreport of the Committee on Nominations be adopted. An amendment was made that the\nname of Miss Grace C. Strachan be substituted for the name of Mr. E. T. Fairchild.\nThose are the two motions before the house. The unanimous ballot of the house cannot\nbe cast if there is a single objection. The first motion is, Shall debate cease and shall the\nmotions pending be put before the house ? If debate ceases, we shall then vote upon the\nmotion to substitute, and then upon the motion to adopt the report of the committee,\nwith or without amendment.\nShall the main question be now put ?\nThe motion to close the debate was carried.\nPresident Pearse: We come now to the vote upon the first question: Shall the\nname of Miss Grace C. Strachan be substituted for that of Mr. E. T. Fairchild in the\nnominating committee's report? As many as favor this motion say Aye. As many\nas oppose it say No.\nThe vote having been taken by Aye and Nay vote, President Pearse declared that\nthe motion to substitute was lost.\nA rising vote was called for.\nMiss Blake: I will ask for a ballot. It is not fair to ask for people to stand up and\nbe counted when their superior ofiicers do not want them to be counted.\nPresident Pearse: The vote will be taken as indicated unless there is a different\norder from the house.\nMiss Blake:\nI move that the vote be taken by a ballot.\nThe motion was seconded.\nMr. Bicknell: I believe that we are proceeding with a ballot and no business can\nbe intruded during that order.\nPresident Pearse : The Chair does not wish to have the members of the Association\nfeel that they are not having all the privileges that they should have. The question\nhas been raised. Unless a ballot is ordered, we shall proceed in the usual order. All\nthose in favor of the motion to vote by ballot will stand; be seated. Those opposed to\nthe motion to vote by ballot will stand; be seated. The motion to vote by ballot is lost\nby a large majority.\nThere were calls for fair play.\nPresident Pearse: Is there any desire that we proceed further in the discussion of\nthis matter ?\nMiss O'Connor: Mr. President, the point made in calling for the ballot\nis exactly equivalent to calling for the teachers to stand in favor of the ballot. We\nknow that no teachers will stand in the presence of their superior officers, who may\nobject.\nThe speaker was interrupted by objections and cries of protest thruout the house.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident Pearse: The Chair must ask for decorum. Let the lady continue her\nremarks.\nMiss 0'Co^fNOR: The question was not answered by the motion. We asked that\nthe vote be taken by ballot in order that no persons might be intimidated, but placing\neverybody on record by standing in the vote on that motion, is against its purpose. If\nwe should vote by ballot, we should vote by ballot.\nPresident Pearse: The question has been put to the house as to whether we shall,\nvote by ballot, and has been decided overwhelmingly in the negative; the Chair is not\nauthorized to assume that the members of the Association are not independent units\nvoting their own convictions. We will continue and the vote will be taken in the manner\nwhich has been decided upon. As many as favor the motion to substitute the name of\nMiss Grace C. Strachan for the name of Mr. E. T. -Eairchild, in the nominating committee's report, will stand.\nThose in favor of the motion stood.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair will say that he has not asked for a count, because\nit does not appear to be necessary. If it is necessary, or anyone desires a count, a count\nshall be made.\nThose opposed to the motion will stand.\nPresident Pearse: The \"noes\" have it. Is it the desire of anyone in the house\nthat a count be made ?\nMiss Blake:\nMay we see the members vote by states?\nPresident Pearse: If the house orders the vote to be taken by states it will be\nso taken.\nThere were calls of \"yes\" and \"no\" from all parts of the house.\nMiss Blake:\nIn fairness I ask that the vote by states be taken, and so recorded.\nPresident Pearse: The question is called for.\nMiss Blake: Then, Mr. President, this meeting will ever be under the accusation\nof being controlled by Chicago.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair has only one thing to say. If the house wishes\na ballot oj: a vote by states, the house can have a ballot or a vote by states.\nMiss Blake:\nIf the house — and Chicago.\nPresident Pearse: At Boston, where action to which reference has been made\ntoday was taken, the vote was taker, by standing up and being counted and not by ballot.\nThe question now is on the adoption of the report of Committee on Nominations. Those\nfavoring the adoption of the report will stand up; be seated. Those opposed, stand;\nbe seated.\nPresident Pearse announced that the motion was carried and the report of the Committee on Nominations adopted.\nPresident Pearse: The next business is the report of the Committee on Resolutions.\nJames W. Crabtree, of Wisconsin, Chairman:\nThe undersigned Committee on Resolutions do hereby offer the following declarations\nand resolutions:\nThe National Education Association authorizes the Committee on Teachers' Salaries\nand Cost of Living to take all necessary steps for bringing its findings effectively to the\nattention of the Congress and the President of the United States, and urges the committee\nto render assistance in the movement for an international commission on the cost of\nliving.\nWe reaffirm our belief in the public schoolhouse and the school playground as social\nand recreation centers for the use of the school and the community under the control and\ndirection of the school authorities.\nWe heartily approve of the effort of normal schools and colleges to credit toward\ngraduation, work done in biblical history and biblical literature, provided such work is\ndone in compliance with the laws of the state, and provided all organizations are given\nthe same opportunity to offer such work.\nResolved, That the National Education Association urges the National Bureau of\nEducation, and the school authorities of the various cities and states, to join in a well-\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n43\n\ndirected effort for increasing teachers' salaries to the point where they will be commensurate\nwith salaries in other professions, and in commercial and industrial pursuits, and to join\nin the movement for more adequate pension laws for teachers in all grades of work.\nWe heartily indorse the comprehensive plan now before Congress for increasing the\nfacilities in state colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, state normal schools, and\nelementary schools for training in agriculture, domestic economy, and other industrial\nwork for the great mass of our people, thru the public schools of the entire country.\nThe National Education Association again records its interest in the cause of worldpeace, which it regards as one of the great educational movements of the age. The\nAssociation especially calls attention to the helpful material prepared by the American\nSchool Peace League, which is admirably adapted to the school program. The Association commends most highly the active interest taken by United States Commissioner\nPhilander P. Claxton in disseminating information on the subject, especially in his publication of the \"Peace Day Bulletin.\"\nThe National Education Association regards the present attempt to establish compulsory military training in the schools of the country, not designed primarily for military\ntraining, as reactionary and inconsistent with American ideals and standards.\nWe believe that the time has arrived when Normal Schools and Teachers' Colleges\nshould give adequate courses of instruction in sex hygiene, with the view, ultimately,\nof the introduction of similar instruction into the courses of study in the public schools.\nThe highest and best interests of education in all parts of the country, and the further\ndevelopment of all the agencies of education, both public and private, demand such\nsupport of the National Bureau of Education, as to enable it to perform in a more vital\nand effective way the functions for which it was created. We approve the plans of the\ncommissioner of education for bringing together in the bureau groups of competent men\nand women to study carefully and thoroly the problems of rural education, city school\nadministration, secondary education in public and private high schools, vocational education, school sanitation and hygiene, and higher education, including the education\nand training of teachers, and the work of the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts.\nWe request and urge the Congress of the Ur.ited States to appropriate for the use\nof the bureau such sums of money as may be necessary to make the library of the bureau\nmore generally useful, ard to make of the bureau a clearing-house for information on all\nsubjects of common and public interest. In the efforts to make the statistical reports\nof the bureau more complete and accurate, and to publish them more properly, we pledge\nthe commissioner the support of this Association, and urge all oj0Scials of educational\ninstitutions of whatever kind to give him their hearty co-operation.\nIn view of the fact that children are often innocent victims of our present unequal\nand unjust laws, the National Education Association favors a uniform federal law on\nall questions of marriage and divorce based upon an amendment of the Federal\nConstitution.\nWhereas, The great and grave responsibility of the teachers of our country is the\ntraining of the youth to realize the duties, rights, and privileges of citizenship; and\nWhereas, The ability adequately to accomplish this work demands not only the\nknowledge of the functions of citizenship, but also the right to exercise them, be it\nResolved, That the Association believes in and urges the granting of the right of\nsuffrage to the women of the United States.\nWhereas, In spite of the fact that our schools have met well the social and economic\nproblems which have confronted us to date, there has been an ever-increasing demand by\nthe public for greater practical proficiency on the part of our pupils of all ages and grades;\nWhereas, Such liberal education has, in a measure at least, failed to meet this\ndemand in the opinion of those who judge by results; and\nWhereas, Many of our formerly well-accepted principles, as well as our educational\ntraditions, are undergoing constant and rapid revision, as a result of the more recent\nscientific investigation and philosophic readjustments, be it\nResolved, That this Association places itself on record as favoring such changes in\nthe courses of study in our elementary and secondary schools, together with such changes\nin methods of instruction as shall make it possible to assist the pupil in the ready application of such knowledge as he may acquire to actual life conditions.\nWhi;reas, Most of our American vocations are laden with \"misfits,\" due largely\nto lack of wisdom in the choice of a calling;\nWhereas, Because of engaging in such ill-adapted occupations there exists a lack\nof enjoyment in work, appreciation of work, and eflEciency in work, resxilting in economic\nwaste to both the work ani^ the wqrjjer; and\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWhereas, Other agencies than the public schools have failed to deal with this\nproblem, be it\nResolved, That this Association earnestly urges upon the educational people of this\ncountry, as well as upon others who are engaged in social work, the necessity for definite\nprogress along the line of vocational guidance for youth; and that such guidance be carried\non under the direct control of a vocational adviser, or expert, who shall be appointed by,\nand subject to, the control of a council of laymen in the several local communities; and\nbe it further\nResolved, That the courses of study in our elementary schools be so enriched as to\nmake it possible to discover the tastes, tendencies, and abiUties of the child previous to\nthe time when such vocational decisions are to be made.\nWhereas, Vocational choice is inseparable from the several vocations to be pursued;\nWhereas, The public schools have hitherto left these matters to the solution of the\nworker and the employer;\nWhereas, The increasing demands of the occupations of the home, shop, and farm\nare forcing upon local communities the necessity for some form of vocational training; and\nWhereas, The United States in order to protect its population, by maintaining its\nvigor and morality; to change its large output of raw material into an output of finished\nproduct; to make it possible to fight not with armored cruisers but with brain and skilled\nworkmanship; and to maintain its commercial prestige, demands some form of vocational\ntraining, be it\nResolved, That this Association recommends to the federal government the passage\nof a law, under conditions clearly recognizing the autonomy of the states in adaptation\nto local conditions, carrying with it an appropriation sufficiently liberal to render possible\nits operation, which law shall have for its end the ultimate improvement of the home,\nshop, and farm thru vocational training; that such aid be administered thru the United\nStates Bureau of Education, or a similar body, thence thru the state board of control\nof each state to the several local boards of control in the several communities; and that\nsuch grants to such local communities and to such states be dependent upon actual\nresults secured in such local communities and such states.\nWhereas, There exists in this country more than four million young men and young\nwomen, fourteen to eighteen years of age, who have been denied the privilege of either\nvocational guidance or vocational training;\nWhereas, The only assistance which can be rendered to them, or to those somewhat\nolder, is thru systematic instruction in part-time, continuation, and evening schools;\nWhereas, Besides reports resulting from the appointment of commissions of child\nstudy in several of the states, and discussions by students, there exists little definite\nknowledge of the needs of these persons of adolescent age, while attempts to solve the\nproblems of their instruction are varied and uncertain, be it\nResolved, That this Association authorizes its President to appoint a committee of\neleven members, made up of educators, employers, employees, and social workers, to\nmake a special study of this whole question and to report t^ this Association at a future\nmeeting; and that an appropriation of $500 be granted this committee for its work in\nconnection with said report.\nWhereas, The complete development of the individual depends primarily upon\nhis health;\nWhereas, The physical, social, and moral welfare of the community depends upon\nthe continued and permanent health of the citizens;\nWhereas, The aesthetic interests of the youth are greatly enhanced by constant\ncontact with the beautiful in nature and in Ufe;\nWhereas, Recent educational movements have recognized more and more the\nimportance of the utihzation of the play instinct in the child;\nWhereas, It is our belief that insufficient consideration has been given this phase\nof school on the part of those who have the power to provide school grounds and school\nsites; and\nWhereas, Such statistics as are available seem to establish the fact that the location of\nschool buildings in large areas of open country enhance the value of land in the immediate\nvicinity, be it\nResolved, That this Association urges upon all school districts the importance of\nproviding grounds in proportion to the size of the building, not less than a square rod\nfor each child; such a school district park to provide a place for play, and instruction\nin gardening as well as a place of recreation for all living ia.the district.\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOP MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n45\n\nFrequent and gross instances of lawlessness in all sections of our country impress\non us the duty of increased attention to respect for law, obedience to authority, and\nregard for the rights of others as fundamental principles of our social order.\n\" See to it that the commonwealth receives no injury, \" is the order of the day to\nevery American citizen and particularly to every American teacher. Our instruction\nshould be so organized and so infused with the spirit of altruism that the ends of good\ncitizenship may be increasingly realized in the products of the schools.\nThe President of the Association is hereby authorized and directed to enlarge the\nstanding Committee for the Promotion of a National University; and the Board of\nDirectors are hereby requested to make an adequate appropriation for the clerical and\nother expenses of this committee.\nThe Board of Directors are also requested to print for use in promoting the movement\nfor a National University, in a separate edition, the four addresses on this subject submitted at the general sessions of this convention.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nman,\n, ,of ofWisco\nCrabtree\nOhionsin, Chair\nVance\nWill\nJamesiamW. McK.\n!\nFlorence Holbrook, of Illinois\nRobert J. Fuller, of Massachusetts\nWilliam M. Davidson, of District of Columbia\nJohn W. Olsen, of Minnesota\nMotion was made to adopt the report of the Committee on Resolutions. Motion\nseconded.\nA member asked if \"suffrage for women\" meant the ballot for women; the President\nreferred the question to Chairman Crabtree, who answered that it did. Another member\nasked that the resolutions be voted for one at a time.\nPresident Pearse: The suggestion has been riiade that we vote upon the resolutions one at a time. If it is so moved it will be done. If it is not, the motion to adopt\nthe report of the Committee on Resolutions as a whole will be voted upon.\nThe motion to adopt the report of the Committee on Resolutions was unanimously\ncarried.\nMr. Crabtree: The Committee has this additional resolution:\nResolved, That the National Education Association appropriate the sum of three\nthousand dollars, the same to be used, or as much thereof as may be necessary, for the\nfurther investigation of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Teachers.\nMotion was made and seconded to adopt the resolution; which motion was unanimously carried.\nMr. Crabtree : I also offer the following resolution :\nResolved, That the thanks of the Association are hereby tendered to its honored\nPresident, Carroll G. Pearse, for the exceptionally valuable program presented at this\nmeeting and for his efficient management of the affairs of the Association during the past\nyear;\nBe it further resolved. That the Association hereby expresses its appreciation of the\narrangements made and so successfully carried out by the teachers and citizens of Chicago\nand Illinois for the reception and entertainment of the members of the Association.\nA motion was made and seconded to adopt the resolution; which motion was carried\nunanimously.\nJ. A. Shawan, of Ohio: One year ago at the San Francisco meeting a resolution was\nintroduced approving of the \"Uniform Key Alphabet Report,\" as drawn up by a committee of which I was a member. That resolution was laid on the table for one year.\nI now move that it be taken from the table and passed by the Association.\nThe motion was seconded.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair will say that it is in order to take this matter up\nat this time. The Chair thinks it only fair to say, however, that this recommendation\ncame to us from the Department of Superintendence with the request that this Associa-\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntion indorse it. Since then the Department of Superintendence has reversed its action\nand withdrawn its former request. The Chair feels that this explanation is due to the\nmembers. It is now moved and seconded that this report on a key alphabet be taken\nfrom the table and passed by the Association.\nThe motion was lost.\nPresident Pearse: The next business is the consideration of the report of the\nCommittee on Revision of the By-Laws; this report was presented at the annual business\nmeeting in Boston, in 1910, and ordered to lie over for one year; it came up for action\nat the annual business meeting of active members at San Francisco last year, and was,\nat that time, laid upon the table for one year. It was expected, at Boston, that this\nreport would be printed and sent out among the members so that all might have opportunity to read and study it. However, that was not done by the Executive Committee\nin time so that any very careful study was possible. It was sent out to members, I\nbelieve, about a month or six weeks before the time of the meeting in San Francisco.\nThe members at the annual business meeting there ordered that it be laid on the table for\none year. It now comes up as \"unfinished business,\" a report of the Conmiittee on\nRevision of the By-Laws.\nThe Secretary: The report was printed and sent out to the members as ordered.\nPresident Pearse: The members who have just become active members, if I\nunderstand the case correctly, have not had an opportunity to receive until today a copy\nof the committee's report. (Cries of \"No,\" \"No.\") Former members have received\ncopies sent out by the Secretary. Many, if not all of the active members present, have\nthe report in their hands.\nThe question now recurs on the report of the Committee on Revision of the By-Laws.\nWhat is the pleasure of this meeting ? Shall we take up the articles one by one, article\nby article, and afterward take general action as to the adoption of the revised By-Laws\nas a whole ?\nA Member: I understand that the report of this committee must be embodied as a\npart of the Constitution and By-Laws; and that such a report from a committee must\nlie upon the table for one year and be printed, as the Constitution provides.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair will rule: This report that is now before you for\naction was presented at the Boston meeting, two years ago; it was printed according to\nthe requirements and sent out to all the active members last year; it was also sent to\nthe active members this year. The Chair rules that this is a comphance with the requirements of the Articles of Incorporation and the By-Laws.\nJohn R. Kirk, of Missouri: I want to ask a question as to the extent of the ruling\nby the Chair. I understand from the Constitution that an amendment which has been\noffered and is left to lie over for one year may itself be amended, provided the amendment\nto the amendment does not materially change the substance of the original amendment,\nand that in some of these \"Amendments by Members,\" which are printed on the white\nsheet, the substance of the original amendment is undoubtedly altered. I ask whether\nthe Chair rules that all of these amendments in the right-hand column of the white sheet\nentitled \"Amendments by Members\" are in order or only those that do not change the\nsubstance of the original amendment ?\nCries of \"Out of order.\"\nPresident Pearse: The Chair will say that the gentleman is in order and has a\nperfect right to raise the question. Under ordinary conditions involving a proposition\nto make amendments, the amendments must be confined to the specific questions raised;\nbut on the report of a \"Committee on the Revision of By-Laws,\" which had before it all\nthe subject-matter contained in the By-Laws, and has dealt with practically every question touched upon in the By-Laws, all matters contained in the By-Laws, and all matters\ntreated in the report of that committee, come up for action and may be considered. In\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n47\n\nconnection with new matters which may be offered, the Chair will rule, as the occasion\narises for such ruling, as to whether the particular matter offered is within the proper\nscope and may be considered by this meeting at this time.\nD. W. Springer, of Michigan: I move that Article I, as it was proposed at the Boston\nconvention by the Committee on Revision of the By-Laws, be adopted as follows:\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\nSection i. Teachers, school and library officials, educational publishers, and all\nothers actively engaged in educational work, may become active members of the National\nEducation Association of the United States upon the payment of an enrollment fee o.f\ntwo dollars and the annual dues for the current year.\nSec. 2. The annual dues of active members are two dollars, which shall be paid at\nthe time of the annual meeting of the Association, or shall be sent to the Secretary before\nSeptember 1. of each year. An active member may discontinue his membership by giving\nwritten notice to the Secretary before September i, and may restore the same only on\npayment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year.\nAn active member forfeits his membership by being two years in arrears, and may restore\nthe same only on the payment of the amount of his arrears and the annual dues for the\ncurrent year.\nSec. 3. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members,\nand shall have all the rights and privileges of such members without the payment of\nthe annual dues.\nSec. 4. The right to vote and to hold office in the Association, the Council, or the\ndepartments is restricted to active members of three months' standing whose dues are\npaid.\nSec. 5. Any person may become an associate member for one year by paying a\nmembership fee of two dollars.\nSec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board\nof Directors corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at\nno time exceed fifty. They shall not pay any dues.\nSec. 7. The names of active and corresponding members shall be printed in the\nvolume of Proceedings, or the Yearbook of the Association, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses.\nA Member: I second the motion.\nPresident Pearse: It is moved and seconded that Article I as reported by the\nCommittee on Revision of the By-Laws be adopted.\nW. B. Owen, of Chicago: I wish to offer substitutes for the amendments proposed\nby the committee. These substitutes have been printed along with the amendments\nproposed by the National Education Association committee and are in the hands of the\nactive members now present. I wish to proceed in as fair a way as possible so as to bring\nthem before the meeting. If the Chair will indulge me I will try to speak to the motion.\nI wish to say that if the meeting desires me now to take the time and trouble to read the\nproposed substitute in its entirety, which I offer for Article I, I will read it.\nPresident Pearse: The motion has been made to substitute. What is the pleasure\nof the meeting ?\nCries of \"Read it, read it.\"\nPresident Pearse:\nRead it.\nMr. Owen: May I say also in explanation that a good deal of the matter of the\nNational Education Association committee report has been embodied in the amendments\nproposed by the Members' Committee, so that you will find much duplication. I am\nvery glad to make this acknowledgment, as I certainly have no desire to take away from\nthe committee any of the credit that is due them. They have furnished a great deal of\nvery valuable material. In order to save time, however, it seems wise that the amendments proposed by members be offered in the form of a motion to substitute rather than\nas a motion to amend the report of the committee —\nCries of \"Hurry up, hurry up.\"\nPresident Pearse : Read it.\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\nMr. Owen\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(reading):\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\nSection i. Teachers, others actively engaged in educational work, and educational institutions as defined in Section 2, may become active members of the National\nEducation Association of the United States upon the payment of an enrollment fee of\ntwo dollars and the annual dues for the current year.\n. Sec. 2. Educational institutions shall include schools, school boards, library boards,\neducational publishers, and such clubs and similar organizations as are distinctly educational or have educational departments properly organized with a definite membership.\nSec. 3. Educational institutions as defined in Section 2 may be enrolled as active\nmembers and represented by any person regularly connected with, or a member of, the\ninstitution, and such representative may exercise all the rights and enjoy all the privileges\nof active membership, including the right to vote at business meetings; provided, That\nsuch representative presents a certificate showing that the person named therein has been\nregularly elected as such representative of the faculty or membership of such institution;\nbut no person shall under any circumstances have the right to cast more than one vote.\nSec. 4. The annual dues of active members are two dollars which shall be paid at\nthe time of the annual meeting of the Association, or shall be sent to the Secretary before\nNovember i of each year. An active member may discontinue his membership by giving\nwritten notice to the Secretary before November i. An active member forfeits his membership bybeing two years in arrears. Those who have forfeited or discontinued their\nmembership may exercise the option of renewing the same by paying all arrears and getting\nthe published Proceedings of the intervening years, or of becoming members on the same\nterms as new members. Active members shall be entitled to the published Proceedings\nwithout coupon or other conditions.\nSec. 5. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members,\nand shall have all the rights and privileges of such members without the payment of the\nannual dues.\nSec. 6. The right to vote and to hold office in the Association, the Council, or the\ndepartments is open to all active members of thirty days' standing whose dues are paid.\nSec. 7. Any person may become an associate member for one year by paying a\nmembership fee of two dollars.\nSec. 8. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board\nof Directors corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at\nno time exceed fifty. They shall not pay any dues.\nSec. 9. The names of active and corresponding members shall be printed in the\npublished Proceedings, or the Yearbook of the Association, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses.\nA Member: Kindly read Section 6 again, as I think it differs from the way it is\nprinted.\nWhereupon Section 6 was again read by Mr. Owen.\nMr. Owen:\nI move the adoption of the substitute.\nMr. Springer: The substitute sections are the same as the National Education\nAssociation committee's report with the exception of Sections 2 and 3; Sections a and 3\nrelate to institutional membership, and that question comes before us by reason of the\nadditional amendment which was proposed at San Francisco and which is printed at the\nend of the report; so that there is nothing in the substitute which was not before us at\nSan Francisco.\nMr. Owen:\n\nMay I explain, and I think it is due that an explanation be made.\n\nThe addition of the words \"of thirty days' standing\" in Section 6, has been made because\nof recognition of the fact that the setting of a fixed time beyond which new active membership may not be secured, if one is going to vote, at the annual meeting, is the only fair\nmethod of regulating the voting privilege.\nJacques W. Red way, of New York: My sympathy is with the spirit of that resolution but I am not in sympathy with the form in which it is put. I am not a corporation\nlawyer but I have been in corporation councils and in directorates of corporations long\nenough to know that that matter has been threshed out time and time again, and it has\nalways been declared illegal.\nThis institution is no longer an independent institution. It is a federal corporation\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n49\n\nand organized under federal laws, and any member, any active member whose dues are\npaid, can call for a review of the actions of this organization in the federal courts.\nNow in regard to this thirty days' limit of voting privileges, it disfranchises a member\nor members and instead of thirty days you might just as well say forty years, I think\nthat matter can be better brought about and in the more legal manner by making them —\nCries of \" Out of order.\"\nPresident Pearse:\nThe gentleman has the floor; but state your point of order.\nA Member:\nThe gentleman is not talking on the point at issue.\nMr. Red way: I don't think there is a corporation lawyer in the United States\nwho would attempt to defend for one minute, before the federal Supreme Court, a proposition of this sort.\nMr. Owen: I will not undertake to say what a corporation lawyer might do, but\nif the gentleman will look on page 2 (the pages are numbered at the bottom), he will\nnote that Section 5, in the left-hand column, headed \"Charter Provisions,\" reads as\nfollows :\nThat the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members— active, associate, corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of membership,\nrights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation. (See Section 5of Act of Incorporation.)\nAnd it seems to me that gives this body the right to make this qualification and\nprescription.\nMr. Red way: I wiU take issue with the gentleman from the fact that this body has\nno right whatever to perform illegal acts.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair will state that in his opinion the amendment as now\nframed would render it impossible for anyone to vote at the meeting following the time\nwhen he paid his membership fee, as the membership now runs from July i to the following June 30; it would, therefore, be impossible for anyone to have been a member thirty\ndays, at the time of the annual business meeting of the Association, and so to be entitled\nto the privilege of voting. If it is the desire of this body to require some particular\nsignification of intention in the matter, the case could probably be reached by requiring\nthat in order to vote, a new member shall have given notice, or made application for\nmembershipj not less than thirty days before the opening of the Association year — that\nis, not less than thirty days before July i .\nMr. Owen : Perhaps it would be better, in order that the Association may pass upon\nthe matter, to withdraw the words \"of thirty days' standing.\"\nA Member:\nWhat is the whole question?\nPresident Pearse: The question now is. Shall we strike out the words \"of thirty\ndays' standing,\" from the substitute as read?\nA Member:\nAnd have it read as printed?\nPresident Pearse: Yes, I understand that is the motion before the house, to\nadopt the article as printed.\nA Member:\nThe motion is to adopt the substitute as printed in the pamphlet ?\nPresident Pearse : That is the motion.\nA Member: Do I understand the gentleman who presented it that he presents it\nliterally as printed here ?\nMr. Owen: Now there is one other change that I wish to call attention to, and\nthat is in Section 4, line 6; the word \"one\" as printed is changed to \"two,\" and makes\nit read \"An active member forfeits his membership by being two years in arrears.\"\nPRESroEiSTT Pearse : That is, two years instead of one. Any further questions ?\nA Member:\nHas this thirty days been stricken out ?\nPresident Pearse: It is moved and seconded that the words \"of thirty days'\nstanding\" be stricken out. All in favor of that signify the same by saying Aye, contrary\nNo. Motion carried.\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\nA Member:\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI am an active member and I come to the convention next year, and\n\nI don't pay my dues; am I still a member, and can I vote ?\nPRESroENT Pearse : You don't quite imderstand. You remain a member for one\nyear longer; but in order to get your certificate of membership you have to pay your\ndues; when you get your certificate of membership, and not until then, you can get into\nthe business meeting, and vote. You are not, however, cast off into the outer darkness. Even tho you do not pay your dues for the year, and so are unable to vote, you\nare still carried as a member.\nThe motion to adopt the members' substitute for Article I, as amended, was put and\ncarried.\nMr. Springer: I move the adoption of Article II as proposed by the Committee on\nAmendments to the By-Laws as follows:\narticle II — ELECTION\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nSection i . The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the National\nEducation Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active members of the\nAssociation, by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of the votes cast\nbeing necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual\nmeeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as\nherein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a\ndate which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later\nthan the first of August, and shall continue in office during the terms for which they are\nseparately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. No President of the\nAssociation shall succeed himself in office.\nPresident Pearse:\nDo I hear a second ?\nA Member:\nI second the motion.\nPresident Pearse: It is moved and seconded that Article II be adopted as\nprinted.\nMr. Owen:\nI should like to offer and read the substitute.\nPresident Pearse:\nAll right.\nMr. Owen (reading substitute):\nARTICLE II — ELECTION\n\nOF\n\nOFFICERS\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the National\nEducation Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active members of\nthe Association, by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of the votes cast\nbeing necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual\nmeeting subsequent to their election and until their successors are chosen, except as\nherein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date\nwhich shall be determined by the Executive Committee and which shall not be later\nthan the first of October [changed from .August] and shall continue in office during the\nterms for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected.\nI move that the substitute be adopted.\nSeconded.\nMr. Springer: I should Uke to know the reason for putting in the Executive\nCommittee instead of the Board of Trustees in Section i.\nMr. Owen: In making these By-Laws the plan was adopted to give power to the\nExecutive Committee all thru where not in conflict with charter provisions, so that\naction could be obtained promptly. The Executive Committee, as a body, is elected\nanew every year by the Association and would be under the immediate direction and\ninfluence of the Association, so far as possible.\nMr. Springer: The Treasurer is a member of the Executive Committee and thus\nwould be sitting upon his own acts.\nMr. Owen: I recognize the truth of the statement; I think the difficulty could\nbe avoided if the words \"Board of Trustees\" were substituted for the words \"Executive\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOP ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n$1\n\nCommittee.\"\nI therefore accept the suggestion to substitute the words \"Board of\nTrustees\" for the words \"Executive Committee.\"\nPRESroENT Pearse: The Chair hears no objection; the substitution is made.\nMoved and seconded that the said Section I be adopted as amended. All in favor of\nthe motion signify by saying Aye, contrary No. Motion carried. What is the further\naction ?\nMr. Owen:\nI will read Section 2 (reading):\nAt the annual business meeting of active members, the Association may nominate\nby ballot and recommend to tha Board of Directors one name for member of the Board\nof Trustees, one name for member of the Executive Committee, and in like manner may\nnominate and recommend to the Board of Trustees one name for permanent Secretary.\nThe names of members thus nominated and recommended for the Board of Trustees\nand Executive Committee respectively shall be certified at once to the Board of Directors\nby the President and Secretary of the Association, and the name of the member so nomiand recommended\nfor the office of permanent Secretary shall be certified in the same'\nmannernated to\nthe Board of Trustees.\n1 move the adoption of the substitute.\nA Member:\nI second the motion.\nPREsroENT Pearse : It has been regularly moved and seconded that the substitute\nbe adopted. . Are you ready for the question ?\nA Member: I desire to call the attention of the meeting to one word, to the word\n\"permanent.\" There is no such a thing as a permanent Secretary. I suggest that the\nword \"permanent\" be stricken out.\nPresident Pearse: Is it understood that the suggestion is accepted and the\nword \"permanent\" stricken out?\nA Member: I think the word \"permanent\" should be taken out; the Board of\nTrustees elect a Secretary once in four years; we should not have to go thru the trouble\nof nominating a Secretary every year.\nPresident Pearse: As I understand the matter it is the wish of this body that\nthe word \"permanent\" be stricken out, without further discussion, and I will put it as a\nmotion.\nMotion carried.\nMr. Springer : I should like to call attention to the fact that this term of secretaryship isnot necessarily a term of four years. The Board of Trustees may elect for one year.\nPresident Pearse:\nFor a term not exceeding four years.\nMr. Springer: I move that Section 2 be laid on the table for future discussion, as\nI don't think that under the By-Laws it can be adopted at the present time, and I move\nthat it be laid on the table for final action one year hence.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair is not sure as to the proper ruling on this; the\nreport of the Committee on By-Laws raises the whole matter as to the By-Laws; but\nthe Chair is not sure as to just the ruling to apply in this case. However, in order not to\nstrain a point, I shall rule that this particular section should be permitted to lie over for\none year, and I will let the matter stand in that way for the present, at least.\nA Member:\nThe section has been ruled out of order?\nMiss Haley:\nThis matter is proper as a part of \"election of officers.\"\nPresident Pearse:. The point has been made that the matter comes properly\nunder the head of election of officers. This presents a new phase of the matter; the\nsection has reference to the election of officers or to the nomination of them; the nomination ispart of the election; the Chair is inclined to rule that this may be considered this\nyear, but the motion is that the section be laid on the table until next year.\nMr. Springer: I shall appeal from the decision of the Chair, as I believe the matter\ncannot be acted on at this time.\nPresident Pearse: The gentleman appeals from the decision of the Chair and\nthe question now is whether the decision of the Chair shall stand.\nE. E, ScRiBNER, of Michigan:\nState your decision once more.\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPeesident Pearse: The decision is as to the particular question raised by Section\n2: \"At the annual business meeting of active members the Association may nominate\nby ballot and recommend to the Board of Directors,\" etc. The Chair rules that this\nmay be considered since it relates to the election of officers.\nA Member:\nThe Chair has changed his ruling ?\nPresident Pearse:\nThis is a change of my ruling.\nMiss Haley: If we cannot consider that portion of the section which has been\ndeclared to be new matter, then we may not consider at any time any portion of new\nmatter which was not contained in the report of the 'Committee on Revision of the\nBy-Laws.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair has ruled that the section may be considered and\nthere has been an appeal from the decision of the Chair. If it is desired to argue the\nquestion, the Chair is ready to listen.\nThere being no argument, the vote was taken and the decision of the Chair sustained.\nA Member:\nWhat is the question ?\nPresident Pearse: The question is as to Section 2; a motion has been made for\nthe adoption of the substitute for Section 2, offered by Mr. Owen.\nA. S. Hall, of Chicago: I move that Section 2 of Article II be referred to a\ncommittee to be reported on at the next annual business meeting of active members.\nPresident Pearse:\nIs there a second?\nA Member:\nI second the motion.\nPresident Pearse: It has been regularly moved and seconded that Section 2 of\nArticle II be referred to a committee for report at the next annual business meeting.\nA Member: I wish to make an amendment to the motion that the whole of the\nsection be referred to a committee of five to report at the next meeting.\nAmendment seconded.\nPresident Pearse: It has been regularly moved and seconded that the whole\nmatter be referred to a committee of five to report at the next meeting.\nDominic Schuler, of Wisconsin: It seems to me, Mr. Chairman, that the\nsubstitute offered by the worthy gentleman ought to be changed, and inasmuch as it\nmay be necessary for us to give this much thought and consideration, this whole matter\nshould go to a special committee of five, to report at the next meeting.\nMr. Scribner: I have listened to the remarks of the worthy gentlemen and it\nseems to me that we ought not to amend the Constitution and By-Laws hastily. You\nstated, Mr. Chairman, that a copy of the proposed amendments was sent to every member\n— every active member of this Association, about a month ago. I must confess that it\nnever came to my attention. I have tried to read the amendments here at this meeting\nthis afternoon. I feel that we have a right to know something about this, we have that\nright, it seems to me, as members of the greatest educational body in the world, and should\ngive our best thought and attention to changes which may affect vitally the future of\nthe Association. I see no reason why we should hastily adopt changes in the Constitution\nand By-Laws. Why not deliberate ? Why not have these proposed changes printed and\nsent as soon as possible to every active member for further consideration and have the\nmatter lie over for one year ? It does seem to me that in relation to matters of this kind,\naffecting us so vitally, we should not be required to sit thru aU this hot afternoon and\nconsider each article and each section separately. Let us have deliberation. And let us\nhave the proper time in which to do it. I believe that most of these propositions are\ngood. I am inclined to favor all of them but I appeal to this body for deliberation and\ntime in which to give them the consideration which they deserve.\nPresident Pearse: There has never been a time when the Association did not\nfind itself similarly situated. Whenever it attempted to do business it never had time\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n53\n\nenough to do it. We never had time to attend to and dispose of the business of the\nAssociation.\nThere were always other matters pressing for attention.\nThe Chair has been informed that the report of the Committee on Revision of the\nBy-Laws was sent out to the active members last May or June by the Secretary. Now\nwe hear that members did not receive the report. We are interested in the business of\nthis Association and we do not wish to make any changes without due notice or without\ngiving them our best attention. I will ask the Secretary to state whether the committee's\nreport was sent out to the active members.\nThe Secretary stated that the report was sent out.\nA Member: The trouble is that we did not get them in time to give them our\nconsideration.\nA Member : It does not seem to me that the members of the committee themselves know exactly what they want in the way of changes and I am in favor of letting\nthis matter go over for one year.\nPresident Pearse: A lady has been standing; I will recognize her: Miss Howe, of\nCalifornia.\nAgnes E. Howe, of California: I wish to say, Mr. Chairman, that I, as a member of this organization, am greatly interested in it and wish further to say that\nwe have been waiting two years now to have these By-Laws amended, and if they are\ngoing to be amended, now is just as good a time to make the amendments as we can find.\nMr. Owen: I wish to say, as the maker of the motion to substitute, that nothing\nhas been presented here today that has not been considered a great many times and been\ngiven careful attention.\nMr. Springer: I think that the left-hand column here is identical in wording with\nthe blue slip on which the Secretary sent out the amendments proposed by the committee.\nMr. Owen: The blue slip contains the changes proposed by the National Education Association committee.\nA. Member: A point of order, Mr. Chairman. By the statement of the Secretary,\nthe only report which a committee has made is contained on this blue slip which I\nhave in my hand; and the makers of the motions to substitute, I observe, are constantly\nusing another.\nPresident Pearse: I will state that this report was made at the Boston meeting\nand laid over until the San Francisco meeting; the committee at that time considered\nitself discharged from further consideration of the matter. We come now to the second\nyear; the chairman of the committee is not present to report. Members of the Association who were not members of the original committee have considered the matter and\nthought they wished to offer some amendments or substitutions. They prepared these\nsubstitutes; they have had them printed; they are presenting them at this time.\nA Member:\nNow can't we listen to a report of the committee ?\nPresident Pearse:\nThe committee's report is before us.\nMr. Springer: I moved the adoption of the Article as presented by the committee.\nThen Mr. Owen moved the substitution of the article as it is proposed by members; you\ncould not make a motion first to adopt that which was proposed by the members because\nit was not presented to us one year ago. At three points in the reading, as it proceeds,\nI desire to ask a question of the Chair, as a matter of record, as to whether he rules that\nmatter presented in the recommendations of members is germane. To my mind it is\nnot; and I do not wish the record to be such that we can be subject to criticism in the\naction we may take on the By-Laws that we now have before us.\nAside from those points upon which a question might be raised, I am going to stop,\nafter moving the adoption of the report of the Committee on Revision of the By-Laws.\nMiss Blake: I want to suggest that we are not proceeding very rapidly. I would\nurge the Chair that we continue as rapidly as possible, as I am getting terribly hungry.\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe By-Laws are apparently not so important since the election and if we want to\nmake the changes I would like to move an adjournment now and meet again in threequarters of an hour, at which time we can go on and finish.\nA Member: I would just like to say one word at this time. Let us not forget\nthat the purpose of that article of the By-Laws is to require that the amendments to the\nConstitution and By-Laws shall be submitted one year in advance and printed; that is,\nto protect this body against By-Laws which have not been thoroly digested by the active\nmembership.\nA Member:\nI rise to a point of order.\nFirst Member:\nThe Chair has already said the matter of this article is germane.\nA Member:\nWhat is the motion?\nWe are losing sight of the real motion.\nPresident Pearse:\nThe point of order is well taken.\nA Member:\nWhat is the question, Mr. Chairman?\nPresident Pearse: The motion is that Section 2 of Article II be referred to a\ncommittee of five and laid over for one year; that matter is now before us.\nMr. Scribner:\nQuestion!\nL. E. Wolfe, of Tennessee: Mr. Chairman, the main question here is, to my mind,\na very important one. The main purpose of this Section 2 is to place more power in the\nExecutive Committee and less in the Board of Directors. What does it mean ? Simply\nthat the representative body, the directors, coming up from every state in this Union —\nthat their power shall be taken away and given to an Executive Conmiittee —\nA Member:\nI rise to a point of order.\nPresident Pearse:\nWhat is your point of order?\nA Member: My point of order is that the matter that was presented by the mover\nof the motion no longer contains reference to the Executive Committee and the motion\nwas to lay the matter over and refer it to a committee.\nPresident Pearse:\nMr. Wolfe.\nMr. Wolfe: Mr. Chairman, what is the purpose of this? Here we have amendments proposed by the members. What members? Are these amendments different\nin this column than in this (indicating)? We ought to be given time to think about it\nand then meet again — given time for consideration. There is no question about it; it\nwas stated by Mr. Owen that this whole thing is to give the Executive Committee more\npower.\nCries of \"Out of order, out of order.\"\nMr. Owen:\nMr. Chairman.\nPresident Pearse:\nThe gentleman has the floor, Mr. Owen.\nMr. Owen: The gentleman is out of order in his discussion of Section 2, Article II,\nas the question is whether it shall be referred to a committee or not.\nPresident Pearse:\nThe point is well taken.\nMr. Wolfe:\nAs a point of special privilege, Mr. Chairman ?\nPresident Pearse : As a question of special privilege, Mr. Wolfe.\nMr. Wolfe: I believe I have a right to discuss the question before us and I am\nwilling to stay here as long as anyone, as I feel that we are here for a purpose and I want\nto see things done right.\nCries of \"Out of order, out of order.\"\nPresident Pearse: Will the gentleman please confine himself to the points at\nissue? The question is whether the matter shall be referred to a committee.\nMr. Schuler: I wish to take up the question of the motion before the house and\nwish to say that I believe we should refer this whole subject, together with the committee's\nreports that are before us, to a special committee of five to report at the next meeting.\nThat is the question before us; that is the whole question. I was surprised a moment\nago to note that members were not talking to the question — were not discussing that\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n55\n\nparticular question. Now some ladies and gentlemen seem to think that we ought to\nget right at it and I say let us look at it—\nMiss Haley:\nI rise to a point of order.\nPresident Pearse:\nWhat is your point ?\nMiss Haley: My point of order is that the question before the house is whether\nthis Article II, Section 2, shall be referred to a committee to report at the next meeting.\nA Member: The question is whether the whole subject shall be referred to a committee.\nCries of \" Question ! Question !' '\nMr. Schuler: I wish to say upon this question, following the eloquent lady who\nspoke a minute ago, that I believe that the whole subject as stated on the blue and the\nwhite paper should be referred to a committee for future action.\nPresident Pearse:\nWe will now vote upon that question.\nMr. Schuler: I simply want to say a word on this, under the question of special\nprivilege — I want to draw your attention to the importance of this question.\nA Member: I ask for a point of order. My point is that the gentleman is not\nspeaking upon this question and I move that the discussion on this question be now\nclosed.\nA Member:\nSecond the motion.\nPresident Pearse : Moved and seconded that this question be referred to a committee and the discussion closed.\nMr. Schuler: I will state that I had the floor at the time the point of order was\nraised.\nA Member:\nI had the right to make the motion.\nThis gentleman is out of order.\nMr. Schuler:\nI rise to a question of privilege.\nA Member: This gentleman is out of order and is not entitled to the floor. How\nmany times wiU a gentleman be out of order before he has to sit down ? A question of\ninformation ?\nPresident Pearse: The Chair will say in reply that if a gentleman is called to\norder and thereupon brings himself to order, he becomes \"in order\" and the Chair rules\nthat he has not forfeited his right to the floor.\nMr. Schuler: Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, I simply would like to say\nhere that I think we ought to act on this motion here, as we are not progressing, and I\nwant to say that we are most heartily in sympathy with it. I am heartily with this\nreport, the committee's report on the By-Laws in question, except in one particular; I\ndon't believe that it is germane —\nCries of \"Question! Question!\"\nMr. Schuler:\nI move that we refer this matter to a committee of five.\nMotion seconded.\nPresident Pearse: All in favor of the motion signify by saying Aye, contrary\nminded. No. The \"noes\" have it. Now let us have a rising vote. It is moved and\nseconded that Article II, Section 2, be referred to a committee for report at the next\nmeeting.\nMotion carried.\nMr. Springer: I move the adoption of Article III of the Committee's report as\nfollows:\narticle III — duties of officers\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and\nshall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence, the\nranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence of all VicePresidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association, and with the advice\nof the Executive Committee shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of\nthe Association and of the various departments not definitely fixed by these By-Laws\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the\nCouncil and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The\nPresident shall be member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and chairman of the Board\nof Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved by the\nBoard of Directors for payment. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he\nshall be elected First Vice-President for the ensuing year.\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, shall\nconduct the business of the Association under the direction of the Board of Directors and\nthe President, shall collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same to the\nTreasurer, shall countersign all bills approved by the Board of Directors for payment,\nshall advance the interests of the Association in every way in his power, and shall have\nhis records present at all regular meetings of the active members of the Association, and\nof the Board of Directors. He shall keep a list of members as required by Section 7 of\nArticle I of these By-Laws and shall re\\'ise said list annually. He shall be chairman of\nthe Committee on Publication and secretary of the Board of Directors. He shall be the\ncustodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the\nBoard of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as\nmay be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he\nshall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession\nbelonging to the Association.\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary, and under the direction of\nthe Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping, all moneys paid to the Association; shall\npay the same only upon the order of said board; shall notify the chairman of the Board\nof Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed five hundred dollars;\nshall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter;\nand said accounts, ending on the first day of July of each year, he shall render to the Board\nof Trustees, and, when approved by said board, he shall report the same to the Board of\nDirectors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual\nmeeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting. The Treasurer\nshall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the\nBoard of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession, belonging to the Association.\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed\nby Section 6 of Article I of these By-Laws, shall elect members of the National Covmcil\nof Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these By-Laws, shall have power to\nfill all vacancies in the body of officers of the Association except the Secretary, shall make\nall necessary arrangements for the meetings of the Association, the Council, and the\ndepartments, shall approve all bills for the payment of moneys by the Association, shall\nmake appropriations for the investigation of educational questions when deemed advisable\nby the Board of Directors and approved by the Board of Trustees, shall make a full\nreport of the financial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Treasurer\nand the Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business meeting, and\nshall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution.\nSec. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging\nfor the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council\nof Education, and of the various departments.\nSec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and the Treasurer\neach a bond of such amount as may be determined by said board, for the faithful performance ofhis duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the\nBoard of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the\nannual meeting of the Association, and shall annually determine the date at which the\nterm of office of the Treasurer shall expire, which date shall not be latter than the first of\nAugust.\nIt shall choose its own chairman and secretary.\nSeconded.\nPresident Pearse: Moved and seconded that the committee's report on Article\nIII be adopted.\nMr. Owen:\nI move to substitute for Article III, as follows (reading):\nARTICLE\n\nIII — DUTIES\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and\nshall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive officer of such an\nAssociation. In his absence the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n57\n\nthe absence of all Vice-Presidents, a chairman pro tempore sha'l be elected. The President\nshall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association,\nand, with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place\nof the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely\nfixed by these By-Laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in\nthe programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual\nmeeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills\napproved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized\nby the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the\nexpiration of his term of ofiice as President, he shall become First Vice-President, for the\nensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication.\nA Member:\nI second the motion.\nPresident Pearse: Regularly moved and seconded that the substitute as read\nfor Section i, Article III, be adopted. All in favor of the motion signify by saying Aye,\nall contrary, No.\nMotion carried.\nMr. Owen: I move the adoption of Section 2 of Article III as printed, with the\nexception of the words \"June 20,\" in that section having it changed to \"July i,\" making\nthat sentence read as follows: \"He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report\nshall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting.\"\narticle III\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of\nthe Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided in the\nArticles of Incorporation and the By-Laws, and in all matters not definitely prescribed\ntherein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and in the absence of\ndirection by the Executive Committee shall be under the direction of the President,\nand shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month\nto the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors\nor by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings of the Board\nof Directors or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the Board of\nDirectors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all\nmeetings of the active members of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the\nExecutive Committee. He shall keep a list of members as required by Section 9 of Article\nI of these By-Laws and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary of the Board\nof Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be the custodian\nof all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of\nTrustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be\nrequired by the Executive Committee. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association,\nwhich report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At\nthe expiration of his term of office he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books,\nand other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall\nnot print, publish, or distribute any official report or other document without the approval\nof the publication committee.\nPresident Pe.\\rse: Regularly moved and seconded that the section as read be\nadopted.\nMotion carried.\nMr. Owen:\n\nI move that Section 3 of Article III be adopted with the exception\n\nthat the words \"Executive Committee\" in line 2 be changed to \"Board of Trustees.\"\narticle III\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the\nExecutive Committee shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association ; shall\npay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of\nthe Association and the chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in\nhis possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nexpenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the fifteenth day\nof June of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than June 20,\nand, when approved bj\"^ said committee, they shall be transmitted by the committee to the\nBoard of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the\nannual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting. The\nTreasurer shall giv^e such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required\nby the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his\nsuccessor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the\nAssociation.\nPresident Pearse: Is there any objection to this change? If there is not the\nchange will be made; unanimously agreed to. Moved and seconded that the section as\namended be adopted. All in favor of the motion signify by saying Aye, contrary, No.\nMotion carried.\nMr. Springer: In Section 2 of Article III where it has reference to the Secretary\ngiving a bond, it prescribes that he shall give his bond to the Executive Committee. All\nother bonds go to the Board of Trustees. By the Articles of Incorporation, the Board of\nTrustees is the regularly recognized custodian of such papers and I think that change\nshould be made the same as in any other case.\nPresident Pearse:\nI don't understand the latter part of it.\nMr. Springer: The papers relating to property and things of that sort. By the\nArticles of Incorporation the Trustees are recognized as the custodians of such papers.\nThis relates to the property bond and implies that the Secretary should give his bond to\nthe Board of Trustees the same as the Treasurer does.\nMr. Owen:\nI accept the amendment.\nPresident Pearse: The change will then be that where bonds are required the\nbonds should be acceptable to the Board of Trustees instead of the Executive Committee.\nIf there is no objection the change will be made; it is so ordered.\nMr. Owen: There is a change also made in Section 3 of Article HI in reference to\naccounts and expenditures, in the third line from the top of the page, from \"the fifteenth\nday of June\" to \"the thirtieth day of June\"; also in the next line, from \"June 20\" change\nto \"July i\"; I will read the section as changed (reading):\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the\nBoard of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay\nthe same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of the\nAssociation and the chairman of the Board of Trustees, whenever the surplus funds in his\npossession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and\nexpenditures with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirtieth day\nof June of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than July i,\nand when approved by the said committee, they shall be transmitted by the committee to\nthe Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of\nthe annual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting. The\nTreasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required\nby the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his\nsuccessor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession, belonging to the\nAssociation.\nPresident Pearse: You have heard the section read and the motion that it be\nadopted as read with the changes made.\nMotion carried.\nMr. Owen:\nI will read the substitute for Section 4 and move its adoption.\nARTICLE rn\n\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed by\nSection 8 of Article I of these By-Laws, shall elect members of the National Council of\nEducation as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these By-Laws, shall have power to\nfill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to the\nExecutive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association, the\nCouncil of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve all\nbills incurred under authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n59\n\nthe President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or\nExecutive Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts\nof money ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting for the work\nof all special committees of investigation and research authorized and provided for by\nsuch active members at their annual business meeting, shall make a full report of the\nfinancial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer,\nand the Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business meeting, and\nshall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution.\nA Member:\nSecond the motion to adopt the section as read.\nPresident Pearse : Moved and seconded that the section be adopted as read.\nMotion carried.\nA Member:\nI move the substitute for the remainder of Article III be adopted.\nMr. Owen:\nT second the motion and will read Sections 5 and 6 (reading):\nSec. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging for\nthe time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council of\nEducation, and of the various departments.\nThe Executive Committee shall recommend to the active members at their annual\nbusiness meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research, the\nsubjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council, or by the active\nmembership of the National Education Association, or by any of its departments; it shall\nrecommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations. When such\nspecial committees are provided for and duly authorized by the active members at their\nannual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them;\nshall receive and consider all reports made by them and shall print such reports, and\npresent the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer,\nand the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon,\nto the active members at their annual business meeting. All such special committees\nshall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association.\nThe Executive -Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of\nthe Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the\noffice of Secretary.\nSec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of\nsuch amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful performance of their\nduties; shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report\nshall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first\nregular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association.\nIt shall choose annually its own chairman and secretary.\nPresident Pearse: It is regularly moved and seconded that the sections as read\nbe adopted.\nMotion carried.\nMr. Springer: I move the adoption of the next article, Article IV, of the report of\nthe Committee on Revision of the By-Laws, as follows:\nARTICLE IV — the NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions of\npublic and professional interest; propose to the Board of Directors, from time to time,\nsuitable subjects for investigations and research, and recommend the appointment of\nspecial committees of investigation and research, and the amount of appropriation that\nshould be made for such purpose. When such special committees are provided for and\nauthorized by the Board of Directors of the Association, the Council shall appoint them\nfrom the active membership of the Association, and have general supervision of them;\nreceive and consider all reports made by Ihem and report to the Board of Directors the\nresult of its deliberations, with recommendations as to the disposition of said reports;\nhave a report made at its annual meeting on \"Educational Progress during the Past\nYear\"; and in other ways use its best efiforts to further the objects of the Association and\nto promote the cause of education in general.\nSec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of 120 regular members,\nselected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any\nactive member of the Association having the right to vote in the Association is eligible to\nmembership in the Council, and, after the year 1909, each member shall be elected for\nsix years and until his successor is elected.\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of\nthe annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors shall annually elect ten\nmembers and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota\nof members. No state, territory, or district in the United States shall have at one time\nmore than eight regular members in the Council.\nSec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the\nannual meeting of the Association.\nSec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the\nCouncil shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose\nregular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary members of\nthe Council during the time of their active membership in the Association, with the\nprivilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its discussions.\nA member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits\nhis membership in the Council.\nSec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president, a\nsecretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom\nshall be regular members of the Council. The secretary of the Council shall, in addition\nto performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association\na copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. No president of the Council\nshall succeed himself in office.\nSec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws\nfor its government not inconsistent with the Act of Incorporation or the By-Laws of the\nAssociation; provided, That such by-laws be submitted to and approved by the Board\nof Directors of the Association before they shall become operative.\nSec. 8. The Council may be changed or abolished upon a three-fourths vote of the\nBoard of Directors of the Association taken at a regular meeting of the board upon the\nrecommendation of a majority of the regular members of the Council; provided, That due\nannouncement has been made of the proposed action.\nMr. Owen: I move that Article IV, as suggested by members, be substituted for\nArticle IV as reported by the Committee of the National Education Association.\nMotion seconded.\nPresident Pearse:\nYou have heard the motion.\nMr. Owen:\nI wiU read Article IV.\narticle IV — THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions of\npublic and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time,\nsuitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual meeting\non \"Educational Progress during the Past Year\"; and in other ways use its best efforts\nto further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general.\nSec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of 120 regular members,\nselected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active\nmember of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council, and each member\nshall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected.\nSec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of\nthe annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall\nannually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all\nvacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, or district in the United States\nshall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council.\nSec. 4. All meetings of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual\nmeeting of the Association.\nSec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the\nCouncil shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose\nregular membership in thje Council has expired shall be denominated honorary members\nof the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association, with the\nprivilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its discussions.\nA member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits\nhis membership in the Council.\nSec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president, a\nsecretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of\nwhom shall be regular members of the Council. The secretary of the Council shall, in\naddition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the\nAssociation a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication.\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n6i\n\nSec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws\nfor it? government not inconsistent with the Act of Incorporation or the By-Laws of the\nAssociation; provided, That such by-laws be submitted to and approved by the Board of\nDirectors of the Association before they shall become operative.\nSec. 8. The powers and duticr of the Council may be chan ;ed or the Council abolished\nupon a two-thirds vote of the Association taken at the annual business meeting of the\nAssociation; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding\nannual business meeting of the Association.\nMr. Aley: It seems to me that Section 4 of Article IV, which requires that all\nmeetings of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual meeting of the\nAssociation, is entirely new matter and should be referred to a committee for action in one\nyear. I make a motion to that effect.\nA Member:\nI second the motion.\nPresident Pearse : The Chair has heard the motion and the second that Section 4,\nrelative to the holding of all meetings of the Council at the time of the annual meeting of\nthe Association, be referred to a committee to report in one year. All those in favor of\nthe motion say Aye, contrary. No.\nMotion carried.\nA Member: I move the adoption of Article IV, as read, with the exception of\nSection 4.\nA Member:\nI second the motion.\nPresident Pearse : It has been regularly moved and seconded that the substitute\nfor Article IV be adopted as read, with the exception of Section 4, which has been referred\nto a committee. All those in favor of the adoption of the substitute will say Aye, contrary. No. Motion carried.\nMr. Springer: I move that Article V be adopted as presented by the committee\nas follows:\nARTICLE\n\nV — departments\n\nSection i. The following departments are now (1910) in existence, to wit: The\ndepartments, first, of Superintendence; second of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary\nEducation; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training, Art, and Technical\nEducation; sixth, of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of\nSecondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Study; eleventh, of\nPhysical Education; twelfth, of Natural Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administration; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education; sixteenth,\nof School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural and Agricultural Education.\nSec. 2. The active members of the Association having the right to vote in the Association, and no others, are members of each department of the Association.\nSec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the\nannual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence and the\nDepartment of Normal Schools, which may hold their annual meeting in February of each\nyear or at such other time as may be determined by said departments, subject to the\napproval of the Board of Directors of the Association.\nSec. 4. The object of the annual meetings of the departments shall be the discussion\nof questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of\nthese meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and\nunder the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall\nbe limited to two sessions, with formal programs, at the time of the annual convention,\nunless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session\nfor business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the\ndepartment officers.\nSec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\nand a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve\none year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their\nelection, be active members of the Association, having the right to vote in the Association.\nNo president of a department shall succeed himself in office.\nSec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties\nusually pertaining to his oflace, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the\nproceedings of the meeting of the department for publication.\nSec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception\nstated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section i of this article in thQ\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\norder of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each\ndepartment may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent\nwith the Act of Incorporation, or these By-Laws.\nSec. 8. A new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board of\nDirectors of the Association taken at a regular meeting of the board; provided, That a\nwritten application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have\nbeen made at the regular meeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is\ntaken, by at least twenty-five active members engaged in the field of labor in the interest\nof which the department is purposed to be established. A department already estabhshed\nmay be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two- thirds vote taken at a regular\nmeeting; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular\nmeeting of the board the preceding year. A department shall be discontinued when it\nfails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years.\nA Member: I don't see any difference between the two articles, that is Section i\nof the two articles.\nThe Chair asked Mr. Owen from this time on merely to explain the differences.\nARTICLE\n\nV — DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. The following departments are now (191 2) in existence, to wit: The\ndepartments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary\nEducation; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training, Art, and Technical\nEducation; sixth, of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of\nSecondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Study; eleventh, of\nPhysical Education; twelfth, of Natural Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School\nAdministration; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education;\nsixteenth, of School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural and Agricultural Education.\nSec. 2. The active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each\ndepartment of the Association.\nSec. 3. All meetings of all departments shall be held at the time and place of the\nannual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may\nhold its annual meeting in February of each year or at such other time as may be determined by said department, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee of the\nAssociation.\nSec. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of these\nmeetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with and under the\ngeneral direction of the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited\nto two sessions with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the\nAssociation, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference\nmay be held at the discretion of the department ofiicers.\nSec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\nand a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve\none year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall at the time of their\nelection be active members of the Association.\nSec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties\nusually pertaining to his ofiice, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the\nproceedings of the meetings of the department for publication.\nSec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception\nstated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in- Section i of this article in the\norder of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each\ndepartment may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent\nwith the Act of Incorporation, or these By-Laws.\nA new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Directors\ntaken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the active members\nat any annual business meeting; provided. That a written application for said department,\nwith title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the\nboard next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding annual business\nmeeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the field of labor in\nthe interest of which the department is purposed to be established. A department already\nestablished may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken\nat a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members at any annual business\nmeeting; provided. That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular\nmeeting of the board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting.\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n63\n\ndepartment shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive\nyears.\nMr. Owen (reading): Section 2, as proposed by the members:\nThe active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each department of the Association.\n,\nAnd the National Education Association report is :\nThe active members of the Association having the right to vote in the Association,\nand no others, are members of each department of the Association.\nAnd in Section 3 the members propose in the last sentence \"subject to the approval of the\nExecutive Committee of the Association.\" And the National Education Association\ncommittee's recommendation on the same subject and the last Une of the section is\n\"subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the Association.\" I move the\nadoption of those changes as an amendment to the motion already made.\nA Member:\nI second the motion.\nMr. Springer: Permit me to call your attention to another thing, that is, next to\nthe last sentence in Section 8 : \" By a two-thirds vote of the active members at any annual\nbusiness meeting.\" I suggest the change there, that it be, \"By a two-thirds vote of the\nactive members at any business meeting of the active members.\" I suggest that as\na substitute.\nPresident Pearse: Is there any objection to the change? Hearing none, it\nis made.\nMr. Kirk: Section 3 of this Article V reads that, \"All meetings of all departments\nshall be held at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, except the\nDepartment of Superintendence.\"\nPresident Pearse : The Educational Council has been included with the Department of Superintendence.\nMr. Kirk: I understand, Mr. Chairman, that all of Section 3 has been referred to\na committee for one year ?\nPresident Pearse: The Chair does not so understand. The Chair understands\nthat there has been a suggestion made as to the provision, \"All meetings of all departments\nshall be held at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, except\nthe Department of Superintendence\" and Educational Council. I will entertain a\nmotion —\nMr. Kirk: I am sure the members of this Association do not wish to wholly destroy\nthe utihty of any department. It turns out that there is a new force which we have to\ndeal with. We want to be loyal to the National Education Association and come to every\nmeeting that it has, but between the Rocky Mountains and the Alleghanies, the summer\nterms of the universities and the normal schools constitute an enormous force — a large\ninfluence that has to be recognized and dealt with. The summer term has nearly doubled\nin attendance during the past few years. The faculties in many universities and in most\nof the normal schools cannot possibly get away to attend the summer meetings of the\nNational Education Association.\nA Member : Will Mr. Kirk yield the floor a minute ?\nPresident Pearse : Mr. Kirk yields.\nMr. Scribner: I move that the whole of Section 3, Article V be referred to the\ncommittee to be reported on in a year.\nMr. Kirk:\nI second the motion.\nPresident Pearse : The motion is made and seconded that Section 3 of Article V\nbe referred to a committee for one year. All in favor of the motion say Aye, contrary,\nNo.\nMotion carried.\nA Member: I move that the substitute for Article V as changed, with exception of\nSection 3, be adopted.\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMotion seconded and duly carried.\nMr. Springer: I move the adoption of Article VI as reported by the National\nEducation Association committee, as follows:\n.\n\nARTICLE\n\nVI — COMMITTEES\n\nSection i. On the first day of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions, consisting of seven active members, and a\nCommittee on Necrology, consisting of five active members; and on the second day of\nsuch meeting he shall appoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active\nmember from each state, territory, and district, represented at the meeting. Each state,\nterritorial, and district representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active\nmembers in attendance from said state, territory, or district; provided, That five or more\nactive members having the right to vote in the Association participate in said nomination\nin accordance with these By-Laws; and provided further, That in case of the failure of the\nactive members of any state, territory, or district to nominate a member of the nominating committee in accordance with these By-Laws, the President shall appoint an active\nmember from said state, territory, or district, to serve on said committee. At the regular\nmeeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the President\nshall appoint an Auditing Committee consisting of three directors. The chairman of\neach of the foregoing committees shall be designated by the President of the Association\nat the time of its appointment.\nSec. 2. The meetings of active members to nominate members of the nominating\ncommittee shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at\nsuch time and places as shall be designated in the annual program by the President of\nthe Association.\nSec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the third day of the annual\nmeeting at 9:30 a.m., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall\nnominate persons for the following offices in the Association, to wit: one person for\nPresident, twelve persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person\nfrom each state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board\nof Directors.\nIt shall report to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nSec. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the last session of the annual\nmeeting and all resolutions relating to the policy of the Association shall be referred to\nsaid committee, without discussion.\nSec. and\n5. The\nthe Secretary's\nand the Treasurer's\naccounts\nmakeAuditing\na thoro Committee\nexaminationshall\nof audit\nthe finances\nof the Association.\nIt shall\nreport .to the new Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board.\nSec. 6. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the volume oi Proceedings\na list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accompanied by memorial sketches whenever practicable.\nSec. 7. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President, with the advice and consent of the Secretary and the Treasurer,\nshall app>oint a competent person or persons, who shall examine the securities of the\nPermanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and certify in writing to their condition\nto the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week\nof the annual meeting.\nMr. Owen; I move the adoption of the substitute.\narticle VI — COMMITTEES\n\nSection i . On the first day of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions, consisting of seven active members, and a\nCommittee on Necrology, consisting of five active members, and on the third day of\nsuch meeting he shall appoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active\nmember from each state, territory, and district represented at the meeting. Each state,\nterritorial, and district representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active\nmembers in attendance from said state, territory, or district; provided. That three or\nmore active members participate in said nomination in accordance with these By-Laws;\nand provided further, That in case of the failure of the active members of any state, territory, or district to nominate a member of the nominating committee, in accordance with\nthese By-Laws, the President shall appoint an active member from said state, territory,\nor district, to serve on said committee. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors\non the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee\nconsisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n65\n\ntrustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided\nin Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of\nactive members. Further it is provided that at the annual business meeting of the Association in191 2, the President shall appoint a Committee on Teachers' Welfare, consisting\nof seven members, all of whom shall be active members of the Association. The terms\nof the members so appointed shall expire as follows: One-seventh in one year, one-seventh\nin two years, one-seventh in three years, one-seventh in four years, one-seventh in five\nyears, one-seventh in six years, one-seventh in seven years. At the annual business\nmeeting of the year 1913 and each year thereafter, the President shall appoint one member\nof such committee to fill vacancy created as above. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be designated by the President of the Association at the time of\nits appointment.\nSec. 2. The meetings of active members present from the several states, territories, etc., to nominate members of the nominating committee, shall be held on the first\nday of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated\non the annual program by the President of the Association.\nSec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the fourth day of the annual\nmeeting at 9:00 a.m., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall\nnominate persons for the following offices in the Association, to wit: one person for\nPresident, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person\nfrom each state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board\nof Directors.\nIt shall report to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nSec. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting\nof active members, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to\nsaid committee, without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all\nresolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time\nduring the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall\nhold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the\npurpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate\nthem.\nSec. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the published Proceedings\na list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accompanied by memorial sketches whenever practicable.\nSec. 6. The Committee on Teachers' Welfare shall collect data bearing on the\npromotion of the teachers' physical, financial, and educational advancement. It shall\nkeep such information corrected from time to time as may be required, in proper form\nto use in the promotion of the teachers' welf^ire.\nSec. 7. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do\nbusiness as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts,\npapers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and\ncompare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by\nthe Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by\nhim submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors,\nat their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association.\nMr. Owen: I move the adoption of the substitute. I will refer to parts of it.\nNow in Section i as printed, on the fourth line, \"On the third day of such meeting he\nshall appoint a nominating committee.\" That change was made to give the President\nmore time to select the committee. I simply call your attention to Article VI of the\nNational Education Association committee, wherein it differs from Article VI on the\nright-hand column.\nI will begin to read at the italicized matter.\nAt a regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting,\nthe President shall appoint an Auditing Committee, consisting of three active members\nof the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee\nshall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication\nof the President, transmitting the same as provided in Section 6 of this article; and the\ncommittee shall report its findings at the meeting of active members. Further it is\nprovided that at the annual business meeting of the Association in 191 2 the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Teachers' Welfare, consisting of seven members, all of\nwhom shall be active members of the Association. The terms of the members so appointed\nshall expire as follows: One-seventh in one year, one-seventh in two years, one-seventh\nin three years, one-seventh in four years, one-seventh in five years, one-seventh in\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nsix years, one-seventh in seven years. At the annual business meeting in 1913 and each\nyear thereafter, the President shall appoint one member of such committee to fill the\nvacancy created as above. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be\ndesignated by the President of the Association at the time of its appointment.\nI shall not go into that any further, but on Section 3 there is a change as to time\nin which the nominating committee shall meet. It was said 9:00 a.m., instead of 9:30\nas shown in Section 3 in this report. There was a correction in the same paragraph,\neleven persons for Vice-Presidents, because one of them we have already provided for\nand that is the retiring president shall become the First Vice-President, instead of \"One\nperson for President, twelve persons for Vice-Presidents.\"\nIn reference to Section 4: here is a provision that is new:\nAnd except by unanimous consent all resolutions shall be referred to said committee,\nwithout discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed\nby active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day\nof the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting at a place\nand time to be announced in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed\nresolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them.\nSection 5, no change.\nSection 6, 1 need not read. Section 7, 1 will read.\nPresident Pearse: Read that.\nMr. Owen (reading):\nSec. 7. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do\nbusiness as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts,\npapers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and\ncompare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fimd held by\nthe Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by\nhim submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors,\nat their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association.\nMr. Scribner: That provision of Sections i and 6, Article VI, with reference to\nthe appointment of a Committee on Teachers' Welfare, is new matter; I move that the\nsame be referred to a committee for report in a year. It should lie over for a year in\norder to legally bring it before us.\nMotion duly seconded and carried that portions of said sections be so referred to\na coDMnittee.\nPresident Pearse: Moved and seconded that the article as read and amended\nshall be accepted as a substitute for the other; carried.\nSecretary Shepard : I wish to ask, as a member, for the ruling of the Chair upon\none or two points. The By-Laws provide that amendments may pass by a two-thirds\nvote of the members present. Does that mean the members present at the convention\nor members present at the meeting ?\nPresident Pearse : The Chair rules that it means the members present and voting.\nSecretary Shepard: It appears at this meeting that there are now about 500\npresent; does it mean the number present at the moment the question is proposed?\nPresident Pearse: Yes.\nSecretary Shepard: As to the rule, the By-Laws provide that there shall be\ntwo-thirds of the members voting in favor of or against an amendment. Now admitting\nthat this means two-thirds of the members present at this moment; there has been no\ntest as to whether the motions that have been passed have been by a two-thirds vote of\nthe actual members present. Therefore, I think it is a serious question.\nPresident Pearse: The question has been raised, and the Chair will rule. The\nChair has full knowledge of the fact that a two-thirds vote is necessary on all these questions ofamendment, and the Chair has ruled in the light of that knowledge, on all these\npropositions. There has been no question raised as to the fact that two-thirds of the\nmembers present and voting, voted in favor of each proposition which has been declared\ncarried. Results, therefore, stand as declared. If at any time the question is raised\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n67\n\nas to whether any proposition has the required two-thirds vote, the Chair will ascertain\nthe number by counting.\nMr. Springer: I move that the next Article, VII, be adopted as prepared by the\nNational Education Association committee as follows:\nARTICLE\n\nVII — MEETINGS\n\nSection i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and\nof each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined\nby these By-Laws or by the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for\nthe board. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies may be\nomitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of the directors\nof the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee.\nSec. 2. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held in July, beginning\non a day determined by the Executive Committee. Two sessions shall be held daily,\nunless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association. The annual business\nmeeting of the active members shall be held on the third day of the annual meeting at\n12:30 P.M. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day\nof the annual meeting at 11:30 A.M. The first regular meeting of the new Board of\nDirectors shall be held on the third day of the annual meeting at 4 :30 P.M., the Presidentelect presiding. Special meetings of the Board of Directors may be called by the President upon the written request of twenty-five members of the board. The Board of\nTrustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time during the annual meeting\nof the Association. Special meetings of the Board of Trustees may be held at such times\nand places as the board or the chairman shall determine. Due notice of all meetings\nof the board shall be given to every member of the board by the secretary of the board.\nA Member: Second the motion.\nMr. Owen: I move to substitute for Article VII.\nARTICLE\n\nVII — MEETINGS\n\nSection i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and\nof each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined\nby the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance\nwith these By-Laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies\nmay be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of\nthe directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee.\nSec 2. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held in July, beginning\non a day determined by the Executive Committee. Two sessions shall be held daily,\nunless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association. The annual business\nmeeting of the active members shall be held on the fourth day of the annual meeting at\nII :oo A.M. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day\nof the annual meeting at 10:30 a.m. The first regular meeting of the new Board of\nDirectors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close\nof the last session of the annual meeting, the place and time of themeeting to be announced\nin the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some\nconvenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors\nreferred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the\nchairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due\nnotice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given \\o every member of the\nboard by the secretary thereof.\nMr. Owen: I will proceed at once to point out the differences: In Section 2, it\nstates the annual business meeting of the active members shall be held on the fourth day\nat 11:00 A.M., instead of the third day at 12:30; that a regular meeting of the Board of\nDirectors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10:30 a.m.; that the\nfirst regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable\nand within twenty-four hours after the last session of the annual meeting; also that the\nBoard of Trustees shall hold their annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to above in this\nsection. Special meetings of the Trustees may be called by the chairman and shall be\ncalled on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees.\nMotion to adopt substitute seconded.\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMr. Scribner: Move to amend that portion of the substitute which fixes the hour\nof the annual meeting, in view of our experiences today to change the hour from ii o'clock\nto ID o'clock A.M.\nMotion seconded.\nMr. Hall: It is impossible to have the annual business meeting at lo o'clock in\nthe morning on account of the meeting of the nominating committee.\nMr. Owen: Inasmuch as this change will require considerable checking up with\nother changes, it would be wise to let the time remain as proposed in the substitute\nmotion, at ii o'cloclc.\nMr. Scribner: In view of that explanation, I will withdraw my motion.\nPresident Pearse: Motion made is withdrawn. The question now is on the\nadoption of the substitutes for Article VII as you have heard it. All in favor of the\nadoption signify by saying Aye; contrary. No.\nMotion carried.\nMr. Springer: I move that Article VIII of the committee's report be adopted\nas follows:\narticle VIII — proceedings\n\nSection i. The proceedings of the meetings of the Association, the Council, and\nthe department shall be published in a volume under the direction of a committee consisting ofthe permanent Secretary, the President, and the first Vice-President; provided,\nThat in the opinion of the Board of Trustees the funds of the Association warrant the\npublication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the volume\nof Proceedings. Associate members must make written application to the Secretary on\nor before September i for a copy in order to obtain it. Corresponding members, and\nactive members whose dues are paid, will receive the volume without written application.\nSec. 2. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any\nof the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President\nof the Association or of the departments, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address\nbe published in the volume of Proceedings, without the approval of the Board of Directors\nor the Executive Committee.\nLincoln P. Goodhue, of Chicago: With reference to Article VI, which has been\npassed by: Am I right in believing that final action on Article VI was omitted intentional y orhas it been adopted? Discussion was had as to a portion of Section i in\nArticle VI; then the Chair's attention was called by the Secretary to some rulings; no\nfurther attention has been paid to Article VI : is that correct ?\nPresident Pearse: The Chair is informed that that is correct. If no objection\nis heard, the Chair will entertain at this time a correct motion for the adoption of Article\nVI, which has been discussed heretofore. The Chair hears no objection.\nMotion duly made, seconded, and carried.\nMr. Owen: Now the question arises as to Article VIII. I move that the substitute for Article VIII be adopted, as proposed by members, and printed, leaving out the\nword \"permanent,\" where it has reference to \"permanent Secretary,\" as follows:\nARTICLE\n\nVIII — proceedings\n\nSection i. The proceedings of the meetings of the Association, the Council, and\nthe departments shall be published under the direction of a committee consisting of the\nPresident, the First Vice-President, and the Secretary, the First Vice-President\nacting as chairman of the committee; provided, That in the opinion of the Executive\nCommittee the funds of the Association warrant the pubUcation. Each member of the\nAssociation shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Associate members must\nmake written application to the Secretary on or before November i for a copy in order\nto obtain it. Corresponding members, and active members whose dues are paid, will\nreceive the published proceedings without written application.\nSec. 2. No pap)er, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any\nof the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President\nof the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture,\nor address be published in the Proceedings, without the approval of the Executive\nCommittee.\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n69\n\nMotion seconded and duly carried.\nMr. Springer: Move the adoption of Article IX of the committee's report\nMotion seconded.\nARTICLE\n\nIX — ELECTIONS,\n\nQUORUM\n\nSection i. The certificate of membership, in connection with the published list\nof active members, shall be accepted as evidence that members are entitled to vote.\nSec. 2. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute\na quorum in all meetings of active members and of the Board of Directors.\nMr. Schuler: With reference to Section i of Article IX, is that reference to the\neffect that a member must carry his certificate of membership, together with a published\nlist? In other words, it means no admission if the names are not on the list; cutting\nout everybody whose name is not on the list.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair understands that the published or official list may\nbe consulted in connection with a certificate of membership; that is, if any case arises\nin which the certificate of membership is not considered sufficient evidence. It may also\nbe possible that a member does not have his certificate of membership and yet his name\nmay appear upon the list.\nA Member: Is it necessary that a member's name appear upon the list and also\nthat he have his certificate of membership ?\nMr. Owen: Is it to be understood a name is considered \"published\" only when\nprinted ?\nPresident Pearse: The Chair is of the opinion that an error has been made and\nthe word \"official\" should appear. We can consider the question.\nMr. Schuler:\nMove to strike out the word \"published\" and make it \"official.\"\nA Member : Motion seconded.\nMr. Owen: I believe in striking out the words \"in connection with the published\nlist of active members.\" The certificate of membership should be sufficient evidence of\nthe right to vote.\nMr. Scribner:\nDoes the word \"published\" mean \"printed\"?\nMr. Schuler: Certainly, it means printed; I don't see why there should be any\nobjection to striking it out.\nPresident Pearse: Moved and seconded that the word \"official\" be inserted for\nthe word \"published.\"\nMr. Owen: Why couldn't we strike out the words \"in connection with the published\nlist of active members\" ? I make that as an amendment to the motion.\nA Member: I second the motion that the words \"in connection with the published\nlist of active members\" be stricken but.\nMr. Schuler: It seems to me that there was something said a few moments ago\nthat whenever any member of this Association proceeds to the hall where he wants to\nvote, he will have to show his certificate of membership for the year and it seems to me\nthat certificate, signed by the Secretary and carried on his person, with the official list,\nwould be better, as he might lose his certificate of membership and if he didn't have it he\ncouldn't get in.\nMr. Springer: A suggestion has been made to this effect: If you lose your certificate of membership you might be in the same condition and predicament that some of the\npersons who are present were today, when they had to be admitted by a committee who\nhad no other evidence than the official list of members gotten up by the Secretary, and\nI think it would be better to retain both, with the word \"official\" inserted instead of\n\"published.\"\nPresident Pearse: I will put the motion as to striking out the words \"in connection with the published list of active members.\"\nWhereupon the motion was duly put and lost.\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident Pearse: Now we will vote on the motion to insert the word \"official\"\ninstead of the word \"published,\" making it read \"official list of active members.\"\nWhereupon the motion was duly put and carried.\nMr. Springer: I move that Article X of the National Education Association\ncommittee's report be adopted as foUows:\nARTICLE X — amendments\n\nSection i. These By-Laws may be altered or amended at the annual business\nmeeting of the active members by unanimous consent, or by a three-fourths vote of the\nactive members present if the alteration or amendment shall have been substantially\nproposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action\nis taken, and due announcement has been made of the proposed action.\nSec. 2. Any of the provisions of any Section of Articles VI or VII of these By-Laws\nmay be suspended for a single session of an annual meeting by a vote of three-fourths of\nthe active members present.\nA Member:\nI second the motion.\nPresident Pearse:\nMoved and seconded that Article X be adopted.\nMr. Owen : There is one particular in which I wish to move a change. I observe\nthat Article X, as appearing in the suggestions of members, is not parallel with Article X\nin the report of the National Education Association committee. Therefore in order to\nkeep the matter clear, I would like to make a motion that Article XI of the members'\nsuggestions be substituted for Article X of the National Education Association committee's report, and that it be renumbered Article X. I wish to read another change in\nthe third line of Article XI in the members' substitute: \"By a two-thifds vote of the\nactive members present\" is used instead of as it appears in Article X of the National\nEducation Association report, \"By a three-fourths vote of the active members present.\"\nThe word \"two-thirds\" is used instead of \"three-fourths.\"\narticle XI — amendments\nSection i. These By-l^aws may be altered or amended at the annual business\nmeeting of the active members by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the\nactive members present if the alteration or amendment shall have been substantially\nproposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which\naction is taken; due announcement of the proposed action shall be made in the annual\npublished proceedings.\nMr. Scribner:\nI second the motion for the adoption of the substitute.\nPresident Pearse: Moved and seconded that Article XI, as proposed by the\nmembers' committee, and amended, be substituted for Article X of the National Education Association committee, and \"Ehat it be numbered Article X. Are you ready for the\nquestion ?\nMr. Owen: Before we proceed I would make the suggestion that Article X of the\nmembers' substitute as printed, be referred to a committee as has been done with other\nportions of the report.\nI make that as an amendment to the motion.\nA Member:\nI second the amendment.\nAmendment carried.\nWhereupon the motion to adopt as amended was duly put and carried.\nPresident Pearse: Now a motion is in order for the adoption of the By-Laws as\napproved seriatim, of course with the exception of those parts which have already been\nreferred for action in one year.\nMr. Springer: I think the question of the adoption of these substitutes is one\nthat requires the utmost care. I have written here a form of motion which I think covers\nthe case, to this effect: I move that the By-Laws, as substituted for the report of the\ncommittee on proposed amendments appointed at the Denver meeting, which report was\nreceived at the Boston meeting, and at the San Francisco meeting laid on the table to be\nacted upon after one year, be now adopted as a whole.\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n71\n\nThat recites the history and gives the legal status of the situation.\nWhereupon said motion was duly seconded and carried, the chairman declaring the\nBy-Laws so adopted, the By-Laws of the National Education Association of the United\nStates.\nD. B. Johnson, of South Carolina: In accordance with the Constitution, I have a\nnotice of an amendment to offer:\nPresident Pearse:\nMr. Johnson.\nMr. Johnson: This amendment under the rules is to lie on the table for a year and\nthen be considered at the next meeting.\nIn order to preserve the national character of the National Education Association\nand to maintain the allegiance of all the teachers of all the states of the United States\nand thus insure the continued usefulness of the Association to the cause of education\nin this country, the President, Vice-Presidents, and other elective officers of the Association\nshall be voted for by states and territories, each state and territory being given its fair and\njust quota of votes in accordance with the rules governing the representation of each state\nand territory now in force, for the presidential conventions of both of the great parties;\nthe vote of each state and territory being cast by the director of the state or territory in\naccordance with a majority vote of the active members in attendance upon the Association from each state and territory; provided, No state or territory shall be entitled to vote\na greater number of votes than the number of active members enrolled in that state or\nterritory; the election of President and other elective officers of the Association being\ndetermined by a majority of the votes thus cast in the meeting of the National Education\nAssociation held for the election of such officers.\nA Member : I move the resolution be referred according to rule.\nWhereupon the motion was duly seconded and carried.\nMr. Hall : I offer the following resolution :\nResolved, That the President of the National Education Association be and he is\nhereby authorized to appoint a coinmittee of five active members of the Association to\nprepare recommendations for amendments to the Charter of the National Education\nAssociation and this committee be instructed to report its recommendations at the next\nmeeting of the active members.\nA motion was made and seconded to adopt the resolution.\nS. Y. GiLLAN, of Wisconsin:\nMr. President.\nPresident Pearse:\nMr. Gillan.\nMr. Gillan: As a substitute for Mr. Hall's motion, I move, according to rule,\nthat the President appoint a committee of five members whose duty it shall be to present\nto the active members at their regular meeting in 1913 a draft of proposed changes,\namendments, alterations, or other modifications in the act of Incorporation of the National\nEducation Association of the United States, approved by special act of Congress, June 30,\n1906; such draft of proposed changes, if approved by a majority of the active members\nvoting at the regular meeting for 1913, or such part thereof as may be so approved, to\nbe presented to the Sixty-third Congress of the United States at its first session, with\nthe formal request of the active members of this body that such changes, amendments,\nor alterations be enacted into law as a part of the said Act of Incorporation. Said committee to file their report, not later than May i, 1913, with the Secretary, who shall mail\na copy of the report to each active member, not later than June i, 1913.\nMr. Springer: I wish to call the gentleman's attention to one phrase, I think he\nsays \"a majority vote.\" I think that is a two-thirds vote according to our present\nArticles of Incorporation.\nI make the suggestion as to that change.\nPresident Pearse: This Association has no definite rule as to requesting amendments to its Articles of Incorporation by a majority vote.\nA Member:\nI second the motion to substitute as originally made.\nThe maker of the original motion accepted the substitute.\nWhereupon the substitute motion was duly put and carried.\nMr. Gillan: I wish to offer an amendment to the By-Laws, simply to get it before\nthis meeting, that it may be voted upon one year from now, as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nARTICLE\n\nASSOCIATION\nIX\n\nIf not less than thirty days before any regular meeting of the Association,\na petition signed by not less than one hundred active members, requesting the\nresignation of an officer, shall be filed with the Secretary, unless such officer shall present\nhis resignation at the regular meeting of the active members next following the filing of\nsuch petition, a recall vote shall be taken, and if two-thirds of the active members voting\nshall favor the recall of such officer, a vacancy shall thereupon exist, to be filled in such\nmanner as provided for filling vacancies; and an officer thus recalled shall be ineligible\nfor appointment or election to the same office during a period of two years after such recall.\nBy motion duly made and carried the said amendment was referred to a committee\nfor action next year.\nMiss Haley: I have here an application for a new department entitled \"Classroom\nTeachers' Department.\"\nPresident Pe.ause:\nWill you read it ?\nMiss Haley (reading) :\nWe the undersigned, classroom teachers, active members of the National Education\nAssociation, hereby make application to have a new department to be known as the\n\"Classroom Teachers' Department\" added to the list of departments of the National\nEducation Association :\nGrace DeGraff, Portland, Ore.\nJulia Holth. St. Paul, Minn.\nLily E. M. Patterson, Princeton, 111.\nNellie Minehan, Milwaukee, Wis.\nMabel F. Smith, Topeka, Kans.\nMar>' E. Hannan, Milwaukee, Wis.\nAlma Reed, Eudora, Kans.\nMary C. Kerr, Baltimore, Md.\nIda Reed, Benton Harbor, Mich.\nGrace Baldwin, Minneapolis, Minn.\nLura A. Griswold, Kansas City, Mo.\nJulia H. Vaughan, Minneapolis, Minn.\nEmma A. Dodson, Terre Haute, Ind.\nLydia L. Hazleton, Minneapolis, Minn.\nBertha Dodson Neyhouse. Poseyville, Ind.\nIda L..M. Fursman, Chicago, III.\nEdna May Gifford, Elgin, 111.\nMary Cone Harris, Minneapolis, Minn.\nLucinda E. D. Lafuse, College Corner, Ohio\nAnnie L. Donohue, Minneapolis, Minn.\nGenevieve Washburn, Minneapolis, Minn. Rose E. Rafferty, Chicago, III.\nMary A. Starkey, ^Milwaukee, Wis.\nMinnie L. Spawr, Chicago, 111.\nHelen M. Holden, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\" D. W. Springer, Detroit. Mich.\nKatherine C. Farley, Milwaukee, Wis.\nElizabeth A. Smyth, Baltimore, Md.\nKatherine J. MuUer, Minneapolis, Minn.\nMoUie K. Hobbs, Baltimore, Md.\nMargaret E. Cooper, St. Paul, Minn.\nMartha Stromberg, Baltimore, Md.\nA Member:\nI move it be referred to a committee.\nMiss Haley: Under the By-Laws this body has power to receive such application\nand act upon it next year.\nWhereupon motion was duly made and carried that the application be received and\nreferred to a committee for action next year.\nA Member:\nI move we adjourn.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair would not feel it right that this meeting should\ncome to a close after the members have been sitting here all thru this hot afternoon, transacting the vital business of this Association, and that the members should separate without receiving the sincere thanks of the Chair. Not in many years, in fact never before in\nthe history of this Association, so far as my knowledge goes, and it goes back thru most of\nthe meetings to the one presided over by our good friend Dr. Bicknell, has the Association\nsat so assiduously and continuously, the members giving their best attention to the business of the Association, as they have done this afternoon.\nI want to say I am very slow to believe that these staying qualities are possessed only\nby the teachers of Illinois. I have no doubt that their representatives are here, but\nI am conscious that there are many here from other states who have shown that they also\nare \"stayers\" and not \"quitters\"; and they have stayed here and attended to the important business of the Association.\nI want to thank all the members of the Association, these faithful brothers and sisters\nat my right and left, and these equally faithful but more conspicuous, who sit behind me,\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n73\n\nfor the assistance that they have rendered the Chairman at this meeting, in the conduct\nof the important business which has occupied us this afternoon.\nMotion for adjournment is now in order.\nA Member:\nI move we adjourn.\nA Member:\nSecond the motion.\nPresident Pearse: It has been moved and seconded that we adjourn. Before we\nadjourn, I ought to transmit one other item of news to you. I requested especially, and\nsupposed that my request would be complied with, that the excursions for our benefit\nwhich were going out this afternoon, be held until after the business meeting. I informed\nyou at the last meeting that this would be done. The Chair must confess himself to be a\nhapless prevaricator in that announcement; I understand that the excursions have departed\nwithout us, and those of us who have attended to the business of the day have done so at\nthe sacrifice of a cool and sociable ride. I commiserate you but I also compliment you\nupon your staunch loyalty and your faithfulness to the business of your Association.\nThe meeting stands adjourned until the next regular annual business meeting.\nWhereupon the annual business meeting of active members for 191 2 adjourned, sine\ndie.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nCarroll G. Pearse, President\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE BOARD OF\nDIRECTORS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR THE YEAR\n\n1911-12\n\nChicago, III., Monday, Jxjly 8, 191 2\nThe meeting was called to order in the Masonic Hall of the Auditorium Hotel by\nPresident Pearse at 9:30 a.m. The roll was called, resulting as follows:\nPresent: Directors Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin; Katherine D. Blake, of New\nYork; Irwin Shepard, of Minnesota; John W. Cook, of Illinois; Edwin G. Cooley, of\nIllinois; Oscar T. Corson, of Ohio; James M. Greenwood, of Missouri; Lorenzo D.Harvey,\nof Wisconsin; James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina; Charles I. Parker, of Illinois; Joshua\nPike, of Illinois; A. R. Taylor, of Illinois; Ella Flagg Young, of Illinois; John H. Phillips,\nof Alabama; A. J. Matthews, of Arizona; George B. Cook, of Arkansas; James B. Ragan,\nof Colorado; William M. Davidson, of District of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida;\nGrace M. Shepherd, of Idaho; William H. Campbell, of Illinois; Thomas A. Mott, of\nIndiana; O. P. Bostwick, of Iowa; John MacDonald, of Kansas; Thomas D. Boyd, of\nLouisiana; Robert J. Aley, of Maine; Robert J. Fuller, of Massachusetts; E. E. Scribner,\nof Michigan; C. G. Schulz, of Minnesota; E. E. Bass, of Mississippi; John R. Kirk, of\nMissouri; G. W. A. Luckey, of Nebraska; W. E. Garrison, of New Mexico; Grace C.\nStrachan, of New York; F. M. Harper, of North Carolina; Edward M. Van Cleve, of Ohio;\nWilliam F. Ramey, of Oklahoma; L. R. Alderman, of Oregon; Reed B. Teitrick, of Pennsylvania; D.B. Johnson, of South Carolina; J. J. Keyes, of Tennessee; George N. Child, of\nUtah; C. E. Beach, of Washington; M. P. Shawkey, of West Virginia; Emma J. Gardner,\nof Wisconsin.\nOn motion, it was voted that the following be elected to fill vacancies caused by\nresignations of directors :\nJames Ferguson, of California, in place of Mark Keppel, resigned.\nArthur D. Call, of Connecticut, in place of F. A. Verplanck, resigned.\nW. H. Nye, of Montana, in place of C. A. Duniway, resigned.\nW. J. Hunting, of Nevada, in place of Mrs. L. C. Booth, resigned.\nGeorge A. McFarland, of North Dakota, in place of W. E. Hoover, resigned.\nC. G. Lawrence, of South Dakota, in place of M. M. Ramer, resigned.\nD. S. Furman, of Texas, in place of Felix E. Smith, resigned.\n. Ira B. Fee, of Wyoming, in place of Charles O. Merica, resigned.\nB. K. Purdum, of Maryland, in place of A. C. Willison, resigned.\nOf these, the following were present: Directors James Ferguson, of California; B. K.\nPurdum, of Maryland; W. H. Nye, of Montana; George A. McFarland, of North Dakota;\nIra B. Fee, of Wyoming.\nTotal number of directors present, fifty.\nPresident Pearse: The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Directors will\nnow be read.\nSecretary Shepard: Mr. President, I have the minutes here as printed. They\nhave been printed in the Yearbook and are doubtless well known to all the members. Do\nyou wish to have them read ?\nPresident Pearse:\nWhat is the pleasure of the directors?\nDirector E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I move that the reading be suspended and\nthe minutes approved as printed.\nMotion seconded and carried.\nPresident Pearse : Since there seem to be no corrections, they will stand as printed.\nMy attention has been called to a communication which it is desired to present on behalf\nof the National Council. I have asked Secretary Aley of the Council to present it at this\ntime.\n74\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n75\n\nDirector R. J. Aley, of Maine: Mr. Chairman, at the meeting of the Council\nheld in San Francisco one year ago, the constitution of the Council was changed slightly,\nand thru an oversight at that time notice of the change was not brought to the attention\nof this body for approval. I desire at this time, on behalf of the Council, to bring\nbefore the Board of Directors the change and ask for the approval of this body.\nPresident Keyes of the Council, perhaps fifteen months ago, sent out a letter to all\nmembers of the Council, raising the question as to whether it might not be better to have\nthe meeting of the Council at a time different from the meeting of the National Education\nAssociation; the reason for that being that many of the most valuable members of the\nCouncil, due to the great growth of the summer-school notion over the country, these men\nbeing in demand for work in summer schools, find it impossible to attend this meeting.\nPresident Keyes received from ii8 of the 120 members of the Council letters; 114 of\nthese replies were favorable to the proposed change to a different time. In view of that\nalmost unanimous vote by letter of the members of the Council, a committee was appointed\nat- San Francisco to propose changes in the constitution. The change (and the other\nchanges are simply minor ones to bring them into harmony with that) is in Article III, in\nregard to meetings:\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held in connection with the\nDepartment of Superintendence of the National Education Association, or at such other\ntime and place as the Executive Committee of the Council may designate.\nIf you will allow me to explain, I will say that that was put in that particular form so\nthat in case the Department of Superintendence might see fit to go at some time to some\nremote part of the country, it would be possible for the Council to arrange a meeting more\ncentrally located. The change does not bind the Council to hold its meeting at the time\nof the National Education Association, altho the intention is that in general it may be.\n\"There may be special meetings of the Council,\" etc. There are no other changes except\nthe changes made by that, which provide for filling of vacancies and the election of new\nmembers at the regular annual meeting, as provided for by the change. The proposed\nchanges are printed in the annual volume of Proceedings, and doubtless all of you have had\noccasion to look them over.\nMr. Chairman, I move that the Board of Directors approve this change in the\nconstitution of the Council.\nA Director:\nI second the motion.\nDirector Katherine D. Blake, of New York: Does that mean that there will be\nno meeting of the Council in connection with the summer meeting ?\nDirector Aley: Not necessarily. The same provision for special meetings that\nhas existed from the formation of the Council still remains. It merely provides that the\nregular annual meeting may be held at the time of the Department of Superintendence or\nat such other time and place as the Executive Committee may provide. It does not\nforbid its being held with this meeting.\nDirector Ella Flagg Young, of Illinois: I did not quite understand when the\nofi&cers were to be elected. Mr. Aley spoke of the annual meeting. It seems as if that is\na movable feast.\nDirector Aley:\nI will read that clause again:\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held in connection with the\nDepartment of Superintendence of the National Education Association or at such other\ntime and place as the Executive Committee of the Council may designate.\nDirector Young: That makes it movable. It will be held at the time of the\nNational Education Association or at such other time and place as the Executive Committee of the Council may designate.\n• Director Grace C. Strachan, of New York: That is, one might be elected secretary\nand serve for one month on a certain occasion, and at another time serve for nine months,\nor eleven months.\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirector Aley: Your point of view is well taken, except as to the time. The\nofficers are elected for three years, thru three annual meetings.\nDirector Strachan: I thought it was for one year, as in the other departments,\nand the general Association. I should think that would be a serious difficulty in this\namendment, the fact that there is really no meeting that can be called an annual meeting.\nIt may be held one year in September and another year in October or June.\nDirector Scribner: I think the secretary of the Council explained the clause\nfollowing.\nWon't you make that explanation again ?\nDirector Aley: The idea of the Council was that in all cases the meeting would be\nheld in connection with the meeting of the Department of Superintendence unless the\ndepartment should go to some remote part of the country, as has been the case occasionally, where in all probability there would be a very small attendance of the Council. In\nthat case it would be thought wise to hold a meeting at some central point, and the time\nwould not necessarily be on the same dates as the National Education Association, but\nwithin a period of ten days preceding or following, at the same time of the year.\nDirector Strachan: Of course that does not appear in the amendment, and there\nis nothing that would fix it. I should like to ask whether the attendance at the National\nCouncil is greater at the Department of Superintendence meeting or at the large meeting,\nas we consider this ?\nDirector Aley: Of course we have only had one test of that, and that was at the\nSt. Louis meeting. I have served as secretary at four meetings, and the attendance at\nSt. Louis was very much larger than at any of the others. Of the 1 20 members, all were\npresent at St. Louis but 35. At most meetings the attendance is much smaller than that;\nat all of the meetings, in fact, which I have attended.\nDirector Strachan : Do superintendents form the majority of the members of the\nNational Council ?\nDirector Aley:\nI could not answer that offhand.\nDirector Strachan:\nI thought that might explain the situation.\nDirector Aley: I should say that superintendents and normal school people\nperhaps do constitute the large majority.\nDirector Strachan: Because teachers who are members would find it more\ndifficult to get away in February than the superintendents.\nPresident Pearse:\nAre there further remarks ?\nDirector T. D. Bicknell, of Rhode Island: Being somewhat familiar with the\npurposes of the Council and its organization, I think that the feeling was then that\nthe Council should hold a very intimate and close relation to the annual meetings of the\nNational Education Association, and these meetings have always been thus held. It\nseems to me that this separation of the two would weaken its influence and weaken its\nrelations to the main body. I have only had this moment to think of it, but it seems to\nme that it is a deviation from the original principles of the Council and it seems to me also\nthat it woud weaken the influence of the Council itself. WTiile at any one particular meeting\nthere may have been a large attendance, it seems to me that on the whole its association\nwith the national meeting would give it a large value and also give to it a larger attendance.\nPresident Pearse:\nAre there further remarks?\nDirector J. R. Kirk, of Missouri : There is a new element being injected into education\nthat we cannot avoid recognizing, and that is the summer-school movement, reaching\nfrom six weeks to twelve weeks, in all the large universities between the Alleghanies and\nthe Rockies, at least, and perhaps extending somewhat outside of those regions; and the\nfaculties of the normal schools and of these large universities are very largely engaged in\nconducting the summer schools, so that it is practically impossible in the state normal\nschools and many of the state universities for the faculty members to get away to attend\na summer meeting, especially in the case of the summer meeting being earlier than the\n20th or 30th of July. But there is a new birth in education which is sending from many\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n77\n\ncities the very pick of the flock, the choicest and most progressive of the teachers, the rank\nand file of teachers, into these summer schools the country over. We found in the Normal\nSchool Department at St. Louis, I believe, a larger number of normal-school faculty\nmembers (not presidents, but faculty members) than had ever been seen in a summer\nmeeting of the Normal School Department, and I apprehend that we shall be worried a\ngood deal in adjusting not only these several departments to that new condition in education, but it is very materially affecting the attendance of the National Education Association as a whole. It is doubted whether such an attendance can ever be had at the summer\nconvention again as we used to have prior to four or five years ago. I merely mention\nthose as features that are unavoidable.\nDirector G. W. A. Luckey, of Nebraska: I want to call attention to the fact,\nwhich President Aley has brought out, that there was an almost unanimous verdict of\nthe Council in their own meeting that it would be important or would be valuable to\nchange the meeting to the winter meeting, and it seems to me, other things being equal,\nthat it would be a wiser policy to allow any organization to control itself than to control\nit from the outside, since they desire to make this change in their work.\nIt doesn't seem to me, and has not for a number of years, to be very damaging to the\nNational Education Association as a whole to have a reduction of departments at this\nsummer meeting. That has been one of the difficult things to attend to, it seems to me,\nfor a number of years. We have so many departments, and our interests are so divided,\nthat it is a difficult thing to attend to all of them, and so this change would not be a bad\nthing, probably, for the National Education Association itself.\nThere is one other feature of the National Education Association, in the line of what\nPresident Kirk has said, that has appealed to me very keenly in the last few years. The\nmen, especially, and the women who work in the Council and in the Department of\nHigher Education and some other more advanced lines, are very strenuous in their work\nfor at least nine or ten months in the year. Their work is trying. They are in demand,\ntoo, in the summer sessions. They are held at home. I find, too, that a great many\nmen and women, when they get thru with their year's work, strenuous as it has been, feel\nthat they can help their people more, and help other people more, by taking a rest during\nthe summer or by travel and by study. Now, unfortunately the National Education\nAssociation comes at a time when y6u have to give up your study work or your travel\nwork, because it is a month after your school closes before your meeting comes, and then\nit is a month or more after that before you are called back to your work. So you cannot\ngo very far from home, and that is one thing that is breaking in upon the attendance at\nthe National Education Association. Men prefer to go to some place where they can sit\ndown in quiet study and reading or travel.\nSo it seems to me that this motion is quite in place, and it probably would be a good\nthing for the Council and not a bad thing for the National Education Association in\nreducing somewhat the number of interests that we have at this big meeting.\nDirector Bicknell: The point has been brought out clearly that was lying back\n, in my mind. I hear from so many sources the suggestion that the disintegration of the\nNational Association has begun, and if it has, of course this is along the line of the movement, which I should regard as one of the most unfortunate things in the history of education in this country. Of course, as to the matter of time limit, as to place and time of\nmeeting, those are questions that are variable. But if, as at St. Louis, a month of the\nyear, or several weeks of the year, could be obtained whereby the whole week or two\nweeks could be devoted to educational work, when the teachers were less disposed to travel\nor various interests which might occupy their attention, it would be of great value. But\nto me the most unfortunate thing that could occur to this Association, or to the country\nin educational work, would be the disintegration and destruction of this Association. I\nhave been thru one or two crises in its history, and I think we are approaching another.\nI see so many signs of it that for one I want to put myself on record as standing for its\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nunity, its perpetuity, and its greater strength instead of its weakness. I therefore shall\nvote against the proposition on the grounds that I have named.\nDirector Aley: May I say just one word? I of course have not been connected\nwith this Association the long time that Director Bicknell has, but I must very strongly\ndisagree with him that there is any disintegration of this Association in sight. I do not\nbelieve that for a minute. I believe that the great meetings of the Department of Superintendence which are held at a different time have in no wise detracted from the meeting\nof the National Education Association. I think, on the other hand, they have increased\ninterest in the National Education Association. Those meetings are always considered\nas a part of the National Education Association. Whenever the meetings of the Council\nare held, the thing that will be prominent is that it is the National Education Association,\nnot a separate thing apart from the National Education Association. Further than that,\nI must believe that having the meeting at a time when it will accommodate more members\nwill not mean a smaller attendance of Council members at this meeting. I believe that\nthere will be at this meeting just as many Council members as would be here if the Council\nhad its annual meeting at this time. I do believe that, with the strenuous work of the\nCouncil out of the way, the members of the Council who do attend this meeting, and who,\nI am convinced, will attend in as large numbers, will be able to give far more attention to\nthe work of this meeting than when they come here and have six or seven long sessions of\nthe Council that use up their strength and energy. I must very strongly disagree with\nthe conclusions that Mr. Bicknell has reached.\nDirector J. W. Cook, of Illinois: There are two considerations that appeal to me in\nfavor of this proposed change of time. First and most decidedly, the strongest consideration is the fact that the Council wishes it. You cannot run against the wishes of the\nCouncil in this matter and hope to have a successful meeting. Men will simply stay\naway. You cannot even lead them to the water, much less can you make them drink\nwhen they are there.\nSecondly, the meeting of the Council occurs, as at present organized, immediately at\nthe close of the year. We all come here already greatly overburdened with cares and with\nweariness incident in large part to the greatly increased duties that devolve upon us near\nthe close of the year. I need not say that it is very natural for people to defer preparation\nfor this meeting until a month or so before the meeting and then there is that great accumulation ofduties. We have our commencement time coming on, and our trustees' meetings,\nand we are arranging our budget, and everything of that kind — all of those vital details\nthat must be attended to with such scrupulous care and exactness and that will of course\nabsorb our time and push aside that belated preparation for the meeting.\nI may add a third consideration, which just occurs to me. I think, Mr. President,\nthat we are all struck with the very great excellence last year, as we have been before, of\nthe exercises, papers, and discussions at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence.\nThe St. Louis meeting was certainly a great meeting, as there have been great meetings\nbefore That means that it comes somewhere near the midyear period of comparative\nliberty from the great stress of our duties that we can devote to the preparation for the\nmeeting; and altho I am not prepared to say positively, of course, that such will be the\nresult, I believe that the programs of the Council, the exercises of the Council meeting,\nwill be greatly improved by the change in time. That is a matter that will have to be\ndemonstrated by actual experience but I am at least in favor; on my own part, I will go\nanywhere at any time that seems best, and at least indicate by my presence that I am in\nsympathy with it, tho I may not have had the opportunity to prepare work. Still I\nbelieve that the value of the Council will be materially increased by this change of time.\nI cannot think that the holding of the meeting of the Council at a different time would\nin any way threaten the life or vitality or perpetuity of the Association.\nDirector Bicknell: I wish WiUiam Torrey Harris were here. His idea was that\nthe National Council stood as a highly trained body of experts which would lend their\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n79\n\ninfluence and the influence of their discussion to the main Association. That was the\nmain purpose of the formation of the Council. It was supposed to be part and parcel\nof the annual meeting and was held just in advance of it, not held concurrently. I\nremember the second meeting we held at Atlanta and it was a very successful meeting,\nand it seems to me that we cannot divorce the two without weakening both. I feel that\nway; I must vote that way.\nCalls of \"Question!\"\nDirector Young: Excuse my speaking again. The point that I raised was not\nwith regard to the Council meeting elsewhere from the place at which the National\nAssociation meets, but that the Council seemed to meet whenever it pleased. Its annual\nmeeting was uncertain, and I feared that some time the secretary might fail to put in the\nword \" annual \" and I should not be there to vote at the annual meeting. I have thought\nfurther, since the discussion has been going on, of the great loss to the teachers of this\ncountry that will come from the separation of the Council from the general meetings.\nThe argument which I brought to bear on the teachers of Chicago, and which increased\nvery largely our Association membership, was due to my going back in my own experience\nto the early meeting of the Council. In all my educational career I have never attended\nanything else that equaled those early meetings and their influence upon my educational\nthought, and I urged upon the teachers to be here and hear the discussions of the leading\nmen and women of the country. But alas! if the leading men and women of the country\nare busy teaching in the normal summer schools and college summer schools, then those\nteachers have stayed here to see only us, which I think, is a great misfortune. We have\nto bear in mind, after all is said and done, that the great aim, as I see it (I may be mistaken), ofthis Association is the uplifting of the teaching corps of the country. It is a\npity that this winter the leading people connected with colleges and normal schools and\nsuperintendencies gave their papers at St. Louis, and the teachers were not there. The\nteachers will be here this summer. I have been thinking, since I have sat here, that for\nmany years I have realized what Mr. Kirk said, that there is a great danger threatening\nus from the summer schools, and I have been wondering why it would not be possible to\norganize a movement which would lead all boards of education thruout the country to\ngive two weeks in September or October, to close the schools, paying the salaries, and\nletting the teachers attend this Association, and then all of the teachers that wish to\ncould attend the summer schools, and all of the members of schools who wish to recoup\ntheir pocketbooks by teaching in the siunmer schools could do so, and it would have no\neffect upon the National Association meeting.\nDirector Scribner: I move that the part of Article III as read by the Secretary\nbe cut at the first sentence, and that the clause \"or at such other time and place as the\nExecutive Committee of the Council may designate,\" be stricken out.\nDirector Bicknell: I should like to see that vote put thru if that is to be a regular\nmeeting.\nI think the annual meeting should be held in connection with this body.\nPresident Pearse: If the director thinks another amendment is needed, I suggest\nthat he make it.\nDirector T. D.Boyd, of Louisiana: I should like to ask for information. Several\namendments have been read. I am not sure that we understand the question exactly.\nThe constitution now requires the Council to meet during this meeting, and yet it held a\nmeeting during the convention and al5o at St. Louis.\nDirector Aley: The annual meeting has just been held. A special meeting was\nheld at St. Louis.\nDirector Boyd: Why not let the amendment provide for two regular annual\nmeetings, one to be held at this time and in connection with the general convention, the\nother to be held at the Superintendence convention, and then special meetings whenever\nthe Council desires? As I understand the thing, the meeting of the Department of\nSuperintendence is getting to be just as great an affair as this convention, and it strikes\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nme that the trend of events is leading to the holding, perhaps, of this convention in the\nwinter time to take the place of the Department of Superintendence; and it seems to me\nthat it would not be a very violent change in the constitution to direct the Council to hold\ntwo regular annual meetings, one at the regular convention in the summer and the other\nat the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in the winter.\nPresident Pearse:\nIs there any further discussion of the matter?\nDirector T. A. Mott, of Indiana: May I ask for information ? Have we the right\nto change that constitution, or simply to approve or disapprove ? Could we change the\nconstitution of the Council ?\nPresident Pearse: Do you ask that of the Chair as a matter of ruling ? I should\nsay that this body can only approve or disapprove.\nDirector Aley:\nThat is correct.\nDirector Mott: If we don't quite approve of that amendment, we should refer it\nback to the Council. Personally I am very much in favor of meeting both times, with\nthe superintendents and here with this meeting, because there were large numbers of the\nCouncil present both times, and each time is an opportune time to have a good meeting.\nDirector Scribn'er: It seems to me, Mr. President, that some of the speakers fail\nto understand that the Council is a co-ordinate branch of the National Education Association, and it has not been the purpose of those who have had the matter of amending the\nconstitution in hand in any way to deprecate this meeting, and there is nothing to prevent\nthe Council having a regular session at the annual meeting of the National Education\nAssociation as well as with the Department of Superintendence.\nPresident Pearse: If we do not approve the constitution proposed by the Council,\nif we feel it needs some further putting into shape, it will be proper for us to return it to\nthe Council for their further consideration.\nDirector Bicknell:\nI move that we do refer it back.\nPresident Pearse:\nDirector Greenwood has the floor.\nDirector J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri: The Council has for many years been\ncomposed of many of the persons here present, and under the former arrangement —\ngenerally meeting on Friday before the Association commenced the next Monday — many\nof us had to leave our work and come two or three days in advance of the meeting of the\nNational Education Association. I should judge there would be plenty of opportunity for\nthe usual meeting with the Department of Superintendence having a regular program with\ndiscussions and reports at times that would not conflict materially with the Department of\nSuperintendence. The second thought was, then, to hold a short meeting of the Council,\njust as was done at this session last Saturday, and finish up what business was necessarily\nleft to be transacted. Now, as a matter of fact, you know that very few persons, except\nsome that are interested, ever attended the meetings of the Council. Last Saturday I think\nI could have counted fifty persons present. Then again, the members of the Council, many\nof them, are on different programs of the meetings which interfere with the other department meetings of the Association. As I understand it, there is no intention to cut off\nfrom the general .\\ssociation, but that we might be more efl&cient in our work and give\nthe members of the Council opportunity to attend the department meetings and the\ngeneral sessions of the Association. I have been in the Council when there would not be\nfifteen persons present, and the last meeting, in which important matters were transacted,\nthere was hardly a quorum to finish the unfinisheTi business. This was the reason.\nDirector Cook: I desire instruction. As I understand the motion, it was offered\nto release the Council of certain embarrassment arising from the fact that it did not\nobserve technicalities. In the first place, is it possible for this Board of Directors to\nrelieve the Council from the embarrassment which it now feels because of its neglect of\nthat technicality of giWng notice ? Then I wish to ask further whether that would be a\ngenuinely regular enactment if we should by a vote endeavor to relieve the Council from\nthat embarrassment.\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nPresident Pearse : The secretary of the Council will answer as his judgment and\ninformation direct.\nDirector Aley: Just as soon as the officers of the Council discovered that the\nmatter of bringing this before this body at San Francisco had been overlooked, it was\nimmediately decided to work under the old constitution or by-laws of the Council: that\nis, that the meeting at St. Louis should be a special meeting. The regular meeting of the\nCouncil, at which all business was transacted, occurred Saturday here, which was a\nregular meeting under the old constitution, so that there is no particular embarrassment\nto be relieved. The Council now asks that the changes made in their by-laws a year ago\nbecome effective for future action by the approval of this board.\nDirector Bicknell: The Council is not a co-ordinate body. I do not so understand it. It is a subordinate body, formed at Chautauqua, N.Y., in 1880, by the National\nAssociation, because the constitution and by-laws were approved by this body. It was\nthe child of the National Association and belongs to it as its child, and has full control of\nthat constitution and general management, so far as that goes. It seems to me that it\nwould be worse than useless to have a nominal meeting in connection with this meeting.\nI have been present at a meeting of the National Education Association where there were\nnot over fifteen or twenty present. That is true of the National Association. The\nNational Council was its first movement forward, its first great movement forward. It\nwas a magnificent movement, and around it and with it in the Association, as it belongs\ntoday, the Association will reach higher and greater things. It seems to me, if it be\ndivorced and simply a nominal meeting held here it will be unfortunate. We ought to\nstand by our original plan and make the Council a part of this plan.\nDirector Aley: I may say that the meeting on Saturday was not a nominal\nmeeting. It was a regular meeting with three sessions with splendid programs. I think\neverybody there will testify that as good programs were presented on Saturday as have\nbeen presented at any meeting, and there were more people at each of those meetings\nthan were in attendance at San Francisco one year ago.\nDirector Luckey: I should like to ask whether the purpose of the Council is not\nfor the good of the people and for the help of the teaching corps of the country. I attended\nthe meeting at San Francisco and I do not believe that we had at any one time two hundred\nmembers as an audience. At St. Louis I attended the meeting also and a great many\nof our teachers went there from my state and I am sure that the audiences would average\ntwelve hundred. If we can give this information that we have to twelve hundred people\nat one time, rather than two hundred, it seems to me it is wise to make such a change.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair desires to call attention to the fact that we have a\nproposition before us to approve the constitution ancl by-laws presented by the Educational Council. We can approve or disapprove them or we can re-refer them.\nDirector Scribner:\nThe motion is to approve.\nQuestion.\nThe motion was put and carried.\nPresident Pearse:\nThe next business is the report of the Board of Trustees.\nChairman Greenwood: The report of the Board of Trustees, I think, has been\ndistributed to all the directors. Probably most of you have read the report. It is brief,\nand I think all the principal facts in connection with the financial interests committed to\nthe Board of Trustees are stated. As you will observe, there was an investment made in\nschool bonds, $10,000 in Kansas City, Mo., school bonds. They were purchased at 95\ncents on the dollar. These bonds fall due in 1925 and interest is payable semiannually.\nProbably I should make a personal statement here. For the purchase of the school bonds\n$10,000 had been set aside, transferred to the Permanent Fund; $9,500 of that was used\nfor the purpose of purchasing these bonds, which purchase was concurred in by all the\nmembers of the Board of Trustees. The interest falls due July i and January i. The\n$500 not used was transferred to a balance on hand of nearly $3,000 carried over from last\nyear, making an unexpended fund now of about $3,300 or $3,400 to be invested in securities.\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIt is not worth while, unless you have some questions, to take further time in regard\nto this report. It is properly certified to by the examiner of securities. If there are any\nquestions I should be very glad to answer so far as I can.\nPresident Pearse: Are there further questions? If not, the question is on the\nadoption of the report and placing it on file. If there is no objection, the report will be\nreceived and placed on file. The next order of business is the report of the Treasurer.\nTreasurer Blake : It is not necessary for me to read this report, as it is in the hands\nof every director. I will spare you the statistics and will read only the suggestions that\nI have made.\nI therefore recommend that the membership certificates in future be entirely in the\nhands of the Treasurer, that the Secretary acknowledge the payment of dues on a printed\nform stating that the Treasurer will send membership certificate later. This would give\nthe Association a second roll of active members, and as the Treasurer's roll would be kept\nin a different place from that of the Secretary, it would remove the present danger of\nhaving the records completely destroyed in case of fire.\nI recommend further that the bond for the Treasurer be reduced to a minimimi.\nThe Treasurer at present has no checkbook, and cannot draw on the funds of the Association. The $10,000 bond now issued is therefore unnecessarily expensive.\nLastly, I recommend that the present regulation limiting funds at the disposal of the\nstate directors to $20 each be amended so as to allow the state director to draw on the\nAssociation for actual expenses incurred to an amount not to exceed 25 per cent of the\nannual dues of the active members in the state for the year of his administration. I\nmake this recommendation on the advice of several successful business men as being\nin line with modern business methods. Such a policy would doubtless largely increase\nthe membership and the income of the Association. That the present arrangement is\nunfair will be borne out by the following statistics of the San Francisco convention.\nOf course this body can only recommend that, it cannot make any By-Laws or anything of that kind, but I suppose that you could adopt a regulation or recommend that the\nTrustees adopt such a regulation, the Board of Trustees having the power to make rules\nfor the Secretary and Treasurer.\nI do not know what body made the regulation that the annual allowance to state\ndirectors should be $20 apiece.\nI believe it was the Board of Trustees.\nPresident Pearse:\nProbably the Board of Trustees or the Executive Committee.\nTreasurer Blake: Then that recommendation, if this body sees fit to approve it,\ncould go to the Executive Committee for action. It is embarrassing to have members say,\nas has happened since the convention, \" Where are the (naming a state) headquarters ?\" I\nthink there are no California headquarters, and j'et California this past year has had an\nenormous active membership. It does not seem to me that after entertaining us as\nroyally as California did last siunmer the state director of that state should be\nallowed only $20 to pay for headquarters and so on. I am free to make this recommendation as I am not a state director.\nDirector Cook : May I ask if the speaker is aware of the fact that the state teachers'\nassociations in most of the states — in many of the states — make quite an ample appropriation for headquarters?\nTreasurer Blake: You say \"in most of the states,\" and then \"in many of the\nstates.\" I think \"many of the states\" is more accurate than \"most of the states.\" I\nknow in New York state that there was an appropriation under Mr, Downing's directorship. When Mr. Downing ceased to be state director the state of New York took no\nfurther interest in headquarters for the state of New York.\nA Director: Is it not true that the state directors have no right to use that money\nfor anything excepting postage and stationery ? They cannot use it for headquarters ?\nPresident Pearse:\nThat is correct.\nTreasurer Blake: That may all be. I am not finding any fault with the way\nthe money is spent. Anybody that spends only $20 can get but a small attendance from\nhis state. I am saying that the state directors ought to be in a position to be able to\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n83\n\narouse interest by paying for headquarters and maintaining their states in proper standing.\nThat is merely my recommendation.\nThe balance in the treasury is now over $5,000, and we have turned over to the general\nfund this year $10,000.\nPresident Pearse: As it seems to the Chairman, the recommendations fall under\nthree heads: first, with reference to change in the duties and perhaps the title of the\nSecretary and Treasurer, which I suppose would be referred to the active members of the\nAssociation. The recommendation that the Treasurer's bond be reduced should go to\nthe Trustees, and the recommendation with reference to the regulation limiting the funds\nat the disposal of the state directors might properly be considered by the new Board\nof Directors and the Executive Committee which will work during the next year. If\nsuch reference is satisfactory to the directors, it will be made. If other action is desired,\nwhat is your pleasure ?\nTreasurer Blab^:: It seems to me that the first recommendation should go to the\nBoard of Trustees rather than to the active members. They have the ordering of the\nfinancial affairs of the Association.\nPREsroENT Pearse: There is one other recommendation. It is for an arrangement\nfor the issuing of the membership certificates by the Treasurer. Is there objection to the\nreference, or will you make some other suggestions if this is not satisfactory?\nDirector A. R. Taylor, of Illinois: I move the reference to the different organizations which the Chairman has suggested.\nThe motion was seconded and carried.\nPresident Pearse: The report of the Treasurer, having been received with the\nproper certificates, is approved and placed on file unless objection is made.\nPresident Pearse: Reports of other officers. Has the Secretary anything to\noffer? The President has something to offer which he will present at this time:\nReport of the President to the Board of Directors of the National Education Association:\nIt has not, in the past, been the custom for the President to submit a report at this\ntime, tho the Board of Trustees and the Treasurer do so. There is, however, a good deal\nof business transacted thru the year by the Executive Committee, or by the President\nfor them, on behalf of the Association, and there seem to be good reasons why the President, as the chief executive officer of the Association, should report such items as, in his\njudgment, ought to come to the directors in this way, with such comment as to him seems\nproper.\nThe accompanying report is submitted in accordance with this view.\nrepresentatives accredited to notable educational gatherings and functions\nInvitations were received during the year from various educational institutions, and\norganizations of an educational or semi-educational character, requesting that the National\nEducation Association be represented on important occasions by its principal officers or\nby delegates. In accordance with such invitations, the Association was represented as\nfollows :\nAt the Third National Conservation Congress, Kansas City, Mo., September 25, 26,\n27, 1911, by Hon. George B. Cook, state superintendent of public schools, Little Rock,\nArk.; Professor E. C. Bishop, State College of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa; Hon. E. T.\nFairchild, state superintendent of public instruction, Topeka, Kans.; Superintendent\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.; Professor J. L. McBrien, Extension Division,\nState University, Lincoln, Nebr.\nThe following resolutions were presented by your delegates to the Conservation\nCongress and were unanimously adopted by that body:\nResolved, That the children of the United States are recognized as the most precious\nresource of this nation, and that the federal Bureau of Education is the only agency for\ncollecting, pubhshing, and distributing educational information thruout the country.\nWe, therefore, urge that the national appropriations for studying problems involving\nthe welfare of the nation's school children be made comparable in amount with those\nannually made for studying problems involving the welfare and conservation of the\nnation's material resources.\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nResolved, That in a system of free schools all the children should be trained for good\ncitizenship and for the useful industries; that owing to the rapidly changing and increasingly complex social and economic conditions now found in all sections of the UniQn, our\npublic schools should make ample provision for instructing the youth of the land in the\nmore important occupations in which our people are engaged, and parents and teachers\nshould counsel together to determine, if possible, what vocation each chUd is best adapted\nto pursue.\nResolved, That the Vocational Education Bill now pending in Congress, providing\nfor the training of teachers to give scientific instruction in the elements of agriculture in the\nrural schools, has our hearty indorsement, and we urge its speedy enactment.\nAt the inauguration of George E. Vincent, LL.D., as president of the University of\nMinnesota, ^linneapolis, October 19, by the President of the Association.\nAt the inauguration of Ellen Fitz Pendleton, Litt.D., as president of Wellesley\nCollege, on October 19, 1911, by President Ellen M. Sabin, of Milwaukee-Downer College,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nAt the celebration of the One Hundred Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the founding\nof the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on February 27, 28, 29, 191 2, by President\nWilliam O. Thompson, of the State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nAt the inauguration of Anna Jane McKeag, Ph.D., as president of Wilson CoUege,\nChambersburg, Pa., on May i, 1912, by Grace F. Pennypacker, vice-president of the\nHome and School League, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAt the meeting of the American Library Association at Ottawa, Canada, June 27 to\nJuly 2, by President George E. Vincent, of the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.\nDETERMINATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nOF MEETING\n\nAt San Francisco, the directors present, on the showing made to them previously\nand at the time of their meeting, indicated their preference for St. Paul as the next place\nof meeting for the Association by a vote of thirty-one for that city to ten for Chicago.\nThe matter was then, in accordance with custom, referred to the Executive Committee,\nwith power to act, and to decide upon such location as in their judgment would best\nserve the interests of the Association. The Executive Committee, assuming that the\nnecessary and customary conditions would be met at St. Paul, as the directors had been\nassured would be the case, visited St. Paul, inspected the facilities and conveniences\noffered, and decided to hold the meeting for 191 2 in that city, provided the conditions\nwhich had been promised were met. St. Paul, however, at once began to experience\ndifficulty in fulfilling these conditions. The railways refused to announce the customary\nrates, tho the St. Paul committee explained that they had private assurances that the\nrates would soon be authorized. To assist the St. Paul committee, members of the Executive Committee and the Secretary made repeated visits to Chicago and to St. Paul to\nconfer with various railway authorities and if possible secure the announcement or assur. ances of the expected rates for St. Paul. All these efforts were futile, however, and by\nthe time of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at St. Louis in February,\nthe Executive Committee, having definite assurance that no rates such as had been\ncustomar>' for the National Education Association could be expected in Western and\nCentral Passenger Association territory, notified the St. Paul committee that they considered the question of location for the meeting an open one, subject to such determination\nas the interests of the Association might require.\nWhen the failure to get rates had become practically certain, the President sent to\nall the directors representing the various states and territories a letter stating the facts\nas they had developed, and asking for their unofficial expression of opinion. Replies\nwere received from thirty-two of the forty-eight State Directors (not counting Porto\nRico, Hawaii, and the Philippines) by the time when it became necessary for the Executive Committee to make a decision. Of these replies thirteen, including that of the\ndirector from Illinois, favored St. Paul; eleven expressed a preference for Chicago; eight\nstated that as between Chicago and St. Paul they had no choice and thought the Executive Committee, which had fuller information than any single director, should decide as\nthe members thought best. Sixteen directors had made no reply. It is probably fair\nto assume that these sixteen shared the sentiment of the eight who thought the decision\nshould be made by the Executive Committee.\nThe committee considered the situation carefully; they investigated conditions in\nChicago and ascertained the facilities offered there. The Chicago proffer had received\nlittle consideration up to that time, the committee having given its attention chiefly to\nSt. Paul, assuming that conditions would finally be met, and the meeting held in that city.\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n85\n\nAfter thus weighing the matter, a majority of the members of the committee decided that\nit would be wiser to hold the meeting for 191 2 in Chicago; and the Association is now\nassembling in this city.\nThe local facilities offered the Association in Chicago were equal, at least, ta those\noffered elsewhere; Chicago is less convenient for only a small proportion of the membership, most directly tributary to St. Paul; a meeting in St. Paul would have required threefourths of the members to pass thru Chicago, the extra journey from Chicago to St. Paul\nand return, at the rates prevailing for railway and sleeping-car fare, requiring an extra\noutlay of about $20 for each of these members. Under the new and trying conditions\nto be met this year, your committee felt that a central location, as near as possible to the\ngreat body of the membership, was highly important.\nThe Executive Committee was subjected to some severe strictures from persons not\nfamiliar with all the facts. It was even stated that never before had an Executive Committee set up its own judgment in such a manner. Persons making such statements\nshould have read history. By so doing they might have found that in 1892 the Executive\nCommittee located the meeting of the Association in Saratoga Springs, N.Y., altho the\nprevious year the directors had expressed a strong preference for Helena, Mont., as the\nplace of meeting.\nIn 1894 the meeting was held at Asbury Park, altho at the last preceding meeting,\nin 1892, Asbury Park was not considered, but invitations were received from Milwaukee,\nSeattle, and Salt Lake City.\nIn 1896 the Executive Committee located the meeting in Buffalo, altho at the previous meeting in Denver, Los Angeles had been the city indicated as first choice by the\ndirectors.\nIn 1898 the Executive Committee located the meeting in Washington, D.C., altho\nat the preceding meeting the directors had expressed their preference for Omaha.\nIn 1907 the Executive Committee after extended negotiations with Philadelphia,\nlocated the meeting at Los Angeles, altho at the preceding meeting in 1905, Portland, Ore. ,\nDenver, and Salt Lake City, as well as San Francisco, had been among the places anxious\nto entertain the convention.\nIn 1910 the Executive Committee located the meeting in Boston, altho at the preceding meeting in Denver the directors had expressed their preference for San Francisco,\nvoting twenty-one for San Francisco, ten for Milwaukee, and four for Boston.\nEXAMINATION\n\nOF THE\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nRECORDS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSomething over a year ago some newspaper reports concerning the possible condition\nof National Education Association funds or concerning a lack of knowledge of the condition of those funds, caused some little comment among those interested in Association\naffairs. No great notice was taken of these and no particular importance attached to\nthem, however, by most of the people who saw them, and probably the matter would\nvery soon have been forgotten had not an official of the Association taken pains to have\nfacsimiles of some of these articles prepared and distributed widely thruout the country.\nThis action was followed by considerable more discussion, and further comment from an\nincreased number of persons. It was suggested that the Trustees at that time cause an\nexamination of the securities and other financial records of the Association to be made,\nbut nothing of the sort was done.\nAt the San Francisco meeting of the Board of Directors for the year 1910-11, the\nTreasurer serving for that year presented an elaborate report of some investigations which\nhe had made, as he explained to the directors, for the purpose of satisfying his own curiosity. Unfortunately, this report was not made as the result of any authorization by\nofficials of the Association and was not complete, since it did not include an examination\nof vouchers or a comparison of the same with the records. It was merely a carefully\nprepared document containing much interesting information gathered from various\nrecords of the Association; it was not in any way conclusive or final. It did, however,\nserve to raise the entire question of the records and funds of the Association anew and to\nindicate that, in the minds of some persons, at least, some inquiry or investigation was\nadvisable.\n•\nDuring the autumn of 1911, after the meeting in San Francisco, the chairman of the\nBoard of Trustees and one other member of that board, by arrangement between themselves, visited the vaults in which the securities representing the Permanent Fund of the\nAssociation are kept, and were accorded the privilege of examining those securities.\nThey afterward published a statement saying that \"in accordance with arrangement\"\nthey had examined the securities and found them to be as represented.\nIt is unfortunate\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthat this examination also was made without notice to the other members of the Board\nof Trustees and without their knowledge, and that, altho the form of the statement made,\nno doubt, led many who read it to understand that the \" arrangement \" referred to was\nmade by the Board of Trustees, the examination was not in anywise official or one which\ncould be recognized by the Board of Trustees. Under these circumstances it seemed,\nboth to members of the Board of Trustees and to members of the Executive Committee,\nthat a complete examination of the records and accounts, vouchers, and other papers of\nthe Association should be made, in order that any uncertainty which might exist in the\nminds of any of the members of the Association or in the minds of any other persons, might\nbe set at rest, and any^rther talk or speculation concerning the same might be rendered\nunnecessary.\nIn accordance with this view, the President of the Association was authorized by the\nBoard of Trustees to cause to be made such an examination of the accoimts and papers of\nthe Trustees, and by the Executive Committee to have such an examination made of the\nbooks of account and papers relating to the current funds of the Association since July,\n1903, as might be thought advisable. In accordance with this authorization the President\nemployed Marwick, Mitchell, Peat & Co., chartered accountants having offices in Chicago,\nMilwaukee, Minneapolis, and a number of the leading financial centers of the United\nStates, also offices in various cities in Great Britain.\nAfter the accountants, in accordance with authorization, had been employed to do\nthis work and were preparing to begin the examination, letters were received from some of\nthe officials concerned, either protesting against the examination or raising technical\npoints with reference to it. These objections and technical matters were not thought of\nsufficient weight, however, to warrant abandoning or delaying the examination and the\naccountants began their work about the 20th of June. The President has received their\nrep>ort, which is transmitted to the Board of Directors herewith.\nIt gives the President pleasure to be able to inform the directors that the accoimtants\nreport the accounts correct and state that in their judgment aU receipts have been duly\naccounted for.\nIn accordance with the provisions of the Articles of Incorporation and By-Laws, the\nPresident, with the advice and consent of the. Treasurer and the Secretary, designated\nMarwick, Mitchell, Peat & Co. to be the examiners of the securities constituting\nthe Permanent Fund. They made the examination as requested and their certificate\nshows also that the funds reported by the custodian, in whose hands the funds have been\nfor some years, are intact and in his possession.\nThe President desires, however, to call attention to two or three matters which seem\nto him to deserve attention. The accountants, in their report, recommend that some\ndifferent method of handling and issuing the membership certificates and the fimds\nreceived from memberships be devised. They suggest that the membership certificates\nbe printed and supplied to the Secretary either by the Board of Trustees or by the\nTreasurer.\nThe Secretary, in accordance with the present custom, acts as collector both of memberships and of other funds of the Association. He himself has the membership certificates printed, he collects the money paid for memberships, and issues the membership\ncertificates therefor. He accounts to the Treasurer for funds collected, as shown by the\nstubs in the membership receipt books. There is no suggestion that all membership\nbooks printed and used have not been accounted for; and yet had a dishonest official\nacted as collector in this manner during the years while the custom has prevailed, and,\nunder the administration of such an officer a hundred or five hundred or a thousand of\nthe stubs showing associate membership fees collected had been \"lost,\" there would have\nbeen no way of knowing that this had been done. No one makes, or has any thought of\nmaking, any charge that any funds collected by the Secretary have failed to reach the\ncoffers of the Association; if any such charge were made it would be impossible to substantiate it. On the other hand, under the system which has long been in vogue, it would\nbe equally impossible for the official who has acted as collector in this way to show absolutely that no such thing had taken place or could take place. It is a matter of surprise\nthat so serious a flaw as this should have been so long allowed to exist in the method by\nwhich the officials of the Association collect and account for the funds which pass thru\ntheir hands. I wish to emplfasize the suggestion of the accountants, which is also the\nsuggestion of the Treasurer, that the blank forms for use in the collection of membership\nfees and the issuance of membership certificates be printed under the direction of the\nTreasurer or under the direction of the Board of Trustees and that the same be issued to\nthe Secretary for his use as collector for the Association. This suggestion is more in the\ninterest of the Secretary, who is the collector for the Association, thanin the interest of\nthe Association, which appears to have been well and honestly served. In the words\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n87\n\nof the accountants who have examined and reported upon the financial records of the\nAssociation, \"By this means the Secretary would be relieved of responsibility upon being\ncalled upon to account for missing certificate books.\"\nThe President wishes also to suggest that somewhat more care be required in\nitemizing and auditing bills for expenses incurred on behalf of the Association. Many\nthousands of dollars are paid out of the Association's funds every year for the expenses\nincurred by various persons in doing the business of the Association. The expense\naccounts of some of these are rendered in minute detail accompanied by vouchers in all\ncases where possible. Other bills are presented very loosely itemized and in some cases\nentirely unaccompanied by any vouchers. Most institutions transacting business in\nanything like the volume transacted by the National Education Association require much\ngreater care in the preparation and rendering of expense accounts. In certain matters\nthe Association exercises great care. It has most minute directions for the correction of\nproof and a most carefully prepared \"style sheet\" is sent out to all those who read proof\nof matter which is to appear in the volume of Proceedings. If some sheet of instructions\nprepared with similar care could be supplied to persons who are authorized to incur\nexpenses on behalf of the Association, it would be of advantage both to those who render\nbills, and to the Association. The form used in rendering bills to the Secretary is carefully prepared and itemized upon the outside as to the accounts into which the items of\nexpense included in the bill shall fall. If a form prepared with equal care could be used\non the inside to facilitate the proper itemization of accounts, the plan would commend\nitself.\nDuring the year the President has made it a practice to file with his receipted bills\nfor telegrams copies of the telegrams for which the Association is asked to pay. He has\nalso asked the Secretary, as the other officer of the Association incurring the greatest\nexpense for telegrams, to follow the same plan, and, since early in the autumn when the\nrequest was first made, the Secretary has cheerfully complied with the request. The\nnational government requires that telegrams included in expense bills shall be thus\nfurnished in duplicate. Many large corporations and business institutions follow the\nsame plan. There seems no reason why the National Education Association should not\nadopt this method. An instance of the advisability of following this plan developed only\nrecently: when the Secretary, in attempting to complete the file of copies of telegrams,\nsought to supply copies of some messages sent early in the year, he found himself unable\nto do so, either from his own files or from the files of the telegraph company, it proving\nimpracticable to get, on request, the copies of telegrams amounting to several dollars,\nsent earlier in the year. Some of these telegrams were of such importance that the cost\nof transmission mounted into the dollars. Any method of records and accounting which\ndoes not retain copies of important messages of this character is less accurate and careful\nthan it should be.\nRespectfully submitted,\nCarroll G. Pearse\nPresident, National Education Association\nChicago, III.\nJuly 8, 1912\nMarwick, Mitchell, Peat & Co.\nCHARTERED\n\nACCOUNTANTS\n\nPartners\nMarwick, Mitchell & Co.\nW. B. Peat & Co.\n115 South La Salle St.\nChicago, III., July 6, 191 2\n\nCarroll G. Pearse, Esq., President\nNational Education Association of the United States\nMilwaukee, Wisconsin\nDear Sir: In accordance with your instructions, we have made an examination of\nthe books and records of the above Association for the period from July i, 1903, to June\n30, 191 2, and now submit our report thereon, together with the following statements:\nExhibits\n\"A,\" receipts and disbursements for the nine years ended June 30, 191 2.\n\"B,\" securities held for the Permanent Fund as at June 30, 191 2.\nSchedules for the nine years ended June 30, IQ12\n\"i,\" revenue from Permanent Fund received by Board of Trustees and transferred\nto Treasurer.\n\" 2,\" analysis of disbursements.\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nRECEIPTS\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\nThe receipts and disbursements for the nine years ended June 30, 191 2, are detailed\nby years in Exhibit \"A\" supplemented by Schedules \" i \" and \" 2.\" A summary of the\ntransactions of the Association during this period may be shown as follows :\nCashon hand July i, IQ03\nReceipts, July i, 1903 to June 30, igis\n\n$\n\n346.36\n389,059.22\n\nDisbursements July i, 1903 to June 30, 1912\n\n$389,405.58\n$299,872.85\n\nTransfers to Permanent Fund\n\n$ 89,532.73\n$ 84,150.00\n\nCash on hand June 30, 1912\n\n$\n\n5,382.73\n\nWe conducted an exhaustive investigation of the receipts and are of opinion that\nall revenue has been properly recorded. Vouchers for disbursements were produced\nfor our inspection and were in every case properly signed, approved, and authorized.\nWe would point out that in accordance with the customary practice of the officials of the\nAssociation, the receipts each year, as recorded in Exhibit \"A,\" include receipts to June\n15 only, cash received during the period from June 15 to June 30 being carried forward\nto the next financial year. This practice was introduced to enable the report of the\ntransactions for the year to be presented to the annual convention held early in July.\nIn connection with our audit of the accounts for the year ended June 30, 1912, we\ndevoted special attention to the receipts from the San Francisco convention in July, 191 1,\nand from the St. Louis meeting of the Department of Superintendence in February, 191 2,\nand in our opinion all receipts were properly accounted for.\nWe suggest for your consideration the practicability of placing the issuance of certificate books in the hands of the Board of Trustees or the Treasurer and holding the\nSecretary responsible for all unused books. By this means the Secretary would be relieved\nof responsibility upon being called upon to account for missing certificate books. At the\npresent time the Secretary orders such certificate books as are required, and unused\nbooks are not accoimted for.\nThe books of the Association were well and carefully kept during the period covered\nby our investigation.\nA statement of the permanent fund of the Association as at June 30, 191 2, amounting\nto $190,000.00 is presented in Exhibit \"B \" which may be summarized as follows:\nSecurity\nRailroad bonds\n\nPar Value\n\nBook Value\n\n$ 98,000.00\n86,000.00\n\n82,162.50\n$ 98,940.00\n\n$184,000.00\n\n3,397.50\n5,500.00\n$190,000.00\n\nThe securities comprising the Permanent Fund as at June 30, 1912, deposited in the\ncustody of the First Trust and Savings Bank were produced for our inspection and found\nto be in order.\nThe revenue from investments for the period from July i, 1903, to June 30, 191 2,\nwas carefully checked with the Trustees' accounts and was found to be in agreement\nwith the amount received by the Treasurer. A schedule of the interest received on\ninvestments is submitted in Schedule \" i \" and calls for no special comment.\nIn conclusion we desire to express our appreciation of the courtesies extended to\nour representatives while engaged\non this examination.\nYours truly,\n{Signed) Marwick, Mitchell, Peat & Co.\nChartered Accountants\nDirector Taylor: There are some very important suggestions in your report, and\nT move that they be referred to the proper boards and committees, if you will designate\nthem as you designated the recommendations in the report of the Treasurer.\nPresident Pearse:\nIf the board wishes that they be referred by me, I will do so.\nDirector Cook:\nPlease state the motion.\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n89\n\nPresident Pearse: That the various items in the report made by the President be\nreferred to the Executive Committee or the Trustees or to the incoming Board of Directors,\nas may be proper.\nDirector Scribner: I would amend Mr. Taylor's motion, that the report be\nreferred to the Board of Trustees.\nDirector Taylor: It is simply a question of proper reference with me. If that\namendment would carry all of those recommendations to the proper place, I would be\nglad to accept it.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair has not had in mind to what authorities the recommendations ofthe report should go. There is no objection to having them go where the\ndirectors desire.\nAt this point there followed an extended discussion without definite action which\ncontinued until adjournment. This discussion is omitted from the record of the meeting\nin accordance with a motion adopted at the adjourned meeting of the Board of Directors,\nas follows:\nResolved, That all matter appertaining to the questions raised yesterday by the\nPresident in that section of his report entitled \"Permanent Membership,\" and replied to\nby the Secretary today, and the following discussion — meaning all such matter now in\nprint, in typewriting, or in stenographer's notes — be expunged from the records without\nimpugning the motives or impeaching the character of any officer or member of the\nNational Education Association — this resolution alone being published regarding the\nmatter.\nThe meeting then adjourned to meet at 2 :30 p.m., Tuesday, July 9.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nCarroll G. Pearse, President\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF ADJOURNED MEETING\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nOF THE BOARD\n\nChicago, III., Txjesday, July 9, 191 2\nThe meeting was called to order about 3 : 00 p.m. by President Carroll G. Pearse.\nThe roll-call was taken, resulting as follows:\nPresent: Directors Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin; Katherine D. Blake, of New\nYork; Irwin ^hepard, of Minnesota; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Rhode Island; John W.\nCook, of Illinois; Edwin G. Cooley, of Illinois; Oscar T. Corson, of Ohio; James M.\nGreenwood, of Missouri; Lorenzo D. Harv'^ey, of Wisconsin; James Y. Joyner, of North\nCaroUna; Charles I. Parker, of lUinois; Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania; A. R.\nTaylor, of Illinois; Ella Flagg Young, of IlUnois; John H. Phillips, of Alabama; A. J.\nMatthews, of Arizona; George B. Cook, of Arkansas; James Ferguson, of California;\nJames B. Ragan, of Colorado; Clem Hampton, of Florida; Grace M. Shepherd, of Idaho;\nWilliam H. Campbell, of Illinois; Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; O. P. Bostwick, of Iowa;\nJohn MacDonald, of Kansas; Robert J. Aley, of Maine; B. K. Purdum, of Maryland;\nRobert J. Fuller, of Massachusetts; E. E. Scribner, of Michigan; C. G. Schuk, of Minnesota; E. E. Bass, of Mississippi; John R. Kirk, of Missouri; Ward H. Nye, of Montana;\nG. W. A. Luckey, of Nebraska; W. J. Hunting, of Nevada; W. E. Garrison, of New\nMexico; Grace C. Strachan, of New York; F. M. Harper, of North Carohna; George A.\nMcFarland, of North Dakota; Edward M. Van Cleve, of Ohio; William F. Ramey, of\nOklahoma; L. R. Alderman, of Oregon; Reed B. Teitrick, of Pennsylvania; D. B.\nJohnson, of South Carolina; J. J. Keyes, of Tennessee; George N. Child, of Utah; C. E.\nBeach, of Washington; Emma J. Gardner, of Wisconsin; Ira B. Fee, of Wyoming.\nSecretary Shepard: Two of the states not represented yesterday. South Dakota\nand Connecticut, are represented today by letters of resignation from Director Ramer,\nof South Dakota, nominating Mr. C. G. Lawrence, who is present, and Mr. Verplanck, of\nConnecticut, who, as I reported yesterday, nominated Mr. Arthur D. Call, who did not\nreach here yesterday but who is present at this time.\nPresident Pearse: Directors, what is your pleasure? Shall the resignations of\nthese two directors and the nominations be received and acted on at this time ?\nDirector E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I move that the resignations be received\nand the nominations approved.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried.\nC. G. Lawrence, of South Dakota, and Arthur D. Call, of Connecticut, reported as\npresent and were duly seated. The total number of directors present was fifty-one.\nPresident Pearse : Is it your pleasure to take up and dispose of the matter which\nwas under discussion at the time of adjournment, or shall the regular order of business,\ncontaining some three or four remaining items, be disposed of and then .the other business\ntaken up ?\nDirector J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri: I move that we take up the regular\norder of business not disposed of yesterday.\nThe motion was duly seconded and adopted.\nDirector T. D . Bicknell, of Rhode Island : I must leave before the meeting is over,\nand I wish to bring a matter before the Board of Directors. Two years ago at Boston a committee was appointed to organize an International Council of Education, and the committee has met today — a portion of the committee, made up of the ex-presidents of the\nAssociation and seven others. I would move that Mr. Carroll G. Pearse, the President\nof the Association, be made a member of this committee by reason of his holding the\noffice of President of the Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF ADJOURNED\n\nMEETING\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n91\n\nPresident Pearse : Will the director put his motion ?\nDirector Bicknell: All those in favor of electing Mr. Carroll G. Pearse to membership inthe Committee on International Council of Education will say Aye.\nThe motion was unanimously carried.\n• President Pearse:\nThe first order of business, as I understand the order, is the\nreport of the Committee of the National Council on Investigations and Appropriations.\nChairman Greenwood: Mr. President, the Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations, since adjournment in San Francisco, has had but one meeting and that\nwas this forenoon and we are not prepared to bring in a report. We expect to report at\nthe meeting of the new Board of Directors.\nPresident Pearse: You have heard the report that this committee has made. Is\nthere any objection to allowing them additional time?\nIf not, it is so allowed.\nSecretary Shepard: We have a communication from Mr. Clark W. Hetherington,\nof the Athletic Research Society, asking that three representatives be appointed from\neach of five districts, the Eastern, Western, Southern, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific Coast\ndistricts, the three representatives preferably to be representatives of grammar schools,\nhigh schools, and normal schools, making in all fifteen men.\nPresident Pearse: The President, as well as the Secretary, has had communications with reference to the appointment of such a committee. It is desired on the part\nof the Athletic Research Society to have co-operative committees from educational\norganizations to study this question of athletics as related to education. It is desired\nthat this Board of Directors authorize the appointment of a committee to consist of\nfifteen members to be chosen as indicated from different sections and representing different school interests, to co-operate in deliberative conferences with the other committees\nappointed by other organizations on request of the Athletic Research Society. What is\nyour pleasure ?\nDirector E. E. Bass, of Mississippi: I move that the President be instructed to\nappoint such a committee.\nPresident Pearse : You have heard the motion that the President be instructed to\nappoint this committee.\nDirector Greenwood : Does this involve an expenditure of money ?\nPresident Pearse : Not unless later ordered by the directors. Are there further\nremarks ?\nThe motion being duly seconded was put and carried.\nSecretary Shepard: I have a communication from Dr. Thomas E. Storey, of the\nCollege of the City of New York, accompanied by a communication from the general\nsecretary of the International Congress of Hygiene, to be held in this country. It is\ndesired that there be an honorary vice-president appointed to sit in that convention as\nrepresentative of the National Education Association. It is accompanied by a formal\ninvitation and authorization for whomever shall be appointed.\nPresident Pearse : Directors, you have heard the request. What is your pleasure ?\nDirector Greenwood : I move that the President of the Association appoint an\nhonorary member to sit in that body.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried.\nSecretary Shepard: I have a communication from W. S. McKinney, of Chicago,\nregarding expenses authorized at San Francisco. I think this communication comes\nunder one of the divisions of the subjects referred to the Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations.\nPresident Pearse:\nLay it aside.\nSecretary Shepard: I have a communication from President Joseph Swain, chairman of the Committee on Salaries authorized a year ago, with an appropriation of $3,000.\nThe committee find it embarrassing to pay, as they deem it essential to pay, bills in\nadvance of their payment by the Association, and they ask, if it is practicable, for a fund\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof $200 or more to be available for the committee to draw upon as a revolving fund for\ncurrent expenses, to be then rendered each month and covered by ordinary vouchers. It\nis the rule of the Association to pay bills but once each month, and the embarrassment\nhas come from that monthly delay. It is an unusual request; it is not pressed. The\ncommittee simply ask for it, if it is practicable. If practicable, it would be very helpful\nto them.\nPresident Pearse:\nYou have heard the request. What is your pleasure ?\nDirector J. W. Cook, of Illinois: I move that such an arrangement be made,\nunder the control of the proper authority of the Association. Would that be the\nCommittee of the National Council on Investigations and Appropriations, the Executive\nCommittee, or the Board of Trustees ?\nPresident Pe.^rse: I presume it would be by the regular authorization of this\nbody. Probably the proper motion would be for an appropriation of $200 or whatever\nsum is thought proper, to be made and placed in the hands of Chairman Swain of the\ncommittee, the voucher to be audited in the regular way and full details to be rendered\nby him in the form of itemized vouchers later.\nDirector Cook:\nI will make that a part of my motion.\nPresident Pearse:\nMoved that the request of the committee be granted.\nDirector Greenwood: Chairman Swain wished the directors to authorize this\nand asked the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations to make the recommendation. hope\nI\nit will be voted that such a sum, not to exceed $200, be authorized\nas a revolving fund, and that Chairman Swain's request go to the Committee on Appropriations with the indorsement of the directors.\nPresident Pearse: The money from which this appropriation would come has\nalready been appropriated, both at the request of the general Association and by the\nBoard of Directors at San Francisco. This is merely an authorization that a sum not\nto exceed $200 out of this money already appropriated by the Board of Directors be set\naside for the use of President Swain and his committee. Would it be necessary for this\nto go thru the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the Council, which\nrecommends that appropriations be made ? It seems to the Chair that it would hardly\nbe necessary. There is no objection to having it so referred, but it occurs to me that the\nappropriation having been already made, it will be suflScient for the Board of Directors to\nauthorize the arrangement. You have heard the motion that the request be granted in\nterms as indicated. Are there any remarks ?\nThe motion having been duly seconded was carried\nSecretary Shepard: I have an application from Clarence D. Kingsley, of the\nBureau of Education at Washington, D.C., for an additional appropriation of $1,200 for\nthe expenses of the Committee on the Articulation of High School and College. I suspect\nthat the same appUcation has been made to the chairman of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the Council.\nPresident Pearse: If there is no objection, this will be referred to the Committee\non Investigations and Appropriations.\nIt is so referred.\nSecretary Shepard: I have a communication from the President of the Library\nDepartment requesting an appropriation to print a rep>ort that is now in preparation\namounting to about twenty-five or thirty pages, supplementary to the report of Miss\nBaldwin, printed some years ago, upon \"Courses of Instruction in Library Economy in\nNormal Schools.\" Much has been done and it is thought that they have a valuable\nreport, but no funds are available to print it for circulation unless authorized by the\nBoard of Directors.\nPresident Pearse: That should be referred to the Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations the same as the last request.\nSecretary Shepard: I have another communication from John Calvin Hanna,\npresident of the Secondary Department, asking that the action of the Secondary Depart-\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF ADJOURNED\n\nMEETING\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n93\n\nment a year ago be approved by the Board of Directors. The Secondary Department\nconfirmed the action of the individual round tables in calling themselves, or rather in\nadopting the name of, sections of the Secondary Department holding round tables. They\nwant to be termed sections, not round tables, and Mr. Hanna says that he desires that the\ndirectors authorize the change in the name of these round tables to sections of the\nDepartment of Secondary Education.\nPresident Pearse:\nYou have heard the request. What is your pleasure?\nDirector Scribner:\nI move that the request be granted.\nThe motion was seconded.\nPresident Pearse: It has been moved and seconded that the request of the\nDepartment of Secondary Education, that the subdivisions of that department be called\nhereafter sections instead of round tables, be granted.\nDirector J. R. Kirk, of Missouri: I rise to a point of order, as to whether there\nis any constitutional provision for such action.\nPresident Pearse : The Chair will say that as far as he knows there is none. These\nmembers of the Department of Secondary Education may call their divisional meetings\nsections if they choose to do so. Am I correct about that ?\nDirector Kirk: That might cause confusion as to the use of the term sections\nand round tables.\nPresident Pearse: Of course there are no sections in this Association. This\nAssociation has general meetings and it has meetings of departments. There are no\nregularly organized sections. I don't know that it would make any difference except\nthat the Department of Secondary Education, as it is explained to me, has a somewhat\nmore regular custom of dividing for the discussion of topics in its curriculum.\nThe motion was duly carried.\nSecretary Shepard: There is a very important question that I trust you will\npermit me to present now, with reference to the admission to the business meeting of\nactive members in the Auditorium Theater tomorrow. Assuming that the ruling of last\nyear stands, and that admission will be upon membership certificate, preparations to that\nend have been made, but it is quite essential that there be a committee on credentials.\nSome people leave their membership certificates at home, mislay them, or something of\nthat kind, and we have found a committee on credentials very valuable and quite effective\nin preventing any friction or annoyance or delays. It is desirable that such a committee\nbe appointed at the present time.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair rules that such a committee may be authorized at\nthis time. If the directors should not think it worth while to authorize the appointment,\nI should appoint such a committee anyway, but I should be glad to be authorized.\nDirector D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina: I move that the President be authorized to appoint such a committee, to consist of five members.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried.\nPresident Pearse: The next item upon the Secretary's docket is unfinished\nbusiness. Is it your wish to take up the unfinished business first, or the new business ?\nA Director:\nI move that we take up the new business.\nPresident Pearse: If there is no objection, this will be done. What is the new\nbusiness ? Is there any new business ?\nSecretary Shepard:\nThere is nothing docketed.\nPresident Pearse: Has any director any new business to present? If not, we\ncome to the order of unfinished business. What is your pleasure ?\nDirector Kirk:\nI move that we proceed with the business in hand yesterday.\nPresident Pearse: Unless there is objection this will be done. In What manner\nwill you proceed ?\n'\nDirector W. J. Hunting, of Nevada: I would like to ask what is the status\nof the business at the time of adjournment yesterday ?\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirector J. Y. Joyner, of North Carolina: We know what we adjourned for and\nI move we hear from it now. It was to give the Secretary time to present any report or\nstatement he might wish to present in reply to the President. That is the unfinished\nbusiness.\nPresident Pearse: The suggestion by Director Joyner is that the Secretary at\nthis time be allowed to present any statement. If there is no objection, this will be the\ncourse of procedure.\nAt this point the Secretary presented a communication in answer to that part of the\nPresident's report presented the day before designated as \"Permanent Membership.\"\nAfter extended discussion, the following resolution was offered by Director Kirk, of\nMissouri, and carried:\nResolved, That all matter appertaining to the questions raised yesterday by the\nPresident in that section of his report entitled \"Permanent Membership,\" and replied to\nby the Secretary today, and the following discussion — meaning all such matter now in\nprint, in typewriting, or in stenographer's notes — be expunged from the records without\nimpugning the motives or impeaching the character of any officer or member of the\nNational Education Association — this resolution alone being pubhshed regarding the\nmatter.\nDirector R. B. Teitrick, of Pennsylvania: I have a resolution which I would\nlike to introduce before this body. In order that each state may foster a spirit of\nloyalty in bringing members to this Association, and that this may be apparent to those\nwho have it in charge, I desire to offer the following resolution:\nWhereas, Section eight (8) of the Act of Incorporation of the National Education\nAssociation of the United States provides that the meetings of the corporation may be\nheld and that its business may be transacted as may be determined by the Board of\nDirectors, therefore be it\nResolved, That in the annual meetings of the active members the members shall be\nseated by states, and whenever it shall be necessary to take a count, vote, or a vote by\nballot, the vote shall be taken by each state director, or in his absence by a member\nappointed by the President, polling the members of his own state and announcing the\nresult on a call of states.\nPresident Pearse: You have heard the resolution. The Chair would say that\npresented at this late hour it would embody some difficulties in the carrying-out of the\nplan for the present year. It might be referred to the active members for their approval.\nDirector Teitrick : I would like to ask Secretary Shepard if it is possible to carry\nit out this year.\nSecretary Shepard : In two hours we arranged for twenty- four states to meet by\nstates in the Auditorium Theater. There is now more time than that before the meeting\nof active members. It can be carried out. We can assign the places of states and we can\nfurnish to every state director a list of members.\nWe can carry it out if it is desirable.\nDirector Teitrick:\nI move its adoption for the present year.\nPresident Pearse:\nYou have heard the motion and the second.\nDirector John MacDonald, of Kansas: I don't think we can pass on that\nwithout discussion. It will be impossible for the directors to get their people together\nbetween now and then. I don't see that it is practicable. I think we should postpone\nthis for consideration later.\nDirector Scribner: It seems to me a very simple matter. When a delegate\nappears at the door he can be assigned to his seat. It would faciUtate matters, and each\nstate wiU know how many representatives they have. They can hold their meetings there\nin the future.\nDirector C. E. Beach, of Washington: Inasmuch as it is difficult for me, and I\npresume equally difficult for other directors, to notify all those members from the state of\nWashington that this wiU be the method of voting tomorrow morning, I would like to\njftove an amendment that this resolution become operative in the meeting of 19 13.\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF ADJOURNED\n\nMEETING\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n95\n\nThe amendment was seconded.\nDirector Kirk: I have not much interest in the matter myself, but it seems to me\nthat if the usual Sunday-school convention plan be adopted, having banners for each\nsection, our people can find their seats very easily. Ushers could point out the various\nbanners, if that be necessary. I think it is easy.\nPresident Pearse: The Chair has heard a motion and a second, also an amendment to the effect that the plan be made effective for the meeting to be held in 1913.\nDirector R. J. Fuller, of Massachusetts : I hope that the second motion will\nprevail. I believe that these matters should be given sufficient notice in this organization\nso that there can arise no misunderstanding in connection therewith.\nDirector Teitrick:\nI withdraw the whole matter.\nPresident Pearse: The motion is withdrawn, with the consent of the directors.\nDirector Cook desires to offer a resolution.\nDirector Cook: I wish to offer this resolution. I am not sure that the arrangement of the time is right.\nResolved, That it is the sense of the Board of Directors that there should be such\nmodification of the Constitution and By-Laws as to require at least one year of active\nmembership as a prerequisite for voting for officers of the Association.\nIn order to bring this resolution before the Board of Directors, I move its adoption.\nPresident Pearse: Are there remarks ? The Chair is in doubt as to the effect of\nsuch a resolution.\nDirector Cook: I ask for a roll-call on this motion. It is not binding for any\nfuture action.\nPresident Pearse : Merely an expression of opinion. The motion for the adoption\nof the resolution was seconded.\nAre there remarks ?\nThe roll was called, resulting as follows: Ayes, 18; noes, 23.\nDirector Strachan, of New York, explained her vote as follows:\nI think there should be some restriction. For instance, if the National Education\nAssociation should come to New York, we have an association with 14,000 members in\nit, and you see how easy it might be for the members of that city to control the business\nand policy of the Association at that time, and I think it would be pitiful for the National\nEducation Association to be in any such danger.\nBut this seems to me to be useless just at this time, and furthermore, the order of\nbusiness was called, and when the question of new business was raised, no resolution was\noffered. The last business of the afternoon was the unfinished business left over from\nyesterday. We were not expecting any new business, I think this is out of order. I\ntherefore vote no.\nPresident Pearse:\nIs there any further business ?\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nCarroll G. Pearse, President\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nMEETING\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nFOR 1912-13\n\nChicago, III., Thursday, July ii, 191 2\nThe meeting was called to order by President Fairchild at 4:30 p.m.\nThe roll was called, resulting as fellows:\nPresent: Directors Edward T. Fairchild, of Kansas; Grace M. Shepherd, of Idaho;\nIrwin Shepard, of Minnesota; John W. Cook, of Illinois; James M. Greenwood, of\nMissouri; James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina; Charles I. Parker, of Illinois; Carroll G.\nPearse, of Wisconsin; Nathan C. Schaefler, of Pennsylvania; A. R. Taylor, of Illinois;\nJohn H. Phillips, of Alabama; A. J. Matthews, of Arizona; George B. Cook, of Arkansas;\nArchibald J. Cloud, of Cahfornia; James B. Ragan, of Colorado; Arthur D. CaU, of\nConnecticut; William M. Davidson, of the District of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of\nFlorida; Aubrey Matthews, of Georgia; Walter R. Siders, of Idaho; William H. Campbell,\nof Illinois; Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; O. P. Bostwick, of Iowa; John MacDonald, of\nKansas; J. G. Crabbe, of Kentucky; Thomas H. Harris, of Louisiana; Robert J. Aley,\nof Maine; Charles J. Koch, of Maryland; Robert J. Fuller, of Massachusetts; E. E.\nScribner, of Michigan; Julia H. Vaughan, of Minnesota; E. E. Bass, of Mississippi;\nWilliam P. Evans, of Missouri; Ward H. Nye, of Montana; James E. Delzell, of Nebraska;\nF. M. Harper, of North Carolina; George A. McFarland, of North Dakota; J. T. Smith,\nof Ohio; Reed B. Teitrick, of Pennsylvania; C. G. Lawrence, of South Dakota; J. J.\nKeyes, of Tennessee; George N. Child, of Utah; Guy Potter Benton, of Vermont;\nC. E. Beach, of Washington; L. P. Benezet, of Wisconsin; Ernest E. Shuck, of Wyoming.\nNumber of directors present, forty-six.\nPresident Fairchild: Before the regular order of business I wish to present a\nmatter that seems to be of considerable importance — one that the directors may well\nconsider at this time in regard to one of the amendments to the By-Laws, which I am\ninformed was adopted at the meeting yesterday. I shall read the part to which I desire\nto call your especial attention.\nThe first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as\npracticable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual\nmeeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in the printed program.\nThe Chair has given considerable thought and has sought such advice as was available\nas to the meaning and application of this amendment. If the amendment, which I\nunderstand was passed yesterday, went into effect at once, then this meeting is not in\norder until after the gavel has sounded for the last time at the meeting Friday evening.\nThe directors must then, within twenty-four hours, come together. Now these amendments nowhere suggest the time or circumstances under which they are to go into effect.\nThere is no clause, so far as I have been able to discover, that says that they are to take\neffect on and after their passage. The statement which says (if I may repeat), \"within\ntwenty-four hours after the close of the last session, the place and time of the meeting\nto be announced in the printed program,\" would seem, inferentially at least, to suggest\nthat it was not expected that this amendment should take effect upon its passage. A\nstudy of the wording of this particular sentence which I have read seems to reveal a\nconsiderable lack of clarity. The more I have studied this particiJar phrase the less\nsure I am as to the exact meaning. However, I would suggest that there is ground for\nthe assumption that it is intended that this amendment should take effect next year,\nrather than at the present time. On the other hand, there are statements that warrant\na conclusion that it is to go into effect at once. Upon the whole it seems to me that it\nwould be wise for us to proceed under the old order of things. If any question arises\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n97\n\nas to the legality of such action, a meeting of the directors may be called at the close\nof the final session Friday evening, at which time the proceedings of this afternoon\nmight be ratified.\nI desire also to call your attention to this proposition: it is possible that it is not\nthe intention of the makers of this amendment to place the meeting of the directors\nbeyond the time of the Association meeting. If the obvious interpretation is to apply,\nit seems that in the future no directors' meeting shall be held until the close of the regular\nsession. Such an interpretation, however, of the amendment would surely work harm\nin that the sessions could not possibly represent the full deliberation so necessary to\nsecure best results. Coming, if it did, at the close, but few directors would remain\nand the meeting would necessarily be greatly hurried. If the President of this Association would so rule, it might be wise to reopen this question at the general meeting in\norder that the statement might be clarified and so worded that the members of the\ndirectorate may understand it. I should be pleased to hear from anyone on this subject.\nDirector E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: My understanding (I was present at the\ntime that article was read) was that the Board of Directors, the new board, were to\nmeet within twenty-four hours after the close of the business session. What is the\nwording there ?\nPresident Fairchild: Twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the\nannual meeting.\nDirector Scribner: Are you sure that was the exact way it was passed ?\nDirector C. G. Pearse, of Wisconsin: There has always been some question as to\nthe time when the term of office of the old directors, the old President, old members of\nthe Trustees, and so on, expired. The Articles of Incorporation provide that they shall\nserve until the close of the meeting following their election. That would make the term\nof the Board of Directors expire at the close of this meeting on Friday night, and would\nmake the term of the President end Friday night. That has always been the recognized\nusage as to the President. The same usage should probably prevail as to the Board\nof Directors and the members of the Board of Trustees. Now, on this account therQ\nhas always been a question about the legality of some acts; the question has never been\npressed, but has been frequently discussed. In order to avoid that uncertainty, since\nthe term continues until the end of the annual meeting subsequent to the election, it\nwas thought best to allow the new Board of Directors to meet when there could be no\nquestion of the legality of the meeting or the right of the directors to their ofiices. While\nit has been customary to meet during the progress of the annual meeting, the right of\nofficers to sit in those meetings has been questioned, and in case of a Trustee the right\nhas been denied. As I understand it, in order to put at rest the possibility of question\nas to the right of the newly elected directors to sit and the newly elected President to\npreside and the newly organized Board of Directors to do business, the time set for the\nmeeting of the new Board of Directors is after the close of the annual meeting. This\nmeeting of the directors deals with matters like the selection of a few officials, including\nsome members of the National Council; it listens to invitations for the next place of\nmeeting; it makes some appropriations. Probably all these things could be attended\nto after the close of the meeting. Sometimes the last session of the annual meeting comes\nin the afternoon; in that case the directors could meet shortly after, on the same day.\nIn case of an evening meeting, they could meet on the following morning. In order to\nclear the matter away, I move that the suggestion of the Chair made in the remarks\nwhich we have heard be followed: that the directors now proceed to transact their\nbusiness in regular form; and that when they adjourn, they adjourn to meet at the close\nof the meeting on Friday evening, on the stage, for the purpose of formal ratification.\nPresident Fairchild : Is there a second to that motion ?\nDirector J. W. Cook, of Illinois: I second that motion, and I suggest that this\nprecipitates another difficulty.\nIf that be true, the old board is the legal body.\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "qS\n\nnational education association\n\nDirector Scribner: Is it not true that the courts interpret only the meeting of\na directorate which transacts business as the annual meeting of the directorate of a\ncorporation? The meetings of this body which are for the purpose of hearing papers\nread and discussing those papers do not in any way affect the business of this corporate\nbody, and therefore it seems to me that courts would hold that twenty-four hours after\nthe meeting of the business session, which may transact business, which appropriates\nmoney, and so forth, terminates the term of the directors elected for any one year.\nDirector J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri: It seems to me the reasonable construction of this amendment to the By-Laws would be this: I know of no body,\nlegislative or dehberative, in which, just as soon as an act is passed, unless there is an\nemergency, it goes immediately into effect. Now, here in this particular case there is the\naction of the general Association yesterday afternoon. That has not been printed or\npublished in any form so that the members of the Board of Directors could get hold of it.\nFurthermore, I am quite sure that no court would hold it necessary for us to meet here this\nafternoon and transact the business that comes up before us, and then have a corporal's\nguard on Friday night or Saturday morning get up and ratify what we have done. I am\nclearly of the opinion that if this amendment means anything, it is to take effect at the\nnext meeting, after this body has adjourned, and then it should be appUed. If it means\nprinted in the program, there is no printed program: and under the Articles of Incorporation, here is a board regularly elected to transact business. I think that any court would\nhold that this body is properly elected, properly constituted under the Act of Incorporation,\nand that it is prepared to transact all business and adjourn, and that next year when\nthe program is printed then this notice of twenty-four hours after the general session\nwould go into effect. We could make the announcement then. It is impossible for us\nto meet under that twenty-four hours' limitation, because it has already expired. We\nstopped at 3 : 40 yesterday afternoon and we have no right to turn the clock back, even\nin Chicago. I beUeve it is unnecessary for us to have any other meeting of the Board\nof Directors except this meeting, regularly constituted to transact business.\nDirector Scribner: May I ask Mr. Greenwood a question? What is yoxir interpretation as to what constitutes the last general session of this body ?\nDirector Greenwood: Yesterday afternoon, the business session. These other\nsessions are educational sessions, except this meeting of the new Board of Directors now\nin session.\nDirector Scribnt;r: How about next year ?\nDirector John MacDonald, of Kansas: You and I may be dead next year.\nPresident Fairchild: Just a moment, please, if you will bear with the Chair.\nThis section has to do with the annual meeting of the Association and that it shall be\nheld in July on a day determined, two sessions to be held daily, and then it speaks of the\nannual business meeting of the active members, held on the fourth day of the annual\nmeeting at eleven o'clock a.m. Then it provides for a meeting of the Board of Directors\nand uses the term \"session\" again rather than \"meeting.\" I still submit'that the whole\nthing needs clarifying that we may know what it does mean, and I am still wondering\nwhether it is not possible for us to reopen this question at a general meeting and thus\nsimpKfy matters.\nDirector Scribner: Let us open it. Is a motion in order, Mr. President ?\nDirector MacDonald: Simply a single sentence. The business meeting has\nadjourned and we cannot reopen it.\nDirector Pearse: It is entirely immaterial to me, as the maker of the motion,\nwhether or not it is adopted. I am perfectly willing to withdraw it. I made the motion\nas in line with the suggestion of the Chair, believing then, as I still believe, that it woiild\nclear away any particular difficulties. With reference to the other matter suggested\nby the Chair, the President of the Association is of the opinion that it has met and trans-\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n99\n\nacted business, and it would not be proper to deal with business which came up at\nthat meeting.\nDirector Cook: Mr. President, it must be that Director Greenwood's view of\nthis case is correct. It is inconceivable, it seems to me, that any By-Laws should go\ninto eJGFect in the midst of a meeting arranged for and entered upon under former By-Laws.\nAs I understand it, the business meeting is to be held on the fourth day, and under present\nconditions it is held on the third day. By the very limitation of time it would be impossible to hold the business meeting on the fourth day. There would be a portion of the\nsession after the By-Laws were adopted which would be illegal; should they become\ninstantaneously operative, that portion would be illegal and adjournment would be\nillegal. It cannot be that these By-Laws should go into operation in the midst of the\nmeeting provided for under the former By-Laws.\nDirector C. J. Koch, of Maryland: I wish to explain my vote on this question.\nIt seems to me that there cannot be any question about the legality of our present proceedings. We have before us two questions. The first is the legality of this meeting and\nthe second is with reference to future conduct. It plainly states here (altho the whole\narticle is not plain, since it indiscriminately uses \"meeting\" and \"session\") that the\nfirst regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable,\nand so forth. Now, that must necessarily be the program of the annual meeting just\nprinted. I simply state that I wish to vote against this motion. I am glad the maker\ndoes not care. I do believe that for future conduct in this matter you should take steps\nto find out whether the annual meeting does mean the annual business meeting.\nDirector Pearse: Since it is evident that the motion, which was intended to facilitate, isnot to have that effect, I desire, with the consent of the second, to withdraw it.\nPresident Fairchild : The Chair would like to observe that the directors may well\ntake notice of those applications on which no recommendation was made by the appropriations committee. Are there further remarks ?\nThe first order of business following the roll-call is the election of a trustee to succeed\nTrustee James Y. Joyner, whose term expires at this meeting.\nDirector F. M. Harper, of North Carolina: North Carolina would be highly\nhonored if Mr. Joyner should be elected to succeed himself.\nDirector T. A. Mott, of Indiana: I second the nomination.\nDirector K atherine D . Blake , of New York : I move that the nominations be closed .\nDirector MacDonald: I move that the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot\nfor Mr. Joyner.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried and the ballot was cast by the Secretary\nas directed.\nPresident Fairchild : The next item is the election of a member of the Executive\nCommittee to succeed John H. Phillips, of Alabama, whose term expires at this meeting.\nDirector T. H. Harris, of Louisiana: I wish to nominate for this position Superintendent George B. Cook, of Arkansas. Mr. Cook is in every way worthy of this distinguished honor. Under his leadership the schools of Arkansas have forged forward\nat a marvelous rate. He is a regular attendant upon the meetings of this Association,\nand I trust that this body will see fit to elect Mr. Cook to this position.\nDirector J. E. Delzell, of Nebraska: I second the nomination.\nThe motion was put and carried.\nPresident Fairchild : The next in order is the selection of members of the National\nCouncil to succeed members whose term expires at this session, also to fill vacancies.\nThe Chair suggests a motion to appoint a nominating committee to report as promptly\nas possible.\nDirector Scribner: I make a motion that the Chair appoint a nominating committee offive to retire and report as soon as possible.\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirector Blake: I would like to amend that motion that at least one member\nbe a lady.\nThe Chair nominated the following committee: Director William M. Davidson,\nof the District of Columbia; Director Robert J. Aley, of Maine; Director Nathan C.\nSchaeffer, of Pennsylvania; Director Katherine D. Blake, of New York; Director Clem\nHampton, of Florida.\nPresident Fairchild: The next in order is the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council.\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education Association:\nWe, the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council\nof Education, recommend that the following amounts, or such amount thereof as may\nbe necessary, be appropriated for the following named committees:\nCommittee on Articulation of High School and College\nCommittee on College-Entrance Requirements in English\nSecondary Education\nCommittee on Rural Schools\nCommittee on Musical Terminology\nCommittee on Geometry Syllabus\nCommittee on Standards and Tests of School Efficiency\nCommittee on Health Needs of Children\nCommittee on Economy of Time\nCommittee on International Council of Education\n\n$ 300 . 00\nDepartment\n\nof\n\n350 . 00\n2,500 . 00\n25 . 00\n300 . 00\n500.00\n500 . 00\n250 . 00\n200.00\n\nThe committee submits as werthy, but without recommendation, the request of\nMr. C. R. Rounds, chairman of the Committee on Uniform Nomenclature in English\nGrammar, that he be reimbursed for certain expenditures made in behalf of his committee.\nYour Committee on Investigations and Appropriations believes that the growing\ntendency in the Departments of the National Education Association to ask for appro-\"\npriations, and at the same time appoint committees to work under this appropriation,\nis reprehensible. The department president should present the names recommended\nfor such committee to the President of the National Education Association or the president of the Council, who should make such nominations tentatively, guided by the\nrecommendations from the department officials.\nRelative to the request of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology composed of members of the National Education Association, the Modern Language Association, and the American Philological Association, your Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations cannot see their way clear to recommend an appropriation for expenses\nof a committee not composed of members of the National Education Association, when\nsuch members have not been appointed by the President of the National Education\nAssociation. We therefore submit the request of the above-named committee for an\nappropriation to the Board of Directors without recommendation or prejudice.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nF. A. FiTZPATRICK\n\nL. D. Harvey\n\nJ.\nE. H.\nT. Phillips\nFairchild\nPresident Fairchild : It has been moved and seconded that the report be adopted.\nDirector R. J. Fuller, of Massachusetts: I wish to propose an amendment to the\nreport as submitted. This is with reference to the appropriation to the Committee on\nHealth of Children. This committee has available from the American Medical Association a sum equal to the sum to be appropriated by this body today. The American\nMedical Association has already appropriated for such pvupose a sum not to exceed\n$i,5oo. In other words, the American Medical Association is willing to hand over to\nour committee, not a joint committee, the sum of $1,600 for their use, asking us to equal\nthat appropriation or to nearly equal it. I understand from the secretary of this committee that the committee needs $1,500 to $2,000 actually for their purposes, that they\ndo not wish to use any part of this appropriation for purposes of transportation or for\nexpenses of the committee.\nIt is rather for purposes of distributing the literature thruout\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nloi\n\nthe country to the various communities which need it. The whole movement this year\nwill be carried on in the interests of bettering schoolbouse conditions and the buildings\nconnected therewith in all communities, large and small. I would therefore move that\nthis part of the report be amended to read an appropriation of $i,ooo instead of $500.\nDirector Delzell: I second the motion.\nPresident Fairchild: It has been moved and seconded that the part of the report\nrecommending that $500 be granted to the Committee on Health of Children be amended\nto read $1,000. Are there remarks ?\nDirector Scribner: I noticed in Director Fuller's remarks that he stated that\nthe American Medical Association had appropriated a sum not to exceed $1,600, or a\nsum equal to the sum that this body would appropriate. Their appropriation reads,\n\"not to exceed $1,600.\" If we desire to co-operate with the American Medical Association in this work, it seems to me that our motion ought to read, \"a sum not to exceed\n$1,000,\" rather than \"an appropriation of $1,000.\"\nPresident Fairchild: The preliminary clause, that such amounts, \"or as much\nas may be necessary thereof,\" covers the suggestion made by Director Scribner, I think.\nDirector Greenwood: I inquired as to what would be the probable amount of\nmoney that could be used for these appropriations during the incoming year with safety.\nWe found that the Rural Committee ought to have at least $4,000, but we did not have\nthe money to appropriate. Other important committees, some that asked for $1,200\nreceived $300. Our income for the year, that is, beginning with July i and closing June\n30, 1913, will probably amount to just about what it was this year. Last year the recommendations made by the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations amounted to\n$3,200, or so much thereof as might be necessary. There was an appropriation made\nby the general Association of $3,000 yesterday, as you remember, in the business meeting.\nWith $2,500 for one of the most important committees, we have to act, as I look at it, in\naccordance with the income that we will receive, and while I would like, as chairman\nof the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, to grant every request up to\nthe fullest extent, there were two or three requests that we threw out entirely. We have\ntried to recommend to you on a safe business basis. I wish that we could have appropriated for this particular committee $1,600, the amount asked for, but, gentlemen and\nladies, we did not see our way clear to make appropriations when we did not know where\nthe money would come from.\nMotion of Director Fuller was then put and lost.\nDirector MacDonald: I don't think we ought to adopt this report when five\nmembers of the committee were absent.\nDirector R. B. Teitrick, of Pennsylvania: I have a communication from the\npresident of the Masual Training Section which I would like to read in this connection:\nChicago, III., July 10, 191 2\nTo the Council, National Education Association:\nGentlemen: On behalf of the Manual Training Section of the National Education\nAssociation I desire to request that an appropriation of $60 be granted to the Committee\non College-Entrance Requirements.\nThis is the only committee of this section for which we are asking an appropriation,\nand in fact this is the only special appropriation that this section is asking for either for\nlast year or for the coming year.\nThe work of this committee has been most valuable and is regarded as most important by the entire section. It has already had a helpful influence in securing collegeentrance credits for drawing, manual training, and household economics — the subjects in\nwhich this section is primarily interested — and, what is equally important, has helped in\nsecuring greater freedom in general in the whole matter of college-entrance requirements.\nThis will grant to the high schools of the country greater freedom in shaping their\ncourses of study to fit the local needs of their pupils in the special requirements of their\ncommunities; and no other service that I know of can be of more profound importance\nto the members of the section that I represent.\nI regard it, therefore, as of the utmost importance to the section that the work of\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthis committee be continued; and if it is to be continued it must, of course, have funds\nwith which to pay its necessary expenses for postage, stationery, raultigraphing, etc.\nThe amount that we are asking for — $60 — is a conservative estimate.\nI trust, therefore, that this appropriation will be granted.\nRespectfully submitted,\n(Signed) C. B. Connelley, President,\nManual\nTraining and Art Section\nNational Education Association\nI move an amendment to the report, that the amount asked for, $60, be given this\ndepartment.\nPresident Fairchild: I would like to inquire what committee that is.\nDirector Teitrick: The Committee of the Department of Manual Training and\nArt on College-Entrance Requirements.\nDirector Greenwood: I received the same conmiunication this afternoon. I\nhave no objection to the appropriation of $60, but I don't know what it is for or where\nit comes from.\nPresident Fairchild: The Chair would like to ask that that motion be withdrawn\nuntil we dispose of the other.\nThe motion is on the adoption of the recommendations of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\nThe motion was put and carried.\nPresident Fairchild : I will call your attention to the matters that will come under\nyoxir consideration in addition to that suggested by Mr. Teitrick. Mr. C. R. Rounds\nasks to be reimbursed for certain expenditures on behalf of the Committee on Uniform\nNomenclature. Mr. Rounds seems to have done a great deal of work, and so far as we\ncan learn, the only work that has been done in this committee for the present, and he\nhas personally met all of the expenses, amounting to some $250. He is, like many of\nus, depyendent entirely upon his salary, and while the committee feels that he ought to\nbe reimbursed for the actual expenditures made, they did feel that the committee was\nnot in a position to establish a precedent in the way of refunds, and would prefer that\nthe directors take the matter up. That, together with the other suggestion, and then\nthe one relative to the joint committee on grammatical terminology, in which, as I now\nrecall, he asked for quite an amount of money, is to come to your attention.\nDirector J. J. Keyes, of Tennessee: I would like to ask if the Committee on\nNomenclature was regularly appxjinted by the Association.\nPresident Fairchild: I understand so. Chairman Greenwood will answer that,\nI think.\nDirector Greenwood: Last year there was a communication from Mr. Rounds,\nstating that he was engaged in this work. It came to the Committee on Appropriations.\nHe stated something about his expenditures and the matter was brought before the\nBoard of Directors at San Francisco and was laid over for report at this time. We\nwanted a more specific statement, so we have an itemized statement in regard to what he\nhad done, the expense, and the vast amount of correspondence. The committee at\nthis time felt that Mr. Rounds ought to be refunded. He is working in connection with\ntwo other associations. While we did not feel like making a direct appropriation, we\nfelt that it was only a matter of justice to Mr. Rounds that a refund of $250 be made,\nand some other additional appropriation made. I would move that Mr. Rounds be\nrefunded the $250 which he has expended. I am quite sure he is doing very valuable\nwork in connection with other members of the committee.\nDirector Pearse: If there is any information needed, I should be glad to give it.\nThe committee of which Mr. Rounds is chairman was first appointed by the Department\nof Superintendence and afterward authorized by the Association. It is working in connection with a committee from the Modern Language Association and the American\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n103\n\nPhilological Association. His committee has been regularly authorized for one year\nand much valuable work has been done.\nPresident Fairchild: The Chair would state that the committee is very glad\nto get that information.\nThe motion is that Mr. Rounds be reimbursed to the amount of $250 for expenses\nalready incurred.\nThe motion was put and carried.\nPresident Fairchild:\nThe same committee also asks for $1,200.\nDirector Scribner: I believe it is unwise for us, except in very unusual cases,\nto appropriate money until the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations have\nhad an opportunity to investigate and recommend. I move that this appropriation\nasked for be referred back to the committee to report next year.\nMotion was put and carried.\nDirector Teitrick: I should like to move that the amount asked for by the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements of the Department of Manual Training and\n.\\rt be granted.\nMotion put and carried.\nPresident Fairchild: The next order of business is the report of the Committee\non Nominations for the Council.\nDirector W. M. Davidson, of District of Columbia: Your Committee on\nNominations for the National Council reports as follows:\nterms\n\nto expire in 19 18\n\nThomas A. Mott, of Richmond, Ind., to succeed himself.\nJohn H. Phillips of Birminghan, Ala., to succeed himself.\nFrancis G. Blair, of Springfield, 111., to succeed himself.\nJames H. Baker, of Boulder, Colo., to succeed himself.\nEllen C. Sabin, of Milwaukee, Wis., to succeed herself.\nCharles S. Meek, of Boise, Idaho, to succeed himself.\nE. E. Scribner, of Ishpeming, Mich., to succeed himself.\nA. A. Murphree, of Gainesville, Fla., to succeed J. A. Smith of Deland, Fla., absent\nfor two successive years.\nHelen C. Putnam, of Providence, R.I., to succeed Walter E. Ranger, of Providence,\nR.I., absent for two successive years.\nE. T. Fairchild, of Durham, N.H., to succeed himself.\nTERMS\n\nto\n\nexpire IN\n\nI913\n\nA. J. Kinnaman, of Bowling Green, Ky., to succeed E. H. Mark, of Louisville, Ky.,\nabsent for two successive years.\nJ. L. Snyder, of Agricultural College, Mich., to succeed Thomas M. Balliet, of NewYork, N.Y., absent for two successive years.\nTERM\n\nto\n\nexpire\n\nIN\n\nI916\n\nEsteUe Carpenter, of San Francisco, Cal., to succeed Frank B. Cooper, of Seattle,\nWash., absent for two successive years.\nTERMS\n\nTO\n\nEXPIRE IN\n\nI917\n\nJ. G. Crabbe of Richmond, Ky., to succeed W. H. Bartholomew, of Louisville, Ky.,\nabsent for two successive years.\nMargaret E. Schallenberger of San Jose, Cal., to succeed EsteUe Reel Meyer, of\nWashington, D.C., absent for two successive years.\nWilliam E. Wilson, of EUensburg, Wash., to succeed Julius I. Foust, of Greensboro, N.C., absent for two successive years.\nto\n\nbe TRANSFERRED\n\nJ. A. Smith, of Deland, Fla.\nWalter E. Ranger, of Providence, R.I.\nE. H. Mark, of Louisville, Ky.\nThomas M. Balliet, of New York, N.Y.\n\nTO THE HONORARY\n\nLIST\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, of Louisville, Ky.\nEsteUe R. Meyer, of Washington, D.C.\nJulius I. Foust, of Greensboro, N.C.\nFrank B, Cooper, of Seattle, Wash.\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe report of the committee was on motion accepted and adopted.\nPresident Fairchild:\nThe next business is the reception of invitations for the\nplace of meeting of the next annual convention.\nDirector Greenwood: I have a request from President Thompson, of the University ofOhio, for an appropriation for the expenses of the Committee on the National\nUniversity.\nDirector Scribner: I move that this request be referred to the Committee on\nInvestigations and Appropriations.\nDirector Pearse: Before the motion is put, I perhaps ought to say this: The\nAssociation at a meeting three or four years ago made an appropriation for the fostering\nof sentiment for and to help forward the movement for a national university. The\nappropriation was $500. Some conditions were attached, and later the money was not\navailable, so no money has ever been used for this purpose. This Association has a\ncommittee on the promotion of a national university: its membership is in print. In\nthe judgment of those gentlemen who were here, President James, of Illinois, and others,\nthe time has come for us to do something besides talk. He urges that the appropriation,\nat least as much as was formerly made, but later was not available, be now made available\nby this Board of Directors for the use of this committee which has been appointed to\nforward the idea of a national university.\nAs a substitute for the motion offered by Director Scribner, I move that this body\nappropriate a sum not to exceed $500 to be available during the coming year.\nDirector Davidson: I was delegated by the chairman of the committee of four hundred on a national university to, if possible, say a word, if opportunity presented, in furtherance ofthe movement from the standpoint of the national associal ion, soliciting co-operation\nwith what they are attempting to do along the line of manufacturing sentiment. That\ncommittee has presented a bill, a very satisfactory bill, which will be introduced doubtless\non Tuesday of this week and will be ready for circulation within a very short time. That\nwill be a great organization in assisting the furthering of this national university sentiment. They are back of it, ready to join hands with the National Education Association\nand its members in seeing that a great university is established.\nPresident Fairchild: The motion is made and seconded that the original motion\nbe amended so that $500 shall be granted.\nDirector Scribner: I withdraw my motion.\nPresident Fairchild: The motion is that $500 be made available. Are there\nany further remarks ?\nThe motion was put and carried.\nDirector Pearse: I have a request from the Fifteenth International Congress\non Hygiene and Demography that this Association or this Board of Directors authorize\nthe President to appoint delegates to that meeting. It need not carry any expense to\nthe Association, and doubtless persons living not far away would be glad to act as delegates and this organization would then be represented.\nI move that the President be authorized to appoint a number of delegates, such as\nin his judgment may be proper, to represent this Association at the Fifteenth Congress,\nThe motion was put and carried.\nInvitations for the Fifty-first Convention were then presented as follows:\nBy D. H. Christensen for Salt Lake City.\nBy J. A. Shawan for Columbus, Ohio.\nOther invitations were as follows:\nBy Director Vaughan, of Minnesota, for St. Paul in 1914.\nBy Director Cloud, of California, for San Francisco in 1915. He presented the\nfollowing:\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n105\n\nThe President and Directors of the Panama-Pacific Universal Exposition to be held\nin San Francisco, in 1915, have the honor to extend to the National Education Association\na cordial invitation to hold its 1915 meeting in San Francisco.\nThis city has been selected by Congress with the approval of the President of the\nUnited States as the official site for celebrating the uniting of the waters of the Pacific and\nthe Atlantic thru the Panama Canal, the greatest physical accomplishment achieved\nby man. The Exposition will not only attempt to show that which is most advanced\nin invention, most interesting in art, and of greatest scientific value, embracing all that\nis most important in the material progress of the world, but it will be the aim of the\nDirectors to make this rank in intellectual interest above all previous expositions, -o bring\ntogether so much of wisdom, so much of practical scientific thought and so much of broad\ngrasp of the world's important problems that the progress of mankind shall be advanced\na quarter of a century.\nTo assist in achieving this aim, we invite your presence in the city of San Francisco\nin the year 1915.\nBenj. I. Wheeler\nCharles C. Moore\nPresident, University of California\nPresident\nDavid Starr Jordan\nF. J. Skiff\nPresident, Leland Stanford Jr. University\nDirector in Chief of Foreign\nRxiDOLPH J. Taussig\nand Domestic\nParticipation\nChairman, Committee on Exploitation\nJohn Brisken Walker\nDirector of Congresses\nJames Ferguson, of California, spoke in favor of San Francisco as the place of meeting\nin 1915.\nDirector Siders, of Idaho, and Director Greenwood, of Missouri, spoke in favor of\nSalt Lake City.\nThe Directors then passed, by a unanimous vote, a motion of preference for Salt\nLake City, final arrangements to be left to the Executive Committee.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nApproved,\nE. T. Fairchild, President\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF\nTRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IN CONNECTION WITH THE FIFTIETH\nANNUAL CONVENTION IN CHICAGO, ILL.\nPlanters Hotel\nSt. Loins, February 27, 1912\nPursuant to a call made by James M. Greenwood, chairman of the Board of Trustees\nof the National Education Association, the board met in Parlor E at 9:25 a.m.\nTrustees Greenwood, Joyner, Pearse, and Aley were present. Trustee Brown was\nabsent.\nThe secretary read the call of the meeting, which, under date of February 8, 191 2,\nhad been mailed to each trustee. This, call was as follows:\nJ. M. Greenwood, chairman of the Board of Trustees of the National Education\nAssociation, has called a meeting at 10 a.m., February 27, at the desk of the Secretary of\nthe National Education Association in the Planters Hotel, St. Louis, Mo. This meeting\nis to be held for the transaction of such business as may regularly come before the Board\nof Trustees.\nThe chairman of the board had received several requests for appropriations and also\nseveral inquiries as to the probability of future appropriations. By vote of the Trustees\nthe chairman was instructed' to inform those making requests or inquiries that the\nTrustees do not make appropriations.\nThe secretary made a preliminary report on his examination of the papers containing\nthe records of the actions of the Trustees prior to July, 1896.\nBy vote of the Trustees the secretary was instructed to write a report upon these\npapers and records and submit to the Trustees at the annual meeting in July.\nThe secretary was also instructed, after he completes the examination, to send these\npapers and records to Secretary Irwin Shepard for safekeeping.\nAt II : 50 A.M. the Board of Trustees adjourned to meet at the same place at 2:00 p.m.,\nFebruary 28.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nPlanters Hotel\nSt. Louis, February 28, 191 2\nPursuant to the adjournment of the meeting of February 27, the Trustees met and\nwere called to order at 2:30 p.m. by Chairman Greenwood.\nTrustees Greenwood, Pearse, Joyner, Brown, and Aley were present at the meeting.\nBy vote of the Trustees, Chairman Greenwood was authorized to invest any funds\nthat may become available either from the receipts of the Association or from the maturity\nof investments. Before making the investment, the chairman will communicate with the\nother trustees, by either letter or telegram, and secure their approval of the proposed\ninvestment.\nThe following resolution was introduced by Trustee Pearse, and was unanimously\napproved by the Board of Trustees:\nThat the President of the Association be authorized to secure the services of an\nexpert, licensed accountant to go over the papers of the Trustees and their accounts and\nto report his findings thereon to the President, before the next meeting of the Association;\n106\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n107\n\nalso to report any suggestions he thinks proper, relative to possible improvements in\nmethods of transacting the business of the Association, or in the methods of accounting.\nAt 3 : 50 P.M. the Board of Trustees adjourned.\n\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\n\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nChicago, III., July 8, 191 2\nPursuant to a regular official call, the Board of Trustees of the National Education\nAssociation met at Secretary Shepard's desk, Ladies' Parlor, Auditorium Hotel, Chicago,\n111., at noon, July 8, 191 2.\nThere were present Trustees Pearse, Greenwood, Joyner, Brown, and Aley.\nChairman Greenwood reported that he had a chance to sell the Chicago real estate\nbelonging to the National Education Association for $3,500 in cash.\nUpon motion of Trustee Brown, the chairman of the Board of Trustees was\nauthorized by unanimous vote to make further investigation and if the offer proved to be\na fair value for the property, to make the sale and to take proper measures to invest the\nproceeds in securities.\nUpon motion of Trustee Joyner, the board gave unanimous approval of the secretary's minutes of business transacted by mail.\nThe annual report of the Board of Trustees was ordered to be spread upon the record.\nThe board adjourned to meet at the same place, Thursday, July 11, at 9:00 a.m.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\n\nBUSINESS\n\nTRANSACTED\n\nBY MAIL\n\nUnder date of May 15, 191 2, the following order was issued to Mr. Louis Boisot,\nTrust Officer, Chicago, 111.\nKansas City, Mo., May 15, 191 2\nMr. Louis Boisot, Trust Officer,\nChicago, III.\nDear Sir: You are hereby authorized to transfer to the First National Bank all\nrevenues arising from the investment of the Permanent Fund of the National Education\nAssociation, and to deposit the same to the credit of the Treasurer of the National Education Association, on or before June i, 1912.\nWill you have the kindness to notify the Treasurer of the Association of your action,\nand also transmit the item of expense connected therewith to the Secretary, Dr. Irwin\nShepard, that the bill may be included in the expense account of the current month.\nVery truly yours,\n(Signed) J M. Greenwood\nChairman of the Board of Trustees\ninvestment\nHaving been informed by the President of the National Education Association, and\nthe members of the Executive Committee associated with him, that there was a fund\nof approximately ten thousand dollars ($10,000) awaiting investment. Chairman Greenwood asked the members of the Board of Trustees to authorize him to look up a good\ninvestment.\nThis authorization was given by mail.\nAfter some investigation, Mr. Greenwood recommended the purchase of $10,000\nSchool District of Kansas City, Mo., 3^ per cent school bonds, dated July i, 1905, and\ndue July i, 1925.\nChairman Greenwood having submitted this proposed purchase to the members of\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe board and receiving from them by mail their favorable answer, the investment was\nmade, as is shown by the attached receipt.\nH. P. Wright Investment Co.\nProfessor J. M. Greenwood\nInvestment Securities\nKansas City, Mo.\n923\nBaltimore\nKansas\nCity, Ave.\nMo.\nJune 12, 1912\n\nBought:\n\n$10,000 School District of Kansas City, Mo., 3^ per cent school bonds, dated July i,\n1905, due July i, 1925, interest payable semiannually January first and July first,\nboth principal and interest payable at the National Bank of Commerce, New York\nCity, Nos. 3127, 3128, 3129, 3133, 3135, 3136, 3190, 3191, 3192, and 3200 for $1,000\neach at 95\n$9,500 . 00\nAccrued interest January i to June 12 (5 months, 1 1 days)\n156 . S3\n$9,656.53\n\nReceived payment,\nChas\n\nBeggs, Cashier\n\nKansas City, Mo., June 14, 191 2\nPresident Robert J. Aley,\nOrono, Me.\nDear President Aley: I have just received a note from Mr. Boisot in which he\nsuggests that I put five hundred dollars ($500) instead of $343 . 77 into the Permanent\nFund. In compliance with his suggestion, I will send him my personal check for $156 . 53,\nthe amount of the accrued interest at the time of the purchase of the bonds and as noted\nin the memorandum that I sent to you yesterday. I will then ask the .Association to\nrefund the amount of the check to me. This, you will observe, will be the transference\nof $10,000 to the Permanent Fund. This correction will enable you to keep your book in\nproper form which would have introduced some confusion by deducting the item of\ninterest as previously mentioned.\nI am\nVery truly yours,\n{Signed) J. M. Greenwood\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nJasies M, Greenwood, Chairman\nChicago, III., July, 11, 1912\nThe Board of Trustees of the National Education Association met in the Ladies'\nParlor of the Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, 111., at 9:00 a.m. pursuant to the adjournment\nof July 8. The following report was presented:\nTHE board of trustees OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nPursuant to an order passed by the Board of Trustees at the St. Louis meeting in\nFebruary, 191 2, I have examined the papers relating to the business of the National\nEducation Association prior to August i, 1896. These papers consist of letters, vouchers,\nbankbooks, account-books, and various matters relating to the financial transactions of\nthe Association. I have gone thru them with care and have tied them in twelve packages.\nThe contents of each package is noted in the accompanying report.\nOn April 9, 191 2, the packages were shipped to Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn., for\npermanent safekeeping. Each package was properly numbered and accompanying the\nshipment was a duplicate of the list, which is here submitted. If this report is made a\npart of the minutes of the Board of Trustees, no future examination of these papers will\nbe necessary.\nRespectfully submitted,\nRobert J. Aley\nSecretary, Board of Trustees\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\nI\n\nThis package contains the following:\na) Treasurer's account and book containing a written statement of the dates of the\nTreasurer's accounts from 1883 to June, 1896.\nh) Board of Trustees Permanent Fund.\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n109\n\nThis book contains items relating to the Permanent Fund, beginning with 1878 and\nextending to December, 1895.\nc) Board of Trustees Financial Record.\nThis book contains the financial records of the investments of the Board of Trustees\nfrom 1885 to December, 1895.\nd) Board of Trustees Emergency Fund.\nThis book contains an account of the emergency fund collected and expended for\nvarious committees from 1892 to June, 1895.\nPACKAGE\n\nKO.\n\n2\n\nThis package contains the following :\na) Papers relating to the incorporation of the National Education Association and\nminutes\nof Trustees' meetings, Washington, February 25, 1886, and Topeka, July 26,\n1886.\nb) N. A. Calkins' account for 1893.\nc) J. M. Greenwood's account for 1893.\nd) N. A. Calkins' bankbook, National Broadway Bank, N.Y.\ne) Treasurer's report for 1892, including vouchers.\n/) Miscellaneous vouchers and matters of correspondence relating to Treasurer's\naccounts, 1892-93.\ng) Funds of 1887, and matters relating to the care of the same by the Board of\nTrustees.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO. 3\n\nThis package contains the following:\na) Telegram from John Eaton, letter from Dr. Tappan, and declaration of trust,\nN. A. Calkins.\nb) Vouchers for 1887.\nc) Matters relating to investments, receipts, cancelled checks.\nd) Letters and documents pertaining to investments.\ne) Same as (d).\nf) Letters and papers from Dr. Tappan.\ng) Correspondence received by Treasurer Calkins.\nh) Miscellaneous matters relating to Calkins, Richards, and Tappan.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\n4\n\nThis package contains the following :\nc) Committee of lo and 15.\nb) Report of Board of Trustees for 1888-89.\nc) List of securities 1889, 1891, 1892.\nd) Borland's Bill.\ne) Bankbook, Mercantile Trust Co., N.Y., 1887.\n/) Minutes of directors' meetings, 1892.\ng) Miscellaneous records and items concerning investments.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\n$\n\nThis package contains the following :\na) Vouchers, receipted bills, and general financial account of Treasurer N. A. Calkins,\nfor the year 1894-95.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\n6\n\nThis package contains the following :\na) Miscellaneous papers relating to deposits in the National Bank of the Republic,\nand vouchers for a few bills. It covers in the main the years 1897-98.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\n7\n\nThis package contains the following :\na) Cancelled checks, receipted vouchers covering in the main the years 1895-96.\nPACKAGE\n\nThis package contains the following :\na) Cancelled checks.\nb) Vouchers dated November, 1898.\n\nNO.\n\n8\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nc) Checkbook, Bank of Grand Avenue, Kansas City, Mo., containing a number of\ncancelled checks.\nd) Cancelled checks and receipted vouchers.\ne) Paper relating to work of J. M. Greenwood as Treasurer.\n/) Relating to Trustees' report for 1896.\ng) Relating to Trustees' report for 1905.\nh) Relating to Trustees' report for 1903.\ni) Relating to Trustees' report for 1897.\nj) List of bills for 1904-05.\nk) Miscellaneous bills and vouchers mainly for 1897-98.\n/) Vouchers for 1897.\ntn) Treasurer McNeil's report.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\n9\n\nThis package contains the following :\no) Bankbooks, checkbooks, and cancelled checks from C. G. Pearse, Treasurer.\ni) Vouchers, miscellaneous papers from Lane and McNeil.\nc) Cancelled checks and bankbook, C. G. Pearse.\nd) Cancelled bonds, miscellaneous papers, and McNeil's checkbook.\ne) Bankbook, cancelled checks, and reports of A. C. Lane, chairman, Board of\nTrustees.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\nlO\n\nThis package contains the following :\na) A book containing the accounts of A. C. Lane and I. C. McNeil.\nb) Cash book used by J. M. Greenwood when Treasurer.\nc) Cash book extending from July, 1903, to July, 1907.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\nII\n\nThis package contains the following :\na) A book giving lists of bonds and coupons owned by the National Education\nAssociation.\nPACKAGE\n\nNO.\n\n12\n\nThis package contains the following :\na) Three books of National Education Association order stubs.\n\nTHE BOARD\n\nOF TRtJSTEES OF THE NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nApril 9, 191 2\nASSOCIATION\n\nAmong the papers belonging to the Trustees of the National Education Association\nwhich I examined, I was able to find the following minutes of Trustees' meetings which,\nit seems to me, should be made part of the permanent record of this body.\nRespectfully submitted,\nRobert J. Aley\nSecretary, Board of Trustees\nMINUTES, FIRST MEETING\n\nOF THE TRUSTEES\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe Trustees of the National Educational Association met on the 25 th day of\nFebruary, 1886, in the city of Washington, D.C.\nPresient: Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards.\nThe above-named Trustees proceeded to make a preliminary organization by choosing\nN. A. Calkins as chairman and Zalmon Richards as Secretary.\nIt was resolved to meet at Topeka, Kans., July 13, 1886, and to submit the matter\nand manner of perfecting the organization of the Association, under the corporate power,\nsecured by instruction of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association,\n£.t their meeting, held at Saratoga in 1885, to the meeting of the said directors at Topeka,\nKans., in July, 1886, for approval and adoption.\nAdjourned.\nZ. Richards, Secretary\n(True copy)\nResolved, That the title by which this Association shall be known, shall be the\n\"National Educational Association,\" and that this resolution for change of name be\nduly recorded so as to amend the Certification of Organization executed and recorded,\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nill\n\nFebruary\n24, 1886 — in Liber No. 4, folio 36 et seq. — Acts of Incorporation for the District\nof Columbia.\nResolved, That the chairman of this Board of Trustees is hereby declared to be the\nexecutive officer of the board, and he is duly empowered to act for and in behalf of said\nboard in the transaction of its ordinary business during the intervals between the meeting\nof the Trustees.\nAdjourned.\nZ. Richards, Secretary\n(True copy)\nThe above resolution was readopted by the Board of Trustees, at their meeting held\nin Central Music Hall, Chicago, 111., July 15, 1887.\nMTNtTTES, MEETING\n\nOF THE TRUSTEES\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSaratoga\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSprings, July, 12, 1892\n\nA meeting of the Board of Trustees was held, at Congress Hall, Saratoga Springs,\nJuly 12, 1892.\n\nPresent: H. S. Tarbell, N. A. Calkins, and Z. Richards.\nThe matter of providing a fund of the National Educational Association, from which\nsums of money may be designated for definite purposes, to be disbursed under the supervision ofthe Board of Trustees, was considered.\nOn motion of Trustee Tarbell it was\nVoted, That the Board of Trustees recommend the establishment of an Emergency\nFund — to be subject to expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with vote of\nthe Board of Directors at any regularly called meeting — the said fund may be used for\nthe purpose of meeting deficiencies of income of the Association, and for such additional\ninvestigation and publications as may be determined by said Board of Directors.\nVoted, That the Emergency Fund be constituted by transferring from the balance of\nreceipts of the Association for any year, after all expenses and other liabilities for said\nyear have been duly paid, such sum as may be deemed expedient by the Board of Trustees\nunder the provisions of the Constitution, in Section 10, Article 4, provided that the total\namount in said Emergency Fund shall not exceed in any year the sum of four thousand\ndollars.\nChicopee Falls, Mass., July 14, 1894\nDear Mr. Calkins:\nBelow is a copy of the record of our transaction yesterday,\ncorrect, as I believe.\nYours truly,\nEdwin C. Hewett\nThe Trustees of the National Educational Association met at the West End Hotel\nin Asbury Park at 9:00 a.m., July 13, 1894.\nPresent: Calkins, TarbeU, Hewett.\nN. A. Calkins was chosen chairman of the board.\nZalmon Richards was chosen clerk and curator, for which services his salary was\nfixed at fifty dollars per annum.\nEdwin C. Hewett was appointed clerk, pro lent.\nIt was voted that Chairman Calkins be empowered to act for the board in all matters\nin which he may choose to take that responsibility.\nAdjourned.\nEdwin C. Hewett, Clerk, pro tern\nUpon motion of Trustee Pearse, the report was accepted and ordered to be made\na part of the official minutes of the Board of Trustees.\nThe board adjourned to meet at the same place Friday evening, July 12, immediately following the meeting of the Board of Directors.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\nChicago, July 12, 19 12\n\nThe Board of Trustees met pursuant to adjournment in the Ladies' Parlor of the\nAuditorium Hotel, Chicago, at 11 : 15 p.m.\nThere were present Trustees Greenwood, Brown, Joyner, Aley, and Fairchild.\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe Board of Trustees immediately adjourned from the Ladies' Parlor to Room\n346, Auditorium Hotel.\nThe Board was organized for the ensuing year by the unanimous election of the\nfollowing officers:\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., chairman, and Robert J. Aley, Orono,\nMe., secretary.\nChairman Greenwood reported that he had investigated the price offered for the\nLake Avenue property and was convinced that the offer should be accepted.\nBy vote of the Board of Trustees, J. Stanley Brown was instructed to complete in\nproper legal manner the sale of the property at 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago.\nDr. Irwin Shepard tendered his resignation as Secretary of the National Education\nAssociation. He requested that the same take effect July 31, 1912. The resignation\nwas accepted to take effect when a successor is duly elected and qualified.\nUpon motion of Trustee Aley, the Board of Trustees voted to make a special appeal\nto the Carnegie Foundation in behalf- of Dr. Shepard.\nThe board adjourned to meet at the call of the officers, on or about August 24, 191 2,\nat Columbus, Ohio.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nChicago, III., August 5, 191 2\nAn official call for the meeting of the Board of Trustees of the National Education\nAssociation having been regularly made by Chairman James M. Greenwood, the board\nmet in Room 128, Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, Monday forenoon, August 5, 1912. The\nchange of the time and meeting-place from the adjournment vote of July 12 was due to\nthe necessity of electing a Secretary earlier than had been anticipated.\nThere were present at the meeting Trustees James M. Greenwood, J. Stanley Brown,\nJ. Y. Joyner, E. T. Fairchild, and Robert J. Aley.\nThe meeting was called for the purpose of electing a Secretary of the National Education Association to succeed Irwin Shepard, who gave his resignation to the board July\n12, 1912.\n\nBy unanimous vote the Board of Trustees adopted the following resolution concerning\nthe resignation of Dr. Irwin Shepard:\nIn accepting the resignation of Secretary Irwin Shepard, the Board of Trustees of the\nNational Education Association express their high appreciation of the long, helpful, and\nconscientious service he has rendered the corporation.\nIn whatsoever work he may engage, he will carry with him the gratitude of his hosts\nof friends in every state of the American Union.\nIt is the earnest wish of this body that his future years may be as full of benefit to\nthe educational world as have been his past.\nBy unanimous vote of the Board of Trustees, D. W. Springer was elected Secretary\nof the National Education Association for a term of four years with a salary schedule as\nfollows: First year, $4,000; second year, $4,500; third and fourth years, $5,000.\nAfter considerable discussion, the Board of Trustees by unanimous vote recommended\nto the Board of Directors that the office and residence of the Secretary of the National\nEducation Association be at Indianapolis, Ind.\nTrustees Fairchild and Aley were made a committee to arrange for the closing of the\noffice at Winona, Minn., and the opening of the new office at Indianapolis.\nSecretary Aley was instructed to notify Mr. Springer of his election. He did so by\nsending him the following letter:\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n113\n\nChicago, III., August 5, 1912\nProf. D. W. Springer,\nDetroit, Mich.\nMy dear Mr. Springer: At a meeting of the Board of Trustees of the National\nEducation Association held in the Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, this day, you were unanimously elected Secretary of the Association to succeed Irwin Shepard, resigned. Your\nelection is for a term of four years, with a salary schedule as follows:\nFirst year, $4,000; second year, $4,500; third year, $5,000, and thereafter, $5,000.\nIt is expected that you will begin on your duties at once. You should go to Winona,\nMinn., at your earliest convenience, file your bond, and do whatever other details are\nnecessary.\nMr. Shepard is very anxious to be relieved at the earliest possible moment.\nIt was unanimously recommended by the board that the office and residence of the\nSecretary be established at Indianapolis, Ind. It will probably not be feasible to make\nthis transfer for some time.\nPresident Fairchild and Secretary Aley were made a committee to arrange for the lease of offices and to take charge of the details of the transfer.\nThis committee will correspond with you concerning the matter.\nPlease write me at my home address.\nVery cordially yours,\nRobert J. Aley\nHaving completed the business for which the meeting was called, the board adjourned.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "IRecroloa^\nFrom December 25, 1911, to December 31, 1912\nReports of the death of the following life, active, and corresponding members have\nbeen received since December 25, 191 1; the date of decease follows each name.\nIra Wilder Allen (February 10, 191 2)\nChicago, HI.\nMargaret Bancroft (January 3, 191 2)\nHaddonfield, N.J.\nArcher Clinton Bowen (January 19, 191 2) .... North Adams, Mass.\nJohn E. Bradley (October 7, 191 2)\nRandolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks (June 21, 191 2)\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nElmer G. Btjnnell (November 10, 191 2)\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nClarence Franklin Carroll (June 14, 191 2) . . . Marblehead, Mass.\nFrancis John Cheney (September I, 191 2) .... Cortland, N.Y.\nCharles W. Cole (August 27, 191 2)\nAlbany, N.Y.\nLouLiE CoMPTON (June 30, 191 2)\nBirmingham, Ala.\nEdwin Bruce Cox (January 22, 1912)\nXenia, Ohio\nJohn Caldwell Crawford (July 27, 191 2)\n.... Wadesboro, N.C.\nMrs. S.\\rah Platt Decker (July 7, 191 2)\nDenver, Colo.\nFaustin S. Delany (January 18, 191 2)\nLouisville, Ky.\nMatthew J. Elgas (September I, 191 2)\nNew York, N.Y.\nJulia M. F.\\RQxmAR (October 3, 191 2)\nLouisville, Ky.\nRobert Fischer (January 6, 1912)\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nJ. R. Flickinger (February 17, 1912)\nLock Haven, Pa.\nIsaac K. Funk (April 4, 1912)\nNew York, N.Y.\nWallace Kendall Gaylord (March 19, 191 2) . . . Berkeley, Cal.\nHarry Edmund Giles (April 11, 191 2)\nOberlin, Ohio\nAaron Grady (December 14, 191 2)\nNelsonville, Ohio\nS. Hermoine Hart (October I, 1911)\nParis, Idaho\nCaroline T. Haven (September 8, 191 2)\nNew York, N.Y.\nJohn A. Heizer (November 5, 19 11)\nCincinnati, Ohio\nWilliam P. Herrick (June 10, 1912)\nDenver, Colo.\nRussell HiNMAN (April 28, 191 2)\nNew York, N.Y.\nJohn Wesley HoYT (May 23, 191 2)\nWashington, D.C.\nWilliam R. Jackson (January 9, 191 2)\nLincoln, Nebr.\nEli M. Lamb (January 25, 191 1)\nBaltimore, Md.\nPierre Emile Levasseur (Corresponding Member) . Paris, France\nMartha Blair May (June 9, 191 2)\nRockland, Me.\nEdward H. McLachlin (October 19, 1911)\n.... East Peacham, Vt.\nFred M. McMurray (June 7, 191 1)\nMansfield, Ga.\nMary Jerome Merritt (May II, 191 2)\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\nRobert Comfort Metcalf (October 16, 191 2) . . . Winchester, Mass.\nJesse H. Michzner (December 22, 1912)\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nWiLHELM MtJNCH (Corresponding Member)\nBerlin, Germany\nMrs. Mary J. Parolini (January 10, 11191 2)\n.... San Francisco, Cal.\n4\nJohn Bradley Peaslee (January 4, 191 2)\nCincinnati, Ohio\nReece W. Perkins (July I, 191 2)\nNew Orleans, La.\nROLLIE A. Petrie (October 2, 191 2)\nEast Troy, Wis.\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "NECROLOGY\n\n115\n\nGilbert Random (1912)\nSacramento, Cal.\nJulia Richman (June 25, 191 2)\nNew York, N.Y.\nRobert J. Round (November 24, 191 1)\nElmira, N.Y;\nBessie M. Scholfield (December 7, 1911)\nProvidence, R.I.\nJames Fred Smith (July 8, 191 2)\nCampbell, Cal.\nBenjamin Franklin Stagey (March 5, 191 2) . . . . Pasadena, Cal.\nJ. M. Stevenson (January 29, 1912)\nKansas City, Mo.\nWalter Evans Striplin (May 26, 1912)\nGadsden, Ala.\nAlbion Wesley Stuart (October 15, 191 2) .... Ottumwa, Iowa\nMrs. Grace B. Sudborough (September 15, 1912)\n. Omaha, Nebr.\nRalph Stockman Tarr (March 21, 191 2)\nIthaca, N.Y.\nJohn Henry Thiry (June 23, 191 1)\nLong Island City, N.Y.\nCharles E. Tilton (December 21, 1912)\nBangor, Me.\nMrs. Georgiana Van Aken (August 20, 191 2) . . . Jersey City Heights, N.J.\nMrs. Mary E. Van Wagonen (September 9, J912) . Pittsburgh, Pa.\nJohn Wakefield Walker (November 8, 191 2) . . . Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn S. Welch (October i, 1910)\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nRobert Guy Young (June 23, 191 2)\nVictor, Mont.\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE\n\nFIFTIETH\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETING\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nCHICAGO,\n\nOF\n\nILL., JULY 6-12, 191 2\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSUNDAY\n\nIn accordance with an established custom, Sunday, July 7, was observed as Educational Sunday by a large number of the churches of Chicago, on which date the respective\npastors held special services, preaching sermons on educational topics as follows. All\nservices were held in the forenoon unless otherwise stated.\n\"Christian Teaching in the Public Schools\" — Rev. William Otis Waters, Grace\nChurch (Episcopal), Wabash avenue and 15th street.\n\"The Value of Brains\" — Rev. James O. May, Park Avenue Methodist Episcopal\nChurch, Park avenue and Robey street.\n\"Education: What Is It?\"— Rev. A. H. W. Anderson, All Saints Church (Episcopal), Wilson avenue and North Hermitage avenue.\n\"Education Which Educates\" — Rev. W. Hanson Pulsford, First Unitarian Society,\nWoodlawn avenue and 5 7th street.\n\"The Function of Education in a Democracy\" — Rev. James S. Ainslie, D.D., North\nShore Congregational Church, Sheridan road and Wilson avenue.\n\"Education for the Life Here and Hereafter\" — Rev. E. J. E. Schreck, Sheridan Road\nChurch of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian), 910 Sheridan road, near Rokeby street.\n\"Education and Religion\" — Rev. Edwin J. Randall, St. Barnabas Church\n(Episcopal), 4237-41 Washington boulevard.\n\"Education as a Means of Grace\" — Rev. William Carson Shaw, St. Peter's Episcopal\nChurch, Belmont and Evanston avenues.\n\"Education, the Highway to Nobler Life\" — Rev. John Bradford Pengelly, St.\nEdmund's Episcopal Church, 5831 Indiana avenue.\n\"The Liberating Power of Education \"—Rev. Walter S. Pond, Holy Trinity Church\n(Episcopal), 4716 Union avenue.\n\"The Educational Value of Religion\" — Rev. Edward Scribner Ames, Hyde Park\nChurch of Disciples, S7th street and Lexington avenue.\n\"True Education, Its Object and Its End\" — Rev. George M. Babcock, Calvary\nEpiscopal Church, 3160-62 West Monroe street, near Kedzie avenue.\n\"How Can the Church and Public School Work Together in Moral Training?\" —\nRev. William Chalmers Covert, Forty-first Street Presbyterian Church, comer 41st\nstreet and Grand boulevard.\n\"The Final Aim of Education\" — Rev. P. O. Bersell, Grace EvangeUcal Lutheran\nChurch, 70th street and Union avenue.\n\"Education and ReUgion\" — Rev. E. F. Williams, Wellington Avenue Congregational\nChurch, Wellington avenue, near Evanston avenue.\n\"Some Standards in Education\" — Rev. Walter C. Davis, Holy Trinity Church\n(English Lutheran), La Salle avenue and Elm street.\n\"In What Way Can PubHc Education Be Moral and Rehgious?\" — 'Rev. Edward\nHarvey Curtis, Woodlawn Park Presbyterian Church, 64th street and Kimbark avenue.\n117 Edward Rompel, Centenary Methodist\n\"The Value of Education\" — ^Rev. Henry\nEpiscopal Church, West Monroe street, between Morgan and Aberdeen streets.\n\"The Higher Ministries of Education\" — Rev. H. Irving Parrott, Windsor Park\nCongregational Church, Marquette avenue and 77th street.\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\"Christian Education\"— Rev. H. W. Schniewind, Saint Bartholomew's American\nCatholic Church, Stewart avenue and North Normal parkway, Englewood.\n\"Christian Ideals of Education\" — Rev. Frederick J. Bate, the Church of the\nRedeemer (Episcopal), Washington avenue and s6th street.\n\"The. Relation of Education to Christianity\" — Rev. Howard Adams Lepper, Trinity\nReformed Episcopal Church of Englewood, 70th street and Yale avenue.\n\"Pragmatism in School and Church\" — Rev. Martin J. Magor, McCabe Memorial\nMethodist Episcopal Church, Washington avenue and 54th street.\n\"Our Schools and Our Republic\" (evening) — Rev. Olin Mason Caward, Normal\nPark Presbyterian Church, 71st street and Yale avenue.\n\"The Relation of the Church to the Cause of Education\" — Rev. C. R. W. Kegley,\nLutheran Church of the Epiphany, 2227 Ogden avenue, near Taylor street.\n\"Democracy and Education\" — Rev. Oscar C. Helming, University Congregational\nChurch, Madison avenue and 56th street.\n\"The Master Teacher\" — Rev. O. F. Jordan, Evanston Christian Church (Disciples\nof Christ), Maple avenue and Greenleaf street.\n\"Education\nReligion\"\n— Rev. Vaughan\n(Disciples),\n19th ijj\nstreet\nand Spaulding\navenue. Dabney, Douglas Park Church of Christ\n\"The Spiritual Element in Education\" — Rev. Louis Rich, Hiunboldt Park Parish\nChurch (Swedenborgian), California avenue and Le Moyne street.\n\"Knowledge of Life, the Supreme Knowledge of God\" — Rev. LeRoy Moore, Unity\nSociety of Chicago, 204 LeMoyne building, 27 East Randolph street.\n\"Education and Character\" — Rev. William E. Barton, D.D., First Congregational\nChurch of Oak Park, Lake street and Kenilworth avenue.\n\"The Three H's in Education\" — Rev. A. Eugene Bartlett, Church of the Redeemer\n(Universalist) , Robey street and Warren avenue.\n\"The City's ObHgation to Childhood\" — Rev. Myron E. Adams, First Baptist\nChurch, South Park avenue and 31st street.\n\"Secular and Rehgious Education\" — 'Rev. Annesley Thomas Young, Advent Church\n(Episcopal), Logan boulevard and North Francisco avenue.\n\"Christian Education \"—Rev. Peter J. O'Callaghan, St. Mary's Church (Catholic),\nWabash avenue and Eldridge place.\n\"Christian Education\" — Professor Frank G. Ward, South Congregational Church,\nDrexel boulevard and 40th street.\n\"Education and the Moral Ideal\" — Rev. Paul Jordan Smith, Chicago Lawn Congregational Church, 6 2d place and St. Louis avenue.\n\"Educational Ideals\" — Rev. Preston Bradley, Church of Providence (Presbyterian),\n3526 Shefl&eld avenue, near Clark street.\n\"Education and Social Service\" — Rev. Ozora S. Davis, New First Congregational\nChurch, Ashland and Washington boulevards.\n\"Education and National Progress\" — Rev. E. LeRoy Dakin, Memorial Church of\nChrist (Baptist and Disciples), Oakwood boulevard near Cottage Grove avenue.\n\"Education in Worship\" — Rev. Herbert W. Prince, St. Paul's Protestant Episcopal\nChurch, Madison avenue and 50th street.\n\" The Moral Aspect of Education \" — Rev. Theodore G. Soares, University of Chicago,\nHyde Park Baptist Church, Woodlawn avenue and s6th street.\n\"The Church's Relation to Pubhc Education \"—The Very Rev. Walter Taylor\nSumner, Cathedral SS. Peter and Paul (Episcopal), Washington boulevard and Peoria\nstreet.\n\"The Coming Race: The Esoteric and Psychic Value of Education \" — Rev. Alexander\nJ. McIvor-TyndaU, Advanced New Thought Church, Hall 901, Masonic Temple.\n\"Some Features of Education Frequently Overlooked\" — Rev. Charles Herbert\nYoung, Christ Church (Episcopal), 65th street and Woodlawn avenue.\n\"What Education Is Worth Most?\"— Rev. Will F. Shaw, Church of Christ, Sheffield\navenue and George street.\nand the\nSchool\"— Rev. John D. Hull, Metropolitan Church of Christ,\nVan \"The\nBuren Church\nand Leavitt\nstreets.\n\"The American Common School\" — Rt. Rev. Samuel Fallows, D.D., St. Paul's\nReformed Episcopal Church, Adams street and Winchester avenue.\nLexington Avenue Baptist Church, 62d street and Lexington avenue — Rev.Melbourne P. Boynton, pastor. Sermon on educational topic.\nEglise Evangelique Francaise (Methodist Episcopal), 37th street and Langley\navenue — Two addresses on \"Education\" in the French language. Rev. Arthur L. Allais,\nRev. N. W. Deveneau, pastors.\nSt. Simon's Church (Episcopal), 1151 Leland avenue — Rev. W. B. Gwyn, pastor.\nSermon on educational topic.\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n1 19\n\nTrinity Episcopal Church, Michigan avenue and 26th street— Rev. John Moore\nMcGann, pastor.\nSermon on educational topic.\nChurch of the Epiphany (Episcopal), Ashland boulevard and Adams street — Rev.\nFranklyn Cole Sherman, rector. Sermon on educational topic.\nFIRST DAY'S\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOpening Session — Monday Afternoon, July 8, 2:30 o'clock\nThe Fiftieth Annual Convention of the National Education Association was opened\nin the Auditorium Theater at Chicago, 111., at 2:30 p.m. on July 8.\nThe opening was preceded by an organ recital, from 2:00 to 2:30 p.m., by Walter\nSpry, organist.\nGrand Fantaisie in C\nTours\nThe Answer\nW olstenhomle\nSpring Song .\nMendelssohn\nStar Spangled Banner\nDudley Buck\nTraumerei\nSchumann\nPostlude in F\nJohn West ■\nPresident Harry Pratt Judson, of the University of Chicago, presided at the opening\nof this session.\nInvocation.\nChairman Judson then introduced the following, who delivered addresses of welcome :\nHarry A. Wheeler, president of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States of\nAmerica and former president of the Chicago Association of Commerce; and Francis G.\nBlair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.\nA response to the addresses of welcome was made by Thomas H. Harris, state superintendent ofeducation for Louisiana, Baton Rouge, La.\nFollowing the addresses of welcome and the response Chairman Judson introduced to\nthe audience Carroll G. Pearse, of Milwaukee, Wis., president of the National Education\nAssociation, and transferred to him the conduct of the convention.\nAt this point President Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.>\ndelivered the presidential address of the year.\nFollowing the presidential address. President Pearse introduced the following speakers,\nwho delivered addresses appropriate to the topic of the session, \"The Half-Century\nMark.\"\n1. \"Brief Historical Sketch of the First Teachers Association held in Chicago, 111.\"\n— Josiah Little Pickard, LL.D., Cupertino, Cal. (read by Oliver S. Westcott, principal of\nWaller High School, Chicago, 111.).\n2. \"The Rebirth of the Association in 1884\" — Thomas W. Bicknell, Providence,\nR.I., president of the National Education Association in 1884.\n3. \"The Ideals of Half a Century\" — ^Jacques W. Redway, Mount Vernon, N.Y.\n4. \"The Monuments: the Achievements of Fifty Years\"- — James M. Greenwood,\nsuperintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo.\n5. \"The Coming Half-Century\" — Ellen C. Sabin, president of Milwaukee-Downer\nCollege, Milwaukee, Wis.\nThe following Committee on Resolutions was announced by President Pearse:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nJames W. Crabtree, of Wisconsin, Chairman\nWilliam M. Vance, of Ohio\nWilliam M. Davidson, of the District of\nColumbia\nFlorence Holbrook, of Illinois\nMary A. Monroe, of Washington\nRobert J. Fuller, of Massachusetts John W. Olsen, of Minnesota\nFollowing the appointment of the Committee on Resolutions the convention\nadjourned to Tuesday morning, the active members of the Association reassembling by\nstates either in sections of the Auditorium Theater or at their respective state headquarters for the selection of members of the nominating committee\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\nSECOND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSecond Session — Tuesday Forenoon, July 9, 9:30 o'clock\nThe following musical program was presented from 8:45 to 9:30 a.m. by 1,400\nchildren of the Chicago elementary schools:\n1. Grand Chorus: American Hymn\nKeller\n2. (a) The Two Grenadiers\nRobert Schumann\n(b) One Summer Mom\nGoetz\nOtis School. Miss Starry Carol, leader\n3. Grand Chorus: (o) Patriot's Prayer\nEdward Grieg\n(b) Cradle Song\nWm. Taubert\n4. (a) Barcarolle (from \"Tales of Hoffman\")\n....\nJ. Offenbach\n(b) Slumber Song of the River (from \"Jocelyn\") ....\n5. Godard\nFarren School. Miss Elizabeth M. Blish, leader\n5. Grand Chorus: (a) God Ever Glorious\nAlex. Lwoff\n{b) A Merry Life\nDenza\n6. (a) From a Railway Carriage\nHenry K. Hadley\n(ft) The Night Wind\nHenry K. Hadley\nYates School. Miss Alma Hunnenan, leader\n7. Grand Chorus: (a) The Song of a Thousand Years\n.\n. Henry C. Work\n(b) Star Spangled Banner\n•.\nSmith\nAgnes C. Heath, Director\nRalph M. Gerber, Organ\nLillian F. Archibald, Piano\nElsie M. Heath, Piano\nThe convention was called to order at 9:30 a.m.\nThe topic of the session was \"The American High School,\" and papers on this topic\nwere presented as follows:\n1. \"Its Relations to the Schools Below\" — ^Walter R. Siders, superintendent of\nschools, Pocatello, Idaho.\n2. \"Mortality in the Early Years: Some Administrative\nRemedies\" — Adelaide\nSteele Baylor, assistant state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\n3. \"The Specialized or Vocational vs. the Composite High School\" — Arthur Deerin\nCall,' principal of Henry Barnard School, Hartford, Conn.\n4. \"Social Organization in the High School\" — Milton C. Potter, superintendent of\nschools, St. Paul, Minn.\n5. \"What the Public May Expect in Dividends:\nMaterial, Civic, and Social\" —\nKate Upson Clark, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n6. \"The Worship of The \"Standard\" — ^WiUiam Hughes Meams, School of Pedagogy,\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nThe convention then adjourned to 8:00 p.m., on Tuesday evening.\nThird Session — ^Tuesday Evening, July 9, 8:00 o'clock\nPreliminary to the opening of the session, Marcus Kellerman, of the Royal Opera\nHouse, Berhn, Germany, presented \"Musical Interpretations\" on the organ.\nThe convention was called to order by President Pearse at 8 : 00 o'clock, and the following program was presented on the topic of \"A National University\":\n1. \"The National Association of State Universities and the National University\" —\nEdmund J. James, president of University of lUinois, Champaign, HI.\n2. \"A National University, a National Asset; an Instrumentality for Advanced\nResearch \" — Charles R. Van Hise, president of University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n3. \"A National University as Related to Democracy\" — James H. Baker, president\nof University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.\n4. \"Ways and Means: the Next Steps\" — ^William O. Thompson, president of Ohio\nState University, Columbus, Ohio.\nAfter the close of the program, President Pearse announced the following Committee\non Nominations:\n« Now executive director, American Peace Society, Washington, D.C.\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n121\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nRobert J. Aley, of Maine, Chairman\nC. C. Thach\nAlabama\nG. W. A. Luckey\nNebraska\nHenry Q. Robertson\nArizona\nW. J. HtiNTmc\nNevada\nGeorge B. Cook\nArkansas\nJ. H. Fassett\nNew Hampshire\nAgnes Howe\nCalifornia E. A. Farrington\nNew Jersey\nJames H. Baker\nColorado\nR. H. Twining\nNew Mexico\nArthur D. Call\nConnecticut Kathemne D. Blake. .New York\n(No appointment)\nDelaware\nJames Y. Joyner\nNorth Carolina\nWilliam M. Davidson. . .Dist. of Col. Charles C. Root\nNorth Dakota\nI. I. HiMES\nFlorida\nEdward M. Van Cleve Ohio\nJ. H. GxHLLiAMS\nGeorgia\nEdwin S. Monroe\nOklahoma\nWalter R. Siders\nIdaho\nW. J. Kerr\nOregon\nWilliam B. Owen\nIllinois\nJ. George Becht\nPennsylvania\nLinnaeus N, Hines\nIndiana\nMary Mugan\nRhode Island\nJ. H. Beveridge\nIowa\nDavid B. Johnson\nSouth Carolina\nM. E. Pearson\nKansas\nA. A. McDonald\nSouth Dakota\nMcHenry Rhoads\nKentucky\nL. E. Wolfe\nTennessee\nThomas D. Boyd\nLouisiana C. J. Lukin\nTexas\nRobert J. Aley\nMaine\nD. H. Christensen. . . .Utah\nMartha Stromberg\nMaryland\nGuy Potter Benton. .Vermont\nFrederic Goodwin\nMassachusetts\n(No appointment)\nVirginia\nE. A. Lyman\nMichigan\nT. E. Hulse\nWashington\nFlorence Rood\nMinnesota J. F. Marsh\nWest Virginia\nJames W. Bell\nMississippi Margaret Canty\nWisconsin\nJohn R. Kirk\nMissouri\n(No appointment)\nHawaii\nW. E. Harmon\nMontana\nGeorge N. Briggs\nPhil. Islands\n\nTHIRD\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nFourth Session — Wednesday Evening, July io, 8: go o'clock\nPreceding the opening of the session an organ recital was given by Arthur Dunham,\norganist, from 7:30 to 8:00 p.m., the following program being presented:\nChorale and Minuet\nElevation (on the echo organ)\nBurlesca e Melodia\n\nBoellman\nRousseau\nBaldwin\n\nBerceuse (from \"Jocel3m.\")\nFanfare — Concert fitude\nCoronation March\n\nGodard\nShelley\nMeyerbeer\n\nThe convention was called to order at 8 : 00 p.m. by President Pearse, who introduced\nthe following speakers on the general topic, \"The Relation of the Public Schools to the\nMovement for Recreational, Social, and Civic Opportunity\":\n1. \"The Schoolhouse as a Social and Civic Center\" — Frank P. Walsh, Kansas\nCity, Mo.\n2. \"How a Community May Find Out and Plan for Its Recreational Needs\" —\nRowland Haynes, field representative, Playgroimd and Recreation Association of America,\nNew York, N.Y.\n3. \"The Relation of Schoolhouse Architecture to the Social Center Movement\" —\nDwight H. Perkins, Chicago, 111.\n4. \"The Public Library, the Public School, and the Social Center Movement\" —\nArthur E. Bostwick, librarian. Public Library, St. Louis, Mo.\n5. \"The Organization and Administration of Recreation and Social Center Work\" —\nErich C. Stern, member of state legislature, Milwaukee, Wis.\n6. \"The School as a Recreation Center\" — ^Jane Addams, head resident, Hvdl House,\nChicago, 111.\n7. \"The Social Center and the Rural Community\" — ^Herbert Quick, editor olFarm\nand Fireside, Springfield, Ohio.\nThe convention then adjourned to Thursday evening, July 11.\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL\nFOURTH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nFifth Session — ^Thttrsday Evening, July ii, 8:oo o'clock\nPreceding the opening of the convention, an organ recital was given by Arthur\nDunham, organist, from 7:30 to 8:00 p.m., the following program being presented:\nConcert Fantasy in C minor\nBatiste\nPrayer and Cradle Song (on the echo organ)\nGuilmant\nWedding Match\nGuilmant\nMarch from the Opera \"Queen of Sheba\"\nGounod\nCapriccio\nLemaigre\nGrand Chorus in G minor\nHollins\nPresident Pearse called the convention to order at 8 : 00 o'clock and presented the\nfollowing speakers on the general topic, \"The Public Schools and the Public Health\":\n1. \"The Duty of the State in the Medical Inspection of Schools; Resiilts Which the\nPubUc May Rightfully Expect\" — Fletcher B. Dresslar, specialist in school hygiene,\nBureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n2. \"The Teaching of Personal Hygiene in the Schools\" — David Starr Jordan, president of Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\n3. \"Sanitary Education in Rural Communities\" — Charles E. North, M.D., New\nYork, N.Y.\n4. \"Medical Inspection and Medical Freedom\" — Charles A. L. Reed, M.D.,\nCincinnati, Ohio.\n5. \"Some Problems in Education, as Related to the Public Health\" — ^Harvey W.\nWiley, contributing editor and director of Bureau of Foods and Health, Good Housekeeping\nMagazine, Washington, D.C.\nThe convention then adjourned to Friday forenoon, July 12.\nFIFTH\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSixth Session — Friday Forenoon, July 12, 9:30 o'clock\nPresident Pearse called the convention to order at 9:30 o'clock and presented the\nfollowing speakers on the general topic, \"Rural Life Conditions and Rural Education\":\n1. \"A Social and Educational Survey of the Rural Community\" — Warren H. Wilson,\nsuperintendent of the Presbyterian Department of Chiurch and Country Life, New\nYork, N.Y.\n2. \"What Is Being Done to Meet the Problem\":\na) \"By the Schools of Guilford County, North Carolina\" — ^T. R. Foust, county\nsuperintendent, Greensboro, N.C.\nb) \" By the State of Oregon \" — 1.. R. Alderman, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Salem, Ore.\nc) \"By the State of North Dakota\" — ^John H. Worst, president of State\nAgricidtural College and Government Experiment Station, Agricultural\nCollege, N.Dak.\n3. \"The Humanity of Highways\" — Mrs. Frank DeGarmo, director of Coxmtry Life\nDepartment, National Congress of Mothers, St. Louis, Mo.\n4. \"The School, the College, and the English Farmer\" — E. J. Russell, director of\nRothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, England.\n5. \"What the National Government Can Do\" — Philander P. Claxton, United States\ncommissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\nThe convention then adjourned to Friday evening, July 12.\nSeventh Session — Friday Evening, Jitly 12, 8:00 o'clock\nPreliminary to the opening of the session, Arthur Dimham, organist, presented the\nfollowing musical program:\nBell Rondo\nMorandi\nAndantino in D flat (on the echo organ)\nLemare\nToccata in G\nDubois\nOverture to \"Tancredi\"\nRossini\nSong without Words\nTschaikowski\nMarch from \"Tannhauser\"\nWagner\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n123\n\nThe convention was called to order by President Pearse at 8:00 o'clock, and the\nfollowing program was presented:\n1. \"The Best Next Thing for the Teaching Profession\" — ^Albert E. Winship, editor\nof Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.\n2. \"Peace and Arbitration\" — Baroness Bertha von Suttner, Vienna, Austria.\n3. \"Camp-Fire Girls\" — Gerda Sebbelov, general secretary of the Camp-Fire Girls,\nNew York, N.Y.\n4. \"The Camp-Fire Girls and the New Relation of Women to the World\" — Luther\nHalsey Gulick, director of Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation, New\nYork, N.Y.\nFollowing the address of Director Gulick, President Pearse introduced Mrs. Ella\nFlagg Young, superintendent of schools of Chicago, who spoke briefly, thanking the members of the Association for their attendance and contributions to the success of the Fiftieth\nConvention of the National Education Association.\nPresident Pearse then introduced Hon. Edward T. Fairchild, president-elect of the\nNational Education Association.\nMr. Fairchild responded in a brief address of thanks for the honor which had\nbeen bestowed upon him, pledging his devotion to the interests of the National Education\nAssociation intrusted to him, as follows:\nIn behalf of this Association I wish to thank you, Mr. President, for the helpful,\ninstructive, and inspiring program provided. Permit me also to congratulate you upon\nthe eminently fair and just manner in which you have discharged your duties as presiding\nofficer.\nTo you, ladies and gentlemen, members of the National Education Association, I\nwish to express my sincere appreciation of the great honor you have conferred upon me.\nFor twenty-seven years my name has been borne upon the roll of this organization as a\nlife member. I have read with interest its proceedings and have gone to its reports as to\n\"a court of last resort.\" For me the deliberations and conclusions of the National\nEducation Association have been a constant source of guidance and inspiration. Its\nroster of fifty years carries the names of America's greatest educators. Its influence for\ngood is immeasurable. Such is its past history. As for the future, may it meet fully the\nnewer and greater demands. May it continue to be the most powerful instrument in the\nworld for the development of the highest and best in national life and character; for the\nestabhshment of equal educational opportunity!\nFor myself, I believe in a progressivism that holds fast to all that is good and forsakes\nall that is evil; that seeks not to destroy, but to upbuild; that attempts to meet twentiethcentury demands by applying twentieth-century methods.\nMay I propose this sentiment : The teachers of the United States. May they ever\ncontinue to be loyal, patriotic. God-fearing men and women, devoted to the great work of\ninspiring our youth with high ideals and lofty purposes; and may they ever be so consecrated with the spirit of unselfish devotion to the great work of teaching that only good\nexamples shall be set. May they grow in grace and kindliness of spirit and may still\nhigher purposes and nobler aspirations fill their hearts and minds to the exclusion of all\nlesser things.\nTo this body of kingly citizens, and citizen kings, all hail!\nPresident Carroll G. Pearse, after brief remarks of cordial thanks to all members of\nthe Association for co-operation during the year just over, invited the Association to join\nin singing \"America\" as the closing exercise of the Fiftieth Convention of the National\nEducation Association.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nSESSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nHON. FRANCIS\n\nOF THE ASSOCIATION\nOF WELCOME\n\nG. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nFOR ILLINOIS,\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nOF PUBLIC\nILL.\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nPlato in accounting for the existence of organic life assumed the existence\nof two antecedent worlds: one, a world of ideas placed by him somewhat\nindefinitely in the heavens; the other, a dead inert world of matter. In\nhis world of idealism he placed an idea for every species of living thing.\nIn the fullness of time that idea exerts a miraculous power upon the nether\nworld of matter until\nEvery clod seems to feel a stir of might,\nAn instinct within it that reaches and towers\nAnd groping blindly above it for light,\nClimbs to a soul in grass and flowers.\n\nPlato believed that matter was shaped into forms of loveliness and\nbeauty thru the influence of a spiritual thing — an idea. Of course, with our\nmodern scientific thought and experiment, we have outgrown Plato's\nfancy as a suflficient explanation of the origin of the animate world. Our\nmodern materialistic philosophers go quite to the other extreme. They\nwould have us believe that everything is the product of the blind forces\nof nature. If we understand clearly their inductions, they hold that man,\nthe highest form of life, is physically, mentally, and morally the direct\nresult of the flux and flow of great natural forces which have played upon\nhim from the very beginning, whatever that beginning may have been.\nHis physical form, the shape of his head, the color of his eye, the color\nof his hair, the hue of his skin, all his physical attributes are the direct\neffects of wind and wave, of mountain and valley, of heat and cold, of\nmoisture and dryness. And such an array of evidence is brought forward\nthat every one of us must be willing to admit the strength of the argument.\nBut they go still farther and hold forth that the intellectual powers of\nman are also the result of these same physiographic forces. If man is\nbom in the region of the poles, where the nights and winters are long, where\nthere is very little variety of plant and animal life, his mind is dwarfed.\nAnd under the opposite physical conditions on the arid stretches of the\ntorrid zones, intellectual mediocrity is the result. It is only in the great\ntemperate zones, with their rhythm of night and day, of spring and simimer\nand winter, with their great variety of animal and vegetable life, with their\n125 that man attains his highest intelpageants of bud and blossom and fruit,\nlectual power and his greatest variety of imagination. Still farther they\ngo, and assert that in his institutional and religious thought and life he\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nis a creature of these same material forces; that out of the great womb of\nnature he springs; that he is fashioned completely by her and imto her in\nthe end he returns again to become \"a brother to the insensible clod.\"\nAfter granting much of this array of facts and inductions, after admitting that man is influenced very greatly physically, mentally, and morally\nby the earth forces that play upon him — after granting all that — ^we must\nnot forget, and we must continue to state that one of the most forming\nand transforming forces that plays upon him is not a physical force but\na spiritual force. We cannot for a moment admit that the sum-total of\nman's environment consists of mountains and streams, winds and weather,\nand mere physical forces. We must not overlook the fact that the most\npotent part of his environment may be an idea, a sentiment, an enthusiasm.\nTake the great idea of service which was slowly evolved thru the Hebrew\nnation and perfected in the life of the Great Master. When it was once\nliberated, how it swept around the world, changing the thought, the sentiment, and the life of the people. How it entered into the hearts and minds\nof men and women and changed their attitudes toward themselves and\ntoward each other. How it entered into the home and gave it its most\nsacred touch. How it entered the imaginations of men and women and\nchanged the form of their literary expression so that every page glowed with\na fervor and a beauty never known before. How it leaped into the paint\nand brush of the painter and made his canvas blaze forth with a new\nintensity and power. How it touched the heart of the architect and was\nbodied forth in lofty spires and magnificent cathedrals. How it caught\nthe arm of the sculptor and in hammered brass and carved stone brought\nforth new forms of loveliness and beauty. How it changed constitutions\nand laws and federations. How it took men and women bom under\nvastly different physiographic conditions, whose ancestors for centuries\nhad lived under these dissimilar conditions, and by giving them a new birth\nthru this idea transformed them into a unity of faith, a unity of spirit,\nand a unity of conduct.\nYes, let science continue to explore the world of nature and let us\nhonestly accept every finding that is true, but let us not lose our faith in\nthe power of an idea. And it is because you, the teachers of America,\nrepresent that world of ideas and hold it above this world of industrialism\nand materialism; it is because you believe that boys and girls are not\ntransformed into men and women merely by what they eat or by mere\nphysical forces, but that their tastes, temperaments, habits of thought,\nand their characters are shaped by a body of ideas, a body of sentiments,\na body of enthusiasm ; it is because you are the keepers of the holy grail\nof truth, because you are the knights-errant of ideas and ideals, that we\nwelcome you to this great metropolis of the Middle West and to this great\ncommonwealth which lies at the very heart of the nation. Geographically,\nIllinois is a part of the entire nation. When Nathaniel Pope, the terri-\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRESPONSE\n\nTO ADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n127\n\ntorial delegate to Congress, asked that body to extend the territory of the\nstate up to the western shore of Lake Michigan, far beyond the limit set\nby the conditions of the Northwestern Ordinance, he was asked to state\nhis reason. In substance he replied: \"You have fears that the day will\ncome when the North and the South will separate. You also fear that\nwith the development of the great territory beyond the Mississippi the commonwealths there formed will be out of spiritual contact and sympathy with\nthe East and will tend to fall away. If you will give the territorial limits\nto this state which I am asking, letting it reach to the far North and down\nto the very heart of the Southland, you will make a state that will bind\ntogether forever the North and the South with a bond which, tho misunderstanding and passion may strain, can never be broken. You will\nfashion a state lying midway between the East and the West that shall\nhold together, in bonds of sympathy and common interests, the great nation\nthat is yet to be.\" So that in a very peculiar sense Illinois, geographically,\nis the very heart of the nation. But there is another sense, and one that\nis much more significant, in which Illinois occupies a central place in the\nnation. Here on these stretching prairies lived and grew to maturity a\nman gaunt of form and large of stature, in whose heart and mind was a\nworld of ideas and sentiments nation-wide in their scope. Here on this\ngreat western frontier with the wild forces of pioneer life playing about\nhim he kept his feet firmly planted upon the earth, but his head was touched\nwith the light of truth and sentiment and national idealism. He looked\nupon the North and the South, upon the East and the West, and in the\ngreat womb of his heart, thru much travail and pain, we were all born into\na new citizenship. And it is with peculiar pride that, as a citizen and an\"\nofiicial of this commonwealth, I invite you to enter into it thru the heart\nand mind and life of Abraham Lincoln, who believed in nature, who believed\nin material forces, who believed in great industrial activity, but who\nbelieved that an idea, a principle, was above and over them all as a shaping,\nforming influence upon the lives of men.\nRESPONSE\nHON.\n\nTHOMAS\n\nTO ADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nH. HARRIS,\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nLOUISIANA, BATON ROUGE,\nLA.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nAs spokesman for the visitors assembled here, I desire to express grateful appreciation of the kindly welcome which has just been extended by\nthe state superintendent of Illinois, Hon. Francis G. Blair.\nChicago is a fitting place for teachers to assemble for the discussion and\nsolution of their problems. Its public-school system, headed by one of the\nwisest and most progressive superintendents in the country, has settled\nmany of the questions that are annoying some of us; its great imiversity\nis blazing a clear and sane way in the field of higher education; and its\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nprogressive commercial spirit is an example in thrift and organization to\nother cities. We have been assured that the city, with its facilities for\ninstruction and entertainment, is ours. Availing ourselves of the kindly\nprofifered hospitality, we shall be able to profit by the educational and\nindustrial achievements about which we shall learn by appropriating the\nideas that can be utilized in the work we are attempting at home.\nEvery section of the United States is represented here, and every phase\nof educational endeavor has in this assembly its friends who are here to\npromote its best interests. The President has warned me that I am not\nexpected to say anything, and that I shall be given only a few minutes in\nwhich to say nothing; and accepting in proper spirit the limitations that\nhedge me in, I shall call attention to only one of the many questions that\nare engaging the attention of school men thruout this country at the\npresent time, namely, the importance of utilizing the practical world about\nus in the education of the child.\nFor many years business men have believed that the schools were doing\ntoo little for the masses who work in the trades and industries, and were\nbeing conducted too largely in the interest of the few. The man who\nworks in the shop, in the store, and on the farm has been asking why it is\nthat a boy's education cannot be made to square with the world in which\nhe must live and work. The schools are attempting to respond to these\ndemands of a practical public. Some cities are organizing their schools\nin sympathy with the commercial and industrial conditions that exist in\nthem, and while the rural portions of the country are always the last to\nreceive intelligent attention, yet here and there a coimtry school is organized\nto serve to advantage the commxmity that supports it. School men are\nsaying that the school campus should be a map, socially, spiritually, and\nindustrially, of the community for whose benefit the school was created;\nin practice, however, we have just begun to attempt seriously to draw the\nmap, A few city-school systems are bringing the shop, the forge, the bank,\nthe store, and other urban industries into the schools and are successfully\nusing them in the education of the cities' children, and a half-hearted\nattempt is being made in an occasional country school to modify the course\nof study, that was prepared a thousand years ago for preachers and lawyers,\nfor a course designed to acquaint country boys and girls with the life and\nduties about them. Institutions that are based upon traditions which have\ncome down thru the ages are slow to make changes (and rightly so), and\nconstructive work that deserves to live permanently advances slowly, being\nsubjected to the tests and corrections necessary to guarantee residts sane\nin conception and correct in execution. It may be well, therefore, that we\nhave felt our way in the matter of introducing the activities of the practical\nworld into our school courses.\nThis principle of cautious procedure will not be violated now that the\nexperimental stage has been passed by the adoption of machinery necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRESPONSE\n\nTO ADDRESS\n\nOP WELCOME\n\n129\n\nto promote such practical education as should be promoted. Sentiment in\nthe cities can always be created in favor of any worthy educational cause,\nand funds can be raised for its support. There need be no special worry,\ntherefore, over the question of shaping city-school courses to meet the needs\nof city people. The situation in the country is different. There the\npublic conscience is not easily aroused, and funds for the support of needed\ninstitutions are raised with difficulty. The isolated situation of the farmer\ncreates satisfaction with conditions that are heart-rending, and his poverty\nprevents him from changing the conditions even when he aspires to better\nthings.\nThe country schools should be lifted from their tragical position and\norganized to serve to better purpose the millions of country people who\nconstitute our most important industrial class. This can be done only\nthru the leadership and financial assistance of forces outside of the rural\nsections. At the head of these forces should be the United States government. Congress should aid the states thru the state colleges and normal\nschools to train teachers for proper service in the country schools, and it\nshould assist in the organization and maintenance of country schools in all\nof the states that approach the ideal of offering instruction suited to the\nneeds of country conditions. Millions spent annually in this way with the\nview to making a better citizen of the man in the country would prove one\nof the most valuable investments the national government has ever made.\nThe question of national interference with the state systems of pubHc schools\nis unworthy of consideration. Such national supervision as would be\nnecessary to insure the wise expenditure of national funds could be exercised by the national Department of Education, not only without doing\nviolence to the spirit of local school government, but to the uplift of local\neducational ideals. This has been true of the agricultural and mechanical\ncolleges, and it would be true of the country schools.\nThru the leadership and financial assistance of the national government,\nthe extension departments of the state colleges are performing a wonderful\nservice in certain departments of public-school work in many sections of\nthe country; an extraneous stimulus has accomplished even greater results\nin the field of secondary education, and all this without encroaching upon\nlocal authority.\nThe greatest question before the American people today is the creation\nof a country school that can properly educate the millions of our country\npopulation. Our national industrial prosperity and the perpetuity of our\ndemocratic institutions depend upon an intelligent, efficient rural citizenship, and to the realization of that ideal the national government should\ncontribute leadership and millions of its funds.\nIf the teachers of the United States, representing all departments\nof public-school effort — colleges, state normal schools, high and elementary\nschools — ^would unite upon a sane, broad program, and present to Congress\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "130\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nan earnest, nation-wide appeal for the country school, Congress would\nrespond to the appeal, and a stimulus would be provided for the removal\nof the lowly, tragical, heart-rending conditions that surround the children\nin the rural districts of this coimtry.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nCARROLL\n\nG. PEARSE,\nPRESIDENT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nADDRESS\nOF\nSCHOOLS,\nMILWAUKEE,\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nWIS.;\n\nOur public educational system stands in the presence of great impending changes. It is becoming yearly more certain that a radical readjustment\nof our conception of public-school education, its province, its methods, its\ndetails of administration, is demanded by the conditions of the day.\nThe ciuriculum of the public schools was shaped when a comparatively small part of the education of children was given at school; to read,\nto write, to compute in a simple way — these were the arts taught. Habits\nof industry and application to practical affairs were acquired at home; in\nconnection with these lessons in industry, children got from their parents\nlessons in honesty and truthfulness; they learned to feel that obligation\nwhich a good citizen owes to his family, to his neighbor, to the organized\ncommunity, and to the state. The home and the church had a large part\nin the work of education; requirements comparatively much lighter were\nlaid upon the school.\nThe educated leaders among our early settlers, who shaped our standards of education, had, in addition to the education in the homely things\nof life which was assumed as a matter of course, a large knowledge of the\nwisdom set down in books. Their grammar schools and academies, designed\nto fit boys for the college, and the college itself took on almost exclusively\nthe ideals of book learning.\nWhen Horace Mann preached his crusade of education for all the people\nit was this ideal which moved him; all the youths of the land were to be\ngiven the education in books which was in accord with the ideas of the educated men of that day. And the high schools, which everywhere sprang up,\nwere planned to cover only that portion of the circle of education which\nwas deemed within their province at a time when a large part of the circle\nwas covered by the activities of the home. The education of the nation\ntoday is still largely in the mold which was shaped by the conditions and influences prevailing in its formative days; the subjects thought worthy of\nstudy in the schools of the people have been until recently, and in thousands\nof schools still are, those which were proper under industrial and social conditions which have passed away.\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n*\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nADDRESS\n\n131\n\nThe schools are still using a daily time schedule shaped by conditions\nwhich, so far as our cities and towns are concerned, no longer exist. The\narrangement by which the schools opened in the morning at nine o'clock\nand closed in the afternoon at four o'clock, with an hour at noon for the\nluncheon which in most cases was brought from home and eaten at the\nschool, was not accidental; it had a real economic reason, based on the\nindustrial conditions in the homes. The nine-o'clock opening, an hour or\nmore later than the German boy begins his schools tasks, served to allow\nall the children who were above babyhood to help in the morning about the\nfarmyard \"chores\" and the household tasks. The four-o'clock dismissal\nin the afternoon not only permitted all the children to reach home before\ndark, tho the distance might be considerable, but permitted them time to\nassist in performing the evening farmyard and household duties: out of\ndoors, to feed and house the farm animals, attend to the milking, and see that\nthe wood was brought; indoors, to help with the supper and be busy with\nthe tasks which had accumulated during the day.\nOur universal weekly time-table bears the marks of a similar origin.\nAbroad, it is common to find the week broken by a midweek and a week\nend — a Wednesday afternoon and a Saturday afternoon — half-holiday.\nWith us, the schools are dismissed and the schoolhouse bell is silent thruout\nall of Saturday. Our New England ancestors, from whom we have inherited\nmost of the details of our school system, were a Sabbath-observing people.\nThe work to be done on that day was reduced to a minimum. Saturday\nnot only brought the necessity for clearing off the arrears of the week, but\nall possible preparation must be made for the day of rest which was to\nfollow. This service kept busy all the hands, the small ones of the family\nas well as those larger and stronger.\nIn the yearly arrangement of terms and vacations the same shaping\ninfluences can be seen. It is true that energy is not so abounding in the\nheated season and it might, at first thought, be supposed that this offered\nan explanation for the long summer vacation. But it will be remembered\nthat the work of field and farmhouse never intermitted on account of hot\nweather and that the most strenuous farm work was done during the summer.\nIn the seasonal necessities of an agricultural community will be found the\nreal cause for the long summer vacation. Keeping the weeds out of the\ncorn and potatoes during the season of their most rapid growth; the haying\nand harvesting; the care of the kitchen garden; the gathering of vegetables and fruits and preserving them for winter use — all these filled busy\nhands thru the hours of long summer days with labors which must be performed at just the time set by the succeeding necessities of growth and\nripening. And so, from early summer to early autumn, the schoolhouse\ndoor was closed and dust gathered on the books, while the pupils, merged\nin the industrial community, were receiving industrio-vocational education\nof a purposeful and practical quality which falls to the lot of too few of the\nboys and girls of today.\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe part borne by the home in the education of our children, to fit them\nfor usefulness and give them power, has shrunk like a snowbank in spring;\nthe industrial and social conditions, in our cities and towns, at least, are\nsuch that the stream of home educational efl5ciency, once flowing strong\nand full, has become a mere trickle.\nThe old system had many defects; its teachers were too often poor in\nskill and in knowledge; its appliances were crude; its organization was rudimentary. But the home and life were its powerful allies; and much of its\nproduct was far beyond what the school alone could have shown. We\nwho are charged with the responsibility for public education stand confronted bythe necessity of bringing back the schools into touch with life; it\nis required of us that we cease to try to educate the children of the people\nin institutions shaped to meet conditions which existed among us two or\nthree generations ago.\nAltho in general, to date, least effort toward readjustment has been made\nin the rural schools, the situation there is simplest and easiest to solve. There\nstill remains the opportunity for co-operation with the home; there, useful\nlabor, under wholesome conditions in company with father and mother, is\navailable as an aid to build strong muscles and nerves and vital organs, to\ntrain to application and industry, and to give the power to bear responsibility\ncreditably and meet emergencies with self-reliance. Much still remains\nto be done in the consolidation of the scattered small schools into larger\nones, where better eqvdpment and classification are possible and where\nbetter teachers can be paid for. Something remains, also, to be done by way\nof enriching the curriculimi and bringing into it, not only more of the culture\nof the past and the wisdom of the world today, but also such applications\nof our scientific and commercial and social knowledge to the practical\naffairs of rural life as shall make for larger returns from the soil, and its\nbetterment rather then its exhaustion; a higher quality of live stock and\nlive-stock products; a clearer understanding of the best methods of marketing crops and purchasing supplies and equipment, as well as more intelligence in keeping farm accoimts and showing profits or losses; and a truer\nunderstanding of the value and possibilities which the rural home offers for\nsocial life and recreation.\nThe problem of \"bringing back\" the city school is, however, more\ndifficult. Already something has been done to recast the course of\nstudies in the light of present-day demands. Ntunbers of schools have\nintroduced physical training to help in straightening stooped shoulders,\ndeveloping flabby muscles, gi^'ing a good carriage in standing or walking,\nand developing muscular control and steadiness of nerve. But far more\nneeds to be done; the few exercises possible in the small time now available can only start the good work. More exercise of definite sort must\nbe given to develop poise and control; but far more out-of-door exercise\nmust be allowed for increasing general vigor and vivacity. A powerful\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n133\n\nagency for this will be found in the sports and games in which all normal\nyoung persons delight. Not only must time be allowed for these, and,\nwhere necessary, supervision and suggestion or direction provided, but\nadequate play space must be put at the disposal of the young people\nof the school, both during school time and at other hours. The school\ngrounds should be the neighborhood center for play and sports, summer and\nwinter. From these playing-fields it will not be wise to exclude those games\nand forms of sport which involve contest — struggle, either personal or\nbetween teams. Some of the most virile and valuable qualities of the race\nhave been developed by struggle; if these qualities are not to fail from\namong us, some place must be provided where all the young people, not\nmerely a small number picked for athletic prowess, may have a chance to\ndevelop those qualities.\nIn many places efforts have been made, in some instances feeble, in\nothers well considered and effective, to provide some exercises which shall\ngive to pupils some of that touch with real things, that knowledge of how\nto do things with the hands, that development of nerve tracts and nerve\nquality, and of brain areas and general brain power, that, to thousands in\nthe past, came from work in the field and the forest, in the barn and the\nshop, in the kitchen garden and at the loom, at the wash tub and the wood\npile. Whittling and joinery for the boys and the sewing and cooking which\ngirls do in many elementary schools are of real value toward the solution of\nthis problem. The drawing and clay modeling often given furnish an\nopportunity for self-expression, for the creation of beautiful forms or the\ndevelopment and grouping of conventional forms of artistic design adaptjed\nfrom beautiful objects found in nature. This opportunity for expression\nand for the exercise of taste and skill in originating and applying designs\nused to come to the boy who made and decorated his sled or the piece of\nfurniture for use in the home; or to the girl who designed the pattern and\nwove the linen, the rug, the carpet; who fashioned her own garments or\ntrimmed her hat, or laid out the garden flower bed and arranged its harmony\nof colors. The beginnings have been good; but they are only beginnings.\nTwo or three hours per week are grossly inadequate to develop hand skill\nand artistic taste, and to build up power and ability to execute. The time for\nthis work must be extended until an hour or an hour and a half can be\nfound each week day, instead of only an hour or an hour and a half during\nthe week. This time will sufiice to do some real work: the girl can get\nsome real knowledge of, and some skill in, sewing and cooking and caring\nfor the various rooms of the house, in the cutting and fitting of family\ngarments, in caring for the sick and for little children; the boy can get\nbetter hand training; he will be able, not only to use tools, but to repair\narticles and have time to design things and to make them. Both boys and\ngirls can not only get skill and knowledge, but form habits of application and\neffectiveness — something which the time now available does not permit;\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nboth will have time to study the underlying principles of design and decoration and the methods of applying these to the work they do.\nLess time, rather than more, will be spent on arithmetic; but more,\nmuch more, on the essential operations, to give a surer mastery and readier\nuse of the processes which are most used and necessary. Less time will\ngo to the study of grammar — ^but that time will go to a better selected list\nof fundamental topics; and more time, much more, will be given to oral\nand written expression by the boys and girls; they will have far more\nthoro training \"to say right on,\" plainly, directly, and forcibly, in spoken\nor in written words, whatever they have to say.\nWhen the curriculum has been reconstructed in the light of the needs of\nthe life of our people — and not forgetting the life which awaits the youth\nwhose formal education must end with the elementary schools because it\nis necessary for them to enter the great army of workers — our boys and girls\nwill not have been taught any special employment or handicraft; the\ncommon schools are not for that. No specious plea for \" pre- vocational \"\neducation will have made it possible to rob the children of their birthright\nin the schools of the people by selecting out those who are to be \" devoted\nto labor\" and giving to them some special training to make them more\nreadily useful as factory workers. But every pupil coming from the schoolroom doors at the end of the elementary-school course will have had such\ntraining as will make it easily possible for him, if conditions permit, to go\non into the high school, and thence to college. But if necessity calls to labor,\ninstead of permitting further progress in school, the boy will go with hands\npossessed of sufficient skill to acquire expeditiously any handicraft to which\nhe may apply himself, or, if he does not follow mechanical employment, to\nmake it sure that he will not stand helpless in the presence of a shelf which\nneeds to be put up, a door to be hung, or a fence to be repaired. The girl\nwill be able to do the things that fall to the lot of a house-mother if fate calls\nher, as it does most women, to that duty. Both the boy and the girl will\nhave such a grounding in the elements of arithmetic and the use of language\nas to be ready and well able to learn quickly the methods used in noting and\nrecording the transactions in any place of business, and in making the\ncomputations required and extending the results.\nAll will have acquired some knowledge as to how the soil is prepared\nand seeds are planted, how plants grow and are cultivated, how the vegetables and fruits and flowers are gathered and made ready for the uses of\nmen; they will understand the ministry of the frost and the heat, the rain\nand the sunshine; the blessed smell of the soil will be familiar in their\nnostrils, and they will know the feeling of wholesome dirt between their\nfingers and toes. Each will have a fair and practical knowledge of our\nhistory and the methods by which we govern ourselves and carry on the\nbusiness of the general and local governments.\nEach will have a body as\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n135\n\nstraight and vigorous, as well schooled to control, and as sound as heredity\nand home conditions render possible.\nIt is not necessary to say that the hours devoted to school exercises,\naccording to the daily and weekly schedule now in use, are not suflScient\nfor these things; all of us realize it. But a school day adopted under conditions which no longer exist is not a sacred thing ; there is no reason why the\nschool day should not be lengthened and the weekly schedule modified to\nmeet the conditions of today. The school day has even been generally\nshortened within a generation, largely because the general strength and the\nnervous systems of our children were being overtaxed by the kind of school\nexercises, almost exclusively interior and sedentary, which they were\nrequired to perform. But with a proper readjustment and arrangement of\nexercises there appears no reason why the schedule should not include the\nnew work, and the extension of old work proposed.\nMore equipment for manual work and more teachers for it will render\npracticable the extension needed here; more time allotted to physical\nexercises and especially more time devoted to outdoor play and to sports\nand games will give what is necessary there; more land for play and sports\nand for planting and cultivating growing things will make it possible for the\npupils to receive the educatioa which is to be derived from these activities.\nAnd a proper rearrangement of employments, the alternation of inside work\nwith work in the freedom of the open air, lessons in books with handwork or\nwith work in the school garden, or with activity upon the playground,\nwill bring children to the end of the elementary-school period, not less\nvigorous and healthy than at present, but rather stronger, in better health,\nand in every way better equipped and trained for whatever tasks life may\nbring them.\nAnd in this reconstruction of the program it will probably be recognized that the Creator did not intend that entire abstention from labor\nshould occur during the summer months; the growing season in nature may\nvery well be the growing season for human beings, not only physically, but\nintellectually and in the formation of worthy habits. If school exercises\nare intermitted in sunmier in the rural schools, it should be chiefly because\nthe pupils can have education of a different but equally valuable sort given\nto them otherwise. Some fortunate children in town can be taken by their\nparents to the coimtry for the summer, but for most it is impossible; they\nmust remain in the town. It should not be difficult so to arrange the\nschool exercises of the year that this great majority of children would be\nfar more profitably, wholesomely, and agreeably occupied than in running\nthe streets as they too often do under present conditions.\nThis readjustment need not be at the expense of the teacher's strength\nor comfort. Doubtless the beginnings of the new order would be painful to\nthose who had fallen into ruts, and to those who had become firmly estab-\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlished in routine and mechanical habits of work; whenever any new plan is\nundertaken, we expect groanings from this small minority of teachers and\nthese groanings seldom belong to that class \"which cannot be uttered.\"\nBut altho the school day must necessarily be lengthened, the change from\nindoor to outdoor conditions and the variety in the work would relax the\ntension and break up the continuous application to tasks so similar that they\nbeget schoolroom fatigue. The supervision of the outdoor play and of the\nschool-garden and field work should furnish a grateful relief, and render the\nwork of the day much less exhausting. Of course the special work — that in\nmanual training and household arts, and in systematic gymnastics — should\nbe done by special teachers, and the regular teachers relieved during the time\n-the classes are thus engaged. This would allow time in which the teacher\nwould be free from responsibility for the class; it could be used in relaxation, or it could be used for checking up and planning school work and\nlessons instead of doing this work after school, or at home in the evening.\nOne other pressing problem demands consideration in this connection:\nWill the constructive exercises of the school have their full value if the\nproduct of these exercises lacks real utility? Children in the home, for\nages, have taken part in the real work of life; they have produced or helped\nto produce articles for family consumption or for sale. Can the manual,\nthe constructive work of the school, have the vital educative effect which is\nso important unless the things made in the school shop or raised in the school\ngarden are real things, for practical use or for sale ? It is not at all certain\nthat we shall not find that this practical quality is necessary; that children\nmust have restored to them thru the instrumentality of the school the\nright to work at productive labor, as a vital part of a proper education.\nThey must be kept from grinding toil in mills and factories; but they have\nthrived on suitable labor, under proper conditions and oversight, since\ntime began. It may be that this opportunity can come in connection with\nthe school, by centering the manual work, in shop and garden, chiefly upon\nsuitable articles having economic value — articles which can be used or sold.\nIt may be that it can come by some arrangement between the school and the\nindustries; and an agreement by which a considerable share of the time\ndevoted to handwork may be employed in some suitable industrial establishment, atwork of immediate, concrete commercial value. It may\nbe in one way, it may be in another; but we must ascertain if some way\ncannot be foimd for restoring to our boys and girls their right to that\neducation which comes from proper labor, suited to their age and strength,\nand performed under right conditions. We must answer the question\nwhether important and valuable qualities of our national character do not\ndepend for their development and perpetuation upon the restoration to our\nchildren of their right to perform suitable and useful labor during their\nformative years.\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHISTORICAL\n\nSKETCH\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n137\n\nTOPIC: THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION— THE\nHALF-CENTURY MARK\nA, BRIEF\n\nHISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE FIRST TEACHERS\nASSOCIATION HELD IN CHICAGO, ILL.\nJOSIAH LITTLE PICKARD,\n\nLL.D.,\n\nCUPERTINO,\n\nCAL.\n\n(Read by Oliver S. Westcott, Principal of Waller High School, Chicago, III.)\nThe convention of teachers was called in October, 1846, by J. Y.\nScammon, G. W. Meeker, and others interested in the cause of public\neducation, to be held in Chicago. It was an invitation of national character,\nas was evident from the response to the call. New York was represented\nby Salem Town, author of school textbooks popular at that time; Mr.\nPierce, an organizer of teachers institutes; and W. F. Phelps, a recent\ngraduate from D. P. Page's Normal School at Albany.\nGovernor Slade of Vermont was at that time engaged in securing\nplaces in the West for female teachers. It was probably on his suggestion\nthat a delegation so timed their journey as to be present at the Chicago\nmeeting.\nThe homes of prominent citizens were opened for the entertainment of\nall in attendance from outside the city. The plan of the originators of\nthe convention was for a three days' session. No program had been prepared, but the addresses of the gentlemen from New York elicited warm\ndiscussion, and the interest became so great that an invitation was extended\nto the gentlemen above named to remain and conduct a normal institute\nsimilar to those held in New York and adjoining states. The hosts cordially\nextended the welcome to their guests. The teachers of the city attended\nevening sessions, and the young ladies of the Chicago Female Seminary\nwere often present during the day sessions. So great was the interest that\nfor the last afternoon of the convention the public schools were closed and\nan outdoor meeting was held in the courthouse square, since there was no\nhall of sufficient size in the city to accommodate the audience.\nIt is impossible for me to give a detailed account of the exercises, but\nI may speak of the aftermath; for the seed sown in that convention has not\nperished, but, to my mind, is the living root which appears in the vigorous\ngrowth now harvested each year by the National Education Association.\nMr. Phelps, participant in the sowing, lived many years to witness the\nharvest and in 1876 presided over the reapers as president of the National\nEducational Association in Baltimore. He organized the State Normal\nSchool of New Jersey in 1855 and in 1857 the Farnum Preparatory School\nin Beverly, N.J. He was principal of Minnesota State Normal School\n1864 to 1876 and president of Wisconsin State Normal School at Whitewater\n1876-78. At the ripe age of eighty-six he passed away in St. Paul, Minn,\nInspired by the meetings, not one of which failed to interest me, I\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nreturned to my home. The longing for sympathy of fellow-laborers, which\nhad so cheered me at the Chicago convention, grew in intensity. Interest\nin popular education in the mining region covering a part of southwestern\nWisconsin, northwestern Illinois, and central eastern Iowa was at low ebb.\nThru personal correspondence the teachers of the region, anxious for better\nacquaintance, and for help in the work which was discouraging, met at\nPlatte ville, Wis., and before parting organized the Mining Region Teachers\nAssociation. For five years the Association met annually in one of the\nthree states. Dr. Azel P. Ladd, a resident of the mining region, a warm\nfriend of public education, was elected state superintendent of public\ninstruction for Wisconsin and entered upon the duties of his office in 1852.\nHaving witnessed the results of the Mining Region Teachers Association,\nhe determined, if possible, to secure the organization of a state association.\nPursuant to his call for a meeting of friends of such an association, seven\nmen, four of them teachers, met at his office in Madison, August, 1853.\nAfter conference, an organization was perfected and a constitution was\nadopted extending the privilege of membership to all \"friends of education.\" Provision was made for a meeting in August of each year. (Illinois\nfollowed in December, 1853, and Iowa in May, 1854.) It is presumed that\nthe Wisconsin association was exceptional in the difficulties it encountered\nin the first years of its organization, but the spirit of the leaders had no fear\nof the possibility of failure.\nThe second meeting would have discouraged men of ordinary pluck.\nOn gathering at Madison in 1854, Dr. Ladd's successor could not be found.\nNo provision had been made for a place of meeting. Six friends of education representing six schoolbook publishing houses greeted five teachers\nwandering around the hotel. At last one hunted up the sheriff and obtained\nthe key to the courthouse; another bought a pound of candles for lighting.\nAt the evening session the audience consisted of one gentleman who gave\nclose attention to the president as he read his address. Our joy in having\none hearer was stilled when we learned that he was \"stone deaf.\" The\nfive teachers present, foreseeing the danger of \"special interests\" control,\ntook advantage of their opportunity, and amended the constitution by\nadmitting only teachers to active membership.\nThru the persistent energy of President McMynn the third meeting at\nRacine was a triumphant success, and the Wisconsin State Teachers Association holds sway in educational matters in the state.\nIn the call for a meeting for the purpose of organizing a national association, the three state associations named as successors to the Mining\nRegion Teachers Association, itself a child of the Chicago convention of\n1846, were represented by their respective presidents. With all these\ngentlemen it was my privilege to be a colaborer in the early 50's.\nThe chairman of the convention was an Iowa man, who was also an\nactive member of the Mining Region Teachers Association at its last\nsession in 1852.\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nREBIRTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n139\n\nThe claim to parentage of the National Education Association' may be\nquestioned, but I think prenatal conditions affecting its character may be\ntraced in some measure to the convention of 1846 in Chicago.\nWhen I entered upon my work in Chicago in 1864, the names of the\nschool buildings carried me back eighteen years to gentlemen who were\npromoters of the convention of 1846. Messrs. Jones, Scammon, Kinzie,\nBrown, Ogden, Newberry, and Foster were still in active business life and\nwere still warm supporters of the public-school system of the city.\nIn 1846 the blockhouse built for the defense of the city was standing at\nthe mouth of the harbor, but the Dearborn School, named in honor of\nGeneral Dearborn, United States Army, proved a better means of defense\nto the city and the blockhouse has been removed.\nB.\nTHOMAS\n\nTHE REBIRTH\nW.\n\nOF THE ASSOCIATION\n\nBICKNELL, PROVIDENCE,\nR.I., PRESIDENT OF\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN 1 884\n\nIN 1884\nTHE NATIONAL\n\nIn the city of Philadelphia, August, 1857, a small company of earnest\nteachers of New England, the middle and central western states, organized\nThe National Teachers Association, \"to elevate the character and\nadvance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the\ncause of popular education in the United States.\" The American Institute\nof Instruction was twenty-seven years old and the oldest normal school\nwas eighteen. \"The little red schoolhouse\" in the East and the logcabin school in the Central West were the prevailing types of American\nschool architecture, wherein persons of little learning and no professional\ntraining essayed to teach what the elementary textbooks of arithmetic,\ngeography, grammar, and spelling held within their covers.\nThis was the primary period of American education. Thirteen years\nlater, at Cleveland, the name became \"The National Educational\nAssociation,\" which it held until 1907, when, by act of Congress, its\ncharter name became \"The National Education Association of\nthe United States.\" The changes in the name were important, but of\nlittle worth compared with the development of the Association in its\nstructure, functions, and work.\nToday, after fifty-five years of life, and on the Fiftieth Anniversary\nmeeting, the National Education Association is the most influential organization of its kind among civilized nations. Its possible teaching constituency isat least three-quarters of a million persons. The breadth of\nits work includes all grades from the kindergarten thru the university.\nThere is no educational question too minute for its consideration, none\ntoo philosophic for its solution. Its various departments, including its\ncrowning glory, the National Council of Education, individualize, differentiate, and specialize educational studies and focalize professional\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "140\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nforces. Its methods of procedure are democratic and progressive, while\nits influence outruns its years, and makes it at this anniversary the most\npotent agency in the educational world, representing as it does the great\ndemocracy of the common-school teaching fraternity.\nMy topic, \"The Rebirth of the Association in 1884,\" assumes much,\nbut my time limit compels me to address myself briefly to certain great\nchanges in the Association methods, purposes, and work consequent upon\nthat historic meeting, leaving its history to other and more impersonal\ncritics and historians. These changes seemed at the time so important\nand fimdamental that they were at once adopted and have since become\npermanent in the structure of the great organization.\nThe first principle of essential value established was -the unity and\nsolidarity of the teachers and teaching forces of the United States. The\nNational Association is a fact as well as a name, binding the educators\nof all grades and all localities, North, South, East, and West, in one\ncomposite body. It may seem to you today a singular state of the\neducational mind of a generation ago when I tell you that it was then\nseriously proposed, in view of the meager attendance and apparently\nsmall influence of the national body, to abandon the National Education\nAssociation, and to form three sectional associations, outside of New England, which had the American Institute of Instruction, then a half-century\nold. It was thought that the Middle States and New England had such a\nhomogeneity in their history and educational traditions that their educators\nwould rally about the old standards of Horace Mann, Henry Barnard,\nFrancis Wayland, George B, Emerson, and those of earlier but most\nprogressive schools, and make the old Institute their rallying-point.\nThe second association was to include the states of the Mississippi\nValley, with the Western Teachers' College of 1831, of Cincinnati, as the\nbasis of union.\nThe third educational body was to include all the states south of the\nMason and Dixon line.\nThe fourth was to include the mountain and Pacific states.\nAs supplementary to this geographical division of the workers, it was\nproposed to hold, once in three or four years, a imion or a national educational congress of the four sectional bodies, in order that the sentiment\nof unity and solidarity might be preserved.\nThe Madison meeting set forever at rest the question of sectional\njealousies and rivalries, and was as complete a solvent of educational\nseparation as was the Civil War of the doctrine of state secession. The\nNational Education Association became a nation-wide institution in 1884.\nThe principle of national unity, in education as the basis of democratic\ninstitutions was most emphatically illustrated and enforced at Madison\nin the broader scope given to Association work — o. principle which has\nbeen recognized in expanding measure in all the subsequent history of\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nREBIRTH\n\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n141\n\nthe National Education Association. To illustrate: temperance in school\neducation was advocated by Miss Frances E. Willard. The education\nof the Negro to become a vital factor in the future development of both\nraces was discussed by three Negro advocates of the South, one of whom\nwas Booker T. Washington, who made his maiden education speech at\nMadison. The Indian was the theme of General S. C. Armstrong, General\nPratt, and others. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell opened the great question\nof the training of the defective classes by an able symposium on the education of deaf mutes. \"Education in the Southland\" was presented ably\nand eloquently by Dr. Bingham and Dr. Mayo, \"Citizenship, the Great\nAsset of American Education,\" by Dr. Curry, general agent of the Peabody\nFund.\nThe New Education, then coming to the front, had a distinguished\nadvocate in Colonel Francis W. Parker. These and kindred topics lifted\nthe Association out of the ruts of conventionalism and sent it along the\nhighway of human thought and progress.\nPerhaps the most marked feature of broader and clearer educational\nvision at Madison was seen in an educational exposition in the state capitol,\nunder the direction of Dr. James H. Smart of Indiana, the first and only\nexhibit ever made by the Association, arranged under five departments.\nI. Industrial and Technical Education.\nII. State Exhibits of Conunon-School Work.\nIll, Art.\nIV. Special Exhibits, as Ward's Museum of Rochester, etc.\nV. Kindergarten.\n\nDr. William T. Harris, chairman of committees, reporting on the\nexposition as a whole, wrote:\nIn extent and completeness the Madison exhibit challenged comparison with the\nCentennial educational display at Philadelphia. Expectations tho large were more\nthan realized. The rooms of the display were thronged from the very beginning. One\ncannot calculate the influence of it for good. The thousands who studied these exhibits\nwent home impressed with the paramount importance of the claims of the new education and with a vivid idea of its appliances. It only remains to say that the exposition\nwas a grand success in all its departments and formed a very important feature in the\ngreatest educational gathering ever held in this country.\n\nFor the first time in the history of the Association, the oflScers and\nmembers were confronted with a strange experience in dealing with new\nfinancial problems. For twenty-three years, \"Debt,\" \"Debt,\" \"Debt,\"\nhad been the cry of the treasury, and at the last meeting of the Association\nat Saratoga Springs, a deficit of $1,200 faced the members, only half of\nwhich had been wiped out when I took the presidency. Now, at Madison,\nwith debts all paid, the Association had fallen heir to a substantial sum\napproximating $5,000. Suddenly and by magic the National Education\nAssociation was transferred from a condition of poverty and indebtedness\nto that of independence and bond-holding.\nInstead of a problem of debt-\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npaying, the Association faced one of money-investing. Surely here was\na new departure, a phase of the New Education most devoutly to be grateful for. Philosophy is good, philosophy with a good bank account is far\nbetter. Art and science are essential to progress, but the science of investing earnings and the art of cutting coupons are essentials to life. The\nfund of $3,000 begun in 1884 has grown in the twenty-eight years to nearly\n$200,000. So vital is the matter of finance to the National Education\nAssociation that I see the necessity of a prompt enlargement of the invested\nfund to a million dollars, and a campaign for its raising should be begun\nat this meeting and made a fitting supplement as well as complement of a\nhalf-century of work. Such a fund would afford an income sufficient to\ncarry on the great work of the departments and the general Association\nand relieve the membership of the annual tax of two dollars a year. The\nexpense of attendance at the Association is a sufficient tax on the members,\nand provision should be made at this meeting for a speedy removal of the\ntwo-dollar fee. A capable financial secretary could easily raise the fund\nof the National Education Association to a million dollars and place it on\na sound financial footing. In a great association nothing contributes the\nelements of independence, loyalty, and progress so completely as an adequate treasury and a good bank account. For the advance of such a\nmeasure, \"my hat is in the ring.\"\nDr. William T. Harris, who tho absent in the body is present in spirit\nand is our great leader still, states in his historical review of the Association\nand his estimate of the value of forces, that the members in attendance\nconstitute one-half the value of the meetings, in social, educational, and\ninspirational ways. Prior to 1884, the annual meetings of the National\nEducation Association seldom exceeded three hundred members, and in\nsome cases not half that number. The first meeting recorded an attendance\nof 43 persons, including two women, who were not allowed membership\nin those early, barbaric days. By a conservative estimate, more than 7,000\npersons participated in the benefits of the Madison meeting — a number\nconsiderably in excess of the total attendance of all previous meetings of\nthe National Education Association. Since that date, few have been\nsmaller in numbers, while at the Boston meeting appeared the immense\nenrollment of 36,000 members — a marvelous figure as to numbers and\nvalues. The total attendance since 1884 is estimated at 250,000 while\nthe 23 previous meetings did not exceed 6,000 persons. On the basis of\nestimated attendance merely, the meetings since 1884 have been forty\ntimes greater in potentiality than those preceding, but this is a low estimate, inasmuch as multiples have an increasing kinetic force, in a geometric ratio. It is safe to assume that today the great body of American\nteachers absent from this meeting are conscious of its convocation, and\nare consciously or unconsciously moved by the spirits which issue from\nthe national press and are flashed by the wires over this and other lands.\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nREBIRTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n143\n\nMadison set a new standard of attendance and values and its excelsior\nspirit still survives in the annual meetings, in increasing values.\nOne of the most valuable assets of the Association is its business policy,\ninherited from 1884. Prior to that time the Association was conducted\non the laissez-faire doctrine, or a \"go-as-you-please\" policy. Great men\nor great businesses do not succeed on either of those lines. Organization\nis the law of development and educators have been slow to recognize the\nprinciple. The first move, made in the 1884 campaign, was to secure a\nstate manager in every state in the country. These men and women\nwere the eyes, hands, and feet of the executive in all the important matters\nrelating to each state, such as the distribution of information, awakening\ninterest, enlistment of the press, and all other matters which served the\ninterests of^the National Education Association. We called them general\nmanagers in 1884. You name them state directors.\nThe newspaper press of the country was organized under a national\npress manager. The railroads were under the direction of able railroad\nmanagers. I notice that at this meeting the National Education Association is under the management of the railroads. In 1884, the railroads\npublished and distributed about half a million circulars and booklets\nrelating to the meeting and its attractive adjuncts, at a cost to the several\nlines traversing the great Northwest of about $5,000. Business plans,\norganization, directive force were first put in active service in 1884. The\nimmense significance of women's work in education was recognized for\nthe first time, in any adequate way, in 1884. Two women were elected\nas vice-presidents, and six were added to the Board of Counselors, now\nDirectors. The names of twenty-three women educators are recorded\nas speakers or officers of the National Education Association, and for the\nfirst time in the history of this body, a lady teacher presided over one of\nits most important meetings, in the person of Miss Sarah E. Doyle, of\nProvidence, R.I., to whom the President committed the official gavel,\nin recognition of the equality of men and women in the educational world,\nat least — the President himself being a firm believer in the equality of rights\nof men and women in all departments of the world's work.\nAnother contribution of 1884 was the splendid social and human side\nof the program, and the interchange of state-wide, sectional, and national\ncourtesies and fellowships. Not only did the men and women of the East\nand the West, the North and the South, come into personal relations and\nacquaintance at Madison, as never before, but the men and women of\nNew England, of the East and the South, saw for the first time the grandeur\nand nobility of the Central West and the Northwest, the magnificence of\nthe mountain regions, and the unsurpassed beauties and grandeur of the\nPacific slope; while, on the other hand, the West sent her sons and daughters\nto the East to study the historic past of the Old Thirteen, and to sniff the\ncool vacation breezes of the Atlantic slope. Anglo-Saxon, Celt, Caucasian,\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nEthiopian, Indian, Mongolian mingled as brethren in the unifying and raceerasing influence of a high educational idealism, and the elevating power of a\ngreat professional enthusiasm. The spirit of Christian democracy ruled\nthe occasion from first to last and partisan politics found no place or part\nin the affairs of the National Education Association. The President\nrefused a unanimous re-nomination, generously offered by the Committee\non Nominations, thru the hands of Dr. William T. Harris, and received\nwith applause by the great convention. It was only after much persuasion\nthat Dr. F. Louis Soldan, the modest but eminent and scholarly superintendent of schools of St. Louis, consented to assume the large responsibilities of the ofl&ce. Political methods in the selection of the leading\nofficers were not the outcome of the Madison meeting. Personal ambitions\nand partisan thimble-rigging were silenced in the presence of the great\npersonalities, the great inspirations, and the amazing possibilities made\napparent at this historic meeting. Men and women felt the cohesive force\nof unity in a great cause, and the divisive force of personal ambition was of\nnecessity banished from thought and act. The sublimity of a great cause\ndwarfed individual conceits, and the presence of the matchless womanhood\nof Frances E. Willard, May Wright Sewall, and Clara E. Conway, and the\ngrand manhood of Josiah L. Pickard, Emerson E. White, Albert G. Lane,\nGeorge Howland, John D. Philbrick, J. L. M. Curry, Alexander Graham\nBell, and William Torrey Harris made lesser men humble and docile, as are\nthe lesser Alps in the presence of Mont Blanc.\nThere is another and possibly a still larger consideration that received\nits great momentum at Madison, proceeding from the new sensation of\ngreat strength, both numerical and financial, and that was the spirit and\ninitiative of large plans and undertakings. I have not time to enumerate\nthose launched in 1884 and since, but it is safe to state that the Association came into a realization and possession of its larger self, and a fuller\nself-consciousness, and, growing out of that enlargement, it has fulfilled\nthe Virgilian adage, Possunt quia posse videntur. It is on this principle\nthat all growth and progress proceeds, and the Association will continue\nits growth so long as it seeks new and larger fields of work, and flinches\nnot in the presence of mountains of labor.\nSidney Lanier, the great poet of the Southland, in \"The Psalm of the\nWest,\" sings of the time when shall — •\nScience be known as the sense making love to the All,\nAnd Love be known as the marriage of man with the All — •\nTill Science to knowing the Highest shall lovingly turn,\nTill Art to loving the Highest shall consciously own,\nTill Science to Art, as a man to a woman shall yearn — ■\nThen Morn!\n....\n\nThis, it seems to me, was the philosophic outcome of the new birth at\nMadison, the upspringing of a great body of educators to the new visions\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions] .\n\nTHE\n\nIDEALS\n\nOF HALF\n\nA CENTURY\n\n145\n\nof duty, the realization of great tasks to be done, and the consciousness\nof a new spirit to enter upon the work of doing, and so long as the Association shall hold its ultimate in\nfar-off Divine events,\nToward which the whole creation moves,\n\nits great mission cannot end. Today, great questions looni^^p before the\nseers in the educational watchtowers. On the professional and administrative side, we have the need of a Department of Education in the United\nStates government, side by side with those of Agriculture, State, War,\nand the Navy, as in France, Germany, and other foreign states. Education must be officially recognized as the force that makes and protects a\nrepublic, and is superior to armies and navies. We must demand that\ntalent and training for teaching are not limited by sex lines, and that the\nrewards of labor are increased by quality, and not by the cut of the garment\nor the dress of the hair.\nThe time has fully come, so it seems to me, when our profession shall\nhave a titular recognition in honors and degrees as do other learned bodies.\nA four-year course of liberal studies in a normal school is certainly the\nequivalent of a four-year college course, half of which may be devoted\nto ball and boat. We should give to the normal graduates the titles that\nlabor and scholarship have rightly earned, as do the colleges, and our\ngreat fraternity will never come into its own, educationally, socially,\nfinancially, morally, until graduating degrees are granted by all first-grade\nnormal schools and colleges.\nA word on another point and I am done. In 1884, a committee was\nappointed to plan for an international council of education, but the council\nhas never materialized. At Boston, in 1910, it was my pleasure to present\na new resolution in favor of such a council, and it was unanimously indorsed\nby this Association. The first meeting of that committee was held today,\nand the first steps have been taken toward bringing such a coimcil into\nbeing — the result of a purpose initiated twenty-eight years ago. It is\nsincerely hoped that within a twelvemonth there may be held at Washington a congress of representative educators of all civilized nations, to the\nend of forming a representative council which shall bring into acquaintance and alliance the educational leaders of all lands and tongues.\nC.\n\nTHE IDEALS\n\nJACQUES\n\nW.\n\nREDWAY,\n\nOF HALF\nE.R.G.S.,\n\nA CENTURY\n\nMOUNT\n\nVERNON,\n\nN.Y.\n\nI am not quite certain that my conception of an ideal is correct, nor\nthat I can always distinguish between an ideal and a fad. I decline,\nhowever, to accept a cold-blooded dictionary definition of the word, and\nreserve the right to create my own conception, and to apply it to the time\nand the occasion.\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n. [General\n\nPerhaps the ideal may be a mental concept of a perfect standard, but\nit is the concept of a standard that one never reaches — like the end of the\nrainbow it is always a little beyond the grasp. But the rainbow is never\nanything more than rainbow; on the contrary, the ideal is ever growing\nand expanding and unfolding as we pursue it, imtil the mind is lost in the\ncontemplation^ of its immensity. Signposts of gold mark its bypaths, and\nits ways are strewn with acres of diamonds.\nThe unfolding of a true ideal is like the growth of a plant. Today it\nis a bud, tomorrow its leaves and petals will expand, then comes the seed;\nand the shell contains the forests of a thousand centiu-ies. Or we may liken\nit to the water that comes from a patch of summer cloud. Like a thought\ndescending from heaven, the drops let loose from the mists above fall upon\nthe earth. They gather into rills and brooks imtil, at last, they grow into\na resistless flood that may bear on its bosom all the w^orld's battleships.\nBut the true ideal is never reached; for it is the distilled idea that is conceived of activity and bom of everlasting progress.\nIn his vision of the New Jerusalem, St. John pictured what seemed to\nhim an ideal; but St. John's vision must have rubbed against earthly cobwebs and dust before reaching his eyes. We have grown so tremendously\nin twenty centuries that a municipal art commission would condemn its\nlack of concinnity in design, and the health board would close its portals\nuntil a modern sewer system should be installed. The accepted ideal of\ntoday is the rejected of tomorrow.\nIn the New Commandment which our great Master and Teacher gave\nus, we have perhaps the best example of a true ideal — that of conduct in life.\nIt was uttered in less than a score of words, yet out of it has grown all that is\ngood in civilization; and out of it have grown all those blessed attributes\nwhich we siun up in the Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man.\nIt is the ideal of growth in knowledge, growth in grace, and growth in wisdom. And the root of it all is growth. One may reach the Hmits of an imperfect standard, but the true ideal has no limits of expansion, save those\nof the human mind.\nMy task at this time is to set forth the educational ideals of the past\nhalf-century. If it is to be a relation of the ideals for which this Association has actively battled, then the task is easy; it has actively fostered\nnone. It has issued manifestoes of principles, it is true; but it has actively\nstood for but few; and they, alas, have sometimes fallen stillborn. The.\nAssociation has been an open forum for every new idea in education, and\nthis must be placed to its everlasting credit; but its support has almost\nalways been passive. For want of an effective organization it has been too\noften a plaything in the hands of demagogues, rather than a force to be\nfelt in education. Educational adventurers have more than once packed its\nbusiness meetings in order to obtain a little cheap glory, but they have\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nIDEALS\n\nOF HALF\n\nA CENTURY\n\n,\n\n147\n\nwrought derision rather than lasting harm. The steam roller may not\nhave grown rusty, but certainly it has broken no foundation stones.\nCould a consensus of opinion be expressed by the rank and file of membership, itwould probably disclose the fact that the Association has failed\nto command the influence to be expected of such a representative body.\nThe press has rarely taken it seriously; and school boards, as a rule, have\nignored it. Nevertheless, in the management of its affairs, tho there may\nhave been more or less to criticize, there has been much more to commend.\nFor this state of affairs, its imperfect organization and passive attitude\nare mainly responsible. Its stamp of approval has been placed on many\ngood things but it has rarely fought in the open for them. At this convention the Association is to be honored by an address from Dr. Harvey W.\nWiley, one of the great benefactors of his times. Now, Dr. Wiley stands for\nan ideal; not only that, he stands in the open and hands out tremendously\nhard uppercuts for it. And the Association might sit up and listen; instead\nof inviting Dr. Wiley to lecture us, we should be sending Dr. Wiley and a\nthousand more like him tbruout the land to preach the gospel of genuineness\nin all that pertains to humanity. The tacit approval of a great principle\ncounts for but little; the world respects us only when we strip and fight\nfor it.\nIn the first few years of its existence, the Association confined itself\nvery largely to the discussion of the problems of the schoolroom, especially\nto methods of teaching. One of these, \" object-teaching,\" quickly became a\nfad. It was a clever bit of advertising on the part of certain venders of\nschool equipment and, after a brief but strenuous existence, it died naturally and easily — killed by ridicule. But out of the ridiculous there grew\nthat which has approached the sublime. The discussion of object-teaching\nled to investigations concerning the relative value of the Socratic, as compared with the didactic method of instruction. As a result, each was\nassigned to its proper time and place. And right there came trouble; for\nbefore the problems of time and place could be settled, it was necessary to\ninvestigate a question in psychology — namely, the growth of the child's\nmind. That problem likewise was solved for all practical purposes; and\nwhen it was solved the whole subject of elementary education was lifted\nfrom an empirical to a psychological basis. Let us admit, brethren, that\nwe are not quite firm on our pegs yet, but we have made wonderful strides.\nForty years ago, when the \"don't\" idea worried us, we used to discuss\npreventive measures — among them, how to prevent whispering in school.\nThen we wondered if really it was best to prevent it; finally, we were\ncompelled to own that it wasn't. But out of this has grown the question of\nself-conduct, and this we must admit is a long stride in the direction of an\nideal ; it is a very close approach to the ideal of true democracy; for he who\ncontrols others must first learn to govern himself.\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn the past fifty years the Association has toyed with many old things\nwith new names, and with new things under old names. Psychology has\nalways been with us. As a craft, for more than twenty years, we both\nmisused it and abused it. Finally we discovered that a knowledge of it is a\nmost valuable equipment when the child is made the objective point; for\nthe successful teacher of today is the one who studies the child, mind and\nbody. The '''Quincy\" method, the Herbartian ideas, and apperception\ncame in time; likewise motivation and the Montessori system were topics\nwhose value was to be proven. We did not need to prove anything; we\nall admitted that we had used them for years. And the funny part of it is\nthat we had. There was scarcely a new idea in any one, except that each\nhad been organized into a system; and when we put organization and\nsystem into a thing we are on the road, if not to an ideal, at least to success.\nThe Association is responsible for the enrichment of the elementary\ncourses of study and, on the whole, made a pretty bad mess of it. Possibly\nthe various committees in charge of the work thought they perceived visions\nof an ideal; but what they most likely saw were ghosts of disordered digestion. Somewhere between makers and users of the enriched course there\nwas lost the fine distinction between enrichment and engorgement. A\nsuperficial smattering in many subjects and thoroness in none has been one\nresult of the attempt at enrichment. Now, one cannot deny that a proper\nenrichment of the course of study is a step toward an ideal; but conservative educators have a dim suspicion that we have not yet discovered\nhow to enrich, when to enrich, and where to enrich. When we have learned\nall this we certainly shall have made an approach to an ideal; we likewise\nshall have made half a century of progress in a single leap.\nThe Association has always shown a kindly spirit toward manual training and its kindred subjects, but we have not always borne in mind its\nultimate end. For twenty years or more we have done but little more than\ndiscuss whether it should be vocational as its end, or merely disciplinary.\nAs a matter of fact, each view is correct. But, brethren of the craft,\nneither one is the ultimate end, and if we cannot see beyond these issues\nwe would better relegate the subject to the technical schools. As a matter\nof fact, manual training has two very definite values, neither one of which is\nstrictly disciplinary, nor can it be called vocational : first, it is the application of thought to action; second, it lessens the interval between thought\nand action. Granted that other values exist, these alone entitle it to a\nplace in the school curriculimi.\nThe Association has tacitly concerned itself with the intellectual\nequipment of the teacher, but never seriously with the teacher's personality.\nFor about a century we have ignored pretty nearly every other feature\nin the licensing of teachers except the possession of a certain academic\nknowledge of questionable value. In the employment of teachers, superintendents and school boards are usually careful about the personality of\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nIDEALS\n\nOF HALF\n\nA CENTURY\n\n149\n\nthe faculty; in licensing them, the state ignores it. As a result we may\nfind within the ranks of the profession about every variety of fitness and\nunfitness. The method of certification merely rates a certain intellectual\nequipment in terms per cent. Let me present two extremes:\nIn a certain city was a principal of extraordinary ability, whom I will\ndesignate as it. In person, it was coarse and vulgar; in character, brutal\nand vicious; in mind, vile and unclean. Externally it possessed a thin\nveneer of respectability, which quickly disappeared on closer acquaintance.\nIt surrounded itself with assistants of similar character. Such attributes\nof character are more or less contagious, and the school became*known for its\nlow moral status. There were attempts to remove the principal, but for a\nlong time they failed thru the influence of a disreputable political heeler.\nIn time, however, it ran into the clutches of the police. Now, modern\nsociety will tolerate almost any ordinary shortcomings in character, but\ndraws a sharp line in front of the district attorney's office and the jail ; and\nwhen the doors of the prison closed with it on the inside, there was an end\nto it.\nLet us turn to a pleasanter picture. Have you ever heard of Jane\nAndrews ? Of course not. Not more than two members of this audience\never heard of her, and they were her neighbors. Who was she? Why,\njust a plain, sweet woman of beautiful character, an unusual stock of good\ncommon-sense, and a wonderful influence over children. She taught a\nmission school in New York City. She never could have passed a Regents'\nexamination, and none of her pupils were ever entered in Division X,\nSchedule K, State Education Department.\nJane Andrews began her work at the age of eighteen, and for fifty-eight\nyears lost scarcely a day. Her job was the taming and training of about\nforty little wild animals gathered from the slums of a great city. And right\nroyally she accomplished her work. A surprisingly large number of her\npupils became wholesome and useful men and women. Some of them\nare grandparents now. But grandparents, parents, and old boys always\nremained her loyal friends. The door of every city ofiicial was open to her,\nand New York's most famous society leader was her friend and coadjutor.\nAt the age of eighty-two the external form, like a garment that is worn\nout and ready to be cast aside, was laid to rest. But a character like that\nof Jane Andrews never dies. It lives in the hearts of those who loved her,\nand is passed on from generation to generation.\nPerhaps Jane Andrews could not have passed the state examinations\nnow required for a teacher's certificate; but is there not something the\nmatter with the law that certifies to the fitness of a modern Frankenstein\non the one hand, and excludes a woman having the qualifications possessed\nby Jane Andrews ? Unfortunately the state recognizes only an intellectual\nequipment; and this sometimes results in giving to the school board a\nchoice between a prig and an academic paralytic. Let it be said to the\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "I50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\neverlasting credit of the Association, however, that tho it has taken no\nstand in the licensing of teachers, it has always stood for the training of\nthem.\nOne of the most important features of child life in school has but recently\ncome before the Association — namely, a rational medical inspection in\nschools. After nearly a century of public-school education, we are beginning\nto realize what we have been told many times. We are beginning to\nunderstand that a sound body is quite as requisite in the making of an\neffective man as is a soimd mind. We are waking to the fact that we have\nno moral right to launch a boy into manhood without both. Still more,\nit is unreasonable to expect a feeble, abnormal mother to bring healthy and\nvigorous children into the world, or to nourish them properly thru the\nperiod of infancy. It is an incalculable blessing, I say, that the Association\nis facing this all-important question.\nIn the city of Mount Vernon the school authorities were compelled by\nconditions that could no longer be ignored to take the matter in hand. The\ncity's health board, in compliance with statutory laws, had inspected school\nbuildings and school pupils for years. The health-office physicians had\nperformed their work faithfiilly and conscientiously. The inspection in\nquestion was for the purpose of discovering contagious and infectious\nailments; practically, it amounted to the abatement of the traveling menageries which from time immemorial have performed upon the external\nanatomy of school children.\nAll this time, the city was paying not far from fourteen thousand\ndollars a year for \"carrying the left-overs\" — the pupils who failed in\nexamination for promotion. It did not require the services of an expert\nto learn where the trouble lay; we had learned it by sad experience. Half,\nor more than half the cases of retardation were due to causes that could\nhave been removed — defective eyesight, defective hearing, defective breathing, defective teeth, adenoid growths, malnutrition, and incipient tuberculosis.\nWe simply swept all traditions aside and appointed a health staff of\nour own, consisting of a physician, a nurse, and teachers chosen for the\npurpose. Their duty is straight to the point — namely, the discovery of\nthe defects of mind and body that interfere with the pupil's progress in\nschool. It costs money, it is true; but for every dollar spent in the work,\ntwo will be saved. And aside from all this, one may also view the matter\nfrom the standpoint of humanity's sake.\nWhen the patrons of the schools began to imderstand the merits of its\ncase, oh, how quickly they came to our aid. The children were provided\nwith summer playgrounds and all the land required for children's gardens.\nIt brought to view the necessity of open-air classes, and of classes for exceptional children. The city hospital is about to give us the benefit of its\nstaff of physicians and surgeons, and clinics are to be established for the\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nACHIEVEMENTS\n\nOF FIFTY\n\nYEARS\n\n151\n\nexclusive use of school children. Incidentally, one of the first discoveries\nwas that retarded pupils may sometimes get on their feet and walk by\ntaking one or another of the courses in the manual-training schools. I may\nsafely say that in our own case this rational treatment of retarded pupils is\ncertainly a step toward an ideal.\nFinally, let me specify three ideals for which the Association has stood\nin the past, passively but not actively, indirectly but not positively, and\ntimidly rather than fearlessly: first of all is the child, whom we wish to\ntrain into ideal manhood; second, the ideal teacher; and last, the ideal\ntraining. These, brethren of the craft, are likewise the ideals we must pursue in the half-century to come. I have a dim suspicion that this subject\nwill not be assigned to me at the anniversary of the association fifty years\nhence, but I sincerely hope and pray that someone present at this convention will have that pleasurable task.\nBut the work of the Association for the next half-century must be an\nactive and not a passive campaign*. Remember, brethren, that the greatest\nenemy to humanity in all the world is ignorance. This is the force against\nwhich we must contend, today and forever. Let us therefore gird on the\narmor of everlasting righteousness and fight — and then fight some more.\nD.\n\nTHE\n\nMONUMENTS:\n\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD,\n\nTHE ACHIEVEMENTS\nYEARS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF FIFTY\n\nOF SCHOOLS, KANSAS\n\nCITY, MO.\n\n\"Behold how great a matter a little fire kindleth.\"\nTo T. Wi Valentine, a president of the State Teachers' Association of\nNew York, belongs the credit of initiating the movement to establish a\nnational educational association. In conference with Daniel B. Hagar,\npresident of the Massachusetts State Teachers' Association, a call for a\nconvention was agreed upon, and it was prepared by Daniel B. Hagar in\n1856. This call was signed by the presidents of nine state teachers' associations, as follows:\nT. W. Valentine\nD. B. Hagar\nW. T. Luckey\nJ. Tenny. .\n\nNew York\n.Massachusetts\nMissouri\nNew Hampshire\nJ. G. May\n\nW. Roberts\nC. Pearse\nD. Franklin\nA. C. Spicer\nIndiana\n\nPennsylvania\nVermont\nIowa\nWisconsin\n\nIn pursuance of this call, a small number of educators, representative in\ncharacter, assembled in Philadelphia, August 26, 1857. The meeting was\ncalled to order by Mr. T. W. Valentine, who explained its purposes; a\nresolution was adopted to the effect that it was expedient to organize a\nnational teachers' association^ a constitution was prepared by a committee\nappointed for that purpose, and it was submitted and adopted.\nZalmon\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nRichards of Washington, D.C., was elected president, and J. W. Bulkley,\nNew York, secretary. Forty-three members were enrolled; twelve states\nand the District of Columbia were represented.\nThese men had a clear vision of what the country needed educationally,\nand they stood for the general diffusion of knowledge, culture, and power\namong all the people. They stated the object of the organization as\nfollows: ''To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education.\" Upon\nthis creed they organized the National Teachers' Association, which was\nchanged at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1870, to the National Educational Association. With a change in the title, the object of the organization was more\nspecifically designated by the phrase \"in the United States,\" so that it\nread, when amended: \"To raise the character and advance the interests\nof the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education\nin the United States.\" Thus matters stood for twenty-nine years.\nIn 1886, the National Educational Association was incorporated under\nthe laws of the District of Columbia, and in 1906, reincorporated under a\nspecial act of Congress as the \"National Education Association.\"\nIn the Act of Incorporation, Section 2, the first sentence is as follows:\n\"That the purpose and object of said corporation shall be to promote the\ncause of education in the United States.\" From these extracts no question\ncan be raised as to the object the incorporators had in view. In the interpretation oflegal and other important documents, it is a principle universally\nfollowed when differences of construction arise, in order to ascertain what\nprecise meaning the authors had in mind when they framed the instrument\nand submitted it to the judgment of those who in future would be most\nvitally interested, to interrogate the authors themselves, if living, or to\nadmit the oral testimony of their contemporaries. In this case the documentary evidence is clear, explicit, and conclusive, being the same in form\nand spirit in 191 2 that it was in 1857, namely: \"That the purpose and\nobject of said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance\nthe interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of\neducation in the United States.\" It is upon this platform that the educational and financial policy of this corporation has been conducted, and any\nmaterial departure from these cardinal principles will impair its usefulness\nand lead to disintegration. Therefore, the future management must be\nalong broad and equitable lines to all sections of this country.\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAS I FIRST\n\nSAW\n\nIT\n\nTwenty-seven years of the National Educational Association had\npassed into history before I knew anything personally of its direct management, altho I attended the session held in St. Louis, in August, 1871, more\nout of curiosity than for any other reason, to ^ee the noted men and women,\nnumbering, perhaps, one hundred and fifty persons, composing that august\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nACHIEVEMENTS\n\nOF FIFTY\n\nYEARS\n\n153\n\nbody. They were dignified, earnest, thinking men and women, seeking the\nhigher and better things of the mind. The elementary section enrolled\nseventy-one members; the higher educational section and the normal-school\nsection each had too few to count.\nI paid the fee, $1 . 50, and never missed a meeting, and I heard the ablest\nin that convention. The big men, as I rated them, werfe J. P. Wickersham,\nE. E. White, Eli T. Tappan, J. D. Philbrick, N. A. Calkins, John Hancock,\nNewton Bateman, J. L. Pickard, James McCosh, Daniel Read, and, just\ncoming into the foreground, William T. Harris and Thomas Davidson.\nAfter a three days' session I went home feeling that I had at least seen\nin the flesh some of the most prominent educators of our country, little\ndreaming that in after-years I should be thrown into intimate personal and\nofficial relations with some of these men, and later with hundreds of others\nas worthy and actuated by the same high, noble, and unselfish motives.\nAt the close of this session the ''hat was passed\" to take up a collection to\npublish the volume of Proceedings — which is the earliest volume I have seen.\nThirteen years elapsed before I attended another session, and this was\nwhen the Honorable Thomas W. Bicknell's \"Greatest Educational Show\non Earth\" was held in Madison, Wis., July, 1884. One cold Saturday\nforenoon during the winter of 1883-84, there rushed into my office a large,\nwell-dressed man, wearing a high silk hat, and an elegant blue-caped\novercoat. He spoke in a stentorian voice, saying: \"I am Mr. Thomas\nW. Bicknell, Boston, Mass., editor of the New England Journal of Education, president of the National Association. I have been told that you are\na live man, and I want you to read a paper before the Association next\nJuly at Madison. I am travehng at my own expense, with the exception\nof a little clerk hire, working up a general interest in the cause of education\nthruout our entire country. When do the Sunday schools meet tomorrow ?\nI want to speak about ten minutes at each one, and tell your Sunday-school\npeople who I am, and what I am endeavoring to do. Now, can you supply\nme with some stationery, as I must write a number of letters ?\"\nWhereupon, we shook hands and I supplied him with what he wanted.\nHe took off his hat, threw off his overcoat, and began writing at a furious\nrate at my desk. Being half amused, as he dashed off his letters, I made\nout a list of the leading Protestant churches in the city, and the hours\nwhen the Sunday schools were held, and handed it to him. I learned later\nthat the Honorable Thomas W. Bicknell spoke at a dozen or more churches\nthat forenoon. The superintendents of the Sunday schools wondered\nthereat, and when I told them how he introduced himself to me, it appeared\nthat he used practically the same speech to each of them.\nJust here I will say that it took such a man to arouse the latent educational thought of the entire country, and he was the man for the occasion\nand for the hour. The Association had always been in debt, and it was\nsimply vegetating from year to year when he took hold of the helm.\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE NATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nAs the National Council, organized in 1880, sprang out of the National\nEducational Association, and as a legitimate branch of it, a survey of both\nis here necessary — namely, of the National Council as such, and of the\nmanagement and the financial policy of the general Educational Association itself.\nIn this body it has never been, the intention to settle any educational\nquestions by a vote. A topic was presented by a member who had been\nchosen for that purpose. He read his thesis, and then took his seat in the\ncenter of the room, ready to defend his contention against all who differed\nfrom him. It was not the thought to have an audience; however, spectators, ifthere were seats, were not excluded. The primary object of this\nbody was investigation and deliberation.\nIt was at the Madison meeting in 1884 that I sat for the first time as a\nspectator in the National Council and listened to the discussions. A\ncolored principal of Kansas City, W. W. Yates, accompanied me. We sat\nand listened for an hour or more to a discussion on school hygiene. Dr.\nEmerson E. White was presiding, and Mr. George P. Brown was reporting\nthe discussion. The discussion dragged at one time. Mr. Yates wanted\nto speak, and not knowing that members only were privileged to speak, he\narose without an invitation, addressed the chair, and thereupon proceeded\nto present his views. Being a Negro, he spoke five minutes without\ninterruption, to the no little astonishment of the members of the Council,\nand the great amusement of the few spectators present. For many years\nthe Council was limited to sixty members till at the Cleveland session, in\n1908, the membership was doubled.\nBeginning with the session of 1884, I have been present at all of the\nmeetings of the National Educational Association, except two; and for\ntwenty-two years I have been familiar with the inside workings of both\norganizations and known what their unwritten history is, and know what\nthe leading educators have endeavored to accomplish with untiring zeal.\nBoth organizations are strictly democratic in the broadest representative\nsense under law, composed in the beginning of persons of strong convictions\nand steadiness of purpose in promoting sound pedagogical theory and\npractice.\nIt was the thought of the founders of the Council that its members\nshould, thru committees and otherwise, submit papers and reports on\nall kinds of educational questions, and upon these the widest latitude of\nexpert opinions should be sought for, expressed, and published. In the\nselection of members, the dominant idea was to choose persons who should\nwork in determining aims and principles of education by starting from fixed\npoints, and proceed to examine critically old and new educational problems.\nTo sum up briefly, those who organized the National Council of Education believed that earnestness in seeking after truth is an indispensable\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nACHIEVEMENTS\n\nOF FIFTY\n\nYEARS\n\n155\n\nrequisite for finding it, and that modesty, patience, caution, and a broad\nand liberal training are necessary qualifications for enabling one, not only\nto reason correctly on his own reasoning, but to bring men and women to\nhigher planes of thinking — to understand relations and laws and their force\nin determining the right in all matters of thought and action.\nThere was an unwritten law, also, that any person who sought to\nbecome a member of the Council was not wanted. Membership sought\n■the individual, and not otherwise. No member of the Council since its\norganization ever announced his candidacy in that body. It is not a\npolitical body, and it is not patterned after political methods, or conducted\nas a political machine.THE\n\nGENERAL\n\nASSOCIATION — ^ITS EARLY\n\nPOVERTY\n\nIt was a common thing for members as late as 1884 to advance cash to\npublish the volume of Proceedings. William E. Sheldon of Massachusetts\npaid $229.97, ^^^ Eli T. Tappan of Ohio, $250, on account of the publication of the volume of 1882. Quite a number of persons became life members\nby paying $20, and a few, life directors by paying $100, in order to fill a\ndepleted treasury.\nAt the St. Paul meeting in 1890 I was elected treasurer and this brought\nme into close ofl&cial relations with the officers and members of the Association thruout the entire country.\nSince its organization in 1857, till July, 1910, the high ideals set by its\nfounders, \"To elevate the character and advance the interests of the\nprofession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the\nUnited States,\" had never been departed from in the least particular.\nThru all the years of adversity and the later ones of prosperity, the same\nprinciples of choosing officers for the National Education Association that\nnow obtain in the National Council had prevailed, and no one ever, except\nat the Asbury Park session, came forward as an avowed candidate for the\npresidency of the Association, or for any position. Those who founded\nthe Association and their successors had different objects in view from that\nof vote-trading and \"office-getting.\" Prior to 19 10, with the exception\npreviously mentioned, organized efforts in advance by candidates to\ncapture ofl&ces in the Association were unknown.\nFor one, I hope that the temporary deviation from the great purpose of\nthe organization will soon pass away.\nTHE PERMANENT\n\nFUND\n\nAND\n\nTHE RAIDERS\n\nAs soon as this fund was of sufficient size to attract the eyes of the\ncovetous, all kinds of schemes were devised to get hold of it and dissipate\nit. A person in the East proposed to collect the names of all the teachers\nand school ofl&cials and their addresses, and turn this list over to the Board\nof Trustees to circularize them, for which the promoter asked the modest\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "IS6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nSlim of twenty-five thousand dollars for his share of the work. Dr. Calkins\nand Superintendent Lane referred the proposition to me. It died without\na burial. This promoter soon became insolvent, and filed a voluntary\npetition in bankruptcy.\nFurthermore the deponent saith not.\nDr. Calkins and Superintendent Lane were both modest men, and while\nwe were associated as a committee, or as an advisory board, I was selected\nby them to watch the treasury — ^not a thankful or popular task.\nAfter a beginning had been made, and the Association was more than\nmeeting expenses, and some money could be set aside each year to carry on\nsuch investigations as appeared to be necessary along educational lines,\nthe accumulated surplus was transferred to the Permanent Fund. This\nhas been and still is the general policy. This fund was to be added to until\nthe interest arising therefrom with the annual membership dues should be\nadequate to meet the current expenses, and to carry forward the legitimate\nwork of the corporation. It was a policy definitely outlined by Dr. Calkins,\nAlbert Lane, Edwin Hewett, W. E. Sheldon, Aaron Gove, James A. Canfield,\nF. Louis Soldan, E. O. Lyte, J. M. Green, Nathan Schaeffer, L. D. Harvey,\nNicholas Murray Butler, I. C. McNeill, Irvdn Shepard, and the writer.\nThis was a simple business proposition that has been pursued for the\npurpose of putting the organization on a solid and permanent financial\nfooting in order to carry forward the work that ought to be done. The\nPermanent Fund is at this time $190,000, with a surplus of over $3,000\nawaiting investment.\nTHE\n\nDAYS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHEMERS\n\nNOT\n\nENDED\n\nFor years nearly all the business details have been conducted by the\nex-presidents of the Association. As chairman of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, I have had exceptional opportunities of\nreceiving communications and listening to those who had discovered (but\nwere unappreciated) the most wonderful and helpful things for the uplifting\nof the teaching force, and, incidentally, the youth of the country. Had an\neducational curiosity shop been established by the National Educational\nAssociation since 1895, it would contain more real specimens of great wants\ncome to a premature end than any other intellectual museum in the world.\nThere has been afforded an excellent opportunity to observe certain minds\nwandering among stars, guided by one lightning-bug flash. While many of\nthese sought to do things seldom wise and never important, yet there have\nbeen others whose proposals contained far-reaching ideas, ^nd whose\ninvestigations have been real contributions to the cause of education.\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\n\nVOLUME\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nIn 1893, the writer proposed the appointment of an Editorial and\nRevision Committee to edit all papers except those of foreign delegates,\nand thus reduce the size of the volumes by eliminating in any paper what\nhas been previously discussed by some other person. This would avoid\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCOMING\n\nHALF-CENTURY\n\n157\n\nrepetition by making references to former papers. As it is, each writer,\nunless he happens to have access to previous volumes, oftentimes writes on\nsubjects that have been threshed over many times. I am still of the opinion\nthat the proposition then advocated has merit in it, and that it would be a\nmove in the right direction to have an Editorial and Revision Committee.\nCONCLUSION\n\nMy life was but slightly connected with any of the founders of the\nAssociation. Daniel B. Hagar I met at two or three meetings of the\nAssociation, and once only I saw Professor William T. Luckey, both signers\nof the original call in 1856. Zalmon Richards, the first president, was a\nconstant attendant till only a few years ago. Coming on the stage in 1884,\nI have known quite intimately every prominent man or woman that has\nbeen a member of the Association from that date to the present. These\npersons have stood for the highest and best things of the mind and heart\nin our civilization, and I indulge the hope that the educators of the present\nand future will follow their example.\nWhen I pass in mental review the illustrious names in scholarship,\nculture, and other higher qualities — those who added grace and dignity to\nthis great movement — I cannot refrain from mentioning the name of the\none who has since 1893 been the great organizing power in this corporation\n— I mean Dr. Irwin Shepard, one of the most remarkable men among a\ngalaxy of notable men and women of this country. To his clearsightedness,\nkeen business sagacity, tact, and skill in conducting and handling the\nrailroad and other transportation interests, mastery of details, and the\norganization of the educators in each state into a compact body' of progressive men and women, the marvelous success of the Association is due.\nThe historian of the Association will do full justice to him whose brain has\nplanned and whose hand has executed the great work committed to his\ncare for the past twenty years.\nE.\nELLEN\n\nC. SABIN,\n\nTHE COMING\n\nHALF-CENTURY\n\nPRESIDENT OF MILWAUKEE-DOWNER\nMILWAUKEE,\nWIS.\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nYou have heard the story of the past: of the original inspiration of\nthis organization; of its renascence; of the high ideals and the noble\nachievements of fifty years. There have flashed before you beloved names\nwith lofty passion fraught\nSuch as make battles won\nOn fields of Marathon.\n\nTo speak adequately of its future would require the prophet-bard,\nthe poet-seer, the sibyl who should lift the veil and read the hidden word.\nA mighty ode should at once close this cycle and inspire the coming era.\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBut it is only the past and its legacy of the tendencies of the present\nthat constitute the horoscope for our prediction. The glass is dim as\nwe peer thru the lens of the future. Who can interpret the contradictory\nindications? Who can thru the nebulae make sure of the controlling\ncenters ?\nThe past revolutionary years have taught us to set no lunit to the\nprogress of the world in any direction. So far are we from skepticism\nthat the wildest chimeras receive attention. The impossible is merely\nthe not-yet-demonstrated. The achievements of the past have left us\nreceptive to new revelations. Progress is the word of the day. The\nMagi's star, Plato's dream, the poet's vision, all Utopias have been transcended before our eyes. Prophecies and ideals have come to pass from\nMother Shipton's to Ruskin's and Howells'. Today we stand in alert\nexpectancy. We do not know what we shall see, but a vast unlimited\noutline is in our conception, and we daily look to see it take form. Reckless would he be who should limit or define the coming half-century.\nThe imderlying thoughts of a period and its resultant movements\nboth affect formal education and are affected by it. Education is at once\nformative and impressible. While a molding power, it is itself plastic\nto influence. Therefore general tendencies of thought and life, as well\nas the obvious educational activities of our time, are in our view. It is\nour clearest modem seer who teaches us that the fimdamental, ruling ideas\nthat a people hold determine its greatness and happiness, or its obscurity\nand misery.\nWe recognize that, among such controlling powers, the idea of democracy isthe most dominant force in the world today. It influences education\nin its deepest sources of feeling. It expresses itself in every department\nof educational activity. Vital, fruitful, it bears many products that are\nperversions, as well as the choicest fruits of our civilization. It depends\nupon education to train this luxuriant plant to beauty and beneficence,\npruning its excrescences, grafting upon it cognate nobilities, nurturing\nits essential good until it becomes the perfect tree of the common life, with\nhealing in its every leaf.\nAnd with the true democratic insight into the value of each individual\nin the mass, there has come to us a new sense of the significance of the whole.\nWe can, therefore, gladly see \"the individual wither and the world grow\nmore and more.\" This dawning recognition of the glory of himaanity,\nthe deepening sense of the importance of the race — is not this one of the\nsublimest of those thoughts that pierce the night of ovu\" ignorance and\n*' urge man's search to vaster issues \" ?\nAnd thus, reaching beyond the individual to the race, we have found\nour geographic boundaries extended — annihilated. No spot on the globe\nis alien to us, as no people is foreign. The sense of unity in interests and\ndestiny makes us international in mind. We have world sympathies and\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCOMING\n\nHALF-CENTURY\n\n159\n\nunderstandings. Truly, 'Hhe diet of our thought has changed.\" There\nhas, consequently, with democratic ideals, with thought projected down\nthe long line of the race, and with universal scope, developed an\nimmeasurably enlarged conception of the purpose and field of formal\neducation.\nAs life changes, education changes. The curriculum of our schools\ntoday, together with the spirit that pervades them, makes the school a\nplace unrecognizable by some returning Rip Van Winkle of fifty, of twentyfive years ago. A new vocabulary is required to express its ordinary\nfunctions. No exposition of our varied interests is more convincing than\nthe program of this convention! We appear to be led by the invincible\nspirit of progress, and only the brakes of the obdurate inertia of the teacher\nand the spell of tradition check our forward movement.\nTho colleges and universities have been transformed, the most significant change is observable in the first six years of school life. Here are\ndeveloping both those disciplines that are most necessary to creditable\nexistence in a highly complex civilization, and those that enrich life,\nmaking it worth living.\nUnder the first demand, besides reading, writing, form, and number,\nare health-science and art; physical training; play activities, providing\nfor the necessity that exists to experience the exciting, dramatic emotions\nthat free play calls into life; geography; government and civics; training\nthe purchaser to distinguish true worth among many varieties of\ncommodities; euthenics, eugenics.\nThe second demand includes literature, art, and music; self-expression\nin all forms, as speaking, writing, dramatic action, and dancing; manual\ntraining, the hand developing and expressing ideas, awakening the fine\nappreciation that only skill can elicit; history which explains the present,\nhelps to account for one's self — \"a. practical psychology,\" it has been\nsaid — and both determines and discloses the future; first-hand naturestudy with appreciations of nature in literature and art. In these manifestations are the auguries of the future, and the coming years will see some\nof them, as health-science, expanded, some radically changed.\nAnd so we think of aspects of education as cultural, vocational, physical,\nsocial; of the training of head, heart, and hand; of mental and moral culture; and we strive to fuse all forms that they may be mutually supportive\nof the fair, symmetrical edifice we would fain construct.\nIn the «many directions in which the awakened purpose of our day\nseeks to realize its ideal for humanity thru education, efforts whose harvest\nthe future will gather and whose fan will separate its grain from the chaff,\nthe teacher will continue to be largely the instrument.\nThere yet remains to be effected the development of the individuality\nof the child into a distinctive, unique personality, and this requires both\nliving with others and the protection of solitude.\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "i6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe problem is to be solved of the school efficiently supplementing\nwithout usurping the functions of the home.\nThru scientific study and analysis all work is to be standardized, these\nstandards not to be iron weights and prison bars, but helpful guides and\nimpersonal correctors.\nSo enriched and modified are to be certain leading studies that the\ncultural and the practical are to be disclosed as opposite sides of the shield,\nthe training of the muscles to skill shown to be cultural, and the liberalized\nmind to be practical.\nAn increasingly responsible part is to be performed by the teacher, in\naddition to the service of the consulting psychologist, in guiding each\nyouth to his proper business, trade, or profession, thus aiding him judiciously\nto enter an occupation that offers both self-realization and social benefit.\nWith the years there must come to those who would be teachers of youth\nsomething more of what we \"aspire to be and are not,\" some greatness to\nenable them to be equal to yet higher tasks than the present imposes.\nEucken has said that a proud self-consciousness and independence of\nyouth is one of the notes of modern humanity. It is ours to meet this\nhigh spirit, not to fear, to abhor, or suppress it, but to lead it forth beyond\nits self-assertion and revolts, past its license and lawlessness into the \"perfect liberty\" of disciplined affections and ordered wills. What a challenge\nto guide a young generation devoid of superstition, unafraid, and daring\ninto reverence and obedience! What may we not hope in far-reaching\nreforms when minds ingenuous, unwarped by prejudices, meet the compelling force of the great laws of Nature and the persuasions of the great\nScriptures ?\nThere must be established, or re-established, the connection between\nknowledge and responsibility for right conduct. Duty and obligation\nmust be related to daily life. The inspiration to noble living must be\nimparted whether life is to be with Marcus Aurelius in a palace or with\nEpictetus in servitude. Loyalty, now so often dangerously diverted to\ngroup, society, or party, must give its allegiance to right principles. Noble\ndreams of youth, now so often the cynic's jest, must be so fortified that\nthey will abide thruout life. We may not further tolerate the monstrous\ndivorce of intellect from conscience, but instead make all training tend to\ndear perception of the right and love for it. So shall issue from our institutions of learning the \"calm observer of ought and must.\"\nThe coming decades inspire us, believers in liberty and justice, with\ngreat hope of better homes and schools as we think of two generations of\nour race who will be reared imder the influence of women who will have\nexperienced larger opportunity than has ever before been known to woman.\nWith education better adapted to woman's needs, and her increased opportunity to improve the conditions of himaan living, may we not reasonably\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO SCHOOLS\n\nBELOW\n\ni6i\n\nbelieve that we are on the verge of the fulfillment of Tennyson's inspired\nprophecy: \"Then springs the crowning race of human kind\" ?\nThe splendid function of this Association, in the future as in the past,\nmust be to organize into constantly increasing effectiveness the educational\nleadership of \" this nation. It will make great investigations, intensive\nand extensive, revealing to us definitely our own status and bringing to\nus the world's experience. It will hasten the coming of the national\nuniversity, and promote national organizations that shall increase our\nprivileges and bring the benefits of research to the humblest school.\nWith opulence of wisdom, it will deduce laws, interpret conditions,\ndirect and prescribe with such assurance as the limitations of human\ninsight will allow. While meeting ever-new social and industrial conditions,\nadapting content and method to constantly altered demands, it will be\nsteadfast to its immutable purpose to preserve to their highest uses the\ninestimably precious hours of youth. It must be polestar and compass,\nchart and helm.\nWith all its definite and professional responsibilities, it will meet its\npeculiar opportunity to conserve the great ideas by which our race can\nlive. This Association will be a bulwark to preserve the threatened faith\nin democracy. It will constitute a valiant army to restore the imperative\nof duty to its violated throne. It will\nrest in faith\nThat man's perfection is the crowning flower\nToward which the sap in Ufe's great tree\nIs pressing — seen in puny blossoms now\nBut in the world's great morrows to expand\nWith broadest petal and with deepest glow.\n\nAs our forefathers stood on the beach before their great venture and\nheard the words: \"The Lord has more truth yet to break forth: be ready\nto receive whatever truth shall be made known to you,\" so this Association,\non the threshold of a future unknown but assuredly great, expecting an\neffulgence of truth that shall make our present seem darkness, hears the\npoet's adjuration: \"Light the young!\"\n\nThus shall we\n\nTOPIC: THE\n\nHIGH\n\nsave them forever\nWho shall save the world.\n\nWALTER\n\nAMERICAN\n\nA.\n\nITS RELATION\n\nR.\n\nSIDERS,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO THE SCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBELOW\nPOCATELLO,\n\nIDAHO\n\nIn attempting to understand these relations it is essential to look to the\norigin of these two schools.\nOur high school has its beginnings in the Latin grammar schools, which\nwere first organized in Boston in 1635. The purpose of the Latin grammar\nschool was\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "i62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nthe preparation of the boys for the university in order that the colony might be aided in\nsecuring a body of learned men who, by acquaintance with the ancient tongues, should be\nable to obtain a knowledge of the Scriptures and qualified to discover the true sense and\nmeaning of the original.\n\nThe sole aim of this school was to prepare for the ministry. Due to\nseveral causes, chief among which was the gradual separation of things\nreligious from the state, these Latin grammar schools declined in number\nand influence, despite the laws enacted te perpetuate them. A new type\nof school arose, which, in addition to being a college preparatory school,\nmet the demands for a practical education. For fully a century this\nacademy was the chief source of secondary education. It was superseded\nby the public high school in the first quarter of the nineteenth century.\nThe modern high school has combined the best features of the former\nLatin grammar school, and of its successor, the academy. High-school\ncourses have been broadened and liberalized until there is now no necessary\nconflict between preparation for life and preparation for college. The\nschool makes social efficiency possible while encouraging and pointing the\nroad to culture.\nThe elementary schools have passed thru a somewhat similar coiu-se\nof development altho developing independently of the Latin grammar\nschools and of the academies.\nIn 1682, writing and ciphering schools were established in Boston,\ngiving public recognition to the value of some education for the practical\naffairs of life, and to the importance of pfoviding for all who wished such\ntraining.\nAlmost contemporaneously with the decline of the Latin grammar\nschools and the rise of the academies, the curriculum of the elementary\nschool gradually enlarged to include reading, grammar, and geography.\nThe writing and ciphering master being imqualified to teach the new\nbranches, a new man, called the grammar master, was secured to teach\nthe newly adopted subjects. This system continued in force in Boston\nfrom 1740 to 1847.\nIn addition to this elementary school there were elementary schools\nconnected with the academies, which elementary schools were termed the\npre-academic department. The work of the academy was grouped into\n■ departments; as, first primary, second primary, intermediate, grammar,\nacademic, and collegiate departments. Each of these departments included\ntwo or three years of work. The entire course was planned to begin at\nthe eighth or ninth year, and to occupy a training period up to the eighteenth or twentieth year. In this way the school course came to be ten or\ntwelve years in length and the academic or secondary course to have two,\nthree, or four years, based on a pre-academic course of eight or nine years.\nThe elementary schools and the . secondary schools were brought\ntogether in the middle of the last century. Their development had been\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO SCHOOLS\n\nBELOW\n\n163\n\nseparate for a century and a half, and altho now united for nearly a century,\ntheir relationship is nominal rather than organic and real — united as by a\nmarriage bond rather than by blood relationships springing from common\norigin.\nMany attempts have been made to articulate the work of the grades\nwith the high school, but the irreconcilable facts have been that the high\nschool is broadly cultural while the elementary school is narrowly cultural\nand mechanical. The elementary school is largely a means to an end, the\nsecondary school sees the attainment of many of these ends.\nThe end of the elementary school is not knowledge. It is rather to\norganize the instincts and impulses of children into working interests and\ntools. Attention is to methods of mental attitude and operation rather\nthan results measured in memory. Dewey asserts the need of the development of\na certain active interest in truth and its allies, a certain disposition to inquiry, together\nwith a command of the tools that make it effective, and the organization of certain modes\nof activity in observation, construction, expression, and reflection.\n\nWhile the mind of the child should be nourished upon a course of study\ncomprising an orderly presentation of the field of knowledge in its elements,\nthe special aim should be to provide an opportunity for the exercise of all\nhis powers, mental, moral, aesthetic, and constructive — thru good instruction and wise discipline — and to promote the health and development of\nhis physical being.\nWhat is secondary education ? Former United States Commissioner\nof Education Elmer E. Brown says the purpose of secondary education is\nto raise all subjects which it touches to the plane of science by bringing all into the point\nof view of organizing principles.\n\nHanus thinks:\nThe secondary school should especially promote the discovery and development of\neach pupil's dominant interests and powers; and should seek to render these interests\nand powers subservient to life's serious purposes, and should make possible the participation in the refined pleasures of life. The serious purposes of life are, first, self-support\nor, when this is unnecessary, some worthy form of service; second, intelligent, active\nparticipation in human affairs. The refined pleasures of life are found in the ability to\nparticipate with intelligence and appreciation in the intellectual and assthetic interests of\nctdtivated men.\n\nThe contrast then between elementary and secondary education is that\nelementary education is given to t!ie organization of the instincts and\nimpulses of children into working interests and tools, while secondary\neducation has as its end and aim trained individuality, which trained individuality recognizes its obligations to and dependency upon other members\nof the social group.\nLest it be thought that no recognition is here given to the fact that the\nelementary school is the finishing school of the masses, let it be observed\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "l64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat, whether the student puq)oses to prepare or to finish in the elementary\nschool, the ends of the elementary school do not materially change. The\npresentation of the whole field of knowledge in its elements and the training\nof all the powers — mental, moral, aesthetic, and constructive — ^will cover\na finishing or a future purpose. Vocational aims to be realized in the\nelementary school or to be realized in the future determine the stress of\nattention to be placed upon the cultivation of a given powxr.\nBecause of satisfaction with the existing order of things the purposes\nof neither the elementary nor of the secondary schools have been fully\nrealized. All agree that they yet remain to be harmonized.\nNot until recently has attention been given to individual aptitudes and\ncapacities. The course of study and the school organization were based on\nthe assumption that children were normal, on the supposition that all had\nthe same latent powers and talents, and that it only required education to\ndraw out and to bring these powers to a high standard of proficiency. The\ntheory seems to have been accepted that pupils did not come thru school\nalike because a sufficiently hard pull had not been put upon some of the\nlatent potentialities. Of late, there is a suspicion that some powers are\nlatent to the vanishing-point, and undoubted evidence exists of power plus\nin certain faculties of the bright child.\nThe provisions now made for the subnormal and supernormal as well\nas for the normal child, the shortening of the promotional period, and the\nintroduction of group systems mark a distinct educational advance in\nindividualistic treatment.\nAn increasing dissatisfaction with the inharmonious relations of elementary and high schools, together with an appreciation that neither school\nwas accomplishing what it should, has brought about many reforms in the\npast twenty years. The report of the Committee of Ten in 1893 for the\nfirst time set a national standard for the high school. It demanded many\nimportant reforms — the most significant in connection with the subject\nof this paper being the extension of certain well-recognized secondaryschool subjects down into the elementary grades, the departmentalizing\nof some work below the high school, and a closer articulation of the elementary and the high school.\nThe report had a wide influence, but the conviction has gained ground\nthat complete reform can come only with a complete reorganization of the\nschool system. In 1905, the National Education Association appointed a\nstanding committee on a six-year coifrse of study for high schools. A sixyear course for the elementary and a six-year course for the high school is\nbelieved by many to be a solution for the vexed questions of the interrelations ofthe two schools.\nThe public school is, as Calvin Olin Davis says in High School Education,\nsubject to indictment by the grand jury of public opinion on the following points: (i) the\ncurriculum is overcrowded; (2) there are duplication and waste in administration;\n(3)\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO SCHOOLS\n\nBELOW\n\n165\n\nthere is little correlation of subject-matter; (4) exaggerated attention is given to unessential and impracticable topics; (5) many topics now presented have no legitimate place\nin any curriculum; (6) pupils are overworked; (7) the course of study is inflexible;\n(8) there is no close articulation of the elementary with the high school; (9) individual\ntastes and capacities are not rightly considered; (10) promotions are based upon an\nunsound principle; (11) discipline is unsuited to the stage of development of the pupil;\n(12) teachers are improperly equipped; (13) pupils are influenced by too few different\npersonalities; (14) methods of instruction are unpedagogical; (15) the study of many\nsecondary subjects is postponed beyond the proper time for their best presentation;\n(16) work is not effectively vocational; (17) enormously large numbers withdraw from\nschool; (18) insufficient attention is paid to the retarded pupil and to those of superior\nability; (19) there is not sufficient handwork; (20) specific trade instruction is lacking;\n(21) the whole system is over-mechanized\nThis bill of indictment is being examined\npoint by point and a true bill is being found.\n\nWhile some of these unsatisfactory conditions are found thruout the\nentire system, and some in elementary or high school alone, the great\nmajority of them apply to the seventh and eighth grades. Here is where\nreform is most seriously needed. It is believed that the rearrangement\nof the work and of the administration of the seventh and eighth grades, and\nthe readjustment of the other grades to the new plan, would do away with\nmost of the evils and inconsistencies with which we are now confronted.\nThe demanded readjustment has given rise to the idea of dividing the\npresent twelve-year course at the sixth instead of at the eighth grade.\nSix years are thought to be sufficient to do the work demanded of the\nelementary student, and it is thought that the seventh and eighth grades\nshould assume the character of the high school and adopt its forms and\nmethods. It is difficult to show that the aim of the seventh and eighth\ngrades differs in any essential from that of secondary instruction. Progress\nfrom the sixth to the seventh, or from the seventh to the eighth, should\nmark an increase of mental power. If the work in these grades is poorly\narranged, or if these grades are wrongly administered, it may be expected\nthat the student will find his school work lifeless, tiresome, and aimless.\nCompulsory education may keep him in school, but it cannot interest him.\nThe student is present, but not participating.\nPuberty is either close at hand, or already a vital factor, changing the\npupil's physical make-up and mental characteristics, altering his lifeinterests, and widening his horizon. The student wants to put away\nchildish things, he wants recognition of the fact that he is entitled to the\ntoga virilis, together with all increased considerations of his personality\nattendant thereupon.\nA change of administration will be demanded if secondary education\nis to begin with the seventh grade. Dr. Davis in the work above cited\nstates:\nThere are four distinct methods of organization and administration that may be\nemployed. Each offers unique advantages. Each lends itself to adoption in toto, or in\ncombination with the essential elements of each of the others. These four methods are:\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "l66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n1. Continue the external form of the school as it is today, but introduce into the\nseventh and eighth grades the principles now obtaining in the administration of the high\nschool. This would leave the elementary school outwardly in much the same condition\nas today. A modified form of departmental teaching would be provided, an enriched\ncurriculum, a closer approach to the idea of student responsibility, and a better promotional system.\n2. Bring the seventh and eighth grades into the high-school building and organize\nand administer all work above the sixth grade as a unit, both respecting external form and\ninternal operation. This plan merely takes the seventh and eighth grades out of their\npresent setting and merges them with the present high school. They thereby are brought\nfully under the principles dominating in secondary education. Departmental teaching,\nlimited election of studies, scientific methods of instruction, a freer spirit of regulation and\ncontrol, all are henceforth to be the birthright of the seventh- and eighth-grade students\nas they are at present of the pupils of the four upper grades.\n3. Make a complete differentiation of schools and of subject-matter from the very\nbeginning of the seventh grade. This plan implies a differentiation in aim, in subjectmatter, and in buildings at the very outset. From the sixth grade the ways diverge.\nAll work beyond this is organized in separate and distinct schools by themselves. In its\ncomplete organization, there will be seven distinct types of schools, the nximber varying\nwith local conditions. These several general types are: (a) college-preparatory school;\n{b) manual- training school; (c) high school of practical arts for girls; {d) high school of\ncommerce; (e) the business school; (/) the trade school for boys; (g) the trade school\nfor girls.\n4. Group the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades by themselves as a junior high\nschool; and the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades by themselves as a senior high school.\nThis method is adaptable to large cities where separate buildings and separate control\nmay be had.\n\nNo attempt to study the relations of the high school to the grades below\ncould be considered as touching the subject did it not analyze the various\nlife-purposes of pupils and from these purposes determine the needs of\npupils in both elementary and high schools, did it not determine the progressiveness of these needs thruout the grades, and did it not consider the\nstimulus and inspiration which courses answering the pupil's needs will have\nin his retention in school. Too often the only stimulus the high school\nexerts upon the grades below is the influence of its athletic achievements,\nor the inducements of its social life; but by answering a positive need the\nhigh school will exert a wider and deeper influence all down thru the grades.\nWith regard to their futures there seem to be five groups of pupils:\n(i) Those who will leave school at the end of the compulsory age and go at\nonce into the world's work. Should the high school reach down to include\nthe seventh and eighth grades it can offer in addition to the standard instruction: general industrial work for boys; general industrial work for girls;\ntrades instruction for boys; and trades instruction for girls. These pupils\nare the large group in all schools, and it is not to the credit of our educational\nsystems that they are the most neglected. (2) Those who will go one or\ntwo years beyond the grade of compulsory attendance, but will not complete the entire course. For these there should be the short courses enabling\nthem to begin at the sixth year and prepare themselves for clerks, stenographers, and secretaries. There should be a choice of a short course in the\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF niGti SCHOOL\n\nTO SCHOOLS\n\nBELOW\n\n167\n\nvocational and trades work fitting the recipient for various employments as\nan artisan, (3) Those who can complete high school but who must enter\nvocational life as soon as they have finished. For such there should be\ncommercial, engineering, agricultural, manual arts, and household arts\ncourses. (4) Those whose circumstances make it possible for them to\nselect a vocation after leaving high school, yet who have not the means to go\nto college; these should have a general course covering many fields of\nlearning, but demanding concentration on one or two lines of study. (5)\nThose who have the abilities, the desire, and the means to go to college.\nFor these the college-preparatory course should be offered which should\nbe of sufficient scope to prepare the student for such college courses as his\nfuture vocation will demand.'\nIn this reorganization of seventh and eighth grades, what subjectmatter ought to be included? Most authorities agree upon: (i) English;\n(2) history, civics, and geography; (3) ethics and sociology; (4) physiology\nand hygiene; (5) arithmetic, elements of algebra, and geometry; (6)\nelementary science; (7) manual training, or domestic science and arts;\n(8) music and fine arts; (9) drawing; (10) voice culture, public speaking,\nand dramatics; (11) physical training.\nWhat shall determine promotion to high school, whether at sixth or\neighth grade ? The promotion should be based on the consideration of the\npupil's increased mental power and growth as determining his ability to do\nadvanced work. It should not be based on knowledge tests alone. Knowledge can be tested by requiring the pupil to supply the data upon which\nhe is to show his powers or to display his abilities. When a pupil shows\nsufiicient power in the school arts to demonstrate that these arts are usable\ntools for higher education, he should be passed on. Not only should the\npupil's knowledge structure be tested, but also the accuracy, facility, and\nrapidity of all mechanical processes based upon that knowledge. Promotional examinations to the high school are often pernicious in the stress\nlaid upon testing memory instead of power. The stress put upon promotional examinations to the high school, attendant upon the eighth-grade\ncommencement exercises, leads many pupils to feel satisfied with their\nattainments — ^pupils who would continue in school but for this emphasis\non the final elementary grade.\nMany small school systems are top-heavy in that they carry more highschool work, put more teachers in the high school, and have a greater per\ncapita secondary expense than the elementary-school conditions warrant.\nThe high school should not be built up at the expense of needed grade\ninstruction. Educational sentiment should discourage this practice,\notherwise the matter should be so regulated by law that the elementary\nschool cannot be made to suffer in order that a display may be made at the\ntop of the school system.\n* Adapted from Charles H. Johnston, High School Educaiion.\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "l68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nPupil-advisers — teachers delegated to a guardianship of certain pupils'\nstudies and progress — is not a new idea. But a great gain would accrue to\npupils of the beginning high-school grades should such pupil-advisers take\nthe former grammar-grade teachers into their counsels to learn the pupil's\naptitudes, his abilities, and his weaknesses — but not his shortcomings.\nLet the rogues' gallery be kept from our public schools.\nAltho not strictly germane to this subject, the amount of time spent\nin school is tangental to, and makes an appeal for, inclusion. Is not\nour school year too short? Would not a longer school year with shorter\nvacations be more rational ? Considering the various new activities of the\nschool, playgrounds and recreation centers, and manual instruction as well\nas mental, ought not the school week to include six days instead of five ?\nFor the same considerations, ought not the school day to be longer and with\nmore varied activities? The school year in Germany has forty-five or\nforty-six weeks; the school week has six days; four school days have at\nleast six hours, and two days have from three to ioui hours. Their school\nyear totals fifteen himdred hours; our year is about ten hundred hours.\nTheir total gain fs about five hundred hours. Are not outside influences\nthreatening American education, and cannot we best counteract such\ninfluences by living more with the pupils ?\nIn summing up some advantages to be derived from the new relations\nhere discussed between grades and high school there ought to be noted that\nthe six-year program according to its leading advocates\n(i) Would put the seventh- and the eighth-grade pupils under one corps of teachers\nwith a unity of purpose. (2) The seventh- and eighth-grade pupils would be on the way\nto a new goal before adolescence is complete. (3) High-school teachers would then understand why ninth-grade pupils are \" numbskulls,\" mental vacuums, and dreamers of dreams.\nThey would imderstand that the pupils are undergoing a physical change, and that their\ncondition is not due to the stupidity of former grammar-grade teachers. (4) School\narts coiild be carried on into higher grades with profit. (5) The first six years could be\ngiven to the acquisition of, and to proficiency in, the school arts. The seventh and eighth\ngrades could get more culture work while learning the school arts, thereby making the\ntransition between eighth and ninth grades a gradual one. (6) Secondary subjects could\nbe studied continuously for six years. Culture in the fundamental subjects could be\nstarted earlier and continued thruout the high-school grades.\n\nB.\n\nMORTALITY\n\nADELAIDE\n\nSTEELE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nEARLY\nYEARS:\nTRATIVE REMEDIES\n\nSOME\n\nBAYLOR, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nINSTRUCTION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nADMINISOF PUBLIC\n\nThe fact of mortality in the early years of the high school is so old and\nso well established that no proof of it is necessary. The small percentage\nof high-school pupils who complete the course has been a matter of newspaper comment and general public agitation. Some years a^o when the\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORTALITY\n\nIN EARLY\n\nYEARS\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n169\n\nrate of mortality was much higher than now, the elementary school was\nheld to be responsible. Pupils entered the high school unprepared in the\nfundamentals; they could not read, write, spell, add, subtract, multiply,\nand divide, and the high school, it was declared, could do nothing under\nthose circumstances. So the elementary schools were regarded as the\nstumbling-block and vigorous and profitable measures were taken to\nvitalize the courses there, to make more complete the articulation between\nthe elementary schools and the high schools, and in this way to reduce the\nmortality.\nDepartmental work was introduced into the elementary schools extending down almost to the primary grades. Latin, algebra, and other subjects,\nhitherto accepted as belonging wholly to the secondary curriculum, were\nprojected into the grades. High-school methods in organization, athletics,\nand other lines were pushed downward, but still mortality, not only in the\nearly years, but in all years, prevailed.\nThen educators began to look above for the cause, and the teachers of\nthe elementary schools could breathe an air of relief as the colleges and\nuniversities came in for their share of the burden. They were demanding\ncertain set formal courses of study for admission and the high school must\nconform. Its curriculum had been fashioned to suit the college and\nuniversity — so many pages of Latin, a certain amount of history, so many\npieces of literature, and so much mathematics must be done, apparently by\nall, before the very, very small percentage of pupils who desired to continue\ntheir work in these higher institutions of learning would be permitted to\ndo so. Thus college and university domination has been accepted as the\ncause of mortality in the secondary schools and the \"professors\" have been\ncalled upon to give an account of their stewardship.\nThe first movement was productive of good, for when the elementary\nschools went back from the extreme of high-school domination, as many of\nthem have, and began to look to the pupils and their needs, they foimd\nmany good things had been accomplished. Departmental work passed to\nits proper place in the highest grades of the elementary schools, in some\ninstances working out with great profit to the young people the junior\nhigh school. High-school subjects were not retained with high-school\nmethods, but where they persisted, it was because of a vital connection\nwith the education of the children and the courses of study, in the hands\nof skillful teachers, in the elementary schools.\nIn this study of the weaknesses of elementary-school pupils, the curriculum was modified to introduce music, drawing, manual training, and\ndomestic science, as a concrete side to reading, writing, and arithmetic.\nChildren passed into the high school with more power to think and to do,\nand the rate of mortality was necessarily diminished.\nThe critical observation of the college and university in its application\nto secondary schools is too young for us to see positive results, but there is\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "170\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nevery assurance that it will do good to both institutions and that again the\nrate of mortality will be lessened. Already the movement has brought out\nthe valuable report of the National Education Association Committee on\nthe Articulation of Secondary Schools and Colleges, in which a course of\nstudy is suggested that admits of larger latitude in the election of subjects,\nand its authoritative origin will encourage state and local officials to broaden\ntheir courses of study, at least sufficiently to conform to this report. One\nstate board, and possibly more, following the general plan of this report,\nhas already modified the course for its commissioned high schools, so it is\npossible for pupils to graduate from these schools without higher mathematics or foreign languages, tho not without both. However, the state\nboard has made the wise reservation of allowing certain substitutions only\nunder their supervision, when they are assured that the school has equipment and ample teaching force to do the substitute work successfully.\nNo doubt there will be weaknesses and many misunderstandings and\nmisconceptions in this attempt to remedy what we have been pleased to\ncall college and university domination of high schools, but it will help all,\nby calling attention to the courses of study long pursued by the higher\ninstitutions of learning and vitalizing them, as well as by improving the\nwork of the secondary school, and again lessening the mortality.\nBut with this profitable agitation concerning the nature and work of\nthe institutions from which the high school receives all its students and to\nwhich it sends a portion of its students, is there not another line of critical\nexamination that might be more profitable than either of these in lessening\nthe mortality in the early years, i.e., that of the character and work of the\nsecondary school itself ?\nDoes it serve any other purpose than that of a connecting link between\nthe elementary school and the college, and if it does, is the purpose large\nenough to justify an expenditure of money and energy to bring about its\nfulfillment ?\nDo boys and girls at the most critical period of their lives need careful\nand close supervision and instruction to assist them in understanding their\nown needs and possibilities, their own capacity, and their own relations to\nlife itself, no matter what their future work may be ?\nIf people need a special institution for guidance and instruction from\nchildhood to adolescence and young men and women need a special institution for guidance and instruction beyond adolescence, is there not greater\nneed for a special institution for guidance and instruction during the\nintermediate years ? It seems to me there can be but one answer to these\nquestions and that an affirmative one.\nThere is no period perhaps in the lives of the boy and girl when the\nhome has so little influence as at this particular time. Self-conscious, with\nnew interests, new methods, new aspirations, an independence without\njudgment, a critical attitude toward what has hitherto .been accepted\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORTALITY\n\nIN EARLY\n\nYEARS\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n171\n\nwithout question, these young people feel an extreme reluctance to submit\nto adult authority. They want to become leaders, organizers, dictators,\nmembers of special groups. Surely for such a transitional stage, the\nsoundest, surest, safest, and strongest institution should be provided, and\nthat institution the American high school.\nWhat are some things, then, that are needed to make this high school\njustify the purpose for which society supports it ? In the first place, its\nlegality and the sources of its support should never be questioned. In every\nstate in the Union there should be definite legislative enactment that recognizes the high school. As a necessary part of our great school system?\nYes — but more than that, an institution in which is provided adequate\nbuilding facilities, equipment, courses of study, teaching force, for every\nboy and girl of high-school age in this country, regardless of race, color, or\nprevious condition of servitude; and furthermore, regardless of whether\nhis future will find him in a college, a university, an office, or a workshop.\nIt should be what it purports to be, the American high school open to all\nwho rap at its doors for admission, and able to interest, instruct, and provide\nfor all thru the continuance of certain well-defined purposeful courses of\nstudy and work, under mature and competent advisers and directors.\nWith a legal existence everywhere and definite funds for its support,\nthe fkst thing necessary for the preservation of those who enter an American\nhigh school is the faculty. There can be no compromises here. Mature,\nexperienced men and women, with scholarship and training, must constitute the faculty. If the mature, experienced teacher cannot be found\nwith the college and university degree, take a few without. A high-school\nfaculty is more in need today of people who have rubbed up against life in\nsome practical way than of those possessed of degrees, but it is always in\nneed of both, and the largest returns will come when both scholarship and\nlife-experience are found in the same teacher.\nThis faculty must co-operate for the cause not only of every pupil in the\nhigh school, but of the community life. The Freshmen must be put in\ncharge of its most able members; if any pupils must sufifer because of weak\npoints in the teaching force, let it be above, not below. In these early\nyears, the pupils must be handled in small groups and so far as possible\ntheir methods of study and general lines of conduct must be directed by\nthe faculty.\nI think Woodrow Wilson, whom the Democratic party has just distinguished bya nomination to the highest office of honor and trust in this\ncoimtry, was the first to introduce into his institution a plan whereby\ncertain members of the faculty were given the personal care of and responsibility for certain groups of students — a provision that every American\nhigh school should practice.\nSalaries must be paid these men and women suflficient to secure a far\ngreater degree of permanency in a community; and there should be com-\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmittees among them whose specific business it is to study and report on\nevery line of activity in the community, and how the high school can adapt\nitself to these special needs.\nThere must also be committees of the faculty to acquaint themselves\nwith the home conditions of every child in the Freshman class, and ascertain\nsympathetically the attitude of the parents toward the work, the purpose\nfor which they are sending their children into the secondary schools, and,\nin turn, acquaint the parents with the purposes and plans of the school.\nPublic gala days that bring parents to the school for a little while will not\nanswer. The school must be taken into the home.\nHigh-school teachers' meetings should be called, not to discuss methods\nof teaching, but to talk about community life and spirit; not to discuss\nfailures, but to present plans to retain boys and girls in the high school.\nIn this reaching-out into community life and the home, we will find\nthat high-school pupils are accomplishing things outside the curriculum\nthat may be recognized and taken into accoimt, and that we may co-operate\nwith factories, business men, and those in professional life, for the good of\nthese young people. There are some things in the education of boys and\ngirls that may be done better outside the schools and should be recognized\nin the schools.\nThru all this work, motives will be supplied for continuance in\nschool, for, as the outside world becomes a part of the school life, placed\nthere and administered by experienced persons, the young people of the\nhigh schools will not be forced to seek it at so early an age in a strange\nand imguarded companionship.\nThis same individual study of pupils, their home, community life, by\ncompetent and able teachers, will lead to the necessary and proper modifications of the curriculimi, which is another important factor in the prevention\nof mortality in the early years. It will not be modified because some high\nschool in a foreign land, or elsewhere, has Aont so, but because it must be\nmade inviting and supply motives for the young people who enter the\nsecondary school to take it up and pursue it. Vocational work of all kinds\nwill always be a wonderful incentive if rightly understood and taught.\nCommercial subjects, manual training, domestic science, agriculture, and\nother industrial lines growing out of community needs and applied to\ncommunity life will be essential, but these subjects can be made as stale\nand unprofitable as Latin, mathematics, or any subject of the curriculvun.\nThey are indeed fads when they are attached by school authorities who say:\n\"We don't see much use in them, but there seems to be a demand that they\ngo into the schools and we must keep up with the modem movement.\"\nBut by this close contact with the pupils and their home life, this imderstanding of the community, the high-school faculty will vitalize the\ncurriculimi and exterminate all matter that might be denominated either\n\"fads\" or \"effete.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMORTALITY\n\nIN EARLY\n\nYEARS\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n173\n\nLiterary, dramatic, forensic, and athletic organizations that many\ntimes have been so ruthlessly thrust into the high schools to satisfy the\nrestlessness of these young people will be conducted on straight and proper\nlines, because of the close relations and sympathy between -pupil and\nteacher, and competitive affairs with other schools, if observed, will be\nstraight and regular, with a willingness to accept defeat rather than a\ncompromising victory. More things will be written and told about what\nthe high school is, rather than what it should be, and the surprising number\nof pupils who remain thru all coiirses, rather than the mortality, will be the\nwonder. College and university men, always ready to accept the students\nwho can do things, will open their doors gladly to receive applicants from\nthe American high school, regardless of the course of study they pursued.\nThe old principle of the \"survival of the fittest,\" under which we undertook to excuse the mortality in the high school, has been supplanted by the\nnewer and better one of social service, social helpfulness, social value.\nWriters on secondary schools are approaching their subject from this\nstandpoint and it is that basis, and that alone, on which the American high\nschool can be preserved. The schoolmaster is not the dictator, but the\nservant, of the people. He is employed to follow out, not the whim or\ncaprice of a few particular individuals, who want the scliools fashioned after\ntheir own desires, but the general demands that spring from social and community sentiment. For the preservation of the youth in the American high\nschool we must look down and up, but far more continuously must we look\nout and modify our work to suit the broader and more vital needs of society.\nThe maximum of success and the minimum of mortality can come only\nwhen the high school is recognized as an institution that is essentially\nAmerican, and therefore maintained to do the greatest good to the greatest\nnumber in a great republic; a portion of an educational plan that, while\nit must be dependent to a large extent for its best results on the character\nof the instruction in the grades below it, and the influence of the institutions\nabove it, yet whose curricula and plans of organization must be controlled\nby the demands of Hfe and be sufficiently flexible to be adapted to community needs; an institution whose teachers must do more than simply\nequip themselves in scholarship, to give to boys and girls who have had an\nelementary education an insight into their own abilities and needs with the\npower of initiative in thought and action; a part of our school system that\ndeals with young people at a very critical period in their lives when the\nparental influence should be strongest and most effective instead of uncertain and frequently impotent; an institution that calls for careful, sane\nconsideration of its special needs in relation to itself and its student life\nand not in relation to some other high school in some other land or some\nother community; and finally, a part of a great social whole, that will\nalways be affected by the general principles that control the larger unit,\none of which is that change and new adjustments are essential to life.\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nC.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTHE SPECIALIZED OR VOCATIONAL\nCOMPOSITE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nARTHUR\n\nDEERIN\n\nCALL,\n\nDISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT\nHARTFORD, CONN.\n\n[General\n\nVS. THE\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCompared with the Latin schools of our earlier time, schools typified\nby the Boston Latin School antedating Harvard College by a year, by the\nPenn Charter starting before the close of the seventeenth century, our\nsecondary schools of today represent a long wholesome advance in American thought and practice. These very pioneer schools, and their like,\nrepresent in themselves a rich and sane evolution. Our secondary educational system, like our other human institutions, is not perfect, but I\nhave little patience with most of the indiscriminate destructive criticism\nof our public high schools. They have done, they are doing, they will\ncontinue to do a great service toward the promotion of the ideal at the\nbasis of our democracy.\nAnd after all, is it not by this standard that we must measure the\nresults which we think we accomplish in our educational endeavor, this\nstandard of the ideal behind our democracy? That is to say, does our\nsystem provide a full and free opportunity for every youth of whatever\nsection or station to make the most of himself, to promote his own enjoyment in the service of the common weal ? This, I take it, is the great aim\nof all public service: to provide the freest possible opportimity for each\nto work out his own happiness in the service of an advancing democracy.\nAny adequate discussion of an educational problem, it would seem, must\nstart and end in this proposition.\nOf course there is a difficulty involved in the word \"opportunity\"\nas used in this relation. \"Opportunity\" for what in detail? And how\nbest is this \"opportunity\" to be provided?\nIt will probably be granted that our high schools, like our colleges,\nhave overemphasized a bit their duties to a selected few. No one person\nis to blame for this, no one set of persons. It has grown largely out of a\ngeneral haziness in the minds of most of us about culture, and a dense\ndarkness regarding the specific needs of society. We have seen clearly\nthat doctors, lawyers, clergymen, teachers must be provided. So, drawing upon the rich stores of the ancient world for most of our models, we\nfound a way to manufacture these desirable persons fairly well, at least\nto the a bit complaisant satisfaction of the doctors, lawyers, clergymen,\nteachers. We forgot, or ignored if we remembered, that only 4 per cent\nof our population are professionally engaged. Or, if we knew the facts,\nwe assumed rather a fortiori that the training which worked so well for\nthe professionally inclined was the best possible preparation for all. Our\ngreat lawgiver, the General Emeritus in our educational army — Charles\nEliot — still fervently contends that the best preparation for life is to prepare\nfor college.\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nvs. COMPOSITE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n175\n\nNow this theory has worked. Let us confess to the truth. It has\nworked impressively in important instances. We must tread softly here,\nfor you and I are flowers of this very system. It should not be surprising,\ntherefore, when we find opponents to innovators in this sacred field.\nAnd yet we are awakening to newer connotations in the word \"opportunity.\" We can agree with Great Britain's distinguished Professor\nMurray that a \" deep decay has eaten into the study of classics in America,\"\nand thank him sincerely for recognizing the truth which we all consciously\nor unconsciously feel, that \"the time has come which demands a deeper\nand more solid — and therefore, a slower — education. Great insurgent\nforces are at work in the United States and citizenship will require in the\nfuture a finer training and vision than in the past.\" In short, there is a\nwide area of genuine loyalty to the culture of the old school. This is\nquite true, and hopefully true.\nWe can also see, however, that the so-called \"practical sense\" of our\npeople is very strong. The demand for a short, cheap, effective training\nto meet the demands of the field, shop, conveyance, trade, home, is a real\ndemand. Given a demand, we are disposed in America to meet it. Hence\nthe high schools, determining never to give up all that made glorious the\npast, are struggling to do their share to meet the practical situation in a\npractical way, to meet the need of the 36 per cent of our population\nengaged in agriculture, the 24 per cent in manufacturing industries, the\n10 per cent in trade and transportation, and the 20 per cent in domestic\narts, as well as those of the 5 per cent in our high schools who go to college.\nAnd so, as an outgrowth of our efforts to interpret more widely the significance of the word \"opportunity\" in these latter days, we witness the growth\nof agricultural, industrial, commercial, and domestic art courses on a wondrously increasing scale. We explain to ourselves that these serious, tho\noften ineffective, attempts aim to do for the industrial what we have been\ndoing so long, and, for the most part so well, for the professional workers.\nGranted that the high school must continue to meet both the old and\nthe new demand, one immediate question to be answered is: Where shall\nthese two lines of educational activity be carried on? To be precise,\nshall we have separate, special schools with a vocational bent for the\npractical courses, or shall we combine all secondary activities in one composite plant, albeit the courses be kept distinct ? Thus our question is one\nprincipally of organization.\nThere are arguments on both sides. Indeed, both systems have been\npretty thoroly tried in various and differing centers of our land. When I\nwas asked to prepare this study, I at once settled upon certain fundamental\ntheses — theses, I confess, springing from a pathetically limited first-hand\nexperience in such matters, a large amount of a priori speculation, and\nthe hypnotic suggestions from a few men whom I greatly respect. The\ntheses were:\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n1. The tendency toward specialized high schools has gone too far in some quarters.\n2. Economy requires less speed in this direction.\n3. There should be less duplication of plant, laboratories, and the like.\n4. Pupils should not be asked to go so far to reach the \"special\" schools.\n5. Many facilities are now practically forbidden a large niunber of students because\nof the inaccessibility of the \"special\" schools.\n6. The \"special\" school removes pupils from the \"composite\" school, hinders the\npromotion of democracy, and tends to promote class feeling, etc.\n\nThese theses have given me some interesting experiences. I found,\nfor example, that they meet with enthusiastic support from the small\ncities, and with a rather generous disapproval from the large cities. In\ntrying to analyze the reason for this divergency among the doctors, the\nconclusion seems justifiable that the large cities, being more directly\ninterested because more acutely in need of industrial schools, and having\nthe resources with which to act, have proceeded along the one shortest and\nmost practical way and begun their experiments with the special schools.\nThese schools are usually centrally located, launched with industrial fervor,\nbut of very little significance, I believe, so far as real vocational training\nis concerned. Of course this last is not true of the trade school, but it is\ntrue of the industrial work in high schools. Officers of the large cities\ngrant that most of the theses are true for small cities. I venture the\nquestion. If they are true for a small unit, are they not also true for a\nlarge city which is but a series of small imits ? So, at least for the purpose\nof this paper, let us forbear separating the problem into, large and small\ncity phases.\nARGUMENTS\n\nFOR THE SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOL WITH A VOCATIONAL\n\nBENT\n\nThe arguments which I have been able to find urged in favor of the\nseparate industrial school may be briefly enumerated as follows: It permits\nthe economical concentration of equipment, avoiding unnecessary duplication. It permits of the concentration of the teaching force, enabling the\nwork to be done with fewer instructors. It permits the concentration of\nindividuality in the work, such as enabling the school to fit the English\nto the industrial pursuit rather than to preparation for college. The\nadministrators of the regular high schools have not proved to be willing\nor competent to administer successfully effective industrial courses. From\nsome sources I gather that the separate industrial school produces better\nresults. One superintendent from a large city writes:\nThe kind of work that is effective in industry or in business is not possible in a composite school. For this there are many reasons. First, it is impossible, unless the administrator inthe building knows the field, and that almost never happens, because principals\nare chosen according to traditional ideals. Second, the efl&cient vocational school is\npossible only when the academical and vocational studies are correlated or dovetailed\ntogether. The student who is taking a business course needs a different kind of English\nin part and in practice from that one who is headed for coUege. Third, the effective\nvocational school has an entity of its own, for it must establish a bureau connecting with\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nvs. COMPOSITE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n177\n\nthose who employ the product. These seem impossible in a composite school. The fact\nis that it is impossible to secure the results in a composite school that are possible in a\nseparate school.\n\nThe commissioner of education in Massachusetts believes\nthat the vocational school must be something set apart; that a vocational school must\nhave its equipment, location, etc., determined by the conditions of the vocation for\nwhich it prepares; that a commercial high school and a high school for machinists shovdd\nnot be in the same building and cannot interchange equipment.\n\nHe urges that\na school for tailors would not use the same equipment as a school for carpenters and a\nschool for carpenters would use little of the same equipment as that used in a school for\nmachinists.\n\nIn general, Dr. Snedden doubts the element of validity in what might\nbe called \"general vocational training,\" He grants that every general\nor liberal high school should have opportunities for manual training for\nboys and household arts for girls, but that these should be simply a part\nof the program of general education, and that we should not deceive ourselves into thinking of it as \"vocational.\" The composite high school is\nrarely going to give, in his estimation, vocational training.\nAnd yet Dr. Snedden agrees to the objections against supporting\ndifferent \"classes of pupils,\" and \"that it would be ideal if we could have\nall of our schools together.\" He says:\nThere is of course, not the slightest reason why several vocational departments\nshould not be on the same block with the general high school. There would be some\neconomy in giving such studies as English. On the other hand, most of those who discuss this sort of organization are not thinking of vocational education at all, but of some\ntwo-hour-a-day scheme of shop training, which, as my experience indicates, is of little\nvalue for purposes of vocational education\nThe question of the location of the\nvocational school is an important one. It will probably have to find its location in the\nneighborhood where the industry for which preparation is being made is carried on.\nIt is the feeling of the business men of Boston that the High School of Commerce\nshould be located in the heart of the commercial district, altho reasons of economy have\nhitherto prevented that consummation.\n\nThere is a sense in which we must agree with Commissioner Snedden's\nfeeling, \"that this question cannot be adequately discussed until we have\nmade up our minds as to what we mean by the 'vocational school.'\"\nARGUMENTS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nCOMPOSITE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe arguments in favor of the composite high school, or, as it is\nvariously called, the cosmopolitan high school, the general high school,\nor the university high school, may be briefly svunmarized as follows: It\npromotes economy by permitting the use of the same heating plant, janitor\nservice, study halls, social service rooms, and various types of equipment.\nThere is no reason why the pupils in all courses should not use the same\nlibrary, auditorium, gymnasium, lunchroom. There is no reason why\nall the schools should not have the same supply-room and be run by the\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsame business manager. An argimient which has often been overlooked,\nbut a very important argument in favor of the composite high school,\nis that, because of its accessibility and all-round equipment, it lends itself\nmore readily to the use of the evening schools with their varying demands.\nThe composite high school provides articulated courses which enable\nchildren to change easily from one course to another. The composite\nhigh school presents various life-preparing opportunities, and for this\nreason is more attractive to boys and girls, promoting a larger high-school\npopulation and a longer attendance. The composite high school promotes\ndemocracy among the pupils and among the teachers, avoiding cleavage\ninto classes and the impleasant results which come from caste distinctions.\nAnother reason for rearing schools of the composite type is that the aims, in\nthe last analysis, of the two types of schools are practically indistinguishable.\nIn presenting my theses to the various leaders in typical cities of our\ncountry, I received replies producing a profound hopelessness in my mind\nof getting any real assistance from those who are best able to advise. The\nleaders, even in the large cities, are not wholly in agreement about these\ntheses. The comfortable thing about this is, however, doctors disagreeing,\nthat we are at liberty to say some things which we ourselves evolve out\nof our own inner consciousness. At this stage of my mental imdevelopment, I am convinced, first, that boys and girls do not usually follow those\nvocational lines that are preferred by them at the time of entrance into\nthe special high school. Second, I am inclined to the belief that the highschool teachers are able to detect special abilities and to promote nascent\ntendencies as the pupils go thru the high-school course, and that such\nabilities and tendencies are made manifest more readily in the composite\nhigh school. Third, as one connected with the United States Bureau of\nEducation, Dr. C. D. Kingsley, writes:\nAbout three years ago, while a teacher in the Manual Training High School, Brooklyn,\nI made a study of the geographical distribution of high-school students in that borough.\nWe had six high schools, only one of which offered manual training. We found that the\nBrooklyn high-school students were regularly paying over $100,000 a year for carfare\nin order to reach the schools of their choice. The Manual Training High School draws\nto itself a very high proportion of the boys and girls on the park slope, Brooklyn, and\ndraws students who desire manual training from the entire borough. Many of these\nstudents have to spend three-quarters of an hour or more upon the cars, both morning\nand evening, adding to the overcrowding of the cars in the morning, and spending, to\nreach our school alone, in the neighborhood of $25,000 or $30,000 a year. When you\nremember that many of these are young girls about fourteen years of age, and that all of\nthem are spending time on the street cars that should be spent in walking and getting\nbenefits of the fresh air, you can see how serious a matter it is. The carfare item is a\nserious drain upon the income of many of the families that find it a difficulty, at best,\nto keep their children in school.\n\nTo this. Superintendent Maxwell replies that it is \"no objection,\" that\n\"education is too cheaply and easily obtained.\" Another adds laconically:\n\"Maybe it is better to go farther than to get a 'gold brick' near by.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n\nSessions]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nvs. COMPOSITE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n179\n\nIn St. Louis, they have four white, and one colored high school, in\nall of which the same courses are offered. All have an equipment of shops,\nlaboratories, and libraries varying only to meet the needs of the number of\nstudents in each school. The quality of the teaching corps in all of the\nschools is the same; thus the opportunities offered to a pupil in one high\nschool are identical with those in the other high schools. The city is\ndivided into four districts for white children, who are required to attend\nthe high school in whose district they live. Thus the secondary system\nin St. Louis is based upon the principle of the composite high school, offering all opportunities for secondary education to all pupils. They believe\nthat this is preferable to a system of specialized high schools, and emphasize\nthe importance of promoting democratic ideas thru acquaintance and\nsaner judgments which this system encourages. They have worked out\nwith considerable detail the principles involved in the theses which I\noffer. Philadelphia has just moved a long way in this direction. Toledo\nis just con:^leting two new composite high schools, each with a capacity\nof about 1,200; each of the I-shaped type, the central portion to be\ndevoted to academical work and the wings to industrial laboratories,\nfully equipped. Other cities leaning strongly toward the composite high\nschool are: Minneapolis, Portland, Ore., St. Paul, Rochester, Pittsburgh,\nDenver, Chicago, Milwaukee, Cincinnati.\nCONCLUSION\n\nThere are great unsolved, but essential things which industrial education must provide and promote, such as the favorable admission of pupils\nto the industries, more practical experience as wage-earners, co-operation\nbetween the school and shop, industrial efficiency developing thru definite\nsteps to definite occupations, that personal power most locally demanded,\nrecognition by the colleges of high-school work in household economics\nand mechanic arts, reverence for our social institutions, as the courts,\nthe law, the government, the church, the school, the home, the continuance\nof the educational process as far as possible, applied scholarship, a purposeful\nlife.\nAssimiing that education must provide and promote these things,\nwe have to grant that our educational system must meet the needs of those\nlarge sections of our population outside the so-called professions. In\ncarrying out this program, we have come to grant that the whole of the\npupil must be led to function, body, mind, and spirit; that we must cast\nour teaching more nearly in the terms of real life, motivizing as well as\nidealizing, vitalizing and energizing as well as intellectualizing and moralizing. Thus granting the importance of the aims of the older schools, we\nare finding a widening place for industrial education. Granting that the\nlanguage^ history, and number facts accumulated and being accumulated\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "l8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nmust be preserved, and for the most part in our old-line schools, yet we\nare practically a unit now in insisting that industrial training must be\nlikewise provided to meet the practical demands of our industrial life.\nIndustrial courses have therefore become our fixed and accepted policy.\nIndeed, we are beginning to find that these two types of training are not\nof that ultimate diflference which we at first supposed. We insist now that\nthere is no industrial education worthy the name which does not end in a\nricher life of culture, and that there is no cultural education worthy the\nname which does not end in practical service.\nBut we have not, in our practice, been able to fashion a single course\nof education equally adaptable to both types of schools. So we separate\nthe courses, roughly, into cultural, academical, scientific, classical, and\nindustrial. In the organization of schools for the promotion of the best\nin our democracy, I believe in the composite high school, with courses\nleading to college, normal school, commercial training for boys and girls,\ndomestic science for girls, manual and mechanical training for boys, each\nof these departments separate and under the direction of an expert, but\nall under one head.\nSo I am convinced after all that my tentative theses are in the main\nsound, namely, that there should probably be fewer specialized high schools,\nand pretty certainly that more attention should be given to developing\ncomposite high schools in various parts of urban centers, as the need may\narise.\nIt is true that high-school pupils are problems in themselves. They\nare not to be treated according to a psychology of adults. There is no\nset organized psychology of childhood or adolescence. The teacher's\nmost practical help is concrete interpreting experience, with real boys and\ngirls. Human development means more than the acquisition of knowledge— ^it is a growth from within. The teacher's vital concern is to remove\nthe obstacles from the way and to provide for those reactions which best\npromote this growth, representing the whole child in distinction from the\nbody, mind, spirit, memory, feeling, or will of him taken separately. Different periods of child development present different demands upon the\nteacher's resources, but the demand in all periods is for a closer transition\nfrom the school to practical life, and that the child's activities shall spring\nprimarily from his own past and be a generous expression of himself.\nBetter physical bases, closer relation to vocations, and a greater harmony\nbetween school and real life are the most hopeful educational tendencies\ntoward our democratic ideal of personal opportimity for all in a progressive\nsociety. I believe that the type of high school best qualified to promote\neducation in the light of these principles is the composite high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nD.\n\nSOCIAL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nSOCIAL ORGANIZATION\nMILTON\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\ni8l\n\nIN THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nC. POTTER,\nSUPERINTENDENT\nST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThere is surely no adjective so vaguely used or variously defined as\nthe word \"social.\" For its splendid generic sense the pedagogical pundits\nof our times delight to use it. But some use it in a specific restrictive\nsense, and often on the same page put it into violent antithesis with itself.\nA great wholesome meaning for society is, all companionable people —\nthose who serve their fellows. Social categories must differ — from philanthropist to paperhanger. But to be considered social any category should\nbe embracing, not exclusive, but inclusive. The anti-social sediment is\ncalled the criminal class. The anti-social scum so often called society in\nvarious communities let me call the snobulous. Its members are not always\nnecessarily snobbish, but consciously or unconsciously they exercise a\ntoxic influence which all except the snobulous recognize as violently unsocial.\nI am asked to discuss social organization, not snobulous organizations,\nin the high school. The latter have done their little worst to make ridiculous their juvenile initiates together with their fond and foolish parents.\nOur high-school corridors have almost ceased the breeding of snobs, and now\nseldom serve as the favorite promenade for the display of mystic jewelry\nand the sickly but ludicrous imitation of a college boy's strut.\nThe condemnation of secret social clubs in high schools by teachers,\nparents, and courts of law where appealed to, is practically unanimous.\nGreek letteritis brought forth a harvest of weeds and wild oats. We need\nnot thresh that old straw here. It is history. But the assumption that\norganized manifestations of sociability among high-school students are evil\nper se is not unlike certain rather common American attitudes toward various adult activities like lodges or churches or camp-meetings. It is so\neasy on the brain and so satisfying to the conscience just to tag the whole\nthing \"very bad\" and then govern yourself accordingly. After that, one\nhas no occasion to perplex oneself with annoying distinctions within the\ncategory upon which one has long ago put a definite tag. That is a clever\narrangement for a lazy man with a large conscience.\nBut such a man should not be called too particular, by which word he\nis sometimes described. Far from it! His generalizations are often so\nsweeping and so cocksure as to pain and bewilder a really particular person.\nSaid Deacon Ephraim Josiah McCotton :\n\"All dances in Hell are begotten.\"\nSaid Dick to Miss Bly,\n\"Never mind the old guy;\nTo the pure almost everything's rotten.\"\n\nNow your normal healthy high-school boy is sure to \" do some marvelous doings.\" And it won't help him any for us to swamp him in our moral\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "i82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand polite generalizations. I think that much of our trouble in high-school\nmanagement comes from being terribly shocked at some things which boys\ndo as unconsciously as they carry their hands in their trousers pockets.\nTo assist in organizing a boy's social activity will make him a conscious\nsocial being. A policy of repression will make him a puppet or a reckless\nrebel.\nTwo or three years ago Principal Lasher, of the Erasmus Hall High\nSchool in Brooklyn, N.Y., before the Department of Secondary Education,\nand Principal Johnson, of the Chicago University EQgh School, in the School\nReview, described, at considerable length, nimnierous examples of student\norganization in their schools. Indeed, they handled the subject of fraternity substitutes in rather detailed fashion, which relieves me from doing so.\nIt appears from correspondence with several high-school principals,\nand from my own experience, that the strongest voluntary organizations in\nthe high school are usually for one sex only. Partial segregation of the\nsexes, as practiced in the Cleveland Technical High School for instance,\nseems to furnish a broad basic condition for healthful social organization of\na student body. Some years ago Dr. G. Stanley Hall said that segregation is always in some degree necessary for full and complete development,\nand to avoid a settled eviration of the boys. \"There is a little charm and\nbloom rubbed off the ideal of girlhood by close contact, and boyhood seems\nless ideal to girls at close range.\"\nThere is considerable authority indicating the desirability of at least\npartial sex segregation above the eighth grade, such as:\n1. Jordan, David Starr, Higher Education of Women.\n1902.\n2. Woods, Alice, Co-education.\n1903.\n3. Chdsabtxs,Wi)lGx&xit, Evolution of Ideals.\n1903.\n4. Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II, chap, xvii, pp. 561-647.\n5. Co-education in the United States and Foreign Countries.\n6. Miinsterberg, Hugo, Psychology and the Teacher, pp. 306-7.\n7. \"Co-education,\" Baltimore School Board Journal, October, 1911, p. 27.\n8. Gove, Aaron, \"Co-education in High Schools,\" National Education Association\nProceedings.\n1903.\n9. Small, Albion W., \"Co-education in the University of Chicago,\" National Education\nAssociation Proceedings.\n1903.\nID. Harper, William Rainey, Decennial Report.\n1903.\nII. Riverside Report on Segregation.\n\nPartial sex segregation in many high schools is slowly growing merely as\na convenience in program organization. The coming of the high-school\nshop, kitchen, and gymnasium has polarized the young people as to these\nsubjects and has necessitated the segregation of boys and girls in some\nother classes in order to make feasible their segregation in these.\nFurther, the tendency toward sex segregation in adolescence is well\nillustrated, if not proven, by the spontaneous fraternal organizations\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n183\n\nwhich have naturally developed along sex lines in all high schools where\nthe administration has been too academic or the teachers too indifferent\nto originate or supervise proper social activities. It seems as tho the boys\nand girls naturally and unconsciously endeavor to separate themselves in\ntheir spontaneous organizations so as to make more formal the occasions\nof their social intercourse. No one can be blind to certain dangers inherent\nin that tendency and in those organizations — but no one not blind will\nfail to see the fact and to reckon with the good that is in it, when assisting\nstudents in organizing their clubs and societies.\nWe are the administrative agents of a new institution. The twentiethcentury high school presents totally new features and problems to the\nexecutive.\nYesterdecade the high-school teacher just out of normal or high school\nengaged herself almost exclusively in keeping up with the bright pupils\nin book-learning and in finishing the last pages, if possible, a little ahead of\nthe class. Today your boy is lucky if he gets two or three teachers whose\nexcessive erudition does not forbid their remaining within calling distance\nof his cries for help. The former teacher was a business competitor of the\n\"clever scholars,\" as was each \"scholar\" of every other. The recent\ntype tends to form alleged high-school \"faculties\" with a school life distinct from that of the \"student body.\" Meanwhile the need for social\nleavening grows greater.\nThe membership has changed. With high-school enrollment increasing from three to four times as fast as the total population in the past two\ndecades in forty cities examined, a more varied membership is discovered\nthan formerly. By the same token, the demand for effective mixing processes grows imperative.\nThe place of the high school in popular thought is changing. Today\nnearly every citizen is a loyal constituent of our \"peculiar institution.\"\nNo legislators or governors are today discussing the familiar nineteenthcentury question, \"Should the people be taxed for the education of the\nfew above the common school?\" This public faith in us imposes upon us\nthe public duty of socializing the unsocial.\nThe high-school functions are changing. From having been purely a\ncollegiate preparatory school for a very few, entertaining within its gates\nsundry ambitious \"district-school teachers\" in the making, and various\nothers who were not old enough, or well enough, to do something more\nworth while, it is rapidly becoming a receiving-station and motivating\nagency for the final output of the common schools, which makes desirable\nthe introduction of natural acquaintance opportunities in the very first\nyear of high school.\nA committee of representative mothers phrased it this way a few weeks\nago:\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe first year of the high school discourages most of our children. In the last year\nof the grades they are coaxed and loved to a hothouse rapidity of growth. Then suddenly\nthey are plunged into a chilling atmosphere of tutorial indijfference which causes most of\nthem within the year to stay away from the great, new, cold, strange school. High-school\nteachers and first-year children should meet oftener outside of recitations or study.\n\nA school official put the other side like this:\nNo right-minded people approve of school parties. It is hard to conceive of a dance\nin a public-school building which is not a public dance. The proper school relation is a\nbusiness relation, not social or intimate in any way.\n\nOne of the strongest and most conscientious high-school principals I\never knew told a boy in my hearing, \" You didn't come here to play. School\nis business.\" He was wrong on both counts I should say, or at least partly\nso. The boy did go there to play in all likeUhood, and a large leaven of\nplay in his teachers would likely have saved that boy,\nA school is no part of the factory age. Difficult as it is to maintain consistent order and at the same time avoid mechanizing the \"business\" of an\novergrown city high school into rather inhmnan perfection, there are many\ngreat hearts who see and sympathize with the still pitiful baby girl or boy\nbeneath all adolescent vanity or vulgarity.\nOnly if you call the household activities of a colonial fireside \"business\" can you so denominate school life. Its business is but one detail.\nIt is more than business. It is art. It is politics. It is love. It is play.\nIt is a cross-section of all life. That is the vision of a modem high school,\nwhich warms the hearts of consecrated men and women, and without which\nthe children perish and are found in the thereafter working in laundries or\ndriving latmdry wagons.\nIt is too easy for me to say I am simply a mental mentor to the young.\nSuch a conception of my functions saves me my afternoons and evenings\nfree from their intrusion. But I see across the hall a popular white-haired\nmaiden, upon whom the bloom of age has softly fallen in silver glory,\ngiving every afternoon, and all of it, to the students' affairs; and I wonder.\nShe says that she considers her classroom work the least of her duties, and\nstill more the least of her privileges. She believes that every real teacher\nin the high school should feel the imperative call of the young upon her\nafternoon time and should find it practically impossible to get away before\nthe building closing hour, at five o'clock, any day. She is a great teacher.\nHer kind will before long possess the twentieth-century high school. For\nthe youth of the land carry them in their hearts, and the young people make\nthe schools.\nThe graduates from such schools do not forget such teachers. They\nreturn again and again, carrying gifts of buildings and statues and books,\nof children's fields and baths, and the frankincense of noble thoughts and\nkindly feeling. At the afternoon parties (for they are never held at night\nand never outside the high-school building) there are mothers and fathers\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n185\n\nwho delight in the children and who help them, in folk games or graceful\ncotillions, to forget the clod of clay which cumbers the aspiring spirit and to\nbring it into unconscious co-operation toward the purposes of school life\nand of all life. Happiness is a habit. Habits are perfected by practice.\nOur Puritan educational heritage has given us so much of good that one\nmust regret the necessity of admitting that their theory of life as a \"preparation for death\" not only shadowed the life of my ancestors but caused\ntheir schools to become detached institutions which were not a part of life\nbut merely \"preparation for life.\"\nWe all know teachers and oflScials today who hold this limited conception ofthe school. Such a school is an isolated pool in which the little\nfishes grow sleek and fat and self-satisfied. Upon a day they are thrown out\ninto the great waters of the life stream to sink or swim or gasp along the\nshore. They would be more apt to swim, and swim in deep water, if their\nyouth were spent in a bayou, or Hving tributary of the main stream.\nNot only should the commerce department, the apprentice committee,\nor the vocational committee in any high school keep the adult life of the\ncommunity in constant touch with the school life; but the social committees\nwill find the same practice invaluable in giving the young people who most\nneed it the proper strength and ease of approach, the unconscious simplicity\nand poise, which these young ones will find so valuable in the larger life.\nFathers and mothers will be found who will give their leisure, or even business hours, for the sake of other people's children as well as their own.\nIndeed, they now recognize that they cannot corner the social virtues for\ntheir own alone. The social graces are ubiquitous. They grow in one by\ndiffusion among many. High-school fraternities were violently unsocial.\nBut they pointed the way to social organization, co-operating with fathers\nand mothers.\nEvidence of abiding life-interest in high-school affairs always delights\nmy heart; but particularly so, if manifested by a Greek-letter convalescent.\nThe writer of the following letter was one. She graduated from the Centennial High School in 1910, shortly after the surrender of all outside charters and an agreement for the future to organize only inside clubs or societies,\nwith Centermial authority, and always including some high-school teacher\nor teachers.\nMr. Milton C. Potter, Pueblo, Colo.\n\nBelmont, Mass., May 24, 1912\n\nMy dear Mr. Potter: I am going to write you a long letter. You want to know\nabout this school, I know. I have been for some time in Belmont, Mass. Belmont is one of the numerous small towns close to Boston. My imcle is the superintendent of schools here. Thru his efforts an organization was formed known as the\n\"Belmont High School Athletic Club.\" I am sure you will be interested in knowing about\nthis, and I Want to tell you what I can of the movement.\nThe high school owned no athletic field, and no ball ground was accessible. In the\ncourse of a few months after the formation of the high-school club, Mr. Underwood,\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "i86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\na prominent man of the town, noticed the lack of athletic fields and equipment. Altho\nhe had no children, and could not profit directly thru it, he gave to the high school a\nlarge field to be used for athletics only. The boys were at once interested and began\nwork grading the fields. At present they have a \"gridiron,\" a baseball diamond, tennis\nand croquet courts, and a fine running-track.\nThe field is about a mile from the schoolhouse, and a mile is too far to walk in football\ntogs, and so the boys decided that they should have a clubhouse. Again Mr. Underwood became interested. The services of an architect were secured. The architect\nplanned for a small clubhouse, built in Swiss chalet style. When the plans were accepted\nthey were turned over to the Manual Arts Department. The work from this time on was\ndone by the boys. Master plumbers, masons, an carpenters were engaged to sh )w the\nboys how to work. The interior is finished with panels and beams. The panels are\nhand carved, as also are the porch supports. The huge fireplace has a pair of andirons of\niron, representing a claw holding a football. The boys made these in the forge-room.\nThe curtains and pillows were made by the girls in the sewing classes. 1 he boys made all\nthe furniture.\nThe clubhouse is not large. It has an entrance hall and clubroom, and is well\nequipped with baths, showers, and dressing-rooms.\nThe \"Athletic Club House\" is the pride of the high .-chool. Each student feels a\npersonal interest in it, and it is pointed out to strangers as one of the landmarks, almost\nrivaling Bunker Hill in importance.\nSincerely yours,\nEsther Leone Hunt\n\nIn the new high scl ool nearly every teacher spends nearly every afternoon in some sort of extra-classroom activity. A strong student's volunteer\nweekly schedule might look something like this:\nMondays:\nTuesdays:\nWednesdays:\nThursdays:\nFridays:\n\nEuterpean Society (or some other musical club)\n^\nCinderella Club (or some other dramatic club)\nThe Smithy (or some other crafts club)\nThe Pnyx (or some other debating club)\nThe Duck Party (or some other party.\nIn one western college town the\nyoung people call the high-school classes \"Oneies, Ducks, Trips, and\nQuads,\" splendidly ignoring the college phraseology.)\n\nThe dear young scamps in the high schools are bound to do some\nscampering. It's our business to keep up with them and make the scampering count for something. Our young people are quite willing not to ape the\nadult four hundred if something more worth while is presented. With\ntheir final recovery from the imitative languors and silly vices of the grand\nsociety women and young men of the new rich, our boys and girls must come\ninto their rightful heritage of noisy joy and merry work in the spirit of play.\nFor all of these occasions the young people will do their own decorating\nand serving and subsequent housecleaning. I know this is not impossible\nfor I saw the third-year girls in a St. Paul high school eagerly grasping at\nthe chance to wait upon the graduating class at their last banquet. Indeed\nthe waiters in the cafe of this high school are all of them high-school girls of\nthe very finest type, who receive nothing whatever, not even food, in return\nfor their splendid service. Those young ladies are many of them from\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nMAY\n\nEXPECT\n\n187\n\nvery affluent homes. All of them, the brightest and the slowest, the richest\nand the poorest, are the instruments and the beneficiaries of a fundamental\nsocial education. But it is not hard to shut your eyes and see the shocked\nface of some dear mama of the fi/j-fj- variety as she indignantly exclaims:\n\"No one shall ever make a daughter of mine do such a thing.\"\nJust so, dear lady. No one in the new high school would ever\nattempt it.\nBut the cleansing waters of unselfish service flow most freely for boys in\nthe games of the field and gymnasium. Manners are a fine art, considered\nas a way of living. Literature and history are a manual of manners.\nHowever, few boys will take a grandfather's advice, or profit from his\nexperience. Therefore, literature and history unapplied do not suffice.\nFirst-hand condensed social experience is had on the athletic field. Athletics isa moral life-laboratory.\nEverywhere in America some kindly lady with a mission in life must\nneeds arise and view with alarm the \"brutalizing effects of the dangerous\ngames still criminally countenanced by high-school authorities.\" But the\nvigorous sports of youth, now properly supervised and co-operated in by\nthe teachers, still cleanse the blood and tone the will, subdue the temper,\nand string up the attentive powers of the finest boys in the English world.\nStill they stand the most persuasive life-influence, the most appealing school\nmemory, and the most powerful guaranty of social democracy in all our\nhigh schools. Because of them there is hope that the American boy of\ntomorrow may keep his boyish simplicity of thought and action long past\nthe age when his brother of yesterday has become a wearied and wearisome\nman of the world. Any teacher in Harrow or Eton who succeeds, or remains\nat all, must consciously consider his most important work to be his active,\nhappy, volunteer participation in the sports of the boys. There unconscious life-tuition holds most perfect sway. And in the long run character\nand not scholarship is the finest fruit of the high school.\n\nE.\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE PUBLIC MAY EXPECT IN DIVIDENDS:\nMATERIAL, CIVIC, AND SOCIAL\nKATE\n\nUPSON\n\nCLARK,\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nTheologians have deduced from sacred history and from analogy the\ntheory that the Creator at first attempted the regeneration of the world\nthru the placing here and there of a good man. This experiment failed,\nbecause the good man died and his children did not continue his tradition.\nAt last, Abraham was created, and was chosen to be the especial friend and\nally of God, \"because,\" says the record, \"I know that he will command his\nchildren and his household after him, and they shall keep the way of the\nLord, to do justice and judgment.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "l88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe preservation of high ideals from generation to generation in a whole\npeople requires enormous racial force and insight. The great civilizations\nof old doubtless cherished the belief that the world would mount upon their\nshoulders to higher and ever higher things; and yet they went out like\nblown candles, imtil even now, as Wendell PhiDips proved in his famous\nlecture on \"The Lost Arts,\" we have not entirely recovered certain powers\nlost in their decline.\nThe chief instrumentality in our age and country for the perpetuation\nof our ideals is the public school; and one main reason why the ancients\nfailed to perpetuate theirs is that they had no such schools. The author\nof Gesta Christi says that it is impossible to imagine the archons of Athens\nas taxing the rich in order that the helots might learn to read the Greek\nclassics; or the Roman Senate setting. apart a revenue providing teachers\nfor the plebs and slaves. In our favored land, the rich are taxed so that\nthe poorest may leam.\nNot long ago an American capitalist, who has lived on both sides of the\nAtlantic, declared at a dinner party that he despised his country; that the\ngovernment of the^United States is the laughing-stock of all other nations;\nand that it is so honeycombed with sham and fraud that the structure even\nnow totters to its fall.\n\"What do you think will follow — a monarchy, an oligarchy, or\nanarchy ?\" was asked him. He stammered some vague reply, from which\nit was gathered that anarchy would probably come upon us very soon.\nUpon relating this conversation a few days later at another dinner,\nattended chiefly by young college men, one of them announced that he\nagreed with the capitalist. Since then, many others have been heard to\nexpress similar opinions.\nThe primary object of education is to so train the mind that it may, as\nMatthew Arnold says, \"see straight and think clear\" and may ultimately\narrive at that culture which is \"sweetness and light.\" The knowledge\nthat education gives may be forgotten, but it gives also strong mental\nmuscles, which, if their use is kept up, remain strong. An informed and\nintelligent mind is the first essential to a right judgment. Then, when the\nunderstanding is strengthened, the fallacy of the reasoning of the capitalist\nand the young college man can easily be shown and a wise patriotism\ninstilled. Oiu: children should know that, the our public servants sometimes prove untrue, the people are, as a whole, honest. No country is\ncontrolled as much by public opinion as is our own; and that public opinion\nis generally right. When matters go wrong, we ourselves are to blame.\nWe are too busy with our own selfish affairs to do our duty to the state.\nBut from those whom the state has educated should come service to the\nstate. In war, they would coimt it sweet to die for their country. In\npeace, it is just as much their obligation to lay their lives upon its altar, not\nall at once, as in war, but a little every week or every month; and the\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nMAY\n\nEXPECT\n\n189\n\nsacrifice is even harder. No bands play. No crowds applaud. Slander\nand abuse are more likely to follow, but no less should the true patriot, as\nBrowning says, \"do out the duty.\"\nIt is therefore acutely necessary that, whether or not our children\nunderstand quadratic equations or foreign languages, they should be\nwarned of the hideousness of intemperance and unchastity, the evils of\nbribery, the intricacies of blackmail, and the horrors of an unrighteous war,\nand that no other kind of war is possible between civilized nations. They\nshould learn well the lesson that eternal vigilance is the price of liberty as\nmuch today as ever, and that because our forefathers cherished a beautiful\ndream of equality and democracy, and broke a rough, brave path toward\nits fulfillment, it is no sign that we shall move onward in that direction\nimless we constantly labor and agonize, even as they did, to advance\nnearer and nearer to it.\nThe first sheaf, then, which we should gamer from the field of the high\nschool should be that scholastic training which gives not only a fair amount\nof scientific and literary knowledge, but a disciplined reasoning power.\nLet it not be true of our high-school graduates that while \"Knowledge\ncomes\" to them, \"Wisdom lingers.\"\nThe second should be a broad and unwavering patriotism — a realization\nof their deep obligation to be a good citizen of what, with all its faults, is\nthe best country under the sun.\nInvolved in this patriotism are many elements. Three stand out\nsharply.\nThe first of these is respect for law. In a land like ours there is no\nexcuse for the outbreaks of lawlessness which occur from time to time.\nBad laws can be changed by orderly process. In the greater part of our\ncountry such troubles are usually caused by foreigners. Since our public\nschools are the melting-pot for our thousands of aliens, as Mary Antin has\nso vividly pictured them in her Making of a Citizen, especial stress should\nbe laid there upon obedience to law.\nThe second is the abolition of caste and class. Do fraternities and\nsecret societies promote the formation of cliques and small, \"select\" circles,\nfrom which many are excluded, to eat their hearts out in grief and envy ?\nIf these societies do promote these most undemocratic distinctions, the\nteaching of a sound patriotism demands that they be driven out. Closely\nconnected with this evil is that of race prejudice. Few of us are entirely\nfree from this undemocratic and un-Christian weakness, and it should be\nstoutly fought.\nThe third element in the teaching of patriotism is the glory of honest\nwork, and that every man and woman should be a \"lifter\" and none a\n\"leaner.\" For those who can study no more after leaving the high school,\nthe mastery of some vocation, or a fair preparation for earning fair wages\nat once is essential. If there is a vocational school near, that should be\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "igo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nattended. If not, the local high school should establish one or more\nvocational courses.\nBut the mere efifervescent sentiment of patriotism counts for little unless\nbehind it there is a pure and upright citizen. Scholarship without character isa curse. Horace Mann, in defining good citizenship, quotes the\nancient statute of Massachusetts which was framed for the guidance of\neducators, and which sets forth this matter \"in large and noble characters,\"\nthus:\nIt shall be the duty of the president, professors, and tutors of the university at\nCambridge and of the several colleges, and of all other instructors to exert their best\nendeavors to impress on the minds of children and youth the principles of piety, and\njustice, and a sacred regard for truth; love of their country, humanity, and universal\nbenevolence; chastity, moderation, and temperance; and those other virtues which are\nthe ornament of human society and the basis upon which a republican constitution\nis founded.\n\n\"The laws of morals,\" continued Horace Mann, \"can be taught like\nany other laws, and are far more important than the laws of cube root.\nThey are natural laws and always existed and depend on no religion. It\ndisparages and degrades the subject to leave it to the teacher's option. We\nare bound,\" he concludes unequivocally, \"to dignify it by making it a part\nof the regular course of study.\"\nYou have read of the ways in which these matters are managed in France,\nGermany, and England. The recent extensive referendum upon them in\nthis country, in which probably many of those here present took part,\nrevealed the fact that most of the teachers consulted, favored indirect\nethical teaching. Thirteen per cent approved of religious exercises; i8\nper cent appealed for a graded moral course. All agreed that \"home\ninfluences\" seldom harmonized with those of the school. The words of\nthe teacher could scarcely be heard while the voice of the home was, as\nEmerson says, \"thundering so loud in the ears.\" Gladstone expressed the\nmatter almost as strongly when he said, \" One example is worth a thousand\np.rguments.\"\nUndoubtedly the child receives powerful moral lessons from the thoroness, industry, punctuality, truthfulness, impartiality, and justice enforced\nin every good school, and from the cleanliness and kindness to animals\nrequired; but there should be something more. There are many other\nvirtues to be taught.\nThere could be no objection, one would think, if our public-school\nchildren should be taught that they have not only a physical and m.ental\nbut a spiritual nature to be cultivated. Let the child be a Jew, a Roman\nCatholic, a Theosophist, an Evangelical Christian, a Universalist, a Unitarian, aChristian Scientist, or what not, but let him be instructed that he\nshould cherish some sort of a religion, devoutly and sincerely. Everyone\nwho has any religion at all can testify to its worth and help. In a periodical\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nMAY\n\nEXPECT\n\n191\n\n\"important topic talk,\" very brief, but pointed, such advice might be given.\nIt was not a sermon, but a \"word fitly spoken,\" which was said to be \"like\napples of gold in pictures of silver.\"\nBut at the very base of a good citizen's civic efficiency, no matter how\npatriotic he may be, nor how moral and religious, lies the great concern of\nhis health. A nation of sickly, degenerate men and women is bound to go\nto the wall. Not even the faithfulness nor the iron will of an Abraham\ncould save them. Whatever else our young people do or do not bear with\nthem from our high schools, they should take a knowledge of their own\nbodies, and of the fundamental laws which govern health and disease. In\nmany modern schools an attempt is being made to have the teacher of\nhygiene, in addition to the periods in class, give to each child under his care\na special half-hour alone for a more searching and intimate interview than\nwould otherwise be possible.\nWe cannot turn out profound scholars or finished orators or statesmen\nfrom our high schools; but even at sixteen or seventeen the face may be\nset in the right direction, and every boy or girl who graduates, or takes\neven a partial course there, should have had awakened within him a taste\nfor good literature, which will keep his education going on thruout all\nhis life.\nIn a line with this important acquirement is the appreciation of simple\npleasures. Many young people are infected with the idea that unless a\nlarge sum of money is spent, unless one can have an automobile, or highpriced theater- or opera-tickets, with indigestible restaurant suppers, and\nother luxuries, there is no pleasure. A happy home, no matter how humble,\nas the poet says, and the simple diversions which are within the reach of all,\nare usually the source of the deepest delights of life, and this cannot be too\nearly impressed upon the young.\nFrom our high schools should pour into society, also, an element of\nsanity and bravery under the bewildering trials and worries of life. There\na training should be given which will enable a man to meet \"ill luck,\" not\nwith an imbecile smile, perhaps, but with a courage which will keep him\nfrom breaking down physically or morally, or from that last resort of the\ndesperate and .ill-balanced coward, self-destruction. Teach him to turn\nhis face habitually toward the bright side of life, and to join in the glad\ncry which Browning put into the mouth of his David:\nHow good is man's life, the mere living! — how fit to employ\nAU the heart and the soul and the senses forever in joy!\n\nBut he should be equally instructed that it would be a\nPoor vaunt of life indeed\nWerejoy,man but formed to feed\nOn\n\nand that sorrows must come and must be manfully met. With this stalwart courage and with good common-sense added, that rare gift, for the\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nteaching of which we have, alas, no textbook and no chart, one might be a\nuseful citizen with little education besides.\nCalculate as carefully as we may, our best-laid plans may not result in\nproducing these qualities. You have heard of the little girl who prayed one\nnight, \"Please, God, make seven times six forty-eight,\" and, when her\nastonished mother asked for an explanation, said that she had written it\nso in her examination and she wanted it to be right. Seven times six will\nremain the same to the end of time, but as yet we cannot with such\nmathematical precision adjust our educational means to our ends.\nThus the dividends which the public has a right to expect from our\nhigh-school graduates in return for the vast sums expended upon them are:\nfirst, a fairly well-filled and well-disciplined mind; second, a soimd and\npractical patriotism, showing itself in obedience to law; in sturdy industry\nand self-support; and in a genuine and brotherly democracy, free from\nsnobbishness and race prejudice, and ever trying to help the less fortunate\nmembers of society; third, a good moral character, touched with a certain\nspirituality and at least a respect for religion, if not an experience of it;\nfourth, good health; fifth, a taste for good reading; sixth, a right perspective regarding true pleasure and plain living; and, seventh, a manly optimism in the face of defeat and trial.\nThese ai^e the great essentials, and whatever must be left out, these must\nbe somehow attained. Walter Pater says of Watteau that he painted\nscenes to the life, but he had \"a marvelous tact of omission.\" That is\nsomething we need in la3dng out our high-school courses.\nIn addition to these more significant features, there are certain minor\nrequirements which may be more important than they seem.\nOne of these is that the high-school graduate should be able to write a\ncorrect and presentable letter, with his address and the date always upon\nit— the latter not spelled out.\nAnother is that a degree of refinement should mark his manner. It\nsometimes seems as tho a high-school teacher should be chosen quite as\nmuch for his or her gentleness and politeness as for scholarship, and should\nthus afford a model in this respect. One sometimes sees a group of highschool girls on a street comer, all chewing gum, some of them with arms\nakimbo; some perhaps with paint and powder on their faces, and with those\ncompressed waists which augur so ill for wifehood and motherhood; and all\nof them shouting and emitting loud peals of laughter; and it is a painful\nexperience for one who loves his coimtry. Let them chew gum if they\nmust, but always in their own rooms at home and behind closed doors. As\nfor unrefined attitudes, artificial complexions, tightly laced waists, and\nloud talk and laughter, these can surely be modified or even eliminated\nduring a high-school training.\nWhen the group is of boys, smoking cigarettes and interlarding their\nconversation with oaths and obscenity, the case is still more distressing.\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nWORSHIP\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n\"STANDARD\"\n\nI93\n\nTheir health lessons should have shown them the dangers of nicotine, and\ntheir moral teaching, the wdgarity and sin of evil conversation, but what\nthey need most is a better example from men whom they see and whom they\nare bound to copy.\nThe third plea is for better voice-culture, not for singing but for speaking.\nThe American voice is too apt to have a quality which may be called\n\"acridity,\" and no matter how fine a mind or pure a spirit may lie behind\nit, that voice is the voice of ignorance and vulgarity. The boy's oratory\nmay have had a greater basis of fact than his hearers thought when he\ndeclaimed of the Pilgrim Fathers: \"What do I hear ? Is it the howl of the\npanther or the screech of the cat owl? No, it is our fathers at prayer.\"\nToo many of us have in our voices, even in prayer, more than a trace of\n\"the howl of the panther\" and \"the screech of the cat owl.\"\nBut the final test of an education, as President Eliot has told us, is\n\"continuous growth.\" Unless our high schools have given to their graduates the ability and the will to \"climb\" as long as they live, our system\nhas failed in one of its most vital points.\n\nF.\nWILLIAM\n\nTHE WORSHIP\n\nHUGHES\n\nMEARNS,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF THE ''STANDARD\"\nOF PEDAGOGY,\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nMost principals and teachers agree that the \"standard\" of the school\nmust never be lowered. Pupils may come and pupils may go, but the\n\"standard\" must be kept up forever. And undoubtedly pupils do go.\nAt the end of every term-examination thousands of normally healthy\nyoungsters drop out of the high schools like pits from a patent cherrystoner. As a class they look much more useful than cherry pits. Judged\nby their report cards, one would expect to find them anaemic, stupid weaklings; on the contrary they are frequently a full-blooded lot, athletically\nbuilt; they are apt to be good dancers, amateur actors, ofiicers of social\nclubs, alluring and rhythmic cheer-leaders, Beau Brummels and Madame\nPompadours. Their schoolroom ingenuity, full of life-giving joy for their\nfellows, is fatal to the teacher with a weak heart. They are clever of speech\nand remarkably well informed on matters not in the school curriculiun — a\nthoroly Likable group that has had a serious falling-out with the school\n\"standard.\"\nIn a first-year high-school class I once found these youngsters composing\n75 per cent of an algebra section. Thirty-six out of forty-eight had not\ncome up to the end-of-the-term \"standard.\"\nThe teacher, a man noted for holding a high standard, explained:\nEarly in the year I discover the group in the class that can \"get\" algebra. It is\nusually about 25 per cent. To these I give my whole time and let the remainder shift\nfor themselves. I told these fellows — the 75 per cent — ^frankly in the beginning of the\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nterm that unless they got up steam we'd leave them behind in June. The result shows\nI was right. Why, there's no use wasting time on that crowd; they couldn't get algebra\nif they stayed here a hundred years!\n\nI politely agreed with him. Then he went on to tell me how one of his\nformer 25 per cent boys had just missed Senior wrangler in mathematics\nat Cambridge. That school is famous for its mathematic phenomenons;\nbut the June reports showed that 51 per cent of the first-year class had\nfailed in algebra.\nThe \"high standard\" of a famous Harvard preparatory school is\nmaintained by a similar method. The prospectus announces that in all\nthe years of its existence the school has not had a single failure in the\nHarvard entrance examination. Anyone sent up, they claim, is sure to\npass; but care is taken that only those sure to pass are ever sent up. If\nthere is any doubt about the boy, he does not get the chance. The hardearned reputation of a dividend-paying school is the really important thing.\nTo save some young chap from becoming a Harvard man may, after all, be\na worthy act. The matter is more serious, however, when it affects the\neducational lives of children. Not so long ago, when ceremonious examinations were in vogue for admission to city high schools, the grammar schools\nthat put thru the greatest proportion of successful applicants were given\nthe highest ofl&cial standing, and the only measure of the success of a grammar school was the percentage of pupils put thru the high-school test.\nCertain schools were soon famous as \"100 per cent schools,\" those that\nyear by year recommended none but successful candidates.\nThe high standard of the school was always at stake. Therefore rigid\npreliminary examinations were held to weed out those who might fail and\nso injure the record of the school. Many principals declined to consider a\nboy or girl who could not achieve an average of 80 per cent in the preliminary test, altho the city minimum was frequently as low as 65 per cent. The\nreputation of those institutions still lingers today. One of these, whose\nstandard was almost notorious, gave searching written and oral examinations to every child that sought to enter the school at any grade, cleverly\nexcluded the unclever — ^put them, off on someone else, always with the\nexplanation that \"the pupil does not come up to our standard\" — and openly\nadvised the older pupils to stay two years in the highest grade in order not\nto risk a failure in the high-school test. There was rejoicing, I fancy, when\na weakling dropped out thru overpressure, or when a slow pupil decided\nto learn the office-boy business.\nAs the rivalry among these schools grew more intense, one set of grammar schools held Saturday drill sessions, some began daily at eight o'clock\ninstead of nine, and others declined to teach important examinationsubjects like arithmetic and grammar until after the four-o'clock dismissal.\n\"Home-work,\" aimed to hit possible examination questions, was added to\nthe load. One principal had the requirements of the course of study\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nWORSHIP\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n\"STANDARD\"\n\n195\n\nprinted in condensed form for memoriter work, with a catechistical questionand-answer guaranteed to beat the most tricky examiner. These were sold\nto the children and used in the classrooms in lieu of textbooks. The public\npraised the work of such schools, the pupils were proud of the record, until\na wise superintendent (I cite the case of one city) abolished the cramexamination. The old method of fact-grinding still continues in some\nspots, altho recently a district superintendent put the elimination and\nretardation test on one or two of such schools and showed a frightful\ndropping-out of pupils. In one case two hundred fifth-grade pupils had\ndwindled to seventeen high-school candidates. But each of the seventeen\nwas a winner.\nI recall how carefully I watched the five eighth-grade pupils that with\nothers some twenty years ago made up my first experiment in teaching.\nSolely on their record at the final examination depended the standing of the\nwhole school. I was early impressed with the fact that each of these five\nyoung persons carried with him 20 per cent of possible failure. When the\nlikely-to-fail chap spoke hopefully of going to work, we stood ready to help\nhim search the want advertisements and provide an irresistible letter of\nrecommendation; when the clever sure-to-pass girl spoke carelessly of\nleaving school, we set to work upon her like a boss politician upon a wobbly\nvoter. The boy or girl was really not important; the \"high standard\" of\nthe school was wavering in the balance.\nThis story is given at some length because the college-entrance requirements have for years forced the same sort of program on the high schools.\nIn some instances a particular college with a monopoly of higher education\nhas turned the adjacent high school into a purely mechanical preparatoryto-college institution. Courses that do not lead to college have had a social\ntaboo put upon them. And to secure good results at the entrance examination, really good students have been permitted to spend seven or eight years\nin a four-year high school — after finishing course A (four years), the pupil\ndeclines graduation, and completes course B (three years). The reputation\nof such high schools always stood unimpeached because their graduates won\na large share of the competitive scholarships. Seven and eight hours a week\nof college-preparatory Latin crowded the more important English ; physical\ntraining was practically eliminated; and there was no place for domestic\nscience — or indeed any science — or for vocational training, local history and\ngeography, social and economic studies, or any other subject vital to young\npeople, but not included in the college-entrance requirements. There\nwere no study periods nor helpful preparation in class for the next day's\nwork; and the home study was a test of endurance. The result was a\ndaily panic and a tremendous rush to the exits.\n\"All persons more than a mile high will leave the courtroom,\" said the King, looking\nseverely at Alice, at which there was a tremendous clapping of hands from the audience,\ncomposed largely of private tutors.\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe most ridiculous instance that I know to show the sacrifice of the\nindividual to the high standard of the school is that of a young woman\nwhom we shall call Irene Jackson, recently dismissed from an eastern high\nschool. She was thirty years of age. She had spent fifteen years of her\nlife in that high school trpng to come up to the standard. For seven years\nshe was a Freshman, for five years she was a Sophomore, for one year a\nJvmior — ^which leads one to suspect there was something wrong with that\nJunior year — for two years a Senior. Probably she would have been there\nyet, competing with her grandchildren — for Irene never achieved a highschool diploma — had not the school commissioners abruptly dismissed all\nhigh-school students that had failed twice of promotion.\nOne can understand how Irene might have become thoroly attached\nto that school and have joined vigorously in the campaign of the alunmae\nagainst any change in the course of study, altho it had permitted her to\nspend the best of her life at an impossible task. We can fancy her emerging\nfrom her fifteen-year trial like the little maids from school who \"all imwary,\ncome from a ladies' seminary, freed from the genius tutelary,\" but one\ncould never consistently picture her singing with Yimi-Yum, Pitti-Sing, and\nPeep-Boo,\nEverything is a source of fiin,\nNobody's safe, for we care for none,\nLife is a joke that's just begun!\n\nFor Irene Jackson, life was a joke that was well-nigh over.\nThe objection brought by the so-called classical high schools against\nthe introduction of manual training is based on a question of school\nstandard.\nA high-school principal in a recent newspaper interview explained:\nAll the traditions of our school are academic. To offer manual-training courses would\nlessen the time we must give to the book branches if we wish to maintain the high standard\nof our institution. Courses in commerce and other vocational and trade studies would\nhave the same effect. As we cannot afford to decrease the value of the diploma of the\nschool, therefore we do not welcome the sort of pupil that would elect such courses.\n\nThis exclusiveness recalls how Uncle Remus warned Miss Sally's\nHttle boy not to associate with the Faver's children:\nDem Faver's chiUun wa'n't no 'count fo' de war, en dey wa'n't no 'count endurin'\ner de war, en dey wa'n't no 'count atterwards; en wiles my head's hot you ain't gwine\nter go mixin' up yo'se'f wid de riff-raff er creashun.\n\nI am reminded here of a conversation I had some years ago with the\nauthor of a beginner's Latin book. In a spirit of helpfulness I pointed out\nthat the chapter on Latin participles could be understood only by one who\nalready knew all about the Latin participles, and that Latin was difficult\nenough in itself without furnishing further obstructions in a lesson-book.\nHis answer was characteristic of the aristocratic ideal that objects to educating the \"riff-raff er creashun.\" He said cheerfully:\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nWORSHIP\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n\"STANDARD\"\n\n197\n\nHere's just the trouble with you educational reformers. You want to make things\ntoo easy for pupils. Children must be interested — that is the modem cry. And what is\nit leading to? A lowering of the standard of education all along the line. The whole\nvalue of that chapter on participles is its difficulty; we put the screws on early to sift out\nthe unfit. When I studied Latin it was no sugar-coated pill. It was a rough dose, but\nit did the business.\n\nNo doubt it did do the business for all except the few lucky survivors.\nOf course, there is no objection to a difficult Latin participle test, provided\nit were used solely to test a knowledge of Latin participles. Our quarrel\nis about the use of Latin participles on thirteen-year old children as the\nsole password for any further education at all.\nIf the aim of the public high school is to turn out the largest percentage\nof perfect products, then every indolent, weak, ill-informed, or slow-witted\nyoungster lowers the average and should be got rid of. Such should go\ninto the junk heap as imperfect parts of machinery. Everyone sympathizes\nwith such an aim in a medical school. There the greater the elimination\nof the unfit, the better will the community be served. The object of the\ncollege of medicine is not to assist some young person to get a better footing\nin life, but rather to discover and train the greatest medical efficiency.\nDental schools, law schools, engineering schools have small excuse for\nkeeping half-equipped students; and particularly is it incumbent upon\ntraining schools for teachers to hold a high and inflexible standard. We do\nnot need to have Plato's authority for our belief that it is the business of\npilots to pilot and of cobblers to cobble. Let us have no foolish tolerance\nin selecting those who serve us in occupations that directly affect the public\nweal. No license should ever be granted to blind engine-drivers, to deaf\nbridge-tenders, to unskilled physicians, to tmsympathetic teachers, to\ndishonest bankers, or to corrupt politicians.\nBut the object of the public high school is not primarily to turn out\nan example of skill; its fundamental achievement is to bring our young\npeople a step or two nearer efficient manhood and womanhood, to insure for\nthe next generation a healthier, better- thinking citizenship, to give youth\na better training for his later daily work, in short, to make intelligent beings\na little more intelligent. This marks the great difference between the school\nand the mill, altho both institutions may operate looms.\nSome high schools are managed like a track team instead of a gymnasium class. A good track team consists of record-breakers, and only the\npossible point-winners are taken care of; a good gymnasium class consists\nof all sorts and conditions of physical aptitude and inaptitude, and the\nweak are prescribed for with even more care than the strong. The chap\nwho cannot jump six feet or run a hundred yards in eleven seconds or hurl\na shot so many meters is useless to a track team. Who would eliminate\nthese fellows from the gymnasium hour, or the period of organized play ?\nThe track-team high schools have nothing but dismissal for those who do\nnot qualify according to the arbitrary standard.\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nEvery mother has a standard of health for the family, toward which\nshe is daily and nightly striving; but she doesn't asphyxiate all members\nthat do not measure up. Otherwise, it would go hard with the babies in\ncolic time. Indeed, it is the weaklings that receive the tenderest mothercare. Annihilation, we all remember, was Plato's scheme for the underweight babies of his Ideal Commonwealth, the highest standard of ef&ciency\non record. Some of those present may thank fortune that ours is no Ideal\nCommonwealth. If we had any misconceptions along that line, the recent\nparty conventions have shattered them. As things are, in this imperfect\nAmerican commonwealth of ours, we must get along somehow or other\nwith the sort of family that has been sent to us.\nThe new conception of public education is the bettering of all the\nchildren of all the people. Dropping from the rolls a large part of the\ndifficult cases increases our ease, but, nowadays, it has begun to prick\nour consciences. The uneducated \"rifif-raff er creashun\" go on living \"in\nour midst\" whether we as teachers are longer bothered by them or not.\nTo cast them out because they do not come up to a Latin-Greek standard,\nor an algebra standard, or a modern-language standard, or a collegeentrance standard, when all the while the children should have been\nmeasured by a manual-training or a vocational standard, makes us indictable as bad judges of educational values, and particularly as bad judges of\nyouth. We must take to heart Uncle Remus' plantation proverb that\n\"Yo' can't handle no one-eyed mule on de bline side.\" So, obviously,\nour standard must rise or fall with the capabilities of our children: to this\ngroup it will be relatively high, to that group relatively low. If your high\nschool becomes suddenly seven-eighths foreign born, as sometimes happens\nin the seaboard cities, your English teaching dare not remain aloof, but must\ncome right down to the problem before it. If formerly you trained the\nsons and daughters of the professions but now thru a change in the character of the neighborhood you draw from the toilers, your purely academic\nstandard must show some understandable civic reason for remaining\nunchanged; and the community should not accept wholesale dismissals\nof pupils on the ground that they are not prepared to go forward. Our\nbusiness is to do something with the sort of pupils we get. A discouraged\nPennsylvania high-school teacher complained to the superintendent, Henry\nHouck, \"I can do nothing with this class. What do you do when your\npupils come to you unprepared?\"\n\"What do I do!\" exclaimed Henry Houck, \"What do I do! I teach\n'em!\"\nAs high-school teachers there is no particular virtue in holding a high\nstandard if it results in cutting off all educational opportunity for the pupils\nthat most need helpful guidance; nor is it wise for us to keep up a traditional curriculum if it has ceased to meet modern needs. We are diagnosticians ofyouth, and the curriculum and the standard are but changeable\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nWORSHIP\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n\"STANDARD\"\n\n199\n\nmeans to an ever-various end. We must, to be sure, discover that the Childe\nRoland who to our dark tower comes has not succeeded in algebra and plane\ngeometry, and make due report of the same; but our eyes must be open\nalso to discover and make use of his native skill in chemistry, in athletics, in\nlanguages, in debate, in school journalism, in the management and control\nof his fellows, in money-making avocations, or in the manipulation of wood\nand metal.\nAnd more than this. We must be able to put blood into pale faces, to\ncorrect flat chests, to straighten crooked backs, to clear out the clogged\nthroat and nose, to add lenses to the eyes as well as to calculate the number\nof imperfect subjunctives in the first three books of the Commentaries.\nAnd no matter how squad-like these multitudes march into our rooms, we\nmust keep in mind that each child belongs to some mother or father who\ncares for it. We must remember, for we get hardened somehow, that it is\na tremendously important thing to have a child in the high school getting\nhis life-career settled for him, and that to the little household the curt\nreport of failure, without a word of suggestive help, has a damning finality\ntoo often carelessly unregarded by teachers. We should not feel satisfied\nin discovering only how far a pupil has fallen below the standard. That is\nto play the part of Alice's red-faced queen shouting, \"Off with his head!\nOff with his head!\"\n\"Off with his head\" is a thoroly vmsocial attitude.\nEvery step in advance toward greater social and economic efficiency\nhas seen a dropping of the standards. The achievement of free public\neducation itself was a tremendous lowering of the standard; so was the\n1776 declaration of equality of men before the law; so was the perpetration\nin American government of religious toleration; so were the slow grants of\nsuffrage: to the upper middle classes of England (1832), to American\nNegroes fresh from slavery (1865), to English workmen (1867), to British\nfarm laborers (1884), to American women (any minute); so was the inclusion of the backward child in the scheme of education and the introduction\nof the workbench for the academic incorrigibles. The growth of the belief\nin the brotherhood of man as against the ideal of a chosen people is a vast\nlowering of the standard. Even Calvinism has succumbed to the inevitable,\nbroader movement; it has almost reversed its former stand of a democratic\n\"fall\" and an aristocratic \"redemption.\" More folks are redeemable\nnowadays, even if the standard for the whole is not so high.\nWhat steps in advance we have made! Time was when we whipped the\nweak-witted because they did not come up to our standard, and filled their\nlives with daily and nightly horror of failure. Not so long ago we used to\nharry with demerit marks those who had no mind for book-knowledge\n(that is, eye-knowledge aud ear-knowledge) but had untold capacity for\ndevilment and hand-knowledge. In the name of a high standard we used\nto keep feeble-minded chaps in the first grade at most imfitting tasks imtil\nthey could no longer stand the mocking of their fellows. We used to force\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "20O\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nall pupils, sick or well, to the same number of hours a week, and do so yet\nin many places. We used to compel all school children to sit for hours in\nsilent rigidity, hands locked behind backs, with long detentions for those who\nsquirmed or \"spoke,\" until school became hateful and the freedom of the\nfactory a welcome release. We used to make no attempt to teach the\ndeaf to hear, or the blind to imderstand, or the stammerer to speak, or the\nmentally twisted to think coherently, for no school with a decent respect\nfor its standard would have anything to do with them.\nThe term \"high standard\" has two distinct uses which we must never\nconfuse. Holding a high standard means maintaining a high ideal. Let\nus by all means keep the ideal for each young person at its highest, and\nstrive to bring him nearer to it than he would ever have been had he not\nfortunately met us. The ideal for each person is the best that he is capable\nof doing. But let us not be forever shouting, \"OflE with his head,\" when he\ndoes not do what we have arbitrarily decided he should be capable of doing.\nWith all our twentieth-century study of young folks we should have done\nwith trying to feed fine rich clover to impatient hunting dogs.\nA high standard means a high ideal, but it means also the \"dead-line.\"\nA prisoner that steps over the dead-line is instantly shot. A child that\nfails in spherical geometry and advanced French can have no further education from the state. The live side of that dead-line has been heretofore\nmighty slim for children between the ages of twelve and seventeen. Let\nus widen it. American boys and girls should not have to wait until they\nare \"sent up\" to a reform school before they can get the sort of education\nthat will bring the best out of them. Too many able youngsters are being\nshot down for stepping over the dead-line, and every educational life thus\nsnuffed out is eventually a telling loss to the nation. Every individual is\nimportant in a democracy, and no standard of education paid for out of the\ncommon funds dares say that any group of individuals shall have no help\nor guidance.\nIt is our business, particularly in the high school, to help young people\nto a better adjustment to the life they must eventually live — all the young\npeople that come to us. It is our business, which we cannot avoid, to fit\nthe intellectual and social needs of all the varieties of boy and girl that find\ntheir way to our charge, and of thousands of others whom we do not now\nattract at all. That is our high-school program for the future, and it is\nnot impossible. Says wise Uncle Remus: \"Folks dimner w'at bin yit, let\nlone w'at gwineter beJ^'\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTOPIC: A NATIONAL\nA.\n\nTHE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nAND THE NATIONAL\nEDMUND\n\nJ. JAMES,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n20I\n\nUNIVERSITY\nOF STATE UNIVERSITIES\nUNIVERSITY\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY\nCHAMPAIGN, ILL.\n\nOF ILLINOIS,\n\nI have been asked to make an address upon the relation of the National\nAssociation of State University Presidents to the movement for the establishment ofa national university.\nI desire to say in the first place that, apart from the facts which I\nshall give concerning the action of the association, I shall be presenting\nmy own ideas. I believe they represent fairly well those of my colleagues\nin the association, and yet, as they have not been presented to them for\ntheir criticism or indorsement, I wish it to be distinctly understood that\nI am speaking for nobody but myself in the argument which I shall present\non this subject.\nAfter the fullest and most careful discussion of all phases of the subject the National Association of State University Presidents has repeatedly\nindorsed the project for the establishment of a national university. This\nmeans a university established by the federal government of the United\nStates, deriving its support primarily from the federal treasury, subject\nto the ordinary control which a free government exercises over its organizations and their work.\nI desire to lay down two or three propositions which seem to me fundamental insecuring a proper position from which to judge this whole question.\nMy first proposition is that in a free state education is fundamentally a\nnational function. I do not mean by this that it is necessary for the\nfederal government of such a free state to regulate, control, or support\neducation; tho it may be desirable that it should do so. If the locality\nor the state or the two together, in a country like ours, will provide adequately for this national function, it may be properly enough left to them;\nbut if they either do not or will not provide for it, then the federal government itself should undertake to see that provision is made. I mean,\ntherefore, that education is a national function in the sense that it is of\nfundamental importance to the nation as a whole; that it should be properly\nperformed, and if there is no other way to secure its proper performance\nexcept thru the co-operation of the federal government, then we should\nhave this co-operation.\nI maintain that in a state like ours education is a national function;\nbecause to the permanent endurance of a republic, popular education is\nan absolute necessity, and if it cannot be obtained by one form of governmental organization, then it must be obtained by another, or the nation\nwill suffer the consequences.\nNo free government can long exist which\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nis based upon an illiterate people — nay, I believe we may properly paraphrase Lincoln's great expression on another subject, that this government cannot remain permanently free if it is based upon a population\nhalf literate and half illiterate. All the people must become educated to\nthe necessary extent to secure the basis for democratic government, or\nall will become uneducated, i.e., will fail to secure that degree of education\nnecessary for the preservation of a free state. Now that is a national\nfunction, to my mind, in its nature, the adequate performance of which\nis essential to the existence of a nation. From this point of view, education\nafter the national defense is the most distinctly national function of all\nthe functions which our society has to perform.\nBut education is national in its nature from another point of view\nand should be recognized as such in the organization of our government.\nThe advantages given by elementary and secondary and higher schools\nare not limited to the communities which support them, A little red\nschoolhouse upon a lonely hillside of a New England state may train the\nman who will head a great movement for reform and progress in a distant\nstate beyond the Rocky Mountains. The people of the latter state profit\nby the education which that man obtained at the expense of that New\nEngland district, and they should, by all standards of fairness, contribute\ntheir part toward the support of the school which produced him. In\nfact I think it is not too much to say that, taken broadly, the history of\nthis country during the last two generations will demonstrate that in\nmany cases the chief advantages of the school system of a community have\nredounded to the benefit of other communities in which the particular\nboys and girls educated in these community schools have subsequently\nspent their lives and done their work as members of society. Now if all\nsections of the country profit by the existence of educational advantages\nin any one community, so the country and the nation as a whole should\nbe expected to do its part in developing and supporting these local facilities\nfor education.\nThere is another reason why education is in its natiure a national and\nnot a local or state function, and that is that the disadvantages of the lack\nof facilities and the lack of schools are not limited to the communities\nwhich suffer such lack of school facilities to exist. You hear a man say\nsometimes that it is up to the conamunity to keep its school, and if it doesn't\nwish to keep one, let it suffer the consequences. But the same thing is\ntrue here as in the case just mentioned — the evil results of inadequate\nschool facilities do not accrue alone to the communities which neglect\nsuch matters, but are liable to be of the most serious consequence to other\nand distant communities; because, under our scheme of life, the ebb and\nflow of our population is so continuous and so extensive that the boys and\ngirls who have missed the opportunity for the highest development, owing\nto the lack of these local facilities, become members of other communities\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n203\n\nand go into them and into their work weighted down with all the ignorance\nand apathy and indifference to higher things which is characteristic of an\nignorant population as a whole. So that, alike by the distribution of its\nadvantages and the distribution of its disadvantages, popular education\nis in its nature a national and not merely a state and local issue, a national\nfunction and not merely a state and local function, and consequently,\nunless the locality and the state can and will perform this function satisfactorily, the nation must come in as a unit and thru its organized representative, the federal government, contribute its share in this way to the\nsupport of this common institution.\nWe must not lose sight of the fact that it is after all the American\npeople as a whole that pays the bills. It is not the nation distinct from the\nstate or the state distinct from the locality; but it is the locality and the\nstate taken in their totality which make up the nation; and it is therefore\na mere question of expediency thru what organ and to what extent the\npeople will exercise their power for the purpose of promoting the public\nwelfare.\nNow there is another important reason why the people of the United\nStates should aid the cause of education thru their federal government\nas well as thru their state and local government, and that is that the people\nas a whole can do certain things thru the co-operation of their federal\ngovernment which they cannot do thru their state government or thru\ntheir local government alone. The expense of an adequate educational\nsystem is enormous, and grows continually with the rising standard of the\npeople as to what state education is. An adequate revenue system will\ndraw upon national sources of revenue thru the federal government, upon\nstate sources of revenue thru the state, upon local sources of revenue\nthru local government. Some sources of wealth may be more easily and\nefficiently tapped thru the federal government than thru the state or local\ngovernment, and vice versa.\nIn our scheme of federal government in this country, we handed over\nto the central authority a revenue power — I will not say more than adequate for the federal purposes which we incorporated in our constitution,\nbut I will say more adequate to accomplish the national ends contemplated\nin the law than were given to either the state or the locality. The federal\ngovernment can raise funds in many respects more easily than either the\nstate or the locality. And a sound financial system demands that that\nelement in our system shall raise the revenue which it can raise most\neasily and then that a reasonable distribution of the revenue so raised\namong the various federal fimctions and among the state and local fimctions\nshall be made.\nI think our history has demonstrated clearly enough already that\neducation can never be properly cared for in this country unless we draw\nupon national sources of revenue as a means of assisting in its support.\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nOwing to history which I need not recount, the southern states, for example,\nfind themselves in the position of having two independent and complete\nsystems of education, for the white and colored races, respectively. It is\nquite imreasonable to hope that in our day and generation the southern\ncommunities will be wealthy enough, or, what amoimts to the same thing\nfor our purpose, will think they are wealthy enough, to care adequately\nfor these great interests, and if the people will not utilize their other sources\nof revenue and their other organs of government to assist in providing a\npart of the means for the solution of this problem, we shall still continue\nto suffer as we have suffered for generations by this situation.\nMy next proposition is that this country cannot solve its educational\nproblems in the large until it recognizes that education is the business of\nthe nation and that pecimiary assistance for its support in a large way shall\ncome thru the organs of the nation as a unit.\nWe cannot get the money in any other way. We refer, of course, by\npreference in our educational discussions to the imhappy educational\nconditions of certain portions of the South. But the conditions are just\nas really and just as truly inadequate over whole sections of the northern\nstates as they are in the South. We need not go out of the state of Illinois\nitseff to find schools which do not deserve that name. We need not go\noutside of Illinois to find local communities which, after taxing themselves\nto the limit which the law allows, still have not suflicient money to maintain during the months in which a child ought to be in school the kind of\nschool which it is worth the child's while to attend.\nThere is another important matter which we ought not to lose sight\nof. Great national issues are pushed forward only when it is possible to\nsecure national attention for them; only when they have become national\nin a formal as well as an informal way; only when the nation is discussing\nthem as great national issues. If we could get national attention concentrated upon our educational problems year after year as one of the fundamental issues going to the very life of the nation itself, we shoidd make\nvastly greater progress than we do. And this attention we shall get when\nwe recognize the essentially national character of education by making\neducational policy a part of national policy. When the federal Congress\ndiscusses educational questions as fully, as completely as it discusses\nquestions of defense and the tariff and internal improvements, we shall\nbe in a way of securing for educational issues that attention which is\nnecessary to their continuous and rapid solution.\nIntimately connected with this fact, namely, the necessity of securing\nnational attention for the consideration of national problems, if we wish\nto hasten their solution, is the further one that we could advance with far\ngreater certainty and with far greater speed, ovu^ national standards,\ni.e., the standards of the people taken as a whole and in their local organizations, ifwe can get before the nation as a whole a proper standard of what\neducation means and what education ought to mean.\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n205\n\nThe nation then, and not merely the local school district or community\nor state, must become an educational imit in all grades of education.\nIt has already become so to a certain extent. It is becoming so more\nand more with every passing day, unequally, it is true — in spots only —\nhere and there, but steadily and persistently. The federal government\nhas granted lands for the support of elementary education in nearly all the\nstates of the Union within whose territory were to be found large stretches\nof government-owned land. In fact the federal grants were the foimdations\nof the school fimds in the vast majority of the states of the Union. And\nout of these grants has proceeded the organization of a system or scheme\nof education in nearly three-fourths of the states of the Union. But the\nfederal government has not been content with this. It began some fifty\nyears ago the policy of developing within each state in the Union a higher\ninstitution of learning supported in large part, first, by federal grants of\nland; second, by the grants of money realized from the sale of lands;\nand finally, by grants of money raised by the general revenue system of the\ngovernment. Today we have sixty-seven such institutions which owe\na part or the whole of their income to the action of the federal government.\nThe aggregate value of the permanent funds and equipment of these\nland-grant colleges themselves exceeds today $125,000,000. The total\nincome of these institutions in 19 10 was nearly $23,000,000. It would\ntake an endowment fund of over $450,000,000 to produce this income.\nWe take pride here in Illinois in the fact that it was an Illinois farmer\nand professor who first formulated this plan, and that the legislature of\nIllinois was the first American legislature to stand strongly behind this\npolicy of federal grants to higher education within the states. It has\nbecome the greatest scheme of an educational endowment which the world\nhas ever seen. The federal government itself contributes only a small\npart of the total fimds necessary for the support of these institutions, but\nit was the giving of that small part which made the rest of it possible,\nwhich stimulated local and state interest, which by fixing national standards\nstimulated the nation to rise to these standards. I have very little doubt\nmyself that, if it had not been for the action of the federal government in\nmaking these appropriations for the development of agriculture and the\nmechanic arts within the states, we should be a whole generation behind\nwhat we are in the development of our educational system.\nIncidentally I may say that the House of Representatives of the Illinois\nlegislature has again led the way in urging upon the federal government\nthe necessity of large additional grants for educational purposes by sending\nto Congress a imanimous petition as follows:\nWhereas, The legislature of Illinois by the joint resolution of February 8, 1853,\nwas the first among the American legislatures to petition the Congress of the United\nStates to make a grant of public land for each state in the Union for the liberal endowment of a system of industrial universities, one in each state, to promote the more liberal\nand practical education of our industrial classes and their teachers; and,\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nWhereas, The Congress not only made a liberal grant of land in the year 1862\nfor this purpose but has also followed up this policy once begun by still more liberal\nappropriations for the support of higher education in agriculture and the mechanic arts,\nresulting in the great chain of colleges for agriculture and the mechanic arts to be foimd\nin every state and territory in the Union; and.\nWhereas, The time has now come for the adoption of a similar policy in the field\nof elementary and secondary education; therefore, be it\nResolved, By the House of Representatives of the state of Illinois, the Senate concurring herein, That the Congress of the United States be respectfully petitioned to\nappropriate annually to each state and territory in the Union a sum equal to one dollar\nper head of the population of said state or territory as ascertained by the last census, for\nthe purpose of establishing, maintaining, and extending in the elementary and secondary\nschools of said states and territories, while not excluding other elementary and secondary\nsubjects, such practical, industrial, and vocational training, including agriculture, the\nmechanic arts, domestic science, manual training, commercial subjects, and such instruction in other similar subjects of practical nature as the interests of the commimity may\nseem to demand; and\nResolved further, That our Senators in Congress be instructed and our Representatives be requested to use their best exertions to procure the passage of a law of Congress\ndonating said sum to each state and territory in the Union for said purpose; and\nResolved further. That the Governor of this state is hereby requested to forward a\ncopy of the foregoing resolutions to our Senators and Representatives in Congress and\nto the executives and legislatures of each of the other states and territories inviting them\nto co-operate with us in this meritorious enterprise.\n\nI wish to emphasize again very strongly that national aid to education,\nwhether lower or higher, does not necessarily mean excessive federal centralization and control. The extent to which the federal government\nshall have control of the fimds which it devotes to education is a matter\nof expediency to be settled from time to time and from generation to generaton, as national and local needs and possibilities may dictate.\nI should like to call attention to one other fact, and that is that the\nfederal government when it wished to develop, by the expenditure of a\ncomparatively small sum of money, a system of educational institutions\nwhich should have a profound effect upon the development of elementary\nand secondary education, chose to establish colleges, not high schools;\ncolleges, not grade schools; colleges, not kindergartens. In other words,\nit recognized that in the development of an educational system in a country\nprogress goes often from the so-called higher to the lower. You cannot\ndevelop a good high-school system unless you have a good college system\nwhich can supply the necessary teachers, the necessary guidance, the\nnecessary stimulation, the necessary leadership. You cannot have good\ngrade schools unless you have good high schools which furnish, taken as\na whole, the training of the teachers employed in these elementary schools.\nThe converse is of course equally true, that you cannot develop your college\nbeyond a certain low level of efficiency unless the high schools can be brought\nup to a high level. Nor can you raise the level of your high schools to what\nit ought to be unless the grade work is done properly.\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n207\n\nI desire again to call attention to the importance to educational advance\nof securing a national formulation, a national organization of the educational\nidea and educational ideal.\nThere is a subtle moral and psychological reaction upon the people as\na whole arising from the formulation and incorporation of a national ideal\nin a practical national policy which spells progress and success for movements-which are able to find such national expression.\nAs suggested above, when education is as regularly the subject of\nnational debate and national conflict as the tariff, banking, and currency,\ninternal improvements, we shall take another long step forward in our\neducational development.\nWhat I have thus far said applies to all grades of education alike, and\nit is upon this foundation that in my advocacy of a national university\nI take my stand. If the views thus far advanced command your assent,\nI believe I shall have your consent to the further proposition I advance,\nnamely, that one of the essential elements of our American system of\neducation is the kind of a university which the federal government can\nbuild and which shall stand, so to speak, at the apex of our educational\npyramid, or, if you choose to reverse the simile (it is all one to me), which\nshall be the foundation stone upon which the pyramid of national education\nshall be erected; for all history shows that from the universities, from the\nhighest schools, have gone forth steadily those influences which have molded\nand shaped and fashioned the popular education in all times and in all\ncountries.\nI mean by a national university an institution sufficiently like the ordinary institutions with which you are all acquainted to be thoroly familiar to\nyou. A teaching and training, as well as an investigative institution,\nmanned with the best men in all departments in which the human intellect\nhas exercised itself, drawn from the entire world, equipped with all that\nmoney can provide, for the purpose of stimulating and increasing our\ninterest in the world of the spirit and the world of sense about us.\nNow, one of the fundamental purposes of a university system is to\nbeget, diffuse, and establish, in the mind — nay, I will say also in the heart\nof the people — the scientific spirit and the scientific method. If this can\nbe accomplished, the face of the world will be changed. Now this can be\ndone in certain respects more easily and more thoroly and more rapidly\nby means of a system of state and national universities than by any other\nmeans.\nIn what I am about to say I am not animated by any spirit of opposition to the historic private institutions of this country. He would be an\nungrateful American indeed who would cast any slur upon Harvard and\nYale and Princeton and the scores of more recently founded private universities, like Hopkins, Chicago, Leland Stanford, and Northwestern,\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwhich are such an honor to our country and our civilization. I should\ncertainly consider myself an ingrate if I should say anything derogatory\nof Harvard or Pennsylvania or Chicago or Northwestern, where as student\nor professor or president I had an opportunity to prepare myself for public\nservice, and to have had some small part in the glorious work of these\ninstitutions. All honor to them, and increasing power and glory and\nprosperity! But, friends, however ^reat they may become — and may their\nshadow never grow less — they can never accomplish the purposes we have\nhere in mind, namely, to incorporate in a visible form the national ideal\nof university education.\nI have long been a warm admirer of President Eliot, in many respects\nthe greatest figure in American education. He was kind to me personally\nwhen I was a Freshman at Harvard. He was for more than a generation\nmy guide, philosopher, and friend in the field of university education and\nadministration. I think it is not too much to say that he revolutionized\nAmerican higher education and revolutionized it to its great betterment.\nBut I know no more striking illustration of the fundamental weakness\nthat doth beset us all than President Eliot's notion that he could make of\nHarvard a national university in the sense that we have been using the\nterm here — that he could make a private institution, dependent for its\nresources upon the liberality and self-sacrifice of alumni, however generous\nthey may be, or upon the whims of rich men, however mmierous they may\nbe, situated upon the edge of the coimtry, even tho in such a glorious city\nas Boston — that he could make an institution so located, and so fathered\nand mothered, to be that embodiment of our national ideal of science\nand education and art which we are looking for. Other men have or have\nhad the same notion for their institutions. Idle and vain hope. Neither\nHarvard nor Yale nor Columbia nor Princeton, nor all of them taken\ntogether, great as is their function, great as is their service, can hope to\ndo this particular service for this country. Nor Mr. Rockefeller nor\nMr. Carnegie nor both of them together, tho multiplied by five and animated\neven still more fully than at present by patriotic unselfishness and farsighted motives, can do this thing for the nation, which after all only the\nnation can do for itself. The state imiversities of Michigan and Wisconsin\nand Minnesota and Illinois and the forty others — no one of them alone\nnor all of them together, great as they may become — and we are all headed\nfor great things — can hope to fill this place, incorporating in themselves\nin such a way as to satisfy the national longing that deep-felt, that unexpressed ideal of university education.\nThe reason is simple. No partial expression will satisfy this longing\nfor wholeness. When that which is perfect shall have come, that which\nis imperfect will unite with it and help constitute its perfection — ^private\nand state institution, with the national university, making one complete\nsystem — or it will dry up and disappear. When that which is complete\nshall have appeared, that which is incomplete must become a part of it\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nAND\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n209\n\nor be sloughed off or cast into the scrap heap. No national university can\nexist except as the creation and organ of the national will, shaped and\ndirected by it. Supported and sustained by this national will, it will be\nthe expression of you and me and all of us, we a part of it, and it of us.\nSuch an institution would not injure, but benefit, every private and\nevery state university, by its superior support, by its superior prestige,\nby its greater wealth. It would strike the popular imagination of this\ncountry in such a way as to give to the university idea itself an enormous\nimpetus, the reflex effect of which would show itself in the increasing\nprosperity and development of every private and state institution.\nThe foundation of Leland Stanford did not injure the University of\nCalifornia, but helped it immensely. The foundation of the University\nof Chicago did not injure Illinois or Northwestern or Michigan or Wisconsin, but by the bold and striking way in which it raised high aloft the\nstandard of science it gave an impetus to the university idea which made\nthe work of every one of these institutions more adequate and more easy.\nThe same thing would be true in a larger degree of a national university,\norganized along proper lines, and put imder proper influence.\nSuch a national university as I have suggested, located at the site of\nthe federal government, supported by appropriations from the federal\ntreasury, controlled and regulated by federal law, would easily become,\nas it ought, the crowning institution of our university system, private\nand state alike. It could supplement the shortcomings of our other\ninstitutions as well as emphasize their excellences. It could undertake\nmany enterprises of national scope, which no existing single institution,\npublic or private, can afford to undertake. It could offer to our bestqualified young men and young women opportunities which only a nation\nlike ours can afford to offer.\nSuch an institution, located in the national capital, would exercise a\nvigorous and salutary influence on the course of federal legislation itself.\nIts pointed spires and gilded domes would of themselves be powerful tho\nmute monitors calling attention to the claims of science to be the guide of\nlegislation.\nSuch an institution located in the center of political power of the greatest\nnation on earth would attract in large numbers the bright and promising\nyouth of other countries, who as students here would imbibe those fimdamental American ideas which we fondly believe are destined to work out\nthe salvation of the world when they shall have done their perfect work,\nwhile these youth would gain added respect for our society and our ideals,\nwhich carried back home and incorporated in their own policies would\ncontribute powerfully to that mutual understanding which is the surest\nbasis for international peace.\nSuch an institution, located in Washington, could utilize for purposes\nof instruction and investigation the wonderful resources heaped up by the\ngovernment of the United States in its scientific developments.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nNational Library, the museums and collections of all sorts, lie largely\nfallow at present, waiting for the people of the United States to make their\nutilization possible in the various schools and colleges of a national university.\nSuch an institution, located at such a strategic point, will wield a subtle,\never-deepening and ever- widening influence over the whole American people\nin the direction of increasing their interest in and belief in science as an\nimportant element in private and national life. It will be their university,\nand they will come to take an increasing pride in, and appreciation for,\nthe work it is doing; and thus will by this reflex effect be trained gradually\nto entertain an ever-deeper respect for the standards and ideals of higher\neducation itself.\nFriends, such an institution is coming, as surely and irresistibly as the\ntides of ocean. Will you help it or will you oppose it, or, worse than either,\nwill you do nothing ?\nThis National Education Association could secure the establishment\nof this institution in a short time if it would only go after it in earnest.\nIgnorance and apathy and prejudice have thus far been most potent in\npreventing the realization of this dream of Washington. Private institutions, religious and secular, have opposed, thus far successfully, the movement. Private institutions, men of wealth, men of no wealth, men of\nideas, men of no ideas, have set themselves against this project. It is up\nto you and the like of you to help bring this about in our day and generation.\nThis great power can be set to work immediately in the interests of\nscience and art and education, supplementing, reinforcing our defective\nand weak system of education. Every day its coming is delayed represents so much pure loss to the causes in which you are interested, to the\nwelfare of this nation, and to civilization in general, of all that it might\ncontribute if it were now at work.\nThis institution, this national university, would be one of the most\nimportant elements in making this nation of ours in reality what it is iri\nour dreams and hopes and fond anticipations, the leader of the world in\nart, in science and education, and in civilization.\nB.\n\nA\n\nCHARLES\n\nNATIONAL\nUNIVERSITY\nA NATIONAL\nASSET;\nINSTRUMENTALITY FOR ADVANCED RESEARCH\nRICHARD\n\nVAN\n\nHISE, PRESIDENT\nMADISON,\nGUIDING\n\nOF THE\nWIS.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAN\n\nOF WISCONSIN,\n\nPRINCIPLE\n\nAt the outset the guiding principle may be laid down that at Washington there is no necessity for a university of a type which exists elsewhere, no\nneed of an additional university like the great endowed and state institutions of the coimtry. One who advocates a national university at Wash-\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nASSET\n\n211\n\nington with the idea that it shall be a larger Harvard, Yale, Columbia,\nCornell, or Chicago, a larger Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota,\nor California, will fail in his advocacy, because he cannot give to Congress\na sufficient reason for the expenditure of public funds for another university\nof a kind of which there is a sufficient number. Not only would such an\nadvocate be met by the above fact, but by the fact that in Germany, where\nuniversities are most highly developed, they are state, not national, institutions.\nIf, then, it is not desirable to establish a bigger Harvard at Washington,\nwhat is the aim of those who are advocating a national university ? It is\nto make available for the advancement of knowledge the unparalleled facilities of Washington to graduate students.\nAt Washington are the Congressional Library, the National Museum,\nthe Smithsonian Institution, the Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines,\nthe Naval Observatory, the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service,\nthe Army and Medical Museum, the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds,\nthe Board of Ordnance and Fortifications, the Bureau of Education, the\nWeather Bureau, the Bureau of Animal Husbandry', the Bureau of Plant\nIndustry, the Bureau of Chemistry, the Bureau of Soils, the Bureau of\nEntomology, the Bureau of Biological Survey, the Bureau of Corporations,\nthe Bureau of Manufactures, the Bureau of Labor, the Bureau of the\nCensus, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Bureau of Standards, the\nBureau of Statistics, the Bureau of Fisheries, the Bureau of Navigation,\nthe Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization. In these and other bureaus\nand divisions are available a vastly wider variety of material for scientific\nresearch and a greater collection of books and manuscripts than elsewhere\nexist. To enumerate in detail the facilities and materials available for\nwork in each of the domains of knowledge would require more space than\nis allowed for this entire paper. Also, such a statement is rendered\nunnecessary because of the admirable report regarding the matter by\nPresident Arthur T. Hadley;' but to serve as illustrations some of the\nfacilities for a few of the lines of knowledge are mentioned.\nFor the modern humanities, political science, political economy, and\nsociology, there is a wealth of material in nearly every department. The\nDepartment of Labor, the Interstate Commerce Commission, the Census\nBureau, the Bureau of Statistics, the Bureau of Pensions, the Bureau of\nImmigration and Naturalization, and the Bureau of Corporations, are all\napplied divisions of political economy and political science. Nowhere else\nin the country is there such a mass of first-hand information regarding many\nof the most pressing problems for these subjects. Also the various government activities of Washington, comprising Congress, the executive offices,\nthe judiciary, and their numerous divisions and branches, give illustration\nof practical political science on the largest scale. At Washington not only\n» Arthur Twining Hadley, \"Facilities for Study and Research in the Offices of the United States Government at Washington,\" Bulletin jqS, United Slates Bureau oj Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmay the student of political science have the material of the subject, but\nalso he may appreciate with what labor and difficulty results are achieved\nin practice.\nFor history, and especially the history of America, at the Congressional\nLibrary is a vast amount of material, indeed practically everything which is\nin printed form; not only so, but in the library is a vast collection of documents. In the State Department, the War and Navy Departments, etc.,\nare the archives of the government since its foundation, all but a small part\nof which are available for the student of history.\nFor anthropology, the National Museum and the Bureau of Ethnology\nhave collections and materials of the first order of importance; indeed no\nother collection of the country can approach them, with the exception of\nthe American Museum of Natural History in New York.\nFor physics, astronomy, and mathematics, there is a great mass of\nmaterial in the National Observatory, in the War and Navy Departments,\nin the Coast Survey, the Bureau of Standards, the Weather Bureau, the\nPatent Office, and other departments.\nIn chemistry, there are laboratories in almost every department and\nbureau, which deal with materials both organic and inorganic.\nFor geology and its related subjects, geography, paleontology, and\nphysiography, at the Geological Survey and the National Museum is found\none of the world's largest collections.\nFor biology, there are available the National Herbarium, the Biological\nSurvey, the Commission of Fish and Fisheries, the botanical division of the\nDepartment of Agriculture, the National Museum, and other departments.\nPassing now to applied science: Almost every phase of advanced engineering work is illustrated by some division of the government. The\nmaterial which would be especially available is that found in the War and\nNavy Departments, the Bureau of Mines, the Coast and Geodetic Survey,\nthe Division of Architecture, the Hydrographic Office, and the Land Office.\nFor agriculture, practically the whole department except administration\nis devoted either to the advancement of the science or to the dissemination\nof practical information. This great department had an appropriation for\n191 1 of more than $20,000,000, the larger part of which went for scientific\nand extension work. An enimieration of the divisions of the Department\nof Agriculture shows how wide is the scope of this work: the Bureaus of\nAnimal Husbandry, Plant Industry, Weather, Forest Service, Chemistry,\nSoils, Entomology, and Biology.\nWhile the Department of Agriculture has by far the largest appropriation for scientific work, the appropriations for scientific purposes in other\ndivisions vary for each from more than $100,000 to more than $1,000,000.\nWhile it would not be easy to give an accurate statement regarding the\namovmt of money which is available in the various departments at Washington for investigation and for the tools of investigation — apparatus and\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nASSET\n\n213\n\nbooks — it is safe to say that the total amounts to many millions of dollars\nper annum; or put in another way, more than ten times as much as any\nsingle university or institution in the country for this purpose.\nThe vast collections of books in the Congressional Library and the large\nspecial libraries in the various departments, especially those of the Geological\nSurvey, the Surgeon-General's Office, and the State Department, cover a\ngreater number of fields of human knowledge with an approach to completeness than exists elsewhere in this country. These libraries are admirably\nadministered. Expert assistants are available, so that the material on any\ngiven subject is readily secured. Not only so, but special privileges are\ngranted in the reading-rooms and in the stacks to qualified students.\nThe facilities in these respects are incomparably beyond those of any\nlibrary in other countries. It is safe to say that the collections of books\nin the government libraries at Washington could have an efficiency ten\ntimes as great as they now have at a small additional cost.\nManning the scientific bureaus and divisions is a scientific staff many\ntimes larger than in the largest university in the country. It is this amazing\nwealth of men and material at Washington that should be available for\nthe production of scholars and investigators along many lines.\nTHE\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nIMMEDIATE\n\nRESULTS\n\nAt the present time, unfortunately, the demands for immediate results\nby the government compel the great staff to give by far the larger part of\ntheir energy to special problems with reference to practical ends. The rich\nmaterials from the larger point of view of the advancement of science are in\nlarge measure neglected.\nLARGE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nRESULTS\n\nOBTAINABLE\n\nIf in each of the bureaus and departments mentioned there were\nadvanced students working on the materials there existing, not with\nreference to the solving of particular problems which engage almost exclusively the attention of the existing staff, but with reference to the\nadvancement of science, there can be no doubt that results of untold value\nwould be obtained. It is believed that the utilization of this material in\nany bureau or department by a limited number of students need not interfere with the efficiency of the department in reaching the immediate results\ndemanded by the government. Not only so, but it is believed that a group\nof advanced students, which in any department would not be very numerous, but which in Washington as a whole would aggregate a large number,\ncould be made the means of greatly improving the work of the scientific\nstaff of the various bureaus.\nIn making the statement that the bureaus at Washington yield relatively\nlittle in the way of broad scientific results, it is realized that there have been\nand still are some exceptions.\nWhen the United States Geological Survey\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nwas originated there was drawn to Washington the most brilliant group of\ngeologists in the country. This survey for a number of years was the center\nof the world for the advancement of the science of geology; but in recent\nyears, while the organization is vastly larger, having appropriations of\nmillions where it had in the early days appropriations of hundreds of thousands, itis almost exclusively a department of practical geology. It is not\ncontributing in any large way to the advancement of science.\nThat contributions of the Naval Observatory to science have not\nbeen large has been known for many years. In 1898 a report was made by\na committee of astronomers showing that the practical duties of the Naval\nObservatory could be easily performed by a very small establishment. In\nthis report it was pointed out that a national observ^atory is justified because\nastronomical observations and research might there be made which cannot\nbe accomplished at private and vmiversity observatories. The great new\nobservatory building at Washington is splendidly equipped to carry on\nresearches of the highest character; yet at the present time the advancement of the science of astronomy in this coimtry is thru Harvard, Yerkes,\nLick, Mt. Wilson, and other imiversity and private observatories. The\nastronomers all agree regarding the first step necessary to remedy this\nsituation, as does also the president of the United States and the committee on naval affairs. There should be appointed a civilian astronomer\nof the highest rank as director of the observatory. If this were done and\nthe large facilities were made available to advanced students, this institution might take first place among the observ^atories of the world.\nAt the present time the advancement of science in its broader aspects\nis contributed to by only a few of the scientific bureaus at Washington,\nillustrated by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Bureau of Standards.\nOn the other hand, in the universities of the country men are engaged in\nteaching and each year necessarily considering their subjects in the large,\nand immediate results are not demanded. These imiversities and the few\nindependent research institutions, illustrated by the Carnegie Institution\nof Washington and the Rockefeller Institute of New York, are the chief\ncenters for the broader contributions to science and learning.\nTHE\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nAND\n\nINVESTIGATION\n\nIt is my conviction, based upon many years of observation and experience, both in a university and in a department at Washington, that upon the\naverage a man produces the best scientific results who does some teaching.\nTo give a course to a group of advanced students requires that a man go over\nthe subject broadly. Even if the course be highly specialized, a man must\nconsider his material, not only in its interrelations, but its relations to the\nother branches of his science. One who is a productive scholar scarcely\ngives a lecture upon a subject which he is investigating without illumina-\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n\nSessions]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nASSET\n\n215\n\ntion reaching him upon some point. There is nothing more productive of\nideas than the presence and inquiries of young and earnest minds. A man\nwho at Washington sits at his desk six days in the week, delving in his\nsubject, often becomes buried in his material. Too frequently he never\nsees it from the outside. His material masters him instead of his mastering his material. The successful teacher must get outside of his subject\nand consider its broader aspects.\nI believe that the productivity of the scientific staff at Washington,\neven from the point of view of immediate results, would be improved during\na given period, if each year the men of 'reputation were each obliged to\ngive one set of lectures for at least a half-year, either upon the subject\nimder investigation, or some part of a science related to the investigation.\nThe opening of the scientific bureaus at Washington to such students as\nare sufficiently advanced to take advantage of the material, and affording\nopportunity to members of the scientific staff each to give a course of\nlectures, would greatly improve the efficiency of the bureaus.\nHowever, in order that the lectures may be successful, it is necessary\nthat they be a part of the official duties of the scientific staff, not extra work\nfor additional compensation. At the present time, because of the meager\nsalaries, a number of men belonging in the departments give lectures in\nGeorge Washington University or other institutions, thereby gaining additional compensation. This is an extremely unsatisfactory condition of\naffairs, in that it requires teaching to be done in addition to the day's work\nat the bureau. In order that lectures shall be efficient and the man who\ngives them gain the most inspiration and the largest broadening effect from\nthem, they should be a part of his regular work. By the proposed combination under which a relatively small amount of instructional work\nwould be given by any member of the scientific staff, I confidently believe\nthat the work of the various scientific departments and bureaus, considering only the point of view of efficiency, would be greatly improved.\nThus in creating the conditions essential for the special national university which should exist at Washington, we should thereby increase the\nefficiency of the departments.\nAn incidental important gain which could come from the adoption of the\nplan proposed would be the training of men to fill the scientific staffs at\nWashington. Under present conditions, we know the staff contains many\nmediocre men. While this is due partly to lack of properly trained men of\nability, it is realized that it is due also to niggardly pay, combined with the\nhigh cost of living at Washington. Too frequently a man who develops\nunusual ability in .a bureau either goes to a university where he obtains\nbetter financial terms and more favorable opportunities for scientific work;\nor, because he cannot decently support a family upon his salary, he goes\ninto some profession or business in which he can apply the knowledge he\nhas obtained in a department.\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i6\n\nNATIONAL\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\nREQUIRED\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nMACHINERY\n\nWe now have the fundamental facts before us. Not to arrange so as\nto utilize to its highest efficiency the vast wealth of material for scientific\nresearch at Washington is nothing short of improvident and reckless waste\nof great opportunities. It is a wrong to a member of the stafiF to demand\nthat he grind away at his practical problem year in and year out without\ngiving him a chance for a larger view thru instructional work.\nIf the above conclusions be accepted, the next question to be considered\nis the machinery required in order to secure these desirable ends. It may\nbe said at the outset that for the national university here advocated, while\nsome money must be available, no large appropriations are necessary. The\ninstitution must have an executive officer. Under him must be a staff,\nthe duty of which shall be to learn all of the scientific possibilities of the\nvarious departments and bureaus, to advise students who come to Washington, and to arrange for their work. It should be the further duty of the\nadministrative force to prepare announcements of the courses of instruction\nwhich are to be given, with descriptions of the material available for such\ncourses, precisely as is done by each of the universities.\nThe administrative force of the national university, if desired, might be\nassociated with the Bureau of Education; indeed this would seem to be a\nvery natural association. If this suggestion be accepted, the administrative\nstaff and the Bureau of Education could both be housed in a single building\nand such co-operation established between the two as would be to their\nmutual benefit.\nFor the above work an administration building or a part of a building\nis necessary. Temporary quarters should be rented, and later, when experience shows achieved results warranting the expenditure, an appropriate\npermanent building should be constructed. In the administration it would\nbe necessary to provide some lecture-rooms, altho the halls in the National\nMuseum and in various other public buildings should be utilized for the\nlarger lectures. The men who give specialized courses to small groups of\nstudents probably would prefer to give them in the building in which they\nwork; for there would be the materials and the special libraries. This\nwould require merely that each bureau or institution, illustrated by the\nNaval Observatory, the Geological Survey, the Bureau of Animal Husbandry, set aside one room of moderate size for lectures.\nOne of the obstacles in the way of the highest success of the plan is\nthe insufficient housing of many of the departments; but the obstacle\nwill gradually be removed. This is evidenced by a mmiber of exceptions.\nAt the Congressional Library there is ample space for all the students who\nmay desire to come. In the magnificent new National Museum, where are\nassociated the wonderful collections in geology, mineralogy, biology,\nanthropology, etc., is the most ample set of workrooms and laboratories\nanywhere in the]country.\nScores of students could there readily be accom-\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nASSET\n\n217\n\nmodated without interfering with the effectiveness of the staff. The Naval\nObservatory has a splendid new building. The Bureau of Standards has\nadequate quarters. All these new structures have become available\nwithin a few years, and others will undoubtedly exist within a comparatively\nshort time.\nEXISTESTG\n\nLAW\n\nAlready the principles above advocated have been recognized to a\ncertain extent by Congress thru two enactments, the first in 1892 and the\nsecond in 1901. Under these acts the scientific collections, museums, and\nlibraries of Washington and their other facilities were made accessible to\nscientific investigators and to advanced students \"under such rules and\nregulations as the heads of the departments and bureaus mentioned may\nprescribe.\"^ Apparently the act of 1892 also contemplated that the advanced students who do work in the departments would have the assistance of the members of the scientific staff, for the preamble includes the\nphrase, \"promote the work of education by attracting students to avail\nthemselves of the advantages aforesaid under the direction of competent\ninstructors.\"\nThese laws have been taken advantage of to a small extent. As\npointed out by President Hadley, their main service has been to men who\nare already trained for their work and are competent to carry on investigations independently of direction. These men have simply come to\nWashington and there used for their ends the material which the departments have afforded. For advanced students who still need the guidance\nof formal instruction the effect of these laws has been so small as to be\nalmost negligible. Substantially the only exceptions are the one or two\ndepartments in which the scientific staff have voluntarily as a part of their\nduties given instruction either to the younger members of the staff in order\nbetter to fit them for their work, or to outside men. The best illustrations of this are furnished by the Bureau of Standards, the Public Health\nand Marine Hospital Service, and the laboratories of the Bureau of Fisheries at Woods Hole and Beaufort.\nEXPLANATION\nOF MEAGER RESULTS\n•\nThat no large results have come from the acts mentioned, one of which\nhas been a law for more than ten years, might be regarded as evidence that\nthe position above taken concerning the desirability of making the opportunities atWashington available for scientific work is imsoimd. However,\nit is obvious .that the failure of these laws to produce marked effect is due to\nthree reasons.\nFirst: There is no information published describing the facilities for\nresearch at Washington and -the different lines of work Vhich may be there\nprofitably pursued.\n•Annotated Federal Statutes, Vol. II, pp. 860-61 (Edward Thompson Co.).\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nSecond: There has-been available no single bureau to which application can be made for the use of the facilities, no one to guide the work of the\nadvanced students, no one to correlate the different lines of work. It is\nperfectly futile to suggest that a student go to Washington, enter a bureau,\ntell some oflScial that he has come to take advantage of the provasions of the\nlaws mentioned. This a man would not do; and if he did so, the chances are\nthat he would gain very little satisfaction by so doing, for he would be lost in\nthe mazes of the bureaucracy. As President Hadley puts it: \"The student\nwho comes to Washington today to get his scientific training in the government departments comes under his own impulse and at his own risk.\"\nThird: For effective advanced work it is necessary that regular instruction be given. The existing laws do not provide for such instruction. If\nthe proposal be accepted that members of the scientific staff be permitted\nas a part of their duties to give a limited amount of instruction, this fimdamental necessity for successful advanced work is met. In this connection\nit is notable that in those instances where instruction has been given by the\nmembers of the staff, illustrated by the Bureau of Standards and the\nBureau of Fisheries, the facilities for advanced instruction have been taken\nadvantage of. It seems to me that these cases in which important scientific\nresults have followed systematic instruction furnish conclusive evidence\nthat if the principles applied in these bureaus were extended to other\nbureaus, the facilities and opportunities would be taken advantage of upon\na considerable scale, perhaps as great as their facilities permit.\nTherefore, if the opportvmities for scientific work at Washington were\nas definitely described as are the courses in the catalog of a university, if\nthere was a central place to which a man could go to register and be guided\nto his work, if he coiJd have an opportunity to have his work correlated, if\nhe could have the assistance of the man with whom he wished to work, then\nI confidently believe that there would be a very large niunber of students\nwho woiJd take advantage of the imexampled collections and libraries of\nWashington.\nTo make these facilities still more available, it would be advantageous\nfor the various imiversities of the country to co-operate with the Washington authorities. In the catalog of a imiversity it might be Ayell to\nannounce the particular lines of work and the advanced courses which\ncould be advantageously taken at Washington best to supplement the work\ndone at the university. Such co-operation would even more clearly emphasize the fact that the plan for a national university at Washington is not\none to compete with existing universities, but to supplement them. Of\ncourse, no university could be compelled to co-operate as suggested, but it\ncan scarcely be doubted that a large number would enter into co-operation,\nsince so doing would be to the advantage of their students. Thus it is\nbelieved that the proposals made, if adopted, will result in a great gain to\nscience in the country and also be of direct advantage to existing universities.\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nASSET\n\n219\n\nIt is to be noted that the plan outlined does not include that of granting\ndegrees. The fundamental thing advocated is that the country gain the\nadvantage of the opportunities which exist at Washington, which it may\ndo with comparatively little additional cost. To accomplish this it is not\nnecessary that the departments undertake the task of examinations, the\napproval of theses, and the awarding of degrees.\nIf there be prejudice against calling the institution above described a\nnational university, it may be given some other name, since as a matter of\nfact the institution proposed would be different from any existing university in that it would not profess to give a complete system of courses regarding any subject, but would give such specialized courses as the facilities at\nWashington make advantageous; and also it differs from a imiversity in\nthe respect that it would not grant degrees. For my own part I do not particularly care whether or not the institution of which I speak be called a\nnational university; but I am most anxious that the great opportunities at\nWashington, both in the way of materials and men, shall be available as\ninstrumentalities for advanced research, and that this shall be a national\nasset.\nPROPOSALS\n\nAPPROVED\n\nBY\n\nSTATE UNIVERSITIES\n\nThe proposals made are in perfect harmony with the plan for the establishment of a national university, approved by the National Association\nof State Universities. In the bill introduced into Congress with the\nsanction of the association, it is proposed that the essential idea of the\nnational university be opportunity for study, not the granting of degrees.\nIt is further proposed that no student shall be permitted to work in the\nvarious departments imtil he shall have had the degree of master of science\nor arts, or equivalent training. This would require that a man shall have\nhis first degree and shall have pursued graduate studies for one year and thus\nhave gone far enough in advanced work to become qualified to begin a piece\nof special investigation. After a student has continued his work at Washington to the point where he should have a doctorate, he may take his\nexamination and qualify himself for his doctorate at the institution at which\nhe previously studied, and thus add to the prestige of that institution.\nNaturally a part of such qualification would be a thesis prepared by using\nthe material in the bureaus and departments. If the universities outside of\nWashington should co-operate with the Washington scientific staff, a student\nat Washington might be to a certain extent under the guidance of the university from which he came, and by this means his entire graduate work be\nmade a harmonious whole.\nNOT A RIVAL TO\n\nEXISTING\n\nINSTITUTIONS\n\nThus the proposed national university would not be a rival to existing\ninstitutions, but supplementary to them; not supplementary to one of them,\nbut supplementary to all. In Germany it is the habit of students when\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstudying for a doctorate to spend a part of the time at one university and\na part at another. In some cases the work for the doctorate may be done\nat more than two institutions. The plan to have the departments at\nWashington available for advanced work would undoubtedly result in giving\nto many students a broader training than they now secure because of the\nfact that they would do a portion of their advanced work in a university\nand a part in the research departments at Washington. This arrangement\nwould be most advantageous, for a part of the work would be done in institutions where the spirit is that of a university, and a part in the bureaus\nwhere the spirit is that of immediate results; and it is the combination\nof the ideal and the practical in a man's education which gives the highest\ncapacity for future useful service to the nation.\nSUMMARY\n\nIn summary:\n1. It is proposed that the unapproached wealth of books and materials at Washington\nfor research be made available to the advanced students of the country having the baccalaureate degree and one year of graduate work or its equivalent.\n2. It is proposed that the scientific staff at Washington be authorized as a part of\nits official duties to give a limited amount of instruction.\n3. It is proposed to establish an administrative division, the duties of which shall\nbe to make the facilities of Washington known and to guide the students to them. If\ndesirable this division may be made a part of the National Bureau of Education.\n4. It is proposed that a student completing his work for a doctorate at Washington be\ngranted his degree from the institution from which he came.\n5. It is proposed that existing universities co-operate in this work with the departments at Washington.\n\nIf this plan be adopted, it cannot be gainsaid that science in America\nwill receive a great impetus; that the scientific bureaus at Washington will\nbe inspired to escape from their bureaucratic bonds at least in some measure,\nand if so they will make larger contributions than heretofore to the advancement of learning. All the above results may be accomplished by a relatively\nsmall expense and to the mutual advantage of the United States departments and existing universities.\nC.\n\nA NATIONAL\nJAMES H. BAKER,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAS RELATED\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY\nBOULDER, COLO.\n\nTO DEMOCRACY\nOF\n\nCOLORADO,\n\nIn reviewing the history of the movement for a national university, one\nis impressed with the great names connected with the project, the strength\nof the reasons in its favor, and the increasing clearness of thought regarding\nthe need and functions of such an institution. Still more impressive are\nthe high ideals for democracy maintained by the many advocates of the\ncause. The affirmative arguments have always appealed to me as fimda-\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "}\n\nSessions]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAS RELATED\n\nTO DEMOCRACY\n\n221\n\nmental, broad, and far-sighted. They show a comprehensive and hopeful\nview of civilization.\nThat the conception of a national university, and even the reasons for\nits need, should change in more than a century was to be expected. But,\nfrom the first expression of the idea by George Washington to the present,\nits scope was to be greater than that of existing American imiversities.\nThe plan as it now appears may be described briefly: At the national capital\nare scores of departments and bureaus connected with the government,\nwhich might contribute to various lines of research. Vast sums are invested\nin libraries, museums, and laboratories. A large body of scientific men are\nemployed in what may be called the educational service of the departments.\nIt is proposed to establish by act of Congress a university of the United\nStates; give it a board of trustees guarded from political bias and influence;\ninclude the scientific agencies, mentioned, in the university scheme; invite\nthe co-operation of various organizations privately endowed; choose a\nfaculty of eminent men, including those now prominent in the scientific work\nof the government, whose duty, in conjunction with the trustees, would\nbe to utilize present resources and plan lines of future development. Of\ncourse the proposed plan would necessitate adequate buildings independent\nof the various departments of the government, and large financial support.\nThe functions of such an institution in many fields of applied science are\nobvious. But its scope would rapidly enlarge. To some extent facilities\nare now found in the departments for special investigation in the natural\nsciences, agriculture, engineering, and medicine; in history, political science,\neconomics, and law; in anthropology and education; in literature. In a\nuniversity organization these would be strengthened and supplemented.\nA national university should represent profound scientific knowledge, its\napplication to the practical needs of the country, the study of all economic,\npolitical, and social problems, every phase of human betterment, in short\nall that pertains to the welfare of a people. Moreover, it should aim to\nenlarge the boundaries of knowledge, to teach an idealistic philosophy, and\nto emphasize the spiritual side of our civilization. And all this should be\ndone to an extent and with a thoroness possible only in such an institution.\nIn other words, there should be at the center of government, as the highest\ninterest, complete opportunity for studying the vital problems of the nation.\nHistory does not show an exact parallel to our proposed national imiversity, altho two noted institutions are suggestive examples, the University\nof Berlin and the University of Paris— one the Royal University of Prussia,\nthe other the most prominent national university of France. For a century\nthe University of Berlin has been a great factor in the growth of Prussia and\na surpassing influence far extended on university standards and ideals.\nThe University of Paris, by its relation with many educational agencies\nof the great capital, will create a new chapter in the history of education.\nThe remarkable development of Germany has been due in no small part\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto the intimate relation of higher education to the state. More than a\nhundred years ago great leaders in Prussia saw in it the means of increasing\nthe strength of the nation. They imderstood the vital force of an education\nthat seeks foundation principles, that increases knowledge, that gives power\nof appreciation, that opens up large spiritual visions, that places men\ntrained in scientific power at the service of the state. They knew that its\ninfluence in time would pervade the whole nation and change the spirit of\nthe people. The University of Paris, under its present organization, comes\nnearest to our conception of a national imiversity. It has its own buildings\nand faculties, but it has also a co-operative relation with many centers of\nLiberal and scientific knowledge in Paris. The national and municipal\nresources for study and investigation are serviceable to the University.\nWhile organically Oxford is not a national institution, yet in a more important sense, in spirit and history, it has been closely related to the political\naffairs of England. It has represented state, church, and the form of\nsociety. That it has been a large factor in England's greatness goes without\nsaying.\nIt has often been argued that an independent foundation should take\nthe place of a national imiversity, or that some private agency should\ncontrol the resources of the government for research. The contribution of\nindependent colleges to learning in the past and their value for the future\nare not questioned. They represent an element of freedom helpful in\nprogress. But this proposition defeats one of the chief purposes of a\nnational university, namely, its reciprocal relation to democracy. Moreover, to intrust the control of the government bureaus to any private\norganization would be an obvious absurdity.\nIt is claimed that education is not a function of the general government.\nIn avoiding some Old- World evils we limited the powers of Congress, but\nthe constitutional argimient against a national university has never been\ntaken seriously. Moreover, it was never intended that Congress should\nbe merely a lawmaking machine without the higher motives and interests.\nAnd here I may speak of that larger view of the functions of government\nwhich extends beyond police regulations and commercial affairs. In the\nOld World are seen everywhere evidences of a culture which has been\nfostered by a broad goverimaental policy. If rulers had never been the\npatrons of art and letters, our civilization would be less rich in its most\nvaluable elements. Here is a vital question in studying the problems of\ndemocracy.\nThe national commissioner of education some years ago said he did\nnot dare to ask for a fuller recognition by Congress of his bureau, fearing\nit would be abolished or made a political asset and be used for patronage.\nThe Bureau of Education was then housed in a building hardly fit for a\ntenement, the office force was limited, and the commissioner was on a\nstarvation salary, We ^re familiar with the recent efforts to increase the\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessoins]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAS RELATED\n\nTO DEMOCRACY\n\n223\n\nextent and efficiency of the Bureau of Education, and the reluctant consent\nof Congress to enlarge the appropriations. I do not note this as evidence\nof difficulties in our way, but to prove the need of a university, backed up\nby all the ideal forces of the nation, to educate Congress, The congressional wagon is not hitched to a star; the statesman's vision does not always\nreach to the hills whence might come his help — ^perhaps that is not to be\nexpected. But critics of the times claim that the whole spirit of legislation\nis materialistic when not political and partisan; that appeals on ideal\ngrounds are little heeded; and that the chosen representatives of the\nnation fail to lead democracy, even when the occasion and duty are obvious.\nThe interests of government should be enlarged. We need a keener knowledge of the elements of civilization and of the meaning of democracy. One\nof the first steps would be to give our representatives something to think\nabout besides politics and business. A national university at the capital\nwould be an ideal influence and indirectly would act upon the whole country.\nIt would tend to bring into direct union the ideal and the practical with\nmutual benefit — -the academic atmosphere would be clearer, and the\npolitical atmosphere would be purer.\nMy argument now is not on the practical value of a national university\n— that it would correlate and economize and make more efficient the\nscientific agencies in Washington, that it would be the means of studying\nevery problem of imiversal interest, that it could organize the work of\nevery important investigation and get the co-operation of the universities\nof the country, that it would aid and strengthen and stimulate the scholarship of all the universities, that it would increase our material welfare, that it\nwould foster our national pride and patriotism — my argument is concerned\nwith the deeper thought of a union between democracy and higher learning.\nIn Germany higher education is related to the state; in America the\nproblem is far more difficult — to relate it to democracy. A few educated\nmeri at the head of affairs can value science and culture; pure democracy\nin its formative stages may be shortsighted, fail to see its own true goal, and\neven be suspicious of the means of attaining it. Democracy in its present\nform is on trial — a trite but true remark. If its only gods are those of\nprosperity, if education is to be superficial and purely practical, if we refuse\nto think, if business engages in Middle-Age baronial exploits and poUtics\nis \"bossed,\" if \"reactionaries\" and \"progressives\" get farther apart, we\nmay be compelled to serious thought. Will the people as such have the\nvision and aim at the best the centuries have produced, and the progress\nthe future demands ? The problem is to be worked out in freedom, and, if\nsuccessfully, in accord with true principles. ResponsibiHty fits for responsibility, and the rule of the best is secured thru freedom — a maxim which\nGladstone often vigorously proclaimed. I believe we shall have a safe\nand high development of our civilization when essential university learning\nrelates itself to every hiunan interest and problem, and the people strive\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor, and make their own, all that the best in learning and leadership represents. Agentleman recently wrote me, urging the\nUniversity of Colorado to form a \"University Educational Union,\" and make the best\nthought in the world on poUtical and economic science accessible to each individual, and\nlet him form his own conclusions therefrom. I am convinced that the organized universities, or enough of them organized to give the stamp of authority, can furnish a peaceful solution of social problems.\n\nThis may be visionary, but it is mightily suggestive. The \"reactionary\"\nwith all he stands for, and the \"progressive\" with all he stands for — I am\nusing the terms broadly — ^must find a common groimd in this country or\nworse follows. The groimd of safety between extreme doctrines of government, between contending factions, between classes, will be f9imd by the\nclosest imion between education and democracy — thru enlightenment and\nideals. Culture, pure science, social justice, absolute values must be\nerected in our pantheon as well as the gods of success. These must command the reverence of the people and stand for the spirit of government and\nof public officials. Education — its knowledge, its ideals, its influence —\nmust be the fourth estate in a democratic government. And it will be the\nduty of the educational forces of the cotmtry, in conjunction with every\nwise leader, to inject new elements into public affairs. And here is the real\nargiunent for a national university. If the character of this institution is to\ndiffer from existing types, if its scope isto be larger than formerly conceived,\nit is because we have a clearer insight into the nature and extent of the\nproblem of civilization — a problem not confined to this country but worldwide. Universal education, necessarily superficial, and now increasingly\npractical, will not suffice. The organization of society must rest on a basis\nof truth and justice — the ideals of the scholar. The fundamental knowledge\nof nature and of man in society must be sought in an institution having\nprofoimd learning, creative power, broad sympathies, and unlimited\nresoiurces for investigation. In one of the states there is a close relation\nbetween the people, the government, and the university. The experiment\nhas awakened large interest; it is yet new, but hopeful. This idea enlarged\nsuggests the fimction, and the relation to the country and the world, of a\nimiversity of the United States. The traditional culture, isolated if not\noften seffish, is a thing of the past. The modem university spirit is not\nonly cultviral, but scientffic and practical, and is related to real life and\ntoday's problems. We have now to make it intimately a part of oiu- government and society. When the people no longer depend upon authority,\nthey must conform to what the philosophers call the \"nature of things\" —\nessential relations revealed definitely by the clear insight of the scholar.\nDiscussing, a few years ago, with a professor in the University of\nParis some question of the enterprise of the two governments in issuing\neducational literature, he said:\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWAYS\n\nAND\n\nMEANS:\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEPS\n\n225\n\nI know the business quickness of the American, but we are wedded to a past which we\ncannot get rid of, and which, to be frank about the matter, we do not wish to get rid of ;\nThere are elements in our civilization, of essential value, which it will take the New World\na long time to understand.\n\nI could only reply that there was no controversy on that point. This\nrepresents a foreign criticism common enough, and to an extent just. \"We\nare busy doing things and have no time to think,\" is a common boastful\nclaim. We have been buying our education abroad, as we are now playing\nrefined robbery with the art treasures of Europe. We need to transmute\nsome of our wealth into science and art at home. There is no danger so\ngreat as a dead level of democracy, holding back the ideal spirit struggling\nto free itself. The people must be led by the wisest, and they must see\nthat real excellence in a few is for the good of all. If we are to gain the\nrespect of older civilizations, we must show that democracy is not superficial,\nthat it has a high ideal of government, that it can be fertile in scholarship\nand especially in appreciation of its value and service. The \"glory that\nwas Greece\" will never be ours, unless our ideal is built of spiritual elements\nthat have given leading nations their place in history. If we have a boasted\nnew form of state and society — the body — we must see to it that we have\nalso the new humanism and the new idealism — the soul. If we have a\nunique civilization, if we have a peculiar mission, then let us have an\nunequaled center of learning at the very heart of our national life, adequate\nto reveal that life to ourselves and the world.\n\nD.\nWILLIAM\n\nWAYS\n\nAND\n\nO. THOMPSON,\n\nMEANS:\n\nTHE NEXT\n\nSTEPS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF OHIO\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO\n\nSTATE\n\nThe idea of the national university has one quality: it persists. Many\neducators have not been favorably disposed, while others have been firmly\nof the opinion that such an institution is the logical and highly desirable,\nif not necessary, conclusion from a century of national experience. The\nlegislators and promoters of national legislation have been so much occupied\nwith questions of statecraft and political expediency that but few men in\nour congressional halls have either time or disposition to give the project\nattention sufficient to warrant an intelligent opinion. The practice of\nobjecting is easily cultivated and the suggestion that education should not\nbe under the control of political influences is an easy method of closing the\nway to a thoughtful consideration of the merits of the issue. It should be\nrecognized at the outset that a proposal for a national university would face\nthese and other objections. Congressmen and senators have a way of\npaying profound respect to the opinions of educators when they open the\nway of escape from any responsibility and leave them free to devote their\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nenergies to questions of political expediency and to the favorite industry of\nre-electing themselves. It may be recognized that a large amount of time\nand energy is spent in this way and that no important issue or principle is\ninvolved in such activity.\nEducation is not a political issue. Office-holders recognize this fact\nand therefore are slow to give it any consideration. Even agriculture, now\nthe most popular diversion of the time, could not secure the large consideration given it were it not for the fact that there are votes behind it. Agricultural extension and farm demonstration have already become valuable\npolitical assets for congressmen and there are indications that the further\ndevelopment of these praiseworthy objects will be associated with a powerful and pernicious political influence.\nA national university makes no such appeal, for the reason that it would\nbe devoted to the less tangible phases of education. The study of research\nproblems in pure science or in a true interpretation of history, economics,\nor politics does not make the spectacular appeal to legislators. It is easier\nto visualize the beneficent effects of two blades of grass or a large yield of\ncorn and cotton than the efifects of a revision of the scientific hypothesis\nconcerning molecules, atoms, or electrons.\nThe first fundamental problem, therefore, is to set out and get into the\nnational consciousness a true conception of the value of a great national\ngraduate institution that should utilize for educational purposes the\nresources of the government already accimiulated and increasing every\nyear. The assumption is often made that existing educational agencies\nmay be relied upon to care for all the research work needed. As a matter\nof fact they have but a limited access for such purposes to the resources of\nthe government. Well-advised people know also that government officials\nhedged about with the technicalities of Washington have not sympathized\nwith the movement to make any use of these resources for the further\ndevelopment of science and education.\nA few years ago the Association of Agricultural Colleges proposed the\nutilization of a portion of these resources for the purposes of graduate study\nand investigation of fundamental scientific problems in agriculture, with\nthe purpose of developing better equipped scholars in the sciences related\nto agriculture, but met with indifferent success. Men hesitate to welcome\nany new movement that might interfere with autonomy or prerogative.\nThere is but little general intelligence upon the opportunities now in possession of the government for the advancement of learning and of science.\nThe result is that very little enthusiasm is aroused when a proposal to\nutilize those opportunities is made. Existing agencies, especially our\nimiversities and colleges, are making the most limited use of them. The\nfurther statement is probably true, that they never will use them with high\nefficiency. There is no reason in the nature of the case, then, why colleges\nand universities should not urge a national movement in the interest of\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWAYS\n\nAND\n\nMEANS:-\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEPS\n\n■ 227\n\nscience and scholarship that would organize the resources of the government .\ninto available material for study and research.\nThe notion that a national university should be so organized as to be a\ncompetitor with existing colleges and universities for students or for money\nis not worthy of any time or consideration. Such a university would not\nbe a place where thousands of students would congregate but, let us hope,\na place where the most eminent s.cholars of the country could be gathered,\noften temporarily, from existing universities for the purpose of leadership\nand counsel with matured students already graduates from local institutions.\nOur first need, then, would seem to be an appreciation of the unused\nopportunities at hand and a national conviction that these should be\nutilized,\nA second problem is to secure a consensus of intelligent opinion as to\nthe general scope and purpose of such a university. As already intimated,\nits purpose could not be found in the idea of competition. It must crown\nrather than compete. For years the federal government has been engaged\nin scientific work of a most important character. The Weather Bureau,\nthe Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, the Department of Agriculture\nwith its varied projects, all suggest a large amount of scientific and educational work. The motive in these has been the public welfare and national\nself-preservation. There would be no disposition to interfere with or\ncheck such important agencies. These have demonstrated that there is a\nlarge unoccupied field for the most valuable service. Any student of the\nhistory of scientific research in this country will say that the limitations are\npainfully evident. The permanence of men and money and the organization\nfree from these limitations is most fundamental. In the course of the years\ncabinet oiS5cers and members of Congress have learned something of the\nimportance attaching to the scientific work of the government, while but\nfew men have risen to a conception of the importance of a university\norganization that, with the hearty co-operation of universities and scholars,\nwould stimulate and aid every educational enterprise in the country.\nIt is interesting to observe that in case of the most widely known\nagencies of the government in scientific endeavor like agriculture, mining,\nand others, but few people were enthusiastic at the beginning. The\nreasons were two: first, a theory that the government had but a limited\npolice power; and second, a lack of appreciation or belief that pure science\nhad any practical relation to the everyday problems of the people or of\ngovernment. Both of those theories have been abandoned and we are now\ntrying to urge a further advance and a university organization for the\nutilization of unused and unrecognized opportunities. My second appeal\nmust be, therefore, for a study of the situation by the teachers and scholars\nof the country in order that a consensus of opinion may result. This will\ngive us a basis for action.\nA third step might be the agreement upon a bill that shall serve as a\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\ncharter with a comprehensive plan of operation. Most of us are familiar\nwith the form of the bill so long advocated and pressed by the late Hon.\nJohn Wesley Hoyt. This provided for an undergraduate organization\nand for that reason probably failed to enlist enthusiastic support in many\nquarters. It had, of course, the opposition of all those who could not agree\nto the idea of a national university and to the idea of federal aid to education.\nThese objections would continue against any bill that could be drawn.\nThe National Association of State Universities drew a bill a few years ago\nproviding only for research and graduate work and requiring a Master's\ndegree or its equivalent as prerequisite for enrollment and omitted any\npro\\asion for the granting of degrees. This, of course, met with some\nopposition but chiefly outside of the constituency of state universities.\nThe important issue now is an agreement upon a measure that will recognize\nexisting agencies of research and of education and yet make provision for\ndoing what is not now done. The crowning of our democracy with a\ndistinctly national movement in the interest of education, of scientific\nresearch, and the discovery of problems affecting our national life is a\nproject that should have the leadership and support of educational statesmen. When our ideas are cleared up and put into a systematic and defensible form we shall have taken an important step toward the realization of\nthe vision that has been before us for a century.\nA fourth step I suggest is the education of Congress. It has taken\nyears to gain the assent of that body to other ideas of importance. This is\nby no means a reflection upon legislators but a testimony to the fact that\nthe American people move slowly in projecting great and* far-reaching\nmovements. I need only cite the Land Grant Act led by Hon. Justin\nS. Morrill in Congress. This was the outcome of long debate and much\ndiscussion, then vetoed by President Buchanan, and finally enacted in\n1862 imder President Lincoln. The Panama Canal is another example\nof doubt, debate, delay, and final decision. Congress is still imcertain as\nto the propriety of federal aid to education. Many people in the coimtry\nshare in the doubt. Those who believe in the theory have yet a large\namoimt of work before assent may be given. The agricultural college and\nexperiment station movement avoided the direct issue under the plea of\nconser\\dng the soil and of perpetuating national welfare. The vocational\nbill now before Congress follows in the same general ple^ by making appeal\nto the industrial interests of the nation. I doubt whether either of these\nmeasures is entirely justifiable on so narrow a basis. The broad issue is\nwhether education is an interest of all the people or a local issue of the\nstates. There is also a constitutional question as to the power of Congress\nin appropriating money and the objects for which it may make appropriations. The plea that the states are able to provide all the means necessary\nfor education does not meet the case. Grant that they are able, the basic\nquestion remains as to the relation of the federal government to the cause\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nSessions]\n\nWAYS\n\nAND\n\nMEANS:\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEPS\n\n229\n\nof education. The disposition to avoid the question is quite apparent.\nThat there is opposition of an honest kind to federal aid is beyond question.\nBefore any active movement for a national imiversity can gather much\nstrength this question must reach an affirmative answer. The traditional\ninterpretation of our Constitution has been to leave the question of education to the states. It should be noted, however, that in disposing of public\nlands in the Northwest Territory and in the several land grants by Congress,\nit is plainly discernible that the support of education was regarded as an\nequitable distribution to the people of public resources. When the people\nand their rulers can be brought to see that higher education and the highest\nor deepest education as well as the advancement of science contribute to\nthe welfare of all the people without regard to state lines, it will be easier\nto interpret the public-welfare clause of the Constitution to be in harmony\nwith the scheme of national education. This will not be done by legislators,\nlawyers, and courts until the educators of the coimtry have made the\nprinciple so clear that popular opinion both approves and demands action\nat the hands of Congress. An ignorant people rarely founds colleges. The\nleaders, carried forward by their ideals, lay the foundations and await the\nverdict of the future. So long as the country remains in ignorance of the\nneed or opportunity of a national university, its existence may not be\nanticipated. So soon, however, as intelligent co-operation on the part of\nthe educated people brings into the national consciousness a conviction that\nthe federal government may return to the people for education a reasonable\nproportion of the revenues gathered from the people, it will be as easy to\nbuild a university as to build a warship. As a matter of fact, the defense\nwhich we provide thru the agency of a warship is usually imaginary while\nthe ends sought thru the activities of education are at least intelligible.\nA fifth step I propose is the development of popular sentiment. The\nnational university proposal as I see it is a challenge or perhaps an inquiry\nas to the powers and privileges of the people. Have we, by adopting a\nConstitution, entered into contract with ourselves that education is none of\nour business; that it is a local issue and must find all its support and\ninspiration from local organizations ? Or is it a question of a progressive\ninterpretation of that great and notable contract in the interests of life,\nliberty, and the pursuit of happiness as well as in the interest of wars,\nrumors of wars, and other ignoble ends ?\nFor a long time we have interpreted our Constitution to mean that the\npublic money — that is the people's money — might be expended for the\nprotection of life and property. To this there is imanimous consent.\nThe national imiversity proposal raises the question whether the people\nmay spend their money for the development of life and property. Happily\nwe have been approaching that issue steadily. The developmental functions of government have been steadily increased and we are now proposing\nto go a little farther and ask the federal government to co-operate in a\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nconstructive way by encouraging education, thus bringing help and strength\nto every educational enterprise of the land. We are not asking the interference or destruction of existing institutions or systems of education, but\nwe are asking that the people and their officers take a national vision of\nthis most fundamental work of society and estabHsh an institution that shall\nbe a crown of glory to all our educational effort.\nI am aware that some are objecting because they fear the results or\ndoubt our ability. Let me assure all such that there need be no fear for\neither individual or institution from a government or an institution of a\ngovernment operated in the interest of the people. I have known college\npresidents who sincerely believed that the prosperity of one institution was\nat the expense of another. Their political economy was of the old horsetrading type. Happily that has passed away. The new political economy\nrecognizes that education begets the desire for education; that educated\npeople will be able to earn their daily bread; and we are optimistic enough\nto believe that an educated people will destroy neither themselves nor their\ninstitutions. A national university properly conceived is an institution\nneither of destruction nor of repression but a fitting expression of the purpose of aU the people that among other objects public revenues may be used\nto provide, encourage, and foster education as a sure foundation for national\nlife and the perpetuity of the free institutions of a free people.\nTOPIC:\n\nA.\n\nTHE RELATION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS TO THE\nMOVEMENT FOR RECREATIONAL, SOCIAL, AND\nCIVIC OPPORTUNITY\nHOW\n\nROWLAND\n\nA COMMUNITY MAY FIND OUT AND\nFOR ITS RECREATION NEEDS\n\nHAYNES,\nFIELD\nASSOCIATION\n\nSECRETARY,\nPLAYGROUND\nOF AMERICA,\nNEW\nYORK,\n\nAND\nN.Y.\n\nPLAN\n\nRECREATION\n\nAn architect in his workshop is not a very interesting object, nor\nare his blueprints, plans, and computations very thrilling. We care\nmore for his results in completed buildings. The same is true of a recreation survey. Results are more interesting than the methods, but I have\nbeen asked to give you briefly some account of the methods used in a\nrecreation survey, in order to show how any community may find out\nand plan for its recreational needs.\nThe purpose of a recreation survey is to help in planning for an adequate recreation system, one which ministers to the whole recreation life\nof a community. This recreation life may be roughly divided into that\nwhich is occupied with home recreation, private recreation, commercial\nrecreation, and public recreation. An adequate recreation system includes\nall these parts, and a public recreation system seeks not to compete with\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nA COMMUNITY\n\nAND\n\nITS RECREATION\n\nNEEDS\n\n231\n\nany of the other parts, but to supplement home and private recreation,\nto exercise oversight over commercial recreation, and to furnish opportunities for wholesome public recreation to those who are not otherwise\ncared for.\nIn several cities it has been found that, while from 50 to 70 per cent\nof the entire recreation life is being cared for after a fashion by home,\nprivate, and commercial forms, of the remaining 30 or 50 per cent which\nwould naturally fall to the care of public recreation, only 5 or 10 per cent\nis being handled by such agencies. In short, it has appeared that public\nagencies are doing only about one-fifth of the work which comes to them.\nWhere there is such a large field to cover, and where there is no community\nin the. country which is at present adequately covering the balance of the\nrecreation life which would naturally fall to public agencies, it is of prime\nimportance that any development or extension of a recreation system\nin any commimity, large or small, should be based on such a study of its\nrecreation conditions that there shall be no duplication and waste.\nA complete recreation survey of any commimity would take the form\nof a census, telling for each member of the community how much time\neach week during the different seasons of the year he or she has for\nrecreation; how and where this time is being spent; and, where the recreation is not of good quality, what are the recreational needs of different\ngroups. Such a complete census would take from two to five years,\naccording to special conditions in each community. A preliminary survey,\nhowever, is often necessary in planning the foundation of a recreation\nsystem. It is of such preliminary surveys that I am speaking in this\npaper. They should not take more than one to six months, according\nto the population of the place in question and the number of workers.\nSuch a survey should cover three main topics: first, recreation activities of the three chief groups in any community, namely, the school group,\nthe unmarried working group, and the home group; second, facilities and\nsupervision; third, plan for development. The purpose of the study of\nthe activities of different groups is to show what they are doing in the\nway of recreation, and what each main group needs. The second part\nof the survey, that on facilities, should show precisely what the city\nalready possesses in the way of facilities, in school plant, park plant,\nlibraries, museums, streets, etc., and what supervision it already has in\nthe working force of all of these departments. Such a study of facilities\nshould come to some definite conclusion as to what the city has available to\nmeet the needs which have been shown in the study of the activities and\nexactly what further facilities the city would need to secure in order to\nbuild up an adequate recreation system. The third part of the survey\nshould present a definite plan whereby the facilities which the city possesses may be used to meet the needs which the city has been shown to\nhave.\nIt should also outline the steps whereby needed new facilities may\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGencral\n\nbe secured, and it should consider the form'of administration and the unification of supervision.\nThe first step in the actual survey is to get all the relevant facts already\nassembled by other people. Thus the census report will give figures for\ncomputing the density of population in different wards of the city; the\nschool census, if correctly taken, will indicate the distribution of children\nin different parts of the city. Social workers in settlements, charity\norganization societies, and similar associations can give preliminary hints\nof the recreation conditions in different parts of the community. If any\nstudies of housing conditions, or of conditions of factory or departmentstore employment have been made, these will furnish useful hints.\nFollowing this bird's-eye view, the next step is a study of the amoimt\nof outdoor play space in different neighborhoods. Usually, to save- time,\nit has been necessary to select a limited number of definite districts or\n\"soundings,\" and study those with particular care. Such a study makes\npossible a statistical table showing what percentage of space in any\ngiven sounding of 50 or 100 acres is taken up with streets and alleys;\nwhat percentage of space is taken up with private yards so occupied that\nplay is impossible; what percentage is taken up with buildings and interspaces less than 25 by 25 feet — the smallest space on which three or four\nchildren can play for any length of time — and what percentage is free\nplay space. In these soimdings observation is made of the traflic conditions in the streets, which ones have heavy traffic dangerous for play,\nand which have only intermittent traffic permitting occasional play.\nPaving conditions are also noticed, as affecting availability of streets\nfor play. These soundings are taken after school hours, so as to combine\nwith the observation of the amount of play space, an observation of\nwhat the children and young people outdoors are actually doing.\nIn some places the children in the upper grades of the grammar\nschools have been asked to write on what they do with their spare time.\nThe children are asked to write definitely about what they did in a definite\nperiod of time, say last Saturday and Sunday, or last week, and are told,\nif they say they played, to tell what they played; if they say they went\nto a show, what show. Care is also taken that the pupils know that\nthe teachers are not to read the papers of their own pupils. The purpose\nof the essays is not to display scholastic achievement or to give the pupils\na chance to make the teachers feel that they are doing much studying\noutside of school, but to get the children to write frankly the absolute\ntruth. It is sometimes helpfvd to have the children not sign their names\nto these essays, merely stating their age, school, and grade, and whether\nthe paper is from a boy or a girl. Thousands of such papers from school\nchildren in different cities have been gone over imder my direction, and\nare sometimes the most illuminating part of the entire study.\nThe theaters, moving-picture shows, dance halls, penny arcades,\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nA COMMUNITY\n\nAND\n\nITS RECREATION\n\nNEEDS\n\n233\n\nshooting-galleries, amusement parks, bowling-alleys, billiard halls, and\nother forms of commercial recreation are visited during the course of\nthe survey, at enough different times to be sure that a typical week's\nattendance is being observed, and if necessary a disguise is used to avoid\nattracting attention. Likewise information is gathered from private\ninstitutions such as churches, lodges, and clubs, and from public institutions like parks, libraries, and museums, to see how much they are really\nbeing used for recreation purposes. In getting this information, a record\nis sought not only of the number of people reached by each institution\nin a week, month, or year, but also how much of the recreational life of\nthose reached is furnished by the given institution.\nWhen it comes to forming a definite plan for the building-up of a\nrecreation system in any community, certain practical facts must be\ncarefully considered, such as the probable financial resources of any\ndepartment imder which the recreation work is to be carried on, the type\nof administrators who are likely to control, and the amount of freedom\nfrom pernicious political influence possible. Here it is often not a case\nof any theory of city government, but a case of deciding whether Mr.\nJohn Smith, or his successors, in a certain position of power, is likely to\nbe more effective than Mr. Charles Jones, and his successors, in some\nother position of power.\nSome of the surveys already carried on have revealed striking facts.\nThus it has been foimd in certain cities that over one-half the children\nwere doing nothing after school hours, neither playing nor working;\nthat 70 per cent of children were on the streets; that there was less for\nthe girls than for the boys to do in the way of play; that the movingpicture shows were drawing every week a number of patrons equal to\ntwice the population of the entire city; that only from 2 to 9 per cent\nof the space not taken by streets or alleys was free for play, even in cities\nnot considered very congested; that a number of people equal to onehalf the population of a given city were strolling on a given 10 blocks\nof one street every week.\nTo show concretely the problem before an adequate recreation system,\nlet us take the illustration of one of the smaller cities surveyed, a place\nof 130,000 inhabitants. In this city were found 25,000 children and yovmg\npeople who would be dependent on some form of public recreation for\nthe proper use of their spare time. This was due to the fact that, owing to\nthe congestion of population or home conditions, they were unable to\nsecure this wholesome recreation by their own efiforts. In this city the\nschool enrollment was somewhat under 20,000 people. Experts have\ncalculated that the amoimt of recreation time per week varies from 20\nto 40 hours with people of different ages. A school system occupies\nthe time of its pupils from 25 to 40 hours per week, according to the\namount of outside study required.\nEflScient, clean-cut habits of thought\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand character are developed by the really successful school system. Wellsupervised recreation develops habits of quickness of thought, fair play,\nand teamwork which last thruout life. In point of numbers reached, of\nhours influenced, of lasting effect on character, the task before a recreation\nsystem is not less diflScult than that before a school system.\nThe work of the school systems of the country deserves every dollar\nappropriated to it, but much of the millions of dollars invested in our\nschool systems is wasted owing to the fact that, outside of school, children\nform wrong habits due to unwholesome play conditions, and develop\ntraits of character which make much of their school training useless.\nBecause of the size of the task before an adequate recreation system,\nbecause of the need of a recreation system to save from loss the enormous\ninvestments in schools and other mimicipal services, because of the call\nto avoid duplication and waste in the face of this immet need, many\ncommunities are trying to find out and to plan systematically for their\nrecreational needs.\nLet me conclude this outline with two quotations from papers written\nby school children.\nThe first was written by a girl of fourteen:\nIn the evenings when I go out to play, or the children round our way, we do not\nhave anywhere to play, because the people that haven't any children fuss if we go in\nfront of their house. There aren't any playgrounds around for us to play in.\n\nThe other was written by a boy of thirteen:\nI went to the moving pictures and stayed until late. I would have kicked football,\nbut the people would not allow it because of the dust. I threw a few rocks at some\nNegroes. For fun I get the football and kick it until I am told to go away, and then I\ngo to the alley. It cuts the ball to have it kicked on the cobble-stones. I with several\nother boys play on the railroad bridge, jmnping, resting from the heat of the sim, and\nlearning to run fast and to do tricks on the ties. If we are careful we don't often skin\nour shins.\n\nThe girl who cannot play because the folks who have no children\nfuss if she plays in front of their house, the boy who throws rocks at\nNegroes because he cannot kick a football, are but types of recreation\nproblems. In all our surveys and statistics, we should keep clearly in\nmind that the purpose of them all is to save and develop character — the\ncharacter of the children and young people of this country, the most\nprecious asset which it possesses.\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION\nOF SCHOOLHOUSE ARCHITECTURE\nTHE SOCIAL CENTER MOVEMENT\nDWIGHT\n\nH. PERKINS,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nTO\n\nILL.\n\nThe recent form of social awakening known as the \"social center\nmovement\" is already touching the arts, and making occasion for new\narchitectural forms, since it presents the problem of housing new and\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTERS\n\n235\n\ndistinctly modem needs. This movement differs from its predecessor, the\nsettlement movement, in that it is purely co-operative, not philanthropic\nin character. It is one of the latest and best incarnations of the spirit of\ndemocracy and, since the public school is perhaps the best expression of\nour national spirit, and the citadel of our democratic institutions, the relationship between the social center movement and the public school is\nbound to be natural and fundamental.\nA study of the growing use of schools for social and civil, as well as\neducational, activities will reveal the tendency of the times and the present\nand desirable relationship of schoolhouse architecture to the social center\nmovement. While this influence has not as yet produced a complete and\ndistinctive type of schoolhouse planning, its effect upon building in general\nis marked in other directions, and is more and more modifying the arrangement and style of buildings for educational purposes from the kindergarten\nto the college.\nThe time has gone by forever when a building with a suflScient number\nof classrooms and, to some extent at least, ventilated and warmed will be\nconsidered an adequate or proper school to house even the recognized\npresent-day needs of a community. We are in the transition stage of\ngrowth.\nThe most obvious effect upon schools up to the present day has been\nthat the front door of the schoolhouse is left unlocked for a greater period\neach day and for more and more days in the year, so that the key is becoming less and less necessary and ultimately may be thrown away. In other\nwords, the first great change due to the insistence of the public to reclaim\nits own has been the greater use of school buildings rather than any specific\nchange of form or structure.\nThis change of use has come about first in the yards, their equipment\nas playgrounds and their use during vacations, bringing with it directed\nplay. The period of such occupation is expanding to conform to seasons\nand is overlapping the school term, both before and after summer vacation;\nA similar overlapping is taking place before and after school hours each\nday, and that extension is a direct response to the public demands for\nevening use of gymnasiums and assembly halls.\nIt is the common thing now to build elementary city schools with thirty\nor more square feet of playground space per pupil. It is also usual to\narrange space for ornamental and experimental gardens and to plan for\nassembly halls and at least one gymnasium as well as rooms and equipment for domestic science and manual training. It is also common now\nto see high schools with natatoriums and with two gymnasiums — and to\nsee them located in spacious groimds and athletic fields; Modem high\nschools include not only large assembly halls but small lecture and society\nrooms as well. Shops for the many occupations of both men and women are\nrealities; even the lunch-room is not omitted from the high school of today.\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nAn exhibition of plans of new and recently proposed school buildings\nwould be an inspiring revelation of the extent to which the public mind has\nfixed itself on the enlarged use of schools and the rapidity with which school\nplanning is responding to these ideas. But without waiting for the tangible form of new ideals, the existing features are being thrown open evenings to the parents and to young men and young women employed in the\ndaytime, not only for their education, but for their entertainment and\nsocial contact as well.\nHow shall this be done without interference with the school child and\nwithout too great a burden upon the taxpayer ? For one thing, by a systematic arrangement of hours which would make possible the use of buildings and equipment already installed and otherwise idle during long periods\nof time. The expense then becomes limited to the services performed by\nteachers, play-leaders, and janitors. Of the services of teacher and playleader, it is not the province of the architect to speak. As to the janitor\nservice and the control or segregation, we can observe existing schools in\nsocial center use, as well as social center buildings not connected as yet\nwith our school systems, and learn from them the extent and manner in\nwhich the growing demands are shaping our educational buUdings.\nAs to the schools themselves, it has long been the custom to install\nsmall separate heating units so that the assembly hall, or public portions\nonly, may be heated in the evening without rimning the large plant necessary to warm and ventilate the entire building.\nThe increasing use of impervious materials for walls and floors\nof assembly halls and corridors lessens the work and expense of cleaning.\nIn some instances the public portions of the stairs and corridors may be\nchained off to limit the areas accessible to evening gatherings, thus minimizing service, but it is now a recognized demand, usually complied with,\nthat the public rooms shall have separate public entrances. This removes\nall opportimity for entrance into unused portions during the evening.\nOne may observe today in many localities school buildings embracing\nassembly halls with stages large enough and adequately equipped for\namateur or professional dramatics, for choral work, for lectures, including\nstereopticon illustration, and for physical culture exhibitions. One may\nalso see branch libraries with separate entrances and arrangements fewschool and neighborhood uses of all kinds. These features, with the\ndouble gymnasiums and natatoriums mentioned above, constitute most,\nif not all, of the elements already developed and used in response to the\nsocial center idea and the enlarged educational outlook up to the present\ntime. One cannot help observing that the influence of the social center\nis not limited to the \"out-of-hour\" periods and to the adults, but that it\nalso broadens and deepens the daytime work for the school children as well.\nWhat, then, shall we say of the influences now at work and of the\neffects they will produce ?\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTERS\n\n237\n\nFirst, what are those influences ? What is it that the social center idea\ndemands? Upon what assumptions is that idea based? The basic\nassumption, I beheve, is that education does not cease on commencement\nday; that it is a never-ending process and the so-called school of life maybe augmented vastly by continuing its partnership with the established\neducational institution to the end. Also, that the full education of the\nchild demands co-operation and interested acquaintance with the school on\nthe part of the parents and, as embracing all of these, that no community\ncan rise to its greatest possible development without that experience, in\nrealized and applied democracy, which seizes upon the school as the natural\nand proper instrument for its educational, social, and recreational functions.\nThose fimctions are, in fact, the ones upon which the permanence and\ngrowth of our political and economic freedom depend. The social center\nidea is, therefore, the movement to acquire the proper conditions for community life. The influences or effects of that idea are felt not only in the\nschool, but in every portion of our civic life, and a study of them may help\nus to perceive their future course.\nWe will observe these influences:\nFirst: In the enlarged uses of existing schools, already referred to.\nSecond: In our parks, playgrounds, and bathing-beaches, and the buildings therein.\nThird: In the numerous organized efforts at social betterment, known as settlements,\nsuch as Hull House, the Commons, the University of Chicago Settlement, and a dozen\nothers in Chicago, and buildings for similar purposes in every large city in the United\nStates.\nFourth: In the buildings of commerce and industry where one's time is spent after\nleaving school in activities to which school work is becoming more and closely related.\nFifth: In the Y.M.C.A.'s, the association buildings, and clubs of all kinds.\n\nThese have all sprung from social demands and in most cases are free\nfrom the dictation of unrelated tradition. From all of these the educator\nand his architect must learn. We have become accustomed to saying, with\nJohn Dewey, that education is life and that we learn by doing, but we seem\nimaware that the same principle applies in architecture, and that in schools,\nmore than in any other class of buildings, it is imperative that one be governed by principle rather than tradition, that needs should govern structure\nand form.\nIt must be admitted that the park, library, and settlement boards have\nblazed the trail which boards of education must follow, for all must unite\nto establish all these efforts on a firm economic basis by wise co-ordination\nof public agencies. Why should one of my dollars be spent by a park\nboard, another by a library board, still another by a school board, and a\nfourth contributed more or less tmderstandingly to be spent by a settlement board, when all four are for the same essential purpose and could be\nadministered to double or treble the advantage if done by one agency,\naccording to one plan in one group of buildings arranged to avoid wasteful\nduplication of construction and maintenance ?\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWe need to understand that the newly devised systems of scientific\nmanagement of private business apply equally well to civic and social\naffairs. When can such waste of money, and the waste of the more precious\ntime of people, young and old, be stopped ? Not until the educators apply\nin their buildings what they are already applying in their teachings. Not\nimtil in their buildings, as well as in their teachings, they prepare and\narrange for all phases of life, will proper organization of the numerous\nseparate and wasteful agencies take place. Wise consolidation would conserve the public resource which is ample for all our needs, if waste be eliminated and increased efficiency be secured.\nThe influence of social centers is toward the promotion of such consolidation. That influence is now operative; it responds to a social himger\nwhich is as real as bodily himger, altho it may not be named and labeled.\nIt has already begim to show itself in some of our high schools where the\nvarious educational activities are housed in separate buildings, capable\nof separate opening and use, but connected with each other by covered\ncorridors and in buildings separated sufficiently to remove interference\nby one with another part, but where all are grouped around one central\nor academic portion.\nThis educational, social idea has shown its progress in the construction\nof gymnasiums and swimming-pools which are intended for public use at\nall periods of the year, not interfering with student use, particularly in\nsiunmer, when the classrooms are closed. It has also found expression\nin the small lecture-room where \"high-school extension\" work, similar to\nuniversity extension, can be carried on, and in rooms for clubs, societies,\nand organizations of minors and adults.\nBut of the future — ^what is to be the influence of social centers in our\nschools ?\nFirst: It will demand and ultimately produce a real solution of present-day problems still unsettled; that is, it will cause a system of lighting that shall protect the eyes\nwithout the loss of architectural effect or interior finish.\nSecond: It will demand real ventilation with himiidity and not too much heat,\nrepeating more nearly than we now think possible the conditions of out-of-doors.\nThird: Sanitation, ease of cleaning, must be accomplished. Impervious floors,\nnow common in corridors, must be introduced into the classrooms. The dirt-holding\nmaple floor, with its countless joints, must go, to be replaced by a floor with the quahties\nof asphalt, plus good color. This will make the usual fixed seats impractical and cause\na substitution of portable school seats and desks. The result will be greater sanitation\nand greater flexibility for varied uses as well. The fixed seat must go.\nFourth: Fireproof conditions are assumed — that requirement does not need restatement, but it should carry with it impervious wall surfaces as well, for sanitary reasons.\nThese can be built and colored so as to satisfy aesthetic and homelike desires.\nFifth: More land will be required and provided. Most of our problems can be\nsolved by appropriating more land. Land for light, land for air, land for play, land for\nbeauty, land for changes, land for growth, and land for lower buildings.\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTERS\n\n239\n\nThe one-story top-lighted school has akeady been bmlt. It is being repeated. The\ncottage unit, properly grouped, must come. The large, forbidding, overpowering institution must go. The unfortunate classes now have the advantages of the cottage plan.\nWhy should the advantage not be enjoyed by the normal child as well as the — I was\ngoing to say bad one, but instead I will say the uneducated child ?\nSixth : Schools are located in all residence districts as dose to houses as possible.\nThis is merely for convenience. Today country schools for city children are not feasible,\nbut with increased transportation facilities properly safeguarded, what is the reason that\nour children cannot be taken to the country daily for schooling ? This is not altogether\nnew. In a certain school in Denmark they have been doing it for forty years or more.\nThe children study one-third the time, work one-thitd, and play one-third, and enjoy life\nall the time.\nOne of Chicago's most valuable public-spirited citizens was brought up in this particular school and does honor to the system there employed.\nThe land question will not be so difficult under such a scheme. Remote schools do\nnot conflict with the social center idea. The word \"center\" is not be taken in a geographical sense, but instead, in a human sense.\nSeventh: The idea will ultimately compel schools with smaller units but more of\nthem in one group. Ultimately separate high schools — except for specialized technical\ntraining — will disappear to be replaced by schools built for twelve or thirteen grades\ninstead of eight or nine. Instance, the normal school at Normal, 111., where this idea\nis already being built.\nEighth: I am optimistic enough to believe that when the public demands such schools\nas these it will have become so intelligent that it will no longer permit architects to inflict\ndesigns executed in old, dead, and inappropriate styles; that eventually the imperialism\nof Rome and the debasing sham of American galvanized-iron imitations of Rome wiU be\nrejected to be replaced by a style at once direct, honest, modest, sensible, enduring, and\nbeautiful. Then, and not till then, can we consistently preach these manly and womanly\nvirtues to students, for until then the influence of sham and vulgarity in buildings will\nmake itself felt above our words.\n\nIf it were in my province, I should like to speak of the political changes\nwhich will result from such growth. If the schools train citizens from the\nbeginning with such facilities, there will be a vastly better supply of men\nand women for social offices. As has been frequently said, the only cure\nfor bad politics is more politics, and I welcome the day when all the functions herein hinted at are added to government.\nIt will then be everyone's imavoidable duty to become an active citizen.\nWe need not fear sudden change. We know that all growth is gradual.\nWe need only tend in the right direction, and society will do its part.\nOur part is to build properly — to build what we do build so that changes\nand additions can be economically and conveniently made, as conditions\ndevelop. By so doing, we shall give to the teachers an instrument of service, making possible the greatest development of the individual for himself\nand for society. By so doing we shall give heed to the indisputable message\nnow proclaimed by social centers and will demonstrate the true relation of\nschoolhouse architecture to the social center movement.\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "24©\n\nC.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nTHE PUBLIC LIBRARY, THE PUBLIC SCHOOL, AND\nTHE SOCIAL CENTER MOVEMENT\n\nAKTHUR\n\nE.\n\nBOSTWICK,\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nThe center of a geometrical figure is important, not for its size and\ncontent, but for its position — ^not for what it is in itseK, but for its relations\nto the other elements of the figiire. And words used with derived meanings\nare used best when their original significations are kept in mind. The\nbusiness center of a city does not contain all of that city's commercial\nactivity; when we speak of the church as a religious center, we do not\nmean that there is to be no religious activity in the home or in other walks\nof life; as for the center of population of a large and populous country,\nit may be out in the prairie where neither man nor his dwellings are to be\nseen. All these centers are what they are because of certain relationships.\nIt is so with a social center. But social relationships cover a wide field.\nThe relationships of business, of religion, even of mere coexistence, are\nall social. May we have a center for so wide a range of activities ? Even\nthe narrower relations of business or of religion tend to form subsidiary\ngroups and to multiply subsidiary centers. In a large city we may have\nnot only a general business center but centers of the real estate business,\nof the hardware or textile trades, and so on. Qur religious afliliations\ncondense into denominational centers.\nIn the district of a large city where newly arrived foreign immigrants\ngather, you will be shown the group of blocks where the Poles or the Hungarians have segregated themselves from the rest, and even within these,\nthe houses where dwell families from a particular province or even from\none definite city or village. Man is social, but he is socially clannish, and\nthe broadest is not so much he who refuses to recognize these clan or caste\nrelationships as he who enters into the largest number of them — ^he who\nkeeps in touch with his childhood home, has a wide acquaintance among\nthose of his own religious faith and of his chosen business or profession,\nkeeps up his old college friendships, is interested in collecting coins or\npaintings and knows all the other collectors, is active in civic and charitable\nsocieties, takes an interest in education and educators, and so on. The\nsocial democracy that should succeed in abolishing all these groups or\nleveling them — that should recognize no relationships but the broader\nones that underly all human effort and feeling — the touches of nature that\nmake the whole world kin — ^would be barren indeed.\nWe cannot spare these fundamentals; we could not get rid of them if\nwe would; but civilization advances by building upon them, and to do away\nwith these additions woiJd be like destroying a city to get at its foundations, in the vain hope of securing some wide-reaching result in economics\nor aesthetics. Occupying a foremost place among these groupings is the\nlarge di-vision embracing our educational activities. And these are social\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\n241\n\nnot only in the broad sense, but also in the narrower- The intercourse of\nstudent with student in the school and even of reader with reader in the\nlibrary, especially in such departments as the children's room, is so obviously\nthat of society that we need dwell on it no further.\nThis intercourse, while a necessary incident of education in the mass,\nis only an incident. It is sufficiently obtrusive, however, to make it\nevident that any use of school or library building for social purposes is\nfit and proper. There is absolutely nothing new nor strange about such\nuse. 'In places that cannot afford separate buildings for these purposes,\nthe same edifice has often served for church, schoolhouse, public library,\nand as assembly room for political meetings, amateur theatricals, and\njuvenile debating societies. The propriety of all this has never been\nquestioned and it is difficult to see why it should not be as proper in a town\nof 500,000 inhabitants as in one of 500. The incidence of the cost is a\nmatter of detail. Why should such purely social use of these educational\nbuildings — always common in small towns — have been allowed to fall\ninto abeyance in the larger ones? It is hard to say; but with the recent\ngreat improvements in construction, the building of schools and libraries\nthat are models of beauty, comfort, and convenience, there has arisen a\nnot unnatural feeling in the public that all this public property should be\nput to fuller use. Why should children be forced to dance on the street\nor in some place of sordid association when comfortable and convenient\nhalls in library or school are closed and imoccupied? Why should the\nlocal debating club, the mothers' meeting — nay, why should the political\nward meeting be barred out? Side by side with this trend of public\nopinion there has been an awakening realization on the part of many\n'connected with these institutions that they themselves might benefit by\nsuch extended use.\nProbably this realization has come earlier and more fully to the library,\nbecause its educational function is directed so much more upon adults.\nThe library is coming to be our great continuation school — an institution\nof learning with an infinity of purely optional courses. It may open its\ndoors to any form of adult social activity.\nThere are forms of activity proper to a social center that require special\napparatus or equipment. These may be furnished in a building erected\nfor the purpose, as are the Chicago fieldhouses. Here we have swimmingpools, gymnasiums for men and for women, and all the rest of it. A\nbranch library is included and some would house the school also under the\nsame roof. We may have to wait long for the general adoption of such a\ncomposite social center. Our immediate problem is to supply an immediate\njieed by using means directly at our disposal. And it is remarkable how\nmany kinds of neighborhood activity may take place in a room unprovided\nwith any special equipment. A brief glance over our own records for only\na few months past enables me to classify them roughly as athletic or out-\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndoor, purely social, educational, debating, political, labor, musical, religious,\ncharitable or civic, and expository, besides many that defy or elude\nclassification.\nThe athletic or, outdoor organizations include the various turning or\ngymnastic clubs and the Boy and Girl Scouts; the social organizations\nembrace dancing-classes, \"welfare\" associations, alvmini and graduate\nclubs of schools and colleges, and dramatic clubs; the educational, which\nare very numerous, reading circles, literary clubs galore, free classes in\nchemistry, French, psychology, philosophy, etc., and all such organizations as the Jewish Culture Club, the Young People's Ethical Society,\nthe Longan Parliamentary Class, and the Industrial and Business Women's\nEducational leagues. Religious bodies are parish meetings, committees\nof mission boards, and such organizations as the Theosophical Society;\ncharitable or civic activities include the National Conference of Day\nNurseries, the Central Council of Civic Agencies, the W.C.T.U., playground rehearsals for the Child Welfare Exhibit, and the Business Men's\nAssociation, and the Advertising Men's- League; musical organizations\nembrace St. Paul's Musical Assembly, the Tuesday Choral Club, etc.\nAmong exhibitions are local affairs such as wild flower shows, an exhibit\nof birdhouses, collections from the Educational Museum, the Civic League's\nMunicipal Exhibit, selected screens from the Child Welfare Exhibit, ^nd\nthe prize-winners from the St. Louis Art Exhibit held in the art room\nof our central library. Then we have the Queen Hedwig Branch, the\nClay School Picnic Association, the Aero Club, the Lithuanian Club,\nthe Philotechne Club, the Fathers' Club, and the United Spanish War\nVeterans.\nI trust you will not call upon me to explain the objects of some of\nthese, as such a demand might cause me embarrassment — «ot because\ntheir aims are imworthy, but because these are skillfully obscured by\ntheir names. If anyone believes that there is a limit to the capacity of\nthe himian race for forming groups and subgroups on a moment's notice,\nfor any reason or for no reason at all, I would refer him to our assembly\nroom and clubroom records; and he woiild find, I think, that these are\ntypical of every large library offering the use of such rooms somewhat\nfreely.\nIt will be noted that the library takes no part in organizing or operating\nany of these activities; it does not have to do so.\nThe successful leader is he who repairs to a hill and raises his standard,\nknowing that at sight of it followers will flock aroimd him. When you\ndrop a tiny crystal into a solution, the atoms all rush to it naturally: there\nis no effort or compulsion except that of the aptitudes that their Creator,\nhas implanted in them. So it is with all centers, business or religious or\nsocial. No one instituted a campaign to locate the business center of a\ncity at precisely such a square or comer. Things aggregate, and the point\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "f\n\nSessions]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\n243\n\nto which they tend is their center; they make it, it does not make them.\nThe leader on a hill is a leader because he has followers; without them he\nwould be but a lone warrior. The school or the library that says proudly\nto itself, \"Go to; I will be a social center,\" may find itself in the same\nlonely position. It can offer an opportunity: that is all. It can offer\nhouseroom to clubs, organizations, and groups of all kinds, whether permanent or temporary, large or small, but its usefulness as a social center\ndepends largely on the existence of these and on their desire for a meetingplace. We have in St. Louis six branch libraries with assembly rooms\nand clubrooms — in all a dozen or so. I have before me the calendar for\na single week and I find 55 engagements, running from 24 at one branch\ndown thru 13, 8, 6, and 3 to one. If I had before me only the largest\nnumber I should conclude that branch libraries as social centers were a\nhowling success; if only the smallest, I should say that they were dismal\nfailures. Why the difference ? For the same reason that the leader who\ndisplays his standard may or may not be surrounded with eager \"flocking\"\nfollowers. There may be no one within earshot, or they may have no'\nstomach for the war, or they may not be interested in the cause that he\nrepresents. Or again, he may not shout loud or persuasively enough,\nor his standard may not be attractive enough in form or color, or mounted\non a sufliciently high staff.\nI have said that all we can offer is opportunity; to change our figure,\nwe can furnish the drinking-fountain — thirst must bring the horse to it.\nBut we must not forget that we offer our opportunity in vain unless we are\nsure that everyone who might grasp it realizes our offer and what it means.\nHere is the chance for personal endeavor. If the young people in a\nneighborhood continue to hold their social meetings over a saloon when\nthe branch library or the school is perfectly willing to offer its assembly\nroom, it is pretty certain that they do not understand that offer, or that\nthey mistrust its sincerity, or that there is something wrong that might\nbe remedied by personal effort. In the one of our branches that is most\nused by organizations there is this personal touch. But I should hesitate\nto say that the others do not have it too. There are plenty of organizations near this busiest library and there are no other good places for them\nto meet. In the neighborhood of some other branches there are other\nmeeting-places, and elsewhere, perhaps, the social instinct is not so strong,\nor at any rate the effort to organize is lacking. Should the librarian step\nout and attempt to stimulate this social instinct and to guide this organizing\neffort ? There is room for difference of opinion here.\nPersonally I think that he should not do it directly and officially as a\nlibrarian. He may do it quietly and unobtrusively like any other private\ncitizen, but he needs all his efforts, all his influence, to bring the book and\nthe reader together in his community. Sometimes by doing this he can\nbe doing the other too, and he can always do it vicariously.\nHe should\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbear in mind that the successful man is not he who does everything himself, but he who can induce others to do things — to do them in his way\nand to direct them toward his ends. Even in the most sluggish, the most\nindifferent community there are these potential workers with enthusiasms\nth^t need only to be awakened to be let loose for good. The magic key\nis often in the librarian's girdle, and his free offer of house room and sympathy, with good literature thrown in, will always be of powerful assistance\nin this kind of effort. He will seldom need to do more than to make clear\nthe existence and the nature of the opportunity that he offers. I know\nthat there are some librarians and many more teachers who hesitate to\nopen their doors in any such way as this; who are afraid that the opportunities offered will be misused or that the activities so sheltered will be\nmisjudged by the public. It has shocked some persons that a yoimg\npeople's dancing-class has been held, under irreproachable auspices, in\none of our branch libraries; others have been grieved to see that political\nward meetings have taken place in them, and that some rather radical\npolitical theories have been debated there. These persons forget that a\nlibrary never takes sides. It places on its shelves books on the Civil\nWar from the standpoint of both North and South, histories of the great\nreligious controversies by both Catholics and Protestants, ideas and theories\nin science and philosophy from all sides and at all angles. It may give\nroom at one time to a yovmg people's dancing-class and at another to a\nmeeting of persons who condemn dancing. Its walls may echo one day\nto the praises of our tariff system and on another to fierce denunciations\nof it.\nThese things are all legitimate and it is better that they should take\nplace in a library or a school building than in a saloon or even in a grocery\nstore. The influence of environment is gently pervasive. I may be wTong,\nbut I cannot help thinking that it is easier to be a gentleman in a library,\nwhether in social meeting or in political debate, than it is in some other\nplaces. In one of our branches there meets a club of men who would be\ntermed anarchists by some people. The branch librarian assures me that\nthe brand of anarchism that they profess has grown perceptibly milder\nsince they have met in the library. It is getting to be literary, academic,\nphilosophic. Nourished in a saloon, with a little injudicious repression,\nit might perhaps have borne fruit of bombs and dynamite.\nIn this catholicity I cannot help thinking that the library as an educational institution is a step ahead of the school. Most teachers would\nresent the imputation of partisanship on the part of the school, and yet\nit is surely partisan — in some ways rightly and inevitably so. One cannot\nwell explain both sides of any question to a child of six and leave its decision\nto his judgment. This is obvious; and yet I cannot help thinking that\nthere is one-sided teaching of children who are at least old enough to know\nthat there is another side, and that the one-sided teaching of two-sided\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\n245\n\nsubjects might be postponed in some cases until two-sided information\nwould be possible and proper. Where a child is taught one side and finds\nout later that there is another, his resentment is apt to be bitter; it spoils\nthe educational effect of much that he was taught and injures the influence\nof the institution that taught him. My resentment is still strong against\nthe teaching that hid from me the southern viewpoint concerning slavery\nand secession, the Catholic viewpoint of what we Protestants call the\nReformation — dozens of things omitted from textbooks on dozens of subjects because they did not happen to meet the approval of the textbook\ncompiler. I am no less an opponent of slavery — I am no less a Protestant —\nbecause I know the other side, but I think I am a better man for knowing\nit, and I think it a thousand pities that there are thousands of our fellowcitizens, on all sides of all possible lines, from whom our educative processes\nhave hid even the fact that there is another side. This question, as I\nhave said, does not affect the library, and fortunately need not affect it.\nAnd as we are necessarily two-sided in our book material so we can open\nour doors to free social or neighborhood use without bothering our heads\nabout whether the users are Catholics, Protestants, or Jews; Democrats,\nRepublicans, or Socialists; Christian Scientists or suffragists. The library\nhands out suffrage and anti-suffrage literature to its users with the same\nsmile, and if it hands the anti-suffrage books to the suffragist, and vice\nversa, both sides are certainly the better for it.\nI have tried to make it clear in what I have said that in this matter of\nsocial activity, public institutions should go as far as they can in furnishing\nfacilities without taking upon themselves the burden of administration.\nI believe fully in municipal ownership of all kinds of utilities, but rarely\nin municipal operation. Municipal ownership safeguards the city, and\nprivate or corporate operation avoids the numerous objections to close\nmimicipal control of detail. So the library authorities may retain sufficient\ncontrol of these social activities by the power that they have of admitting\nthem to the parts of the buildings provided for them, or of excluding them\nat any time. The activities themselves are better managed by voluntary\nbodies, and, as I have said, there is no indication that the formation of\nsuch bodies is on the wane. The establishment and operation of a musical\nor athletic club, a debating society, or a Boy Scouts company, are surely\nquite as educational as the activities themselves in which their members\nengage. Do not let us arrogate to ourselves such opportunities as these.\nI should be inclined to take this attitude also with regard to the public\nplaygrounds, were they not somewhat without the province of this paper;\nand I take it very strongly with regard to the public school. Throw open\nthe school buildings as soon as you can, and as freely as you can, to every\nlegitimate form of social activity, but let your relationship to this activity\nbe like that of the center to the circle — in it and of it, but embracing no\npart of its areal content.\nSo, I am convinced, will it be best for all of us —\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIGcneral\n\nfor ourselves, the administrators of public property, and for the public,\nthe owning body which is now demanding that it shall not be barred out\nby its servants from that property's freest and fullest use.\nD.\n\nTHE ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION\nTION AND SOCIAL CENTER WORK\nERICH\n\nC.\n\nSTERN,\n\nMEMBER\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nLEGISLATURE,\n\nOF RECREA-\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nThere has of late been a marked development in a variety of tendencies,\nfamiliar to this audience, all seeming to converge toward what is here called\nthe movement for recreational, social, and civic opportunity.\nThere is, for example, the tendency, upon purely economic grounds,\ntoward a more extended and continuous use of the school plant. People\nrealize that it is poor economy to allow this very expensive system of\nbuildings and play places to stand idle so much of the time.\nAgain, there is a growing demand for the very facilities which the\nschool plant furnishes. Revived ideals of neighborliness, a new social\nconscience, the sense of the shame of our cities, stimulate community\naction thru civic clubs. The need of a neighborhood hearth, so to speak,\n'finds the deserted school buildings and raps for admission.\nFrom within the schools themselves comes a demand for their wider\nuse, arising from a broadened conception of their social responsibilities.\nManual training, gymnastics, cooking, gardening, and well-equipped playgrounds bear witness to this broader conception, as do also the evening\nand vacation schools, and more lately the trade and vocational training\nschools.\nMany of these demands for a more thoro exploitation of the school\nplant are embraced in another great movement, whose aim is the establishment of social centers, with emphasis upon supervised play and pure\nrecreation.\nApart from the school-realm proper there are kindred factors of great\nsignificance. Foremost among these is the National Playground and\nRecreation Association. This association teaches the need of wisely\ndirected play and recreation, which must be \"educational, and yet without\nany suggestion of the organization or atmosphere of the school.\"\nAnother related tendency is found in the increase of mimicipal functions.\nIn addition to parks and playgrounds, cities are called upon to furnish\nnatatoria, bathing-beaches, outdoor gymnasia, recreation buildings, and\nneighborhood centers, and to arrange popular entertainment for Independence Day and other holidays in order to render their observance more\n\"sane\" and attractive, while libraries are reaching out by means of branches\nand are actively seeking patronage.\nNow all these tendencies are factors in the movement for recreational.\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nAND\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF WORK\n\n247\n\nsocial, and civic opportunity. Hence to unify this movement for purposes\nof systematic administration, all these factors must be taken into account\nand their common characteristics discovered. At once it is plain that all\nthese matters have to do with education. Altho public recreation must\nnot be paralyzed by formal education, neither must it be confounded with\nhaphazard play. It is to be educational recreation. In the next place\nwe are struck with the fact that these tendencies are very largely focused\nupon the school plant which furnishes the greatest facilities ready at hand.\nMany do not appreciate the full truth of this because they fail to see in the\ntraditional education and old type of schoolhouse any susceptibility for\nexpansion and readaptation. The movement for public recreation is really\na movement to make education overflow its previous bounds, both theoretical and physical, and, without disturbing the kernel of formal instruction,\nto give its beneficent powers a wide scope.\nThus far the component factors of the recreation movement have not\nbeen unified, but have been advocated as separate causes by individuals\nand associations that have led the advance in their respective communities.\nIt was the period of experimentation and of propaganda thru private initiative. But gradually, out of the confusion of many impulses, the sense\nof relationship has emerged and citizens generally have come up with the\nleaders. Hence the demand that these related matters be systematically\nco-ordinated, and taken over and carried on by some regularly constituted\nmunicipal authority.\nThe problem therefore is, What shall this authority be? Shall it be\na new and separate agency, or shall it be an already existing department?\nThe plan for an independent branch of government to carry on this\nwork has many able advocates. It is felt by them that the subject of\npublic recreation is not only of enough importance to be placed under a\nseparate board, but that it is so distinct from other community interests\nthat no existing board can safely be intrusted with its development and\nadministration. This has notably been the tendency where the approach\nto the recreation movement has been thru the playground rather than thru\nthe school. Hence in many cities the voluntary playground associations\nof earlier days have been given the dignity of recreation commissions under\nmunicipal sanction. An independent board undoubtedly has certain advantages, particularly during the developing period. And such a board is\nabsolutely necessary where existing agencies show a lack of hospitality to\nthe newer functions which may still prove to be properly theirs.\nNevertheless, the commission form of control is open to certain weighty\nobjections, especially if we assume that the period of propaganda and surveys has passed, and the time arrived for a logical, efl&cient, and permanent\nmethod of administration. Americans have become prodigal of commissions. They are born of enthusiasm but soon languish because of inefficiency. They may be very useful to draw attention to a new idea, but\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nusually fail to develop it. Of course this does not apply to the well-paid\nexpert commissions of modern government, with well-defined duties and\nlarge responsibilities. But irresponsible, unpaid boards of \"leading citizens\" too often prove ephemeral and lacking in the power of sustained\neffort. And, besides, their multiplication tends toward undesirable confusion of governmental machinery.\nAnother strong objection to the recreation commission, as a permanent\ndevice, follows from the wrong assumption that recreation is a distinct\nmunicipal function. Recreation is doubly related to other functions such\nas the schools, the parks, the libraries. It is related to them, first, in that\nit proposes to liberalize them, and further because it has to use their facilities. It has almost no tools apart from theirs. Nearly all recreational\nfacilities which our cities have, or are likely to have, are found in connection with the school plant, the park system, the streets, and existing public\nbuildings, all of which are under the jurisdiction of their respective boards.\nOn account of this double relationship, recreation commissions would inevitably entail division of authority between themselves and these other\nboards; not necessarily hostile conflict, but most certainly ample opportunity for friction, and a dissipation of responsibility which is not favorable\nto efficient administration.\nAnother aspect of the problem which casts doub't upon the expediency of a separate department is to be found in the mere size of the\nadministrative machinery required. The fully developed system of recreation will be ubiquitous and coextensive with the boundaries of the cities.\nTo start even a single playground properly you must have a trained supervisor. For a vast system of playgrounds, you will not only need a large\nnumber of such experts, but you must have the whole hierarchy of employees,\nwith all the machinery for their fit selection, consisting of a central\noffice force, superintendent, secretary, directors, teachers, and a host of\nmore or less skilled subordinates, down to the caretakers of the grounds\nand shelters. Now add to this the recreational activities in the parks and\nstreets and within the schools and other public buildings, and it becomes\napparent that systematic recreation requires administrative machinery of\ngreat magnitude and complexity, comparable with no other department\nsave that under the board of education. But that depkartment has the\nnecessary organization. Would the duplication of this machinery be\njustified?\nIf the plan of a separate department be rejected, the next question is,\nWhich of the existing agencies of city government is the logical one to\nundertake the administration of systematic recreation? Everything that\nhas already been said clearly points to the board of education. It appears\nthat the problem is essentially bound up with education; that the requirements call for extensive and costly facilities and for highly organized\nadministrative machinery.\nNot only does the school plant extend into\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nAND\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF WORK\n\n249\n\nevery neighborhood and offer the greatest opportunity for supplying\nrecreation, but in many cities it is now used for this purpose, and in many\nmore the same thing is urged. As for the administrative feature, the school\ndepartment already has such various subdivisions as music, gymnastics,\ntruancy, medical inspection, manual training, etc. It would be quite\nsimple to add a division for recreation and social centers. With a really\nworthy supervisor at the head of this division, having at his disposal adequate funds, no reason is perceived why the new work would not thus be\nmost satisfactorily advanced.\nOn behalf of a separate board it is often argued that, since its sole\ninterest would lie in recreation, it would further this cause with singleness\nof purpose. But it is to be observed that an even greater concentration\nof duties would result from the appointment, by an enlightened school\nboard, of a supervisor of recreation. And in addition the supervisor,\nbeing a paid expert, would give promise of more continuity of purpose than\na commission, while the whole organization of the education department\nwould imply a guaranty of efficiency.\nThe fact is that, whether or not you have a recreation commission, the\nschoolhouses and adjacent playgroimds are going to be greatly modified\nso as to meet the new demands made upon them. When school boards\nthemselves come to take a broader view of their functions, as they inevitably must, they will not permanently tolerate a division of jurisdiction\nin their domain. Consequently the establishment of a separate board\nwould after all not succeed in finally co-ordinating all recreational activities.\nThru the school board and its supervisor of recreation complete co-ordination inthis field can, it is beheved, be attained. All playgrounds outside\nthe parks and many other recreational facilities could safely be turned over\nentirely to such an official. In other cases the matter would have to be\nleft to mutual arrangement between the school boards and other boards.\nThis, to be sure, would still leave some division of authority; but it would\nbe reduced to a minimum, and, being based upon logical grounds, would\nnot often give rise to friction. The average park board, for example, realizes that it has neither the equipment nor the means to carry on quasieducational work, and will be glad to be relieved of such a burden. The\nschool board, on the other hand, has both the fimctional and administrative\nrequirements, and its wonderful system of buildings and playgrounds is\nthe very fulcrum of the recreation movement. In its case the question\nis only one of rising to the occasion.\nIt is by no means the purpose here to dogmatize. The desire is merely\nto make some general suggestions based upon an analysis of the recreation\nmovement. Until the separate factors of the movement have been fused\nthru a realization of their common purpose, their development should be\nnaturally determined by local conditions. Every impulse in the right\ndirection should be gratefully accepted, whether it leads to the establish-\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "25©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nment of a playground, a social center, or a new city plan. Nevertheless\nit will aid thoughtful citizens in wisely directing and molding these tendencies to appreciate their inner meaning and the conditions of the problem\nas a whole. It will prevent them from confounding temporary expedients\nwith permanent organization and administration.\nTo educational authorities the recreation movement appears to present\nboth a warning and an opportunity. The warning is to be found in a\nreport by an able committee upon this very subject which says that a\nrecreation commission is to be preferred, because school boards lack social\ninsight and cannot appreciate at their real values such phases as hygiene,\nexercise, pleasure, and informality. Without mental alertness, school\nboards will soon awake to find the fields of education doubled and trebled,\nbut themselves not partaking of the new pastures. The opportunity\nwhich the situation presents to school authorities lies in the chance of\nassuming the leadership in a new movement of very large significance.\nShould they do so, formal education will not suffer but will, on the contrary,\nby reason of broader contacts, be vitalized and dignified.\n\nE.\nHERBERT\n\nTHE SOCIAL CENTER\nQUICK,\n\nEDITOR\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\n\"FARM\n\nTHE RURAL\nAND\n\nFIRESIDE,\"\n\nCOMMUNITY\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe conscious demand for organized social centers is a thing of recent\ngrowth. Like most conscious social demands, it springs from a need too\nlong left unfilled. Those of us who feel the call to action in this new cause\nshould if possible formulate to our own minds the need to be met.\nThe movement has been most vigorous in certain cities. It has taken\nin some places the form of entertaiimient courses, closer to the community\nthan the theater or the Y.M.C.A. or the ministrations of the lecture platform. It has thus been urged as a means of bringing literature and art\ninto the neighborhood. But I think it would be a mistake to identify the\nsocial center movement with entertainment only.\nIn other places and at other times it has assumed the phase of offering\nto neighborhoods dances and social functions of a more local character and\na more unobjectionable sort than the similar affairs offered for profit by\nindividual promoters. But I feel sure that the movement means more than\nsocial intercourse and amusement.\nOn other occasions it has sought to bring the people together for the\ndiscussion and consideration of sociological and political questions, and for\ndebates and literary exercises. This has been successful in stimulating the\ncitizenship to more active participation in public affairs. But the social\ncenter means much more than this, I feel sure. Entertainment, amusement, social functions, political and sociological discussion and debate —\nthese all belong in the picture; but there is an underlying psychological\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n251\n\ndemand which appears in all these functions and dominates them all.\nThat demand is, in my opinion, the feeling running all thru society that the\ncommon, ordinary citizen must learn to co-operate with his fellows as a\nmeans of fostering the common good. And when we come to consider the\nsocial center as related to the rural community, if the treatment is not to\ntake us outside the field of the social center as ordinarily conceived, we\nmust keep in mind the basis of the movement, the need for co-operative\naction in neighborhoods.\nWe are all familiar with the fact that as the nation grows older the\npeople seem in some way to become less homogeneous. The neighborhood\nfellowship which seems to prevail in European neighborhoods is the outgrowth of the ages. The country community which Hardy limns in his\nWessex parishes, or which Blackmore describes to us on Exmoor, or Scott\nin the lands north of the Tweed seem to possess a neighborhood solidarity\naltogether lacking in most American communities. We have thought that\nthis neighborship, needing centuries for its growth, might be expected in\nAmerica as a flower which time will cause to bloom. But American life\nseems to tend otherwise. In New England where the historic perspective\nis longest neighborship seems to be weakening as the years pass. The\nsocial relations in rural communities in most parts of the Middle West are\nnot as close as in the pioneer times when anyone was a neighbor who lived\nwithin ten miles, and the necessity of each leaning on the other in the\nstruggle with nature pressed upon everyone, and there was a felt need for\nthe making of new friends in the new environment. The telephone may\nbring people closer together, but the trolley, the motor car, the daily mail,\nand the increasing number of friends which the average farm family has\nin town, all, with many other factors, take the place of neighborship and\ntend to community individualism rather than neighborhood collectivism.\nThus we are forced to the conclusion that as yet none of the influences\nwhich have built up neighborhood groups in older nations are at work here.\nWe are justified in believing that inasmuch as American life is growing up\nwith no feudal and mediaeval background such influences will never come\ninto existence. And a close study of European rural life leads to the conclusion that the older rural groups are not of the sort which we should desire\nif we could have them, picturesque as they are in literature; and that the\nsuperiority which the European farmer exhibits as compared with the American farmer in the matter of rural organization is owing, not to historic\nfactors, but to developments which have sprung from conditions of the last\ndecades of the nineteenth century, and from the early years of the twentieth.\nThe Danish peasant is doing better than the American farmer in this respect,\nnot because he is old fashioned, but because he is up to date. The splendid\nachievements of the Irish farmers in co-operation, and the enormous successes ofthe peasants of Italy, Germany, and France, in co-operative banking come from the new life and not from the old. Everywhere, the new\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwine is being poured into new bottles, instead of the ancient vessels. The\nnew movements in rural life spell democracy, not privilege.\nRural communities need to get together; but the American farmer\nis too much of a utilitarian to yield to the attraction of amusement for its\nown sake, or offered culture, or debates, or lectures. He is hard headed\nand rather cynical about new things. Companionship with his fellows\nmay be needed, but the need is not fully confessed nor keenly felt. He is\nrather single-minded in his pursuit of profit in the material sense. Like\nall self-respecting people he objects to the process of being \"uplifted\" by\npeople who take a position above him. If social centers are to succeed in\nthe rural community, their success must come thru their ability to serve\nthe farmer and the farmer's wife along the lines of thought and endeavor\nwhich appeal to him.\nFor these reasons the church does not seem able to furnish the nucleus\nof the rural social center save in rare instances. Here and there, the rural\nchurch is doing good work in building up again the lost sense of neighborship; but on the whole churches are losing ground in the country. One\nof the gravest problems which confronts the churches is the problem of the\nebb-tide which is leaving stranded and abandoned churches on so many\ncountrysides. Moreover, the church cannot do the whole work. Many\npeople do not belong to any church. Those who do belong are divided\namong many denominations, which, if not warring on each other, are not\nco-operating, and are in no position to co-operate. The church cannot\ncall in aid the powers of taxation, nor the assistance of the state. It may\nbe a social center for the community, but it can never be, and should not\nbe, the social center.\nThe neighborhood club and the co-operative organization are doing\ngood work in places. Women's clubs have worked great changes in some\nrural neighborhoods. I know of some places where clubs of farmers' wives\nhave kept up for many years successful meetings of a character very similar\nto the gatherings of people interested in literature, current events, and\nmusic in cities. Some of these commimities are admirably served by these\nclubs. But on the whole I feel that there is less of this social activity than\nthere was thirty years ago. The clubs are better, perhaps, than were the\nold spelling-schools and \"literaries,\" but they are vastly fewer. The need\nfor social centers everywhere, as a potent force in American life as universal\nas the practice of agriculture, has no hope in these. The communities\nthat most need awakening are incapable of finding utility or amusement\nin these rather sophisticated and \"highbrowish\" affairs. Something more\nelemental and elementary, more useful and more profitable materially must\nappear.\nAlong with this demand for rural centers comes the admitted need for\na new kind of rural school. The rural school of today is apt to be in the\nmain a bad copy of a poor city school. It is not related to the country\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n253\n\nlife. It proceeds as if on the theory that farmers' sons should all become\nclerks or professional men engaged in urban employment and all country\ngirls stenographers, shopgirls, factory employees, or the wives of such\ncity-dwellers. This bias of the rural school against rural life is the one\ngreat scholastic blunder of this nation. It has acted as a powerful wind blowing the selfsame way with the baneful tide of allurement and economic\npressure which has been for so many fateful years, and still is, emptying\nthe farms into the cities.\nOur eyes are becoming opened to the destruction which such schools\nwork on our national life. The word has gone forth that the rural school\nmust be ruralized. It must be correlated with rural life. It must open\nthe eyes of the country children to the beauties of that field of nature in\nwhich the farmer acts with, and is reacted upon, by scientific truth. Our\narithmetic must deal with the quantities of soil constituents, farm inventories, eggs, poultry, cow-testing, and generally with the computation of\nproblems related to scientific agriculture. Every problem in mathematics\nmust be a problem in scientific rural life. Our nature-studies must deal\nno more with the koodoo, the mongoose, the toucan, and the aard-vark,\nbut rather with the cow, the hen, the hog, the horse, and the sheep. Our\nphysiologies must abandon the useless anatomies and terminologies of\nyesterday, and become comparative. The physiology of the domestic\nanimals must be considered with that of the human being to the end that\nwe shall know our animals while knowing ourselves, and each the better\nfor knowing the other; and our hygiene must take in the nutrition of these\nfriends of the barnyard and pasture. Thus the rural school shall become\na school of animal husbandry. Geography must so far include the study\nof soils that the child may know of the plant food in his father's farm,\nwhether he knows the capital of his state or not. Reading and spelling\nmust be related to the life of the farm. History must tell of the movements\nof agriculture, rather than of battles or political contests. Pupils will do\ntheir language work in reporting the results of experiments in farming,\nrather than in the diagramming of sentences or the parsing of words. And\nwhere such work in systematic grammar is done, the sentences chosen will\nbe such as to possess a background in the real life of the pupils, rdther than\nin mythology or the classics. The school will be completely ruralized.\nAnd in this process the cultural efl&ciency of the schools will be increased\ntenfold, because the children will not only imbibe ideas, but will use them.\nThe dreadful uselessness of most of our purely \"cultural\" studies lies in\nthe feeling on the part of the child that the whole matter is in an unreal\nworld of school and quite aside from the world of life. When the rural\nschools become real laboratories of farm life, when the boys and girls study\nin the schools the very things their parents are laboring with on the farm,\nthe habit of thinking about things rather than about words will give vigor\nto every phase of thought. If I desired to produce a generation of poets,\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nartists, mathematicians, and statesmen, I would begin by giving to the\nminds of the yoimg the real grain of scientific truth to grind, trusting to the\ninsatiable himger of the mind which grows by every morsel of truth consimaed by it. I once saw in one of these new rural schools a boy sitting,\nwith a rack of agricultural bulletins at his elbow, writing on raspberry\nculture. I asked him why he chose that topic for his essay. \" I'm growing\nraspberries for the market,\" said he. Language for this boy was a medium\nfor expressing thought, rather than for getting marks. He was interested in\nthe essay, but more in next year's crates of berries. Out of such conditions\nwill come pupils who will make the language glow with meaning, as do\nCaesar's Commentaries and Grant's Memmrs — and for the identical reason\nthat gives unmortality to these works as literature. In each case the\nwriter will have something to say.\nOut of this new kind of country school, I believe, will grow the new\nkind of rural social center. Already the Babcock milk-tester, the weed\ncabinet, the trap nest, the experimental plat of grain, vegetable, or flower\nare to be seen in and about the rural school. Wherever these schools are\ncorrelated with rural life, the social center springs up in the school spontaneously.am\nI convinced that if it is to live and serve it must so spring\nup. A farmer in Page County, Iowa, was rather opposed to the newfangled notion of teaching agriculture in the school. But after the milk\nof his cows had been tested in the school, as a part of its regular exercises,\nhe changed his mind. For by this test he discovered that cows which he\nhad thought as good as any were actually being kept at a loss. The simple\nclassroom experiment in natural philosophy had made it possible for this\nfamily to live a fuller and happier life. The school reacted on the home,\nand the home felt it. To this man, the school became as much a part of\nhis life as it had been of the life of his children. The correlated rural school\nthus becomes a continuation school for every man in the district. And for\nevery woman, too. The girls who compete in the cooking and sewing\ncontests bring their mother^ into the work of the schoolroom inevitably.\nA link is established connecting every farm with every other farm, and\nbinding them all together. A social center comes into being with or without meetings. But the meetings are inevitable, and with the fact of meetings come social relations, debates, lectures, moving-picture shows, and\nperhaps dances and games. The people meet because they have something to consult about, and not because some well-meaning person has\nsaid, \" Go to, now — let us be social.\"\nI am convinced that the school must furnish the nucleus of the rural\nsocial center of the future. It must do so by making its work a part of the\nfarm work of the community. It must do so by an appeal to the economic\nsense of the people. It must do so by taking over and performing a great\ndeal of work that can be done by the pupils to their great educational\nadvantage, and to the financial benefit of the farmers. The schools are\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n255\n\nequipped, or can equip themselves, to perform a great many such tasks.\nThey may carry on cow-testing work for the upbuilding of dairy herds.\nThey may work out balanced rations for the live stock and poultry of the\nneighborhood, in each case furnishing the farmer the instructions for\nmingling feeds, and telling what he should buy for the purpose of balancing\nthe diet. For these things are a matter of investigation which any advanced\nclass in a country school may do. They may keep records of the egg production ofthe various flocks, to the end that the best local strains may be\nknown. They may record increases in weights of the different lots of\nanimals being fed that the best rations and the best conditions and the best\nbreeds may be recognized. They may analyze every lot of seed brought\ninto the neighborhood, for foul seeds and for vitality. They may test the\nseed corn of the neighborhood, ear by ear, or if this seems impracticable,\nthey may make and send out the cabinets for such testing at the homes.\nThis work alone would add millions to the corn crop of any of our corngrowing states if it were universally carried out. They may test new\nvegetables and flowers. They may make garments for the homes. They\nmay develop the art of cookery to the great satisfaction of the housewives.\nThey may make war on flies and vermin. They may make the hookworm in\nour southern states a thing of the past. Some schools may do all of these\nthings now, and any school may do some of them. And as soon as this\nwork starts, the social center is well on the way to flourishing birth, whether\nit is intended or not.\nThere are other and higher tasks to which the rural schools may\naddress themselves as they gather strength by contact with truth-tasks\nbeyond the power of the ordinary farmer to perform. One of the greatest\nof these is the task of keeping the farm accounts. Many will be surprised\nat the statement that no satisfactory system of farm accounts of a statistical nature has as yet been worked out. So many agricultural economists\nare now at work on this matter, however, that we shall soon have, I doubt\nnot, as good a cost system for the farm as we have fer the factory. But\nit is certain that when the system is perfected it will be found too complex\nfor the farmer to keep. A proper cost system for a farm is vastly more\ncomplex than the books of a bank. The farmer could not keep it if he knew\nhow — it would take more time than he could give to it. But there seems\nto be no reason why the perfected rural school should not be able to keep\nthe perfected accounts for the farm. It would constitute work of the\nhighest educational value for the older pupils of the school. It would\ngradually accumvilate a mass of facts as to the profits and losses in farming which would be of priceless value to economists now if accessible. It,\nin connection with the tasks I have mentioned, with soil analysis, and\nthings generally which can be better done collectively than individually,\nwill make the rural school the best business college in the world.\nThe rural school will thus become a farm laboratory and a domestic\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "2S6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nscience school. As a continuation school in which the grown people as\nwell as the children are enrolled — in fact if not in form — it will command\nthe constant attention, and attract the intensest interest of every patron.\nNew buildings will be required, better grounds, and a stronger teaching\nforce; but these will be eagerly furnished when, in addition to giving to the\nchildren and young people a broad and practical education, the school's\nwork will have a great, a growing, and a measurable money value. Such\na school will be merged in the general society of its commimity, and cease\nto be a thing apart. The life of the school and the life of the farm will be\none.\nNobody who has seen the uplift which has come to a considerable niunber of our rural communities thru a correlation of rural school instruction\nwith rural life can, I believe, condemn this picture as impossible. It is so\nfar from being in the realm of the impossible as to be, in its beginnings,\nalready in existence. Several of the states already require the teaching of\nagriculture and domestic economy in the rural schools. This teaching is\nin most schools very inadequate; but it is doing a great good even in its\nimperfections. The elements of agricultural science are not more difficult\nthan are other studies which have been from time to time imposed upon\nour unprepared teaching force; and such is the grip of real truth related\nto actual life that this teaching possesses a gratifying vitality already. In\nseveral school systems rural life and rural sentiment have been profoundly\naffected by the timid beginnings of the new kind of rural school. I have\nin mind the conditions in Page County, Iowa, as best known to me personally. In Barnes County, North Dakota, the social center seems already\nin promising growth from the rural schools, and is assuming the very significant form of economic co-operation — that greatest need of rural life.\nIn parts of the South the schools are taking hold on the eternal verities of\nMother Earth in a wonderful way. And all over the nation the school\nactivities in com, tomatoes, flowers, live stock, sewing, cooking, sanitation,\ndebating, entertainm^ts, picnics, and all the needful factors of a full social\nlife are manifold and increasing. The social center which I now here suggest will inevitably grow from these seeds, if the schools take up their true\nwork — that of making themselves the social and economic laboratories of\ntheir communities.\nThe dream to me is a wonderful one. It means the ennobling of the\nrural teacher, and the magnif)dng of his functions and emoluments. It\nmeans the coming into its own of that long-contemned office, the coimty\nsuperin tendency of schools. It means more money for schools, and money\nexpended with actual financial profit to the community. It means that\nthe school work shall be in large part economically productive work. It\nmeans a school system on which the people will spend their money with the\nsame sense of good business judgment which they now feel in building\nbams. It means a longer school life for the farm boys and girls, for the\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDUTY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nIN MEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\n257\n\nreason that their work will be necessary as well as educative. It means\nin every way a more contented, a more efficient, fuller rural life.\nIt will tend to arrest the drift of the rural population to the cities. An\nincident in proof pf this, and I am done. Years ago in Wright County,\nIowa, 157 boys and 174 girls in rural schools were asked their plans for life.\nAll but seven of the boys, and all but eleven of the girls declared that they\nwould have nothing to do with farming. During the next three years the\nteaching of agriculture and domestic science was introduced. Another\nvote was then taken in the same schools, with 174 boys and 178 girls voting.\nAll but eleven of the boys and all but seventeen of the girls declared their\nintention of remaining on the farm.\nThis is a revolution in sentiment, and it means much. Once let these\nnew schools complete their work of social regeneration and the drift will\nturn from the cities to the farm. We shall have opened to all eyes the\nattraction of rural life, as well as its material rewards; and out of the\nco-operative intercourse of the farmers of the nation will grow the new\ndemocracy which has been the dream of reformers and humanitarians.\nTOPIC:\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTHE PUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\nA. THE DUTY OF THE STATE IN THE MEDICAL INSPECTION\nOF SCHOOLS; RESULTS WHICH THE PUBLIC\nMAY RIGHTFULLY EXPECT\nFLETCHER B. DRESSLAR,\nSPECIALIST IN SCHOOL HYGIENE,\nBUREAU\nOF EDUCATION,\nWASHINGTON,\nD.C.\n\nThere are two main topics in the subject assigned me, viz., the right\nand duty of the state to institute medical inspection, and the results we\nhave a right to expect from such inspection. I wish to discuss these two\ntopics briefly and in the order named.\nFirst: What right has the state to undertake medical inspection ?\nThe state's vital interest is always the interest of the people; not the\ninterest of the individual alone, but the interest of the individual living\nand working in harmony and co-operation with other individuals.\nQuestions of health and vitality are questions which concern the individual at every point. He can reach neither the measure of his own possible\nsuccess, nor the acme of usefulness in society if hindered by disease or\nhandicapped by a defective or enfeebled body. The health and vigor of\neach individual included in a social group directly or indirectly affect all.\nThe children must go to school; the laws compel the parents to send\nthem. But how will you guard the child who comes from the clean home,\nand teach the child from the careless home, unless the school authorities\nknow the conditions ? Even to maintain the dignity of our public schools,\nto say nothing of the benefit to the children and society, it is incumbent\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "2S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\non us to make these schools both a worthy and a safe place for children\nto mingle with each other, to learn self-respect, love of justice, fair play, and\nthose fimdamental laws of health which are so often neglected.\nIt is the duty of the state to safeguard its own interests when localities\nwithin its borders neglect them. The health of a commvmity is not of\nlocal interest merely, but directly and indirectly affects the general public\nweal. If a community in a state is inclined to pollute a stream of water\nwhich serves other commimities, there is no longer any question of the\nright of the state to prevent this pollution. If a community thru ignorance\nor carelessness neglects the health of its children while in attendance on\nschools to which they are compelled to go, the state not only has the right,\nbut is duty-boimd to protect them as well as to help them. We have\nlong since concluded that the state must, for the sake of its own progress\nand safety, educate all the children, and only seven states are now without\nsome form of compulsory school attendance laws. We know that physical\nwelfare and mental progress are inseparably related. Furthermore, we\nknow that the public test of the value of any education lies in the added\npower of helpfulness thus created. The life's work of any individual —\nand I apply here the larger meaning to \"life's work\" — is measured by\nwhat he can do, and by what he is willing to do. I see no real meaning\nin all our educational striving save as it issues in better and larger service\nand influence. If an individual is handicapped thru physical defect or\ndisease, he is thereby limited in his usefulness. If the state insists on\nproper mental development it has an equal right to insist on proper physical\ndevelopment. Indeed, an illiterate individual may be less serious as a\nmenace to society than a diseased one who has had the ordinary schooling.\nIf the state has the right to demand mental fitness, it has an equal right\nto demand physical fitness. If it has the right to prevent the contagion\nof ignorance, it has an equal right to prevent the contagion of disease and\nbodily neglect.\nIf medical inspection of school children is a useful means for conserving,\nprotecting, and developing the health of our children, then it is imqualifiedly\nthe right and duty of the state to foster and develop medical inspection.\nThe chief asset of any state is physical stamina, guided by wholesome,\nmoral ideals and broad-minded intellectual power.\nIndividual liberty is a fimdamental conception in our government,\nbut individual liberty is bound up with opportunity. That individual\nliberty which would limit itself is a spurious kind of liberty. Any individual\nwho refuses to enlarge his field of freedom by limiting his personal opportunity is deliberately denying himself the highest type of freedom. If,\ntherefore, it is clear that medical inspection of school children has aided\nin protecting children and society from disease and the baneful results of\ndefective development, the right to medical inspection is clearly established.\nI am not afraid of that form of socialistic endeavor which helps all and\nharms none.\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDUTY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nIN MEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\n259\n\nGranted now that the state has a right to look after matters pertaining\nto the health of school children, the next question to arise is this: Has\nmedical inspection as now organized proved useful ?\nIn order to determine with some degree of assurance whether such\nforms of medical inspection as we now have, have been useful in conserving\nthe health and promoting the physical well-being of school children, it is\nnecessary to set forth briefly some of the general results attained.\nIt has been demonstrated again and again, both in this country and\nin foreign lands, that careful inspection of school children has helped to\nprevent epidemics of contagious diseases. Many cities have gone little\nfarther in medical inspection than to make this the chief aim of the work,\nand this service alone has been worth more than it costs. But since we\nhave found out that even well children may be \"carriers\" of disease germs,\nit has become necessary to institute more careful examinations, even of\nwell children, in order to remove such \"carriers\" from contact with other\nchildren more susceptible to disease. For example. Dr. Curtis Bland,\nin a recent report on an epidemic of diphtheria in the town of Greensburg,\nInd., says:\nOut of a total of 872 cultures taken [from grade and high-school pupils, September\n30-October 6, 191 1] 288, or 33 per cent, came back positive\nAll parts of the town\nwere found to be about equally infested with carriers.\n\nOut of 400 \"carriers\" found in that town of 6,000 people, only 4\ndeveloped clinical symptoms of the disease. Plainly^ under such conditions, the only way to break up an epidemic is to search out the \"carriers\"\namong the well people, isolate them, and treat them. He rightly concludes\nthat to fight an epidemic of diphtheria the carriers must be discovered and\nisolated. To this we might add, if an epidemic of diphtheria is to be\nprevented, carriers must be found before they endanger others. This,\nadequate medical inspection would accomplish.\nMedical inspection has served the purpose of exposing to us in a glaring\nway the fact that school conditions are responsible for the progressive\ndevelopment of many defects. A great mass of evidence has been collected showing conclusively that school conditions and school demands\ntend to develop myopia, scoliosis, anaemia, retardation in physical growth,\nand all the ills in its train.\nI am well aware that statistics can be found that will prove or disprove almost everything, and that great caution is needed in arriving at\nsweeping conclusions. But when careful statistics and common-sense\ntally, as they do in these particulars, the conclusions expressed are warranted. Overcrowding, bad ventilation, unhygienic school desks, poor\nlighting, a superabundance of writing and book work, together with lack\nof freedom and opportunity for out-of-door games or wholesome physical\nexercise, have furnished unnatural conditions for normal development,\nand we have no right to expect better results until these conditions are\nameliorated.\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nMedical inspection has made it possible to secure better attendance\nand fewer interruptions by reason of the consequent decrease in the amount\nof illness among the children. The work of the school nurse in conjunction with the health oflficer has done much to correct defects, interest the\nhome in matters of sanitation, and greatly add to the school life of many\nchildren. Schools have been enabled to continue their work even in the\npresence of an epidemic of contagion, when thru careful inspection, carriers\nhave been detected and isolated. Often, from this point alone, medical\ninspection has saved more than it cost.\nBest of all, where medical inspection has been in the hands of wise\nand carefully trained men, and where it has been supervised and handled\nfrom an educational point of view, it has been an educational agent of\ngreat moment. It has served not only to correct faulty school conditions\nand practices, but likewise to correct imhygienic and unwholesome home\nconditions. Especially is this true where, thru the agency of school nurses,\nthe most effective follow-up work has been done. It has helped to clean\nup the home, to stimulate parents to give more attention to the food, the\nclothing, sleeping-rooms, and general home sanitation. This phase of the\nwork is just beginning, but its future development will be a powerful agency\nin home sanitation.\nThere has been a marvelous increase in the last five years in the number\nof cities imdertaking medical inspection. In many places enthusiasm has\noutrun good judgment, or at least the work has been undertaken with\nlittle understanding of its true purposes, and doctors with no sort of adequate training have been selected to do the work. Perhaps no title has\nhad so much power over the people as the title of doctor.\nIt will do comparatively little good to examine hastily thousands of\nchildren and tabulate the defects in impressive colimins unless intelligent\nsteps are taken to prevent such defects, and to correct those already found.\nAnd here lies the chief weakness of the work in this country. The findings\nof untrained and overzealous inspectors are criticized by family physicians\nwho are jealous of what they consider their rights. Opinions clash, and\nprofessional jealousy always runs high, especially where scant knowledge\nis involved, or where financial interests are at stake. Because of these\ndifficulties. Dr. Cabot, of Massachusetts, has claimed that better results\nin small towns are obtained by the use of trained nurses alone than have\nbeen obtained in large cities where doctors of medicine have been selected\nto examine the children.\nBut in many cities there is developing a broad-minded and intelligent\npolicy regarding the purposes of medical inspection. By the courtesy of\nDr. Galliyan, the Chief of the Division of Child Hygiene of the Boston\nBoard of Health, I am able to present the following from a report of the\nwork for the five months ending February i of the present year:\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDUTY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nIN MEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\n261\n\nMedical inspection of schools begins at the kindergarten class and ends with the\nhigh schools. Of equal importance are the three objects which medical inspection has\nin view:\n1. The detection of communicable diseases and the exclusion from school of every\npupil so aflflicted.\n2. The protection of every pupil in the schools from contagion unrecognized by parent\nor teacher.\n3. The detection of such defects which, if untreated, would result in permanent\ninjury to the pupil.\n\nFor the work of school inspection in Boston, 82 physicians are employed\nunder the direction of the Board of Health. These physicians visit both\nthe public and parochial schools daily. During the five months mentioned,\nin addition to general inspection, physical examinations were made of\n82,224 of the 123,091 children then in school. Of those examined, they\nfound 28,721 free from defect, while 53,503 were found defective, many in\nmore than one way.\nThe school committee employs nurses to follow out as far as possible\nthe directions of the school inspections. These nurses visit the homes,\nconsult with parents concerning the treatment the children should have,\nand, if need be, accompany them to physicians, hospitals, or clinics.\nBut the work of the Division of Hygiene goes much farther: \"It is\nconcerned with the physical welfare of every child in Boston from the time\nof conception up to the age of sixteen years.\" The work of the division\nis classified into three subdivisions as follows:\n1. Prenatal and postnatal work.\n2. Medical inspection of schools.\n3. Physical examination of licensed minors.\n\nI have no time to go into further details but it is evident that here we\nhave a clearly conceived duty regarding the health of the community,\nfar wider than mere medical inspection. Many other cities in the country\nhave, in no uncertain terms, recognized the same duty to the children\nas well as to the general welfare, and there is no doubt of the fact that we\nare in the beginning of a comprehensive movement for conserving the\nphysical stamina and preserving the health of our people. But we have\nscarcely begun. As usual, with all beginnings for better things, we are\nnow chiefly engaged in locking barn doors after the horses have been stolen.\nWe now come to the second main topic: What results may the public\nrightfully expect of medical inspection of school children ?\nThe public has a right to expect from medical inspection largely what\nit intelligently demands of it, and according to the sort of support it has\ngiven to it. If the public does not know what medical inspection involves\nin the way of skill, organization, and support, it is likely to get corresponding haphazard results. Some cities are getting excellent results, some are\naccomplishing comparatively little; simply because some insist on real\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ninspection and examinations by qualified inspectors, while others leave\nthings to chance, and the right chance rarely comes.\nBefore the state can expect the best results, it must insist that those\nwho go into the schools to look after the health and normal development of\nchildren must be appointed to do this by reason of special fitness. Generally\nspeaking, this has not been the prevailing practice in America, and of course\nmedical inspection ^ has not done its full service under such conditions.\nProfessional jealousy and personal politics have played conspicuous parts\nin appointments.\nWe are in need of more health inspectors, those knowing more about\neducation, more about the normal growth and development of children,\nand especially more about physical education and general hygiene. Our\nbest medical schools ought to offer courses preparatory to this work. We\nneed more doctors of public health than mere doctors of medicine. Meanwhile, before we can get them, the public must be educated to ask for them\nand to pay for their services when secured; and the better fitted the health\ninspector the better to make his payment, with absolutely no place in the\nscheme of things for the political man or the man not consecrated to the\nwork.\nThe term medical inspection is an unfortunate one for designating\nwhat ought to be the chief work of the health officer for schools. School\nchildren would need little medicine and less medical advice if we had more\nsanitarians and doctors of public health to teach them and their parents\nhow to be clean and how to care for their health in every way.\nOur system of paying doctors to do something for us when we get\nsick ought to be largely discarded for the Chinese system of paying them\nto keep us from getting sick. Our medical inspectors are now on the hunt\nfor defects, and they sometimes get so enamored with beautiful cases of\ndisease that they cannot passionately love a case of perfect health and\nperfect development. The normal with many of them is the abnormal.\nIn proof of this statement, I wish to call attention to the great variations\nin reports from medical inspectors in different parts of the country, in\nthe same cities and regarding the same children.\nIn New York City, for example, it was found that two inspectors\nexamining comparable children in the same school reported results differing\nby loo per cent. It was also found that some inspectors found few instances\nof many defects, while others found many instances of practically every\ndefect listed.\nIt has become clearly evident, to those who are critically examining\ninto the results of medical inspection, that men and women who undertake\nto supervise the health department of schools must have special training\nfor this work. Neither the narrow specialist nor the general practitioner\nis necessarily competent to do this work in a satisfactory manner.\nThe most significant, ultimate good of medical inspection, I believe,\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDUTY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nIN MEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\n263\n\nwill arise from the increased knowledge by .the people as a whole concerning the personal care of health. Great numbers of our people are yet in\ngross ignorance and superstition concerning matters of health and disease.\nObituaries are printed in the newspapers of all parts of our country, reading\nmuch as follows: It has pleased an all-wise and Divine Providence to take\nfrom our midst a youth of great promise, etc. By reading a little farther\nyou will see that that Divine Providence was a case of typhoid fever, a\ndisease induced by filth. Such obituaries are not only criminally false,\nthey are ungodly, impious, and wicked. They should state that by reason\nof carelessness, ignorance, and filth, a promising life has been sacrificed,\nto the great displeasure of an all-wise Deity.\nThere are thousands of people in this country who will not see that\nvaccination does and will prevent smallpox. They are willing to set all\nsorts of personal theories and motives against the facts. They do not\nreally know the difference between proof and belief. There are great\nnumbers of intelligent people who have no useful conception of the relation\nof bacteria to diseases. They are ready indeed to assert vigorously that\nall this talk about germs is just a fad. It does no good simply to decry these\nconditions. The people must be educated more systematically, persistently,\nand purposefully in sanitary matters.\nOur chief duty lies in removing the causes which contribute to physical\nunsoundness and disease. As long as we herd our children in schools\nwhere they must breathe impure air, bend over insanitary school desks,\nwork at books when they need physical exercise, just so long shall we be\npaying for our own errors. Medical inspection will not and cannot save\nthe children of our great cities from degeneration and disease, unless thru\nthis agency we are led to see more clearly the results of unhygienic living.\nIf medical inspection can make clear our defects and at the same time\nteach the people the absolute requisites of wholesome living, then a new\neducation will actually begin.\nI maintain, therefore, that the chief objects of so-called medical inspection must include the following points:\n1. It ought to serve as an efficient means of preventing the spread\nof contagious diseases, particularly those to which school children are\npeculiarly susceptible. This will necessitate a careful examination of all\nchildren, especially at the beginning of the school terms, in order to exclude\nboth children who are suffering from contagious or parasitic diseases, and\nthose \"carriers\" who are a menace to others, even tho they themselves\nshow no decided effects of the diseases they are capable of disseminating.\n2. Medical inspection ought to emphasize in a decided way the especial\nsignificance of hygienic conditions in schools. It seems more than foolish\nto shut up our well children in unventilated and improperly lighted schoolrooms, furnish them no playgrounds, compel them to live a life not in\naccord with the laws of physical development, and then when they become\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nanaemic, nearsighted, and defective, make a great stir about special classes\nfor defectives, and spend in building special schools money better spent\nin keeping children well. We must learn that it is far more important to\nfurnish conditions which promote the health and development of well\nchildren than it is to make special efforts to care for those who are sick or\ndefective, especially where these defects have been largely induced thru\nour neglect.\n3. Health ofl&cers must know more about education; more about the\nhygiene of teaching; more about the normal demands of child-life; must\npossess more ability to work with teachers and the people for the general\nwelfare of the community. A large majority of physicians, those who would\nnot hesitate to undertake the work of supervising the health interests\ncentered in our public schools, are wholly unfit for the place because they\nknow next to nothing of the ideals and methods of modern education, and\nthey are ignorant of their ignorance. The best results cannot obtain under\nsuch conditions.\n4. We need health officers whose chief delight is in finding and developing beautiful cases of physical perfection rather than in finding some obscure\nand rare disease.\nWe need doctors of health who will be more delighted in exhibiting a\nlarge list of healthy, well-developed children than a long list of those who\nare physically defective and diseased. To be sure, they must be able to\nsee defects and diagnose correctly, but their chief emphasis should be in\npreventive measures. School men are pretty thoroly tired of the mere\nfinding of defects; they need more help in preventing them.\nWe need health officers who embody a combination of the Athenian\nworship of physical perfection, the etithusiasm and skill of the modern\nbacteriologist, and the spirit of the teacher whose face is turned toward\nbetter things. We need health officers whose philosophy is based on the\ngospel of physical vigor, on the sanctity of personal purity, and on the godliness of clean living.\nB.\nDAVID\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nSTARR JORDAN,\n\nOF PERSONAL\nSCHOOLS\n\nHYGIENE\n\nPRESIDENT OF LELAND\nSTANFORD\nSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nIN THE\n\nJUNIOR\n\nUNIVER-\n\nThe teaching of hygiene in the schools demands imperatively two\nthings: first, that the teacher should know thoroly what he is talking about;\nand second, that he should know how to join his ideas effectively to those\nthe children already have. As hygiene is applied physiology, and as physiology rests on biology and chemistry, instruction in hygiene cannot^ be\neffective if the teacher does not possess the knowledge on which it rests.\nIn the teaching of the hygiene of sex, the most difficult of all biological\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF PERSONAL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n265\n\nproblems, and the most beset .with embarrassments to the teacher, the end\nin view is to make certain elementary ideas the common property of all\nintelligent people, to make them, like the knowledge of gravitation or of\nthe multiplication table, a matter of course, to be used unconsciously as a\nbasis for conduct.\nSo long as information of this kind is forbidden knowledge, or knowledge\nto be obtained on the sly, so long will the danger of sex-perversion exist.\nOther dangers arise when this kind of instruction has undue attention called\nto it. The teacher cannot speak effectively on these matters without full\nand accurate knowledge. Too much study on these topics is dangerous\nto the sanity of the teacher. They should constitute not the whole but a\nproportional part of his biological studies. Besides the teacher's difficulties with himself, there is with the children a constant risk of rousing\ncuriosities that should lie dormant. More young men are led into evil\nthru sheer curiosity than thru any form of inborn weakness or perversity.\nBut knowledge of this sort sooner or later will come to the child and the\npurer the channel, the better for the child's welfare.\nInstruction in sex hygiene must include about four elements. These\nshould be introduced, each in its turn according to the best judgment of\nthe teacher, the last of them not much below the middle of the high-school\ncourse. These four are: (i) the meaning of parenthood in plants and\nanimals; (2) the evils of sex perversion; (3) the existence of the \"red\nplague\" of parasitic organisms; and (4) the need of social sanitation. All\nthese should be taught as simple facts, without hysterical emphasis. The\nprocesses of generation, the union of the pollen or male germ cells bearing\nhereditary material of the one plant, with the static ovule or female germ cell\nof the same or another plant, can be explained and illustrated. The sexes\nshare alike in the impulse of heredity, the male germ cells are movable, the\nfemale sessile, because where they are the new plant must grow up. The\nfunction of cell-union is to bring variety. As each individual \"takes after\"\nor follows the qualities of both parents, it can never be the slavish copy of\neither. Something can be taught of the cell-nucleus, its chromosomes and\ntheir relation as probable bearers from generation to generation of unit\ncharacters. It can be shown that each individual represents a \"mosaic\"\nof characters of parents and of earlier ancestors. It can be shown also that\ncertain traits may be recessive or hidden in one generation and dominant\nor evident in the next.\nThe general facts of heredity are the same in plants and animals, in\nman as in the lower forms. The details of the reproductive process vary\nwith the mode of life of the different types of organism.\nThe question of self-restraint and of social morals must find its place\nsomewhere. The \"double standard of morality\" can exist only among\npeople who have no real standards of conduct. Laxity of life destroys ideals,\ndestroys courage, destroys the possibility of real love and real happiness.\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nImmorality has its own pimishments and these lie mostly in the loss\nof self-respect and in the loss of those rewards which make life worth living.\nBut over and beyond these, physical contact of any kind with immoral\npeople has its own dangers. The possibility of infection with the parasitic\norganisms which cause the \"red plague\" exists always in such association.\nThe \"red plague\" is not the penalty of vice, nor is it a result of excess. It\nis an ever-present danger into which every person leading a loose life dVen\nfor a single hour is almost certain to fall and which causes misery and\ndeath to thousands of innocent people. These diseases differ from other\ninfectious diseases mainly in this, that the organisms which cause them are\nslow-maturing, and that a person may be a dangerous source of infection\nwhile apparently entirely well and able to attend to the ordinary affairs of\nlife. A victim of yellow fever, smallpox, diphtheria, or bubonic plague\nmust take to his bed. These diseases run their course rapidly. Sometimes\na victim of t3^hoid fever may not appear to be ill. Such people become\nthe dangerous \"tj^hoid-carriers,\" who bring death to others thru organisms\nwhich give little inconvenience to themselves.\nThe disease caused by the plant \"gonococcus\" has been known for\nages. It does not always cause disability but it is very hard to exterminate. No one once infected is ever sure that he has been cured. This\ndisease is a potent cause of surgical operations in women. Its infection in\nthe eyes of children at birth is the most frequent cause of blindness. The\nevils it causes are innumerable, the more so because those infected are\nlikely to treat it as a joke, and in course of time every prostitute, man or\nwoman, becomes infected. It is therefore the certain result of immoral\nlife, tho in no sense a result or penalty of immorality. To visit a house\nof ill fame is to plunge into infection.\nMore subtle and more immediately destructive is the animal organism\nknown as \"Spirochaete.\" This minute creature devours the walls of the\ncapillaries. When it attacks the brain, it produces softening of the tissues\nwhich shows itself in hopeless insanity. In Ibsen's play Ghosts, Oswald\ndescribes himself as vermoulu, worm eaten thruout thru the presence of\norganisms derived from his father. The disease is not hereditary. No\ndisease is hereditary, only the tendency to disorder, but in this case the\nliving Spirochaete may pass from father to mother and in the nourishing\nblood from mother to child. The movement of armies has spread the\ndisease over the whole world. In the cities of the tropics, it is especially\nwidely diffused and it may be transmitted by means of towels, drinkingcups, and in many other ways. The idle rich and the idle poor are especially subject to it.\nAs a sanitary measure, it is one of the first duties of civilization to stamp\nit out. This can be done only by the suppression of its means of continuance. The social evil, the red-light districts in our cities, serve as the\nbreeding-nests of these organisms. The white-slave traflSc, an outgrowth\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSANITARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN RURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n267\n\nof supposed necessities of the standing armies of Europe, is essential to\nkeeping up these districts, and it must be suppressed. The cost of a month's\nexpense of the United States government for smokeless powder ($9,500\nper day) would suffice for this extermination. To this end the American\nVigilance Association is pledged.\nSegregation of evil only serves to legalize it, never to diminish it. And\nthese evils are no more necessary to society than are arson, burglary, and\nmurder, which society consistently fights, altho it has never succeeded in\nsuppressing them. The great count against the saloon is that ever3rwhere\nin all countries, with but few exceptions, it is an open door to the brothel.\nSober men, and for that matter drunken men, rarely visit the houses of\nevil. Exhilarated curiosity brings the ruin of thousands and the statistics\nof one of our military posts show that the road to ruin is made easy by beer.\nTo teach these matters quietly, judiciously, accurately, and intelligently, each in its turn, and without exaggeration and without hysteria,\nis the work of the wise and discriminating teacher. It is not best to force\nthem on the schools before the teachers which can do this are found.\n\nC.\n\nSANITARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN RURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nCHARLES E. NORTH, M.D., NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe work of sanitation. — The work of sanitation is to prevent the\ntransference of infection from one individual to another individual. There\nis much mystery in the popular mind as to the meaning of the term \" infection\"; the words \"bacteria\" and \"germs\" have come into popular use,\nbut convey only vague ideas to many of us. It is common knowledge that\nthe living things about us can be divided into the plant kingdom and the\nanimal kingdom. Scientists have decided that bacteria belong to the\nplant kingdom.\nAs one walks out into the fields and views the trees, the flowers, and the\ngrass, these things do not arouse any alarm. The vegetables in the garden\nand the flowers growing in the ground are looked upon as entirely harmless,\nand many of them as most useful to mankind. It is true, however, that\nhere and there a very few may be poisonous. The poison ivy, some few\nmushrooms, one species of sumac, and possibly a very few other plants are\nknown to be poisonous, but these poisonous plants are very few and very\nrare. It is remarkable also what a great difference there is in the size of\nplants. Some of the giant trees are the largest. From these we can descend\nby degrees to the mosses and to the molds, which we now know are tiny\nplants. The microscope reveals a new plant world. The mosses and\nmolds immediately become giants, and thru the microscope we see numerous\nsmaller plants. The smallest of all are the bacteria. Some of these are so\ntiny that thru the most powerful microscope they appear only as a minute\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nspeck or dot. There are hundreds and perhaps thousands of varieties of\nthem. Among these, just as among the large plants of which we have\nspoken, there are very few which are poisonous. Thus tuberculosis and\nt)TDhoid and diphtheria are each caused by a small poisonous plant. The\nother diseases called infectious diseases are caused by other varieties, but\nthe great majority of these bacteria are entirely harmless and some of\nthem, in fact, seem quite useful and necessary to the welfare of human\nbeings.\nThe giant trees are historically among the youngest of plants. The\nmost ancient of all, the scientists tell us, are the bacteria. They are the\nancestors of all other forms of vegetable life, and the numerous plants\nand trees which we now see are the direct descendants of ancient bacteria.\nBefore animals were created, there was no tuberculosis or typhoid or\ndiphtheria, but after the animals and men appeared, some of these tiny\nplants accidentally took up their residence in the noses and throats and\nintestines of men. It was a startling event when these tiny plants learned\nhow to live and grow inside of animals. When they did so, infectious\ndiseases first began.\nAt the present time there are many men, women, and little children in\nwhom these plants have taken up their residence. In fact, having once\nlearned how to grow in animals, many of them have entirely lost their power\nof growing anywhere else, and cannot live at all without the warmth and\nnourishment which they receive in living persons.\nTuberculosis is caused by the tubercle bacillus, a tiny plant which\ncenturies ago took up its residence in human beings and animals, and has\nbecome acclimated so that now it can be grown only with the greatest\ndifficulty outside of the body, and only when the body conditions have\nbeen imitated in the laboratory. Out of doors this plant will not grow\nat all, but soon dies. The same thing is true of the typhoid bacillus, of the\ndiphtheria bacillus, and of the other kinds of bacteria causing our infectious\ndiseases. They will live when in men and animals, and vmder special\nlaboratory conditions, but soon die when exposed to out-of-door conditions.\nCertain hirnian beings are inhabited by these plants. Some animals\nare inhabited by them. Their existence is continued from generation to\ngeneration only because certain men and animals in whom they Live pass\nthem on to other men and other animals by a transference which is direct\nor indirect from those who are inhabited to those who are not. Thus we\nhave with us people who are carriers of the tubercle bacillus, and people\nwho are carriers of the typhoid bacillus, and people who are carriers of\ndiphtheria bacillus, both children and adults, and these persons thru\nignorance and carelessness transfer the bacteria which they are carrying\nto others who have been free from them, and in this way the infectious\ndiseases are transferred from year to year and from generation to generation.\nThe practicing sanitarian has numerous illustrations of this fact. In\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSANITARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN RURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n269\n\none of my own recent investigations I was called to the Adirondack Mountains to inquire into the cause of an outbreak of typhoid fever in a summer\ncolony patronized by some of the wealthiest people of New York City.\nDuring two months, twenty-seven cases of typhoid fever had broken out\nin the camp. The cause was mysterious. All ordinary sources of the\ndisease were investigated without result. It was only after six weeks of\nstudy that the discovery was made that one of the guides employed at\nthe camp was the carrier of typhoid bacteria. This man was over seventy\nyears of age and appeared to be in perfect health. He had no recollection\nof ever having typhoid fever, yet his system was so badly infected with\nthese plants that he was discharging them in enormous numbers every day.\nHe was the undoubted cause of not only twenty-seven cases and three deaths\nwhich had occurred in the last outbreak, but of eight cases which had\noccurred at the same camp in previous years. It is assumed that there\nare now 18,000 persons in the United States, apparently in perfect condition\nphysically, who carry typhoid bacteria in their bodies and who are the\ncause of the annual outbreaks of typhoid fever from which this country\nsuffers.\nIt is an old superstition that some houses are haunted with tuberculosis. Ithas been said that in country districts members of some families\nwho have lived in the same house for generations have tuberculosis while\npeople in other families are free from the disease. We now know that it is\nnot the house itself which must be feared, but the people who live in it.\nWhile it is true that the bacteria of tuberculosis may remain alive for a\ntime after they are discharged onto the ground or onto the floor of a house,\nyet their life is comparatively short, and they are soon killed by sunlight,\nand by external conditions. Bacteria are to be feared most in a fresh\ncondition, and when the transfer takes place from person to person, it is,\nas a rule, by direct contact or by contact with something which has very\nrecently received infection. In the case of tuberculosis, the use of spoons,\ndrinking-cups, and handkerchiefs is a common means of transfer, or the\ndirect breathing of air which has been recently polluted by the coughing or\nsneezing of infected persons. In a similar direct manner the transference\nof other infectious diseases takes place.\nThe work of sanitation consists in preventing this transference. Sanitation aims to protect the child and the adult who are free from infectious\ndiseases against the transfer of bacteria from the children and the adults\nwho are carriers of these bacteria. Sanitary science has made a study of\nall of the channels, both direct and indirect, thru which these transfers\ntake place, and the best means for their prevention.\nConditions in rural communities. — Sixty-six per cent of the population\nof the United States live in rural communities, and 34 per cent live in large\ncities. There are about 1,500,000 people who die each year in the United\nStates, and 3,000,000 who are sick and who do not die. Each year in the\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nUnited States 630,000 people die from infectious diseases. This literally\nmeans that this number of persons are poisoned to death by the growth of\nthese small plants called bacteria. The deaths would not have occurred\nif these bacteria had not taken up their residence in these people. The\ndeath-rate in rural districts is slightly less than the death-rate in cities.\nThus in country districts out of each 100,000 persons there are 1,400 who\ndie each year, while in cities out of an equal number there are 1,650. Out\nof a rural population of about 60,000,000, there are annually killed about\n400,000 persons from infectious diseases.\nTheoretically life in the coimtry is more natural and healthful than\ncity life — air is better; food is fresher; there is less noise and smaller tax on\nthe nervous system, and other conditions which warrant the statement that\ncountry life is healthier. Man is, in fact, an outdoor animal, and city life\nin a broad sense is artificial life, but the dwellers in rural districts do not\nobtain the full benefits of their natural surroundings, thru their own igno- '\nranee and carelessness. Studies of the water supplies of farms both in\nCanada and in the United States show that 60 per cent of the wells are\npolluted with house and barnyard drainage. The milk supplies while fresh\ntoo often have their source in tuberculous cows and are produced imder\nunsanitary conditions. Disposal of hiunan and animal waste products is\ncommonly primitive, and these are, as a rule, exposed to flies in a manner\nthat makes the transference of bacteria to the house and to the food easy.\nSleeping with closed windows is common, so that house air in the country is\noften worse than house air in the city. Cellars are damp and improperly\ndrained. The common drinking-cup or dipper is a regular institution, as\nis also the roller towel. Hot water is scarce, and consequently the dishwashing process suffers. As a consequence of these things even in the\ncoimtry there is an abundance of infectious diseases.\nIn rural districts in each 100,000 inhabitants, bacteria of tuberculosis\nkill each year 136; bacteria of intestinal inflammations, including infant\ndiarrhea, and all other forms of intestinal diseases, excepting typhoid,\nkill 97; bacteria causing bronchitis and influenza kill 90; bacteria of\npneumonia 83; typhoid bacillus kills 24; and diphtheria bacillus kills 17;\nbacteria of whooping-cough kill 12; bacteria of scarlet fever (undiscovered)\nkill 8; bacteria of measles (undiscovered) kill 8; and there are some other\ninfectious diseases of lesser importance.\nThe conditions in rural communities differ from those in cities most\nmarkedly in one respect. The concentration of dwellings and of people in\ncities has compelled attention to public health matters, so that money and\norganizations are employed and rules and regulations enforced which have\nas their object the protection of the inhabitants against transference of\ninfection thru water, milk, waste products, etc. On the other hand, in\ncountry districts the population is so scattered that there is less community\nof interest. In agricultural districts each farm is almost an independent\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSANITARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN RURAL\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\n271\n\nsocial unit, and has its own water supply, milk supply, and sewerage system.\nIts sanitary conditions are whatever the proprietor chooses to make them.\nPublic health supervision over sanitary matters is, at best, but slight, and\nin the greater part of the country is entirely lacking. Rural districts do not\nlend themselves to the influence of public health authorities as urban conditions do, and consequently there has been a much greater reduction in\nthe death-rate in our cities during the past few decades than in our rural\ncommunities. It seems obvious that since the most prominent characteristic of rural life is the independent position of the farmer, more is to be\nhoped for by direct appeal to his own intelligence than by official supervision. In other words, the key to the improvement of sanitary conditions\nin the country lies in public education.\nThe country school-teacher as a public health educator. — The intellectual\nauthority as well as the social leader in rural districts is the country schoolteacher. As a class there is no element of rural society in a position to\nwield greater influence in matters which pertain to social welfare. The\nmovement toward better conditions of life has been carried to such a point\nthat it has penetrated the educational systems in our cities, and is rapidly\ngaining an important place in public-school work. Beginning with personal\nhygiene and medical inspection, public health work in city schools will soon\nreach a point where the art of clean living will be taught; a child will\nlearn the value of self-care in the matter of contracting infectious diseases.\nIn rural schools, however, the movement has not gathered such headway.\nThe teaching of physiology in the village school may satisfy the curiosity\nof children as to their internal organs, but does not in any way protect them\nagainst bovine tuberculosis from contaminated milk, or against typhoid\nfrom impure water. The rising generation has a right to be instructed in\nthe first principles of sanitary science. This knowledge is even more\nimportant than the knowledge of physiology.\nIt might seem at first thought that the subject of public health is too\ndifficult to be taught in the district school, but there is no subject that lends\nitself so readily to popular interest and to the interest of children. Such a\nsimple matter as the washing of the hands may be made a matter of the\ngreatest interest when studied from the standpoint of bacteria. A demonstration ofbacteria by the use of glass plates and simple culture media is\nextremely simple and something that arouses the greatest interest in youthful minds. The microscope is always an instrument which arouses curiosity\nand which can be used to illustrate many sanitary lessons. Personal\ncle^iliness, purity of food and of drinks, and a knowledge of the nature of\ndisease and the methods of transference are all things which can be expressed\nin the simplest terms and made clear to the understanding of children. The\nsubject of water, its pollution and its protection, can easily be made plain.\nMilk, its value as a food, highly appreciated by bacteria, and therefore the\nnecessity of protecting it against them, is not too difficult a subject for\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe child to understand. The cold in the head and sore throat caused by\nthe growth of bacteria on the surface of the mucous membranes, and the\ndanger to others of these bacteria when discharged in coughing and sneezing\ncan be explained in simple terms.\nBut such work as this demands preliminary training. If the country\nschool-teacher is to be armed with the knowledge of sanitary science, she\nmust find this in the normal school and teachers' college. Our normal\nschools and teachers' colleges should have regular courses in public health\nwork. We are dealing here, not with a merely academic subject, but something vital in importance, something which means the lengthening of life\nand the reduction of the death-rate to the people among whom the teacher\nis to practice her profession.\nAs a movement, the interest in public health matters has gathered\ntremendous force in the last ten years. . In the majority of our cities it is\nnow thought necessary to appoint a man to the position of public health\nofficer who knows something of medicine and of sanitation. Three of our\ngreat universities have come forward and offer degrees for those specializing\nin public health work. Philanthropists, social workers, and engineers have\nalready undertaken extensive enterprises in this field of work. Among\neducators, how^ever, but little has been done.\nThe National Education Association in public health work. — ^The time\nseems ripe for public health work to be taken up as an educational matter.\nI hope I am not exceeding my privileges in suggesting that it is a matter\nworthy of a place in the progressive program of work of the National\nEducation Association. A standing committee for the promotion of public\nhealth education as part of the organization of the National Education\nAssociation would give great impetus to the institution of courses in public\nhealth in our school systems. Such a committee could encourage the\nestablishment of training-courses for teachers in the normal schools and\nteachers' colleges. It could encourage the publication of textbooks for\nthe various grades of work, and the institution of laboratories in our public\nschools for the demonstration of the principles of sanitary science. It could\narrange for systematic popular lecture-courses on matters of public health.\nResults. — The possibilities of such work are not vague, but have actually\nbeen set down in figures by students of vital statistics. In the report of\nthe National Conservation Commission printed by the Committee of One\nHundred, it is stated that the average length of life of the inhabitants of\nthe United States is now 45 years. (One hundred years ago the average\nlength of life in Europe was less than one-half of this.) It is estimated\nthat if sanitation were enforced the span of life would be prolonged by about\n15 years, so that the average length of life would be 60 years. Seventyfive per cent of deaths from tuberculosis, 45 per cent of those from lobar\npneumonia, 50 per cent of those from broncho-pneiunonia, 85 per cent of\nthose from typhoid fever, 60 per cent of deaths from infantile diarrhea, and\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nAND\n\nMEDICAL\n\nFREEDOM\n\n273\n\n70 per cent of deaths from meningitis would be prevented simply by insistence by the public on pure milk and pure water and pure air. In rural\ncommunities in the United States 400,000 people each year die, and in\naddition to these about 2,000,000 persons annually are seriously ill, from\ninfectious diseases. Even if only one-half of these deaths and cases of sickness can be prevented by education, it means that an immense field of\nuseful work lies at the hand of the country school-teacher who will become\na public health educator and will instruct the children and the mothers and\nfathers how to prevent the transference of poisonous bacteria from those\nwho carry them to those who do not.\n\nD.\n\nTHE MEDICAL\n\nCHARLES\n\nA.\n\nL. REED,\n\nINSPECTION OF SCHOOLS\nFREEDOM\nM.D.,\n\nPROFESSOR\nIN THE\nCINCINNATI,\nOHIO\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nMEDICAL\n\nOF CINCINNATI,\n\nA proper discussion and a proper understanding of the theme that\nhas been assigned to me must begin with a proper understanding of its\nconstituent terms. In other words what are we to understand by \"the\nschool,\" by \"medical inspection,\" and by \"medical freedom\"?\nThe school is an instrumentality that has been evolved by society for\nthe better development of human efficiency. It began with a group of\nchildren collected together for the purpose of acquiring the elements of\nlearning; it has become an aggregation of children gathered together, not\nalone to acquire smatterings of concrete knowledge, not for the improvement of their own minds alone, but for the physical, mental, and moral\nbetterment of the race. I may add that another purpose has crept into\nthe school, in some instances has come to dominate it, and that purpose is\nthe development of individual aptitudes to meet the special practical purposes of life. If, now, we contemplate the school from the viewpoint of\nany or all of these attributes, we shall find that our definition is correct\nand that no narrower conception is justified by the school as it exists in\nthe United States today.\nIf, now, we accept the schools as one of the agencies that society in the\nexercise of its own rights has established for the development of its own\nefiiciency, we must concede that society has not only the co-ordinate right\nto protect that agency against deleterious influences, but the equally coordinate right still farther to promote its effectiveness. We may go even\na step farther, and state that society, as the creator and maintainer of the\nschool, has the unquestioned right to protect itself against any deleterious\ninfluence, physical, mental, or moral, that may originate in, or be disseminated byor thru, the school. The significance of these self-evident\nprinciples is to be found in the fact that the school, as it exists in the United\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nStates, today represents a grand aggregate of something like twenty-one\nmillions of youths of both sexes and various ages. It is segregated into\ngroups of from a dozen to a dozen hundred or more, scattered absolutely\nall over our land. These constituent groups assemble on a probable average of two himdred different days every year. The individuals that\nmake up these groups come from every conceivable avenue of life. There\nis none of the various influences that can modify hmnan existence to which\nvarious members of this group are not subject. Within limitations, each\nmay influence all and all may influence each, and individuals may in turn\ninfluence the homes from which they come. In no particular is this more\ntrue than with respect to contagious and infectious diseases. In the years\ngone by, this fact was recognized in a more or less empirical way; since\nthe establishment of the germ causation of disease, it has passed into the\nrealm of axiomatic truth. Tuberculosis, smallpox, diphtheria, scarlet\nfever, measles, and whooping-cough are among the more famihar examples\nof diseases susceptible of communication thru the school. More than\n500,000 die from epidemic diseases, including tuberculosis, every year in\nthe United States. That means the death of one person every minute, or\nan annual aggregate equal twice over to both the army and the navy of\nthe United States. The economic loss in the per capita valuation of\nhimaan life amounts to more than one billion dollars every year — more\nthan enough to defray all the expenses of all the departments of the\nUnited States government.\nThe economic loss from wasted time and dissipated potentiaHty defies\ncomputation. The influence of defective hygiene, personal and architectural, not only in propagating these diseases, but in developing new or\naggravating old physical defects, vast and disastrous as it is known to be,\ncannot be determined without data which have never yet been reduced to\nrecord. The no less disastrous results of tasks, mental and physical,\nimposed upon pupils without reference to their individual physiological\nlimitations, while not susceptible of expression in definite terms, are known\nto be appalling. The possible further adaptation of school methods to the\neven greater physical and mental development of the pupil is recognized\nby every progressive educator and only awaits the co-operation of the\nteacher and the physician to become an accompUshed fact.\nIt will thus be seen that the school made up of about a quarter of our\ngreat population has great inherent possibilities for evil as well as for\ngood, and that the duty of society is to safeguard and promote it as one of\nthe chief means for the development of human efl&ciency.\nIt will be seen from this survey of the school that the problems involved\nin protecting it from deleterious influences and in still further developing\nits beneficent possibiHties are primarily and fundamentally those that\nrelate to the health of the pupil. The proper conservation of this greatest\nnational resoxu-ce, the health of the rising generation, involves an intimate\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nAND\n\nMEDICAL\n\nFREEDOM\n\ntechnical and professional knowledge of anatomy, physiology, hygiene,\nthe causes and prevention of disease, and the art to determine and define\nthe physiological limitation of the individual pupil.\nIt is the practical application of this knowledge to the protection of the\npupil and the school, each against the other, that comprises what has come\nto be designated as the medical inspection of schools. It is not a new idea.\nIts germination goes back to 1833, when France, by decree, inaugurated\nthe hygienic control of schools. In the seventies, the full modern idea was\nexemplified in Belgium. Leading German cities followed. Then came\nGreat Britain. Hungary, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Roumania, Russia, Egypt, Chile, the Argentine Republic, and Japan have\nmedical inspection of schools. In the majority of these countries such\ninspection is national in scope; in others it is restricted to certain states\nand cities.\nIn the United States the practice began in Boston in 1894. It has since\nspread to all the larger cities. In several states the provision is state wide,\nand applies to rural as well as urban schools. It should be shouted from\nthe housetops that, of the two classes of schools, those in rural districts\nneed the protection derivable from medical inspection more than do those\nof the cities.\nAs practiced in the United States today, medical inspection of schools\nis variously under the direction of either the boards of health or the boards\nof education, or both acting together. The executive body appoints the\nrequisite number of medical men to act as inspectors. In Cincinnati these\nphysicians are appointed by the board of health, from a list of eligibles\nfurnished after examinations conducted under the direction of the municipal\nCivil Service Commission. These examinations are open to any physician\nof any \" school,\" or of no \" school \" at all. The duties of the physicians thus\nappointed, so far as the schools are concerned, are to study the hygiene of\nbuildings, more particularly as to heat, light, ventilation, furniture, water\nsupply, drainage, and facilities for recreation; to examine pupils referred\nby teachers as suspected of having such contagious and infectious diseases\nas tuberculosis, smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, whooping-cough, and\ntrachoma, or who are supposed to have vermin, or to be afilicted with\nbodily defects or deformities; displacements either of bones or viscera,\nor growths such as adenoids; or defective vision, or bad hearing. In\nthe case of contagious and infectious diseases, the child is sent home for\nthe protection of the other children in the school ; in other instances, it may\nbe sent home for its own protection. In either event, an explanatory note\nis sent with the child, accompanied by the suggestion that the case be at\nonce brought to the attention of the family physician. The family, of\ncourse, have perfect freedom to choose any physician of any \"school,'\"\nor of no \"school\" at all. The inspectors never treat cases, as they are not\npermitted to engage in private practice. In this way parents are given\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nabsolute freedom to choose their own physician or no physician at all as\nthey may deem fit. The medical inspector simply sees to it that the\nchild is in safe condition before it is permitted to re-enter the school.\nChildren are likewise examined with reference to their adaptability to certain tasks, and to various forms of physical training. In this way the pupil is individualized, and his aptitudes are determined. And in this way is\nformed a policy that, in the language of the EngUsh Board of Education,\n\"is founded on a recognition of the close connection that exists between\nthe physical and mental condition of the children and the whole process\nof education. It recognizes the importance of satisfactory environment,\nphysical and educational, and by bringing into prominence the effect of\nenvironment upon the personaHty of the individual child, seeks to secure\nultimately for every child, normal or defective, conditions of life compatible with that full and effective development of its organic functions, its\nspecial senses, and its mental powers, which constitute a true education.\"\nIt is evident from a brief survey of the functions here enumerated, that\nthey must be exercised by persons of adequate technical knowledge represented only by the medical profession. It is furthermore evident that the\nexercise of these functions is of greatest importance in order of occurrence,\nfirst, to the individual pupil; next, to the other pupils of the school; next,\nto the family of the individual pupil; and finally to the community at large,\nand to the race.\nIn a selfish sense, the medical inspection .of schools is of the least\npossible value to the medical profession. As a matter of fact, that profession, thru its own activity in the prevention of disease during the last\ntwenty-five years, has deprived itself of nearly 40 per cent of its previous\nemployment. I am proud to proclaim that its efforts to prevent disease\nwere never so effective or so enthusiastic as they are today. And I have\nno hesitancy in stating that no line of its altruistic efforts offers greater\nsubstantial reward to society and less substantial reward to the medical\nprofession itself, than does the medical inspection of schools. So evident is this truth, and so beneficent is that truth in its effect upon the\npeople, individually and collectively, that intelligence and humanity are\nshocked to realize that the least opposition can be found to the universal\ninauguration of the regime. Of course in this country, as in all other\ncountries, is to be found the occasional crank who is always on the other\nside of every question. Then, too, there is the occasional individual whose\nselfish interests are menaced by the public welfare. With these are always\nto be found certain blind followers of any person who is at once loud and\ninsistent. As society is now constituted, these people, acting more or less\nin their individual capacities, may be said to constitute the normal opposition to progress. Of all the civilized countries of the world, the United\nStates has the pecuHar and questionable distinction of having these elements organized into a nation-wdde movement to defeat, not only the\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nAND\n\nMEDICAL\n\nFREEDOM\n\n277\n\nmedical inspection of schools, but all other statutory efforts to prevent\ndisease and promote human efficiency thru the observance of hygienic\nlaw. These people, in their organized capacity, having raised the shibboleth of \"Medical Freedom,\" are engaged in an active propaganda to\nimpose the tyranny of their selfish interests upon the people. The movement was instigated by a man long identified with medical methods outlawed by legislation that the people have wisely enacted for their own\nprotection. He is now using the organization as a medium for the free\nadvertisement of his personal journalistic enterprise. With him are individuals who fattened on the sale of enslaving nostrums, others whose\nwelfare depended upon the sale of doped foods, two classes of individuals that are naturally enough arrayed against the pure food and drug\nlaws of the states and the nation. Among them are a few physicians of\nquestionable antecedents, who openly base their opposition upon the\ndeclared apprehension that their particular \"ism\" or \"pathy\" may not\nbe duly represented in the administration of these beneficent health measures. Another element of the organization is made up of those who oppose\nhealth legislation and thus favor the spread of disease that they may make\nmoney by imposing upon ignorant credulity the ridiculous doctrine that\nthere is no such thing as disease.\nWith men capitalizing human credulity for the promotion of their publication enterprises; others to sell nostrums and impure foods; others to\nbolster up waning professional fortunes; others to promote revenue-yielding\ncults — I say, when we see all these elements with their blind but wellmeaning followers banded together imder the banner of \"Medical Freedom,\" and directing their energies to the defeat of the medical inspection\nof schools, and other health measures, we are justified in charging, as I do\ncharge, that the organized opposition has resolved itself into a conspiracy\nto propagate disease for commercial purposes. In carrying out their enterprising exploitation of the people, in their effort to increase the death-rate\namong children, in their effort to spread disease and dependency among\nall classes, thus to increase their personal gain, it is but natural that they\nshould seek to hide their real purpose behind a false issue. They have\nraised the cry that the meaning of all this health legislation is to deprive the\nindividual of his right to employ the physician of his choice, and on this\nfalsehood, they have soUcited and received contributions to their corruption\nfund. This fund has been and is being expended in large amounts to pay\nan army of canvassers, to print false and misleading literatiu-e, to buy up\nthe press, to employ otherwise respectable lawyers as lobbyists, and in\nvarious other ways to influence legislation adversely to the health interests\nof the people. I am not prepared to state to what extent, if any, the large\nfunds of this organization are being diverted to the hnmediate personal\nprofit of the promoters. They might well waive this bagatelle in view of\nthe larger stake for which they are playmg — a stake represented by hun-\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndreds of millions of doUars in the capitalization of enterprises that either\nhave been or are rapidly becoming contraband of law. I make no mention\nof the similar sums reaped or sought to be reaped imder the guise of \"fees\"\nby these thoroly parasitic classes.\nIn it all, however, may be seen the substantial reason imderlying the\n\"organization,\" to counteract the disastrous results of whose methods it\nwell behooves the two altruistic professions of education and medicine to\nwork hand in hand. The effective remedy is to be found in imiversal\npublicity.\nCarry the message to the people.\n\nE.\n\nSOME\n\nHARVEY\n\nW.\n\nPROBLEMS IN EDUCATION AS RELATED\nTHE PUBLIC HEALTH\nWILEY,\n\nCONTRIBUTING EDITOR,\nMAGAZINE,\"\nWASHINGTON,\n\n\"GOOD\nD.C.\n\nTO\n\nHOUSEKEEPING\n\nOne of the most important problems of education is found in the proper\nnutrition of the child. Poor food, badly cooked food, deficient food, and\nexcessive stimulation unfit children for proper mental growth and physical\nculture. Let me care for the health of the children and I don't care who\ndoctors the adults. I shall not imdertake tonight to discuss this question\nin much detail in the few minutes which are assigned to me. I will mention only the high points, the fastigia rerum. It is a lamentable fact that\nin many of our city schools, especially, children are at a disadvantage by\nreason of improper clothing and the necessity of doing without nourishing\nfood, especially at luncheon hour. In some cities attempts have been made\nto remedy some of these deficiencies, especially those relating to poor\nluncheons. In the city of Washington the school authorities estabhshed\na number of tables where a simple but nutritious lunch could be bought\nfor a penny by some of those who were unable to bring proper food from\nhome. Where this experiment has been tried it has been the vmiversal\nconsensus of opinion that the scholarship and deportment of those who\nreceived these simple benefactions have been improved. To show the\nhold that mercenary interests have on the country I may say that, when\nthese attempts were made in Washington to supply wholesome and nutritious luncheons to the poor children, protests were made by dealers in\ncandies, etc., in the vicinity of the school against the practice, on the ground\nthat ser\\-ing the luncheon in the schoolroom prevented the children from\ncoming into their stores and buying the stale things they had on sale.\nHappily this commercial objection did not succeed in breaking down the\nplan adopted by the school authorities in Washington.\nThe proper kind and amoimt of children's food is a matter of tremendous importance but I will not take further time for it now. I have a\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\n279\n\nmore important message to present, at least, in outline, namely, that\ncondition of school children, which for lack of a better term, is called\nnervousness. What is it that has ruined the children's nerves? In my\nopinion it does not as a rule come from overstudy, tho occasionally that\nmight have been the case. The trouble with the children of this country\nis that after the manner of their parents they are also subjected to exhilaration by stimulants of various kinds, which have no food value and can work\nonly injury to the child. I refer especially to coffee and tea obtained at\nhome, the acquisition by boys of the tobacco habit, and the indulgence by\nboys and girls in the so-called soft drinks at the drug-stores, which contain\ncocain or caffein. Fortxmately the effectiveness of the campaign against\ncocain has driven most of the beverages containing it from the soda fountains, but this is not true of those containing caffein. The drug division\nof the Department of Agriculture secured the names of over one hundred\nso-called soft drinks sold at soda fountains which contained either caffein\nor cocain or both. As a rule no soda fountain sells over two or three of\nthese soft drinks but they are offered in the large numbers which I have\nmentioned in the various parts of the country. Inasmuch as everyone\nhas agreed that cocain is a substance to be kept out of foods, I shall confine\nmy remarks solely to those products containing caffein. The health officers\nof Washington issued a letter of caution to parents, in which it was urged\nthat they should not allow their children to use tea or coffee at home.\nNothing was said in this circular, however, about patronizing soda fountains where beverages containing caffein were sold. In point of fact, it is\ncommonly admitted by experts that caffein-bearing beverages taken\nupon an empty stomach are more injurious than the same amount of\ncaffein would be consumed with meals. Now the consumption of tea\nand coffee at home with meals is less dangerous than the drinking of\ncaffeinated beverages at the soda fountains. The name of one of these\nbeverages most frequently found is coca cola. Indeed it is somewhat\nrare at the present time to find a soda fountain that does not sell this\nbeverage. A glass of coca cola contains about the same amount of caffein\nas a cup of tea or coffee, and children in drinking this are doing the very\nthing their parents would not have them do if they knew it. The authorities should be as careful to caution against the use of coca cola as against\ncoffee and tea. It is bad enough for grown people to drink these beverages,\nwithout offering them to children.\nBut there is another reason why the children suffer with that indescribable condition which, for lack of a better term, is called nervousness.\nWhile we do not inherit infectious diseases and nervousness itself, we may\ncome into the world with an inheritance which is favorable to the breakingdown of the nervous system. Why, may I ask, is this the case? The\nanswer is obvious. We are the most bedrugged nation of the earth. If\nyou are suffering with a bad cold and start down the street every friend\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nyou meet has some remedy to offer which is sure to cure. You are dosed\nwith physic for the least ailment. Men and women are victims of morphin,\ncodein, heroin, cocain, chloroform, and cannabis indica. They are saturated\nwith tobacco and alcohol and this added to the everlasting drugging is\nentirely sufficient to account for the destruction of our nerves. They\ncannot resist the bombardment.\nHow often do I hear the phrase, \"I can drink a strong cup of coffee\nwith no ill effect.\" The same excuse is urged for the use of alcoholic\nbeverages. \"I drink a glass of beer, or wine, or whiskey, without feeling\nany ill effect,\" says the one who is addicted to the drug habit. \"I never\nbecome intoxicated,\" but it is not the fourth or fifth drink of whiskey\nwhich intoxicates — ^it is the sum of the first, second, and third drinks.\nIf there is no foimdation there is no structure. Because the injury is\nnot measured by an ordinary rule of dimensions, is no reason that it does\nnot exist. The result is that not only are our children subject to all kinds\nof nervous defects but the grown people even more so. Often is it said\nthat these stimulants are useful for mental effect; learned men have\nrecently written treatises at the instigation of the Coca Cola Company to\nshow that caffein is positively beneficial. A story is running thru one of\nthe magazines showing that the brilliant playwright cannot produce a\nstriking success except under the influence of alcohol. All such stuff as\nthis is merely illusionary. Neither coffee, nor tea, nor tobacco, nor alcohol,\nnor opium, nor cocain, nor hasheesh ever produced a brilliant thought.\nThey sometimes cut loose the sense of responsibility and make one feel\nas if he were a genius, but they do nothing but harm. The inhabitants\nof the Grecian peninsula owed nothing of their genius to any of the dopes\nmentioned above. The world would be better today if coffee, tea, tobacco,\nalcohol, morphin, opium and its derivatives, cannabis indica, acetanUid,\nand all their progeny, relations, and asymptotes were blotted from the\nface of the earth.\nBut it is not for me to describe what men and women of mature age\nshall eat, drink, and smoke. My duty is to save, if possible, the children.\nIf we can save the children, all right we need not have much fear of the\nmen and women that come after. They will be strong, self-reliant, and\ncapable of taking care of themselves. My plea, therefore, to the teachers\nof the nation is to join in the great work to banish from the menu of the\nchild every single substance which hits the nerves, excites imdue activity,\nor produces unnatural stimulation, and substitute in its- place a wholesome,\nnutritious, plain, simple diet, which may enable the child to grow and\nbecome a healthy and valuable citizen.\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nRURAL\n\nA SOCIAL\n\nWARREN\n\nSURVEY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nLIFE CONDITIONS\nAND\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nAND\n\nRURAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL SURVEY\nCOMMUNITY\n\n281\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nRURAL\n\nH. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE PRESBYTERIAN DEPARTMENT\nOF CHURCH AND COUNTRY\nLIFE, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nA great French observer declares: \"The Anglo-Saxon has two passions;\nthe love of land and the desire for education, and the desire for education\nis the greater.\" At the present time American coimtry life is a field of\nconflict between those two passions. To find better schools the farmer has\ndeserted the country, because the schools in the open country are inadequate.\nWe have been making a scientific survey of country conditions to discover what ails country churches and schools. We have studied the one\nas thoroly as the other, and all the churches with equal care. Our examination has covered economic, social, educational, and religious factors of\ncovmtry life. These surveys have covered seven counties in Pennsylvania,\nthree in Indiana, thirteen in Illinois, three in Missouri, and one each in\nKentucky, Tennessee, and Maryland. We are now engaged in the study\nof rural conditions in the whole state of Ohio and this fall will be prepared\nto report on about twenty counties in that representative state. The\nchurch and school in the country are the institutions whose condition\nindicates the welfare or the decadence of the country community. For the\nchurch and the school are the eyes of the country community.\nThe first thing we find in the country is that rural life is organized by\nlabor alone. Nobody stays in the open country except to work. The\nmovement \"back to the land\" has no influence on the rural problem. The\ncity man is an alien. He cannot improve the churches and he cannot\ndirect the schools because he does not get his income from the land as\nfarmers do; and they wiU not accept his leadership. In the country\nitself the only class of men who are generally retained in the open country is\nthe working farmers. The merchants have gone to the town and the\ncountry stores are closed. The blacksmith shop is at the village and there\nare collected all those agencies of country life such as lodges, insurance companies, fertilizer stores, feed-stores. Everything except the factories where\nthe machinery is made is in the village and the town; and those factories\nare in the big city.\nThe school-teacher and the preacher do not live in the country. The\nmodernized school goes no farther into the coimtry than the big village.\nWith the exception of a few consolidated schools it is not to be found in the\nopen fields. The rule in the country is the one-room school, taught by\nan untrained woman who remains at her post not more than a year. The\npreachers are little better; for they do not live in the town where they\ngeneraUy preach and they preach in the country where they do not live.\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe causes of this industriahzing of the open country are: First, the\nexhaustion of the free land in the West, causing the farmer to work harder\nfor a living on impoverished land. Secondly, the first values of the land are\nexhausted and the farmer must deal with marginal values now, for which he\nhas no adequate education. You do not need to be trained to pick up initial\nvalues from a virgin soil, but to farm a land when the first values are\nexhausted requires a trained mind and a skilled hand. But the main\nreason for the laborious character of farming is that in recent years the\nfarmer, who used to live on his products, has come to live on his profits.\nHe used to be a producer of what he required, but now he is a consumer and\npurchases nearly all the necessities of life. He no longer wears his own wool\nor linen or leather, nor eats his own meal or meat; this means he must live\non his profits. To have an adequate profit he must necessarily work\nharder than his father did.\nThis labor to which coimtry life is devoted, hard as it is, does not produce enough to feed the country. I will not dwell long upon this, for\nothers have made it so clear that I can hasten. But this country, which\ntwenty years ago was exporting com in vast quantities, has steadily decreased her exports until in a few years, imless we learn better how to\nfarm, we shall be an importing nation buying our food abroad. Already\nwe are piirchasing potatoes from Scotland and other kinds of raw material\nfrom countries whose soil has been tilled for a thousand years.\nThis is a serious issue, for in the next thirty years we must double the\ntotal of food products used by the people. The last time we doubled our\nfood and raw material needed, we accomplished it by doubling the acreage\nof land under cultivation. This we cannot do again. We must now double\nthe quantity raised per acre, if we are to continue to feed our own people,\nin this great and newest continent of the world. To do so the school must\nbe near at hand to the farmer, in which he can learn the secrets of better\nagriculture.\nThe labor on the farm is not only deficient in production, but it gives\nan inadequate profit. I know well that I am speaking in Illinois, and you\nthink that this state is rich, you boast of the profits which farmers are\nmaking. But what has happened is this: the price of land has indeed\ngone up, while the value of land has gone down. Land which in Illinois\nused to raise with indifferent farming ninety bushels per acre is producing\nnow with better tUlage fifty bushels of com per acre and a little less. But in\nthe mean time, while its actual value for producing food has gone down so\nrapidly, its selling value has increased from $60 per acre to $175 per acre.\nIt is producing less but it sells for more.\nNow this lack of income from the land is the trouble with the country\ncommunity. The farmer can make less, but he is constantly offered more\nfor his land. On this price the actual interest he can make on his money\ninvested, in many Illinois farms, is reduced to about 2 or 3 per cent. He\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSURVEY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n283\n\nknows that he can sell his farm at any tune, deposit his money in the bank,\nand receive the same or more as an interest payment, without working\ntwelve hours a day.\nThis trouble is increased by the fact that many city people want to\ndignify themselves with farm land. They are putting their money into\nfarms at a price which forbids a bigger income than 3 per cent on their\nmoney. They want to feel that they are proprietors. But the farmer\nmust compete with them and he is imable to live on a 3 per cent income.\nSo that these absentee owners are depressing country people by preventing\nthe ownership of land by working farmers.\nBut if you beUeve that farmers have adequate income, I refer you to\nthe survey recently made at Cornell University, which showed that the\nfarmers around that splendid institution, devoted to helping the farmer\nup, get an income of less than $1.20 per day for their work. Henry C.\nWallace, of Des Moines, recently declared that in the state of Iowa the\nprofit on farms was measured by child labor put on the farms. In the city\nwe think it disgraceful that a child should work, but in such a rich state as\nIowa the farmer's only source of income in average instances is the labor of\nchildren. I might go thru instances, and I admit that this question is now\nimder investigation; but I begin to beUeve, for my part, what the farmer\nsays when we go to him to propose the improvement of schools or churches\nor roads in the country. His reply is: \"I cannot afford it,\" and I cannot\nbut beUeve that the farmer is telling the truth.\nThe principle is this: social improvement cannot be paid for on credit,\nbut productive improvements can be. As the selling price of land goes up\nthe farmer's credit is increased, he can borrow more at the bank and with\nthis money he can build silos, buy blooded stock, fertilize and drain the\nland, paint his barns, and if he lives far from town purchase an automobile.\nAll of these are productive improvements and can properly be paid for with\nborrowed money. But churches and schools and better roads are social\nimprovements; they can be paid for only out of the profits. You and\nI have no right to ask a farmer to mortgage his land in order to consolidate\nthe schools or to raise the minister's salary or to support a missionary in\nIndia. These needs must be paid for with that money which is over and\nabove all fixed charges and all expenses, including the interest on his\ninvested capital. So that as the face value of his land goes up it does not\nincrease his income nor enable him to pay for social improvements. Instead\nit diminishes his labor income.\nThis results in the condition you see thru all the Middle West. The\nfarms are improved, the houses are painted, the barns are repaired, good\nmachinery is everywhere, the quality and the grade of live stock are higher,\nbut the churches are neglected and the schoolhouses are out of repair and the\nroads are hopeless. What else could you expect in a country where the prices\nof land have gone up and the income from land is but little if at all improved ?\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe result of this We have found in the increase in the proportionate\nnumber of renters who own no farm land. Are you aware that in this\nsplendid central state of Illinois, in the com belt, 53 per cent of the farmers\nin the country are renters? We know it too well who have churches to\ncare for in the country, because the renter has only a one-year lease. His\naverage tenure thruout the United States is two and a half years. We are\nfinding that in Ohio he stays on a farm two and four years. But, however\nlong he stays, the American renter has no legal right to the land for more\nthan a year. The law sustains him only while he is raising one crop. The\nlaws of this country have made no allowance for a renter. He has no\nespecial standing before the courts. The lawmakers in none of the states\nexpected that an American farmer would ever be anything but an owner of\nthe land he tilled. Yet thruout the country as a whole four farmers out of\nten are renters on one-year leases.\nNow, there is nothing wrong with the tenant. He is as good a man as\nthe owner. It is the condition, not the man, that determines the social\ninstitutions in the country. My people have been renters in Ireland for\nthree himdred years and have lived on one piece of land, supporting the\nsame church and the same school. But the American renter is a nomad.\nHe moves constantly. He is an outlaw because there is no place for him in\nthe legal system of state or nation. He has no legal right to the fertilizer\nhe puts in the soil. The result is that he fertilizes not at all and robs the\nsoil as a custom.\nThe renter of the land needs a better school for his children than the\nowner does because his family life is poorer; the wife is harder worked;\nthe husband and father has heavier burdens and anxieties than the owner has.\nThey need a better pastor and a better teacher; but they are unable to supply\nthemselves with as good a church or as good a school as the owner can. So\nthat the whole system in the country, imless it be helped thru changes of our\nlaws, and especially thru a better school and a better church than we now\nhave in the country, will tend downward. The danger at the present time\nis very great. Remember that our system of tenantry in America is worse\nthan that in any coimtry in Eiu-ope. We are defended from the ill condition\nof England, Ireland, or Germany only because our soil is still younger and\nis not yet fully exhausted.\nIn this condition, the one-room school renders no help whatever. The\nteacher herself is an \"absentee,\" teaching in the country while she looks\nfor something better. Seldom does she stay longer than a year. I was\ninformed that in Georgia 88 per cent last year of the country school-teachers\nwere each teaching for the first time in that school. In many of their schools\nthe condition among the children was even worse; as for instance, in one\ncountry school of 27 children, 25 were newcomers who had not been there\nthe year before. This was due to the renting system in a state where\nabove 60 per cent of the farmers are renters.\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSURVEY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\n285\n\nBut the trouble with the country education generally is a wrong principle. The notion is to make the boys and girls into gentlemen and ladies.\nThe teacher says she is there to \"train personality\" just as the preacher\ndeclares that his only business in the world is to \"save souls,\" The\ncountry school in this particular boasts of the number of scholars it \"has\nturned out.\" They tell of judges and generals, governors and great men\nof varied lines who went thru their schools. But the school is not tested\nby the brilliant people who happen to have escaped its influence. It is\ntested by the dull people who are dependent upon its influence. The\nNew England states exhibit in every town the evidence that the one-room\ncountry school gives very poor education to those who get nothing better.\nCommunities that have \"sent out\" so many brilliant people are sorely in\nneed of the leaders and geniuses whom the country school inspired with a\ndesire to get away from the farm.\nThe farmer cannot reform his own schools. We might as well understand that at the beginning. The country school must look for its renovation to the teaching profession. The task of farming is too great and the\ntransformation thru which it is now going, too severe for the farmer to\nthink of anything but selected seed, silos, test of cows, and the spraying\nof orchards. It is the business of such a body as this to forward the reform\nof the country school. Let us be perfectly sure that the farming occupation itself gives no promise of educational reform.\nThe school needed in the country is now clearly indicated. If you will\ngive us such a school as this, I am sure that we shall give you a successful\ncountry church. I care not of what denomination we are, we wait for the\nservice of the teacher, before we can build permanent social institutions in\nthe country. First, the country school of the future must teach the book of\nNature. Botany must be taught, not as I learned it, a glossary of Latin\nderivatives to be studied, a lens, blotting paper, and the co-operation of a\npretty schoolmate; but botany means corn and potatoes, and to teach any\nother kind of botany in the country, to fail to tell the country boy that corn\nand wheat are flowers, is to betray and to impoverish the farmer. Whoever\nrobs the farmer robs the whole country.\nThe country school ought to teach the child about the birds that fly\noverhead, the farmers' friends. It ought to teach the nature of the soil\nand educate the American school boy so that he will know as much as the\nDanish peasant. For the poor Dane brought up on a swampy farm of ten\nacres under the North Sea can analyze his own soil and test his milk for\nbutter fat; he can cure his own bacon better than Armour and Swift can.\nThey have no trusts in Denmark because the farmer is educated.\nSecondly, the country school of the future will teach all of the children.\nIt will not attend only to the geniuses nor spend time on the boys that\nare going to the city or to college. It will set its standard by the boys of the\nlocal community and the girls who are going to live happily and with profit\nin that place.\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe country school that is worth the farmer's money, in the third place,\nwill be in the center of the community, will cultivate recreation and social\nlife and by this means contribute to the social training of the children.\nFourthly, the coimtry school, whatever it be, requires dose supervision\nby experts, not elected but appointed, in order that the individual teacher\nmay have behind her not a careless committee of covmtry directors or a\nplace-seeking politician, but a trained supervisor who will give continuity\nand character to her work.\nFor my part, I believe that this burden of educating the farmer for\npresent-day needs cannot be borne by the one-room school and the lone\nteacher. The institution is inadequate to the strain put upon it. We need\nthe consoUdated rural school in the country, where out in the open country\nthree or four teachers, with a principal, trained for their work and well\npaid, with an adequate plant to work in, shall educate the children of the\nwhole coimtryside. These children shall be brought to the school in\nwagons. Instead of ten indifferent, poorly trained teachers, I would\nsubstitute four teachers and four wagon-drivers. There you have an\ninstitution adequate to the needs of country life.\nBut whatever be the form of the school needed in the country for the\nsupport of a rural community and the improvement of the condition of\nthe farmer, I believe this formula will describe it: The country school\nshould be such as to educate the farmer's son and daughter imtil eighteen\nyears of age, in farming and in country life, while they live at home, sleep\nevery night in their own beds, eat every morning at their mother's table.\nNowadays, for agricultural training, the boy has to go to the city or the girl\nmust go, for normal training, far away from home: and they never come\nback. But the school I have described will build up the community.\nThe teacher and the parent will co-operate in the education of the boy\nand the girl to honor the father's profession, not to despise it; and to follow\nthe profession with profit to themselves and with abundant provision for\nthe rest of us thruout the country. Thus the cost of living will be lowered\nbecause the education of the most fundamental occupation of all is made\nproductive and profitable by a good country school.\n\nB (j). WHAT IS BEING DONE TO MEET THE PROBLEM\nBY THE SCHOOLS OF GUILFORD COUNTY, N.C.\nT. R. FOUST, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT, GREENSBORO, N.C.\n\nGuilford Coimty, North Carolina, is situated in the central part of\nthe state and has an area of 672 miles which is practically in the form of\na square. Its population is 64,000. Of this population 25,000 live in the\ncities and 39,000 in the country. Last year the rural school fund was\n$105,000, and with this amount the rural schools of the county were in\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nSessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS BEING\n\nDONE\n\nBY\n\nGUILFORD\n\nCOUNTY,\n\nN.C.\n\n287\n\nsession for an average of 119 days. Our rural schools are supported by\nwhat is known as the general school fund, and then each township or\nschool district is permitted under the law to levy a special school tax,\nprovided a majority of the people will vote in favor of said levy.\nAbout ten years ago a real interest was awakened in the development\nof the rural schools, and a campaign was inaugurated to encourage the\npeople to vote a special tax in order to lengthen the school term and secure\nbetter teachers and equipment. This movement gained rapidly and the\ncounty now has over two-thirds of its children in the rural districts attending schools which are supported in part by a special levy. This increase\nof the school fund has enabled the county to build good houses, to furnish\ngood equipment, and to employ better teachers.\nWith this agitation for a special tax levy in the various school districts\nof the county has come a real awakening of the people, and, whereas they\nwere formerly content with a four months' school, now a great many\ncommunities run an eight months' school and are not satisfied with less.\nThe old idea in the South, that four months is as long as a farmer can spare\nhis children, is fast disappearing and the reports which come into my office\nshow that the long-term schools of the county are the ones which have the\nhighest percentage of enrollment and attendance, based on the school\ncensus. Furthermore, these special-tax districts are larger than those\nwhich do not have a special school tax, and, consequently, the children\nmust travel a greater distance in order to reach the schools. This proves\nconclusively that it is not a question of distance, but the quality of the\nschool that determines the regularity with which pupils attend.\nCo-ordinate with the agitation for better rural schools came the agitation for better roads, and ten years ago the county voted a bond issue of\nthree thousand dollars to be spent in building permanent macadam roads\nin the county. This bond issue has been entirely spent and the county\nnow has over one hundred miles of permanent road. The Board of County\nCommissioners is each year building approximately ten miles of permanent\nroad out of the money which comes from a special levy for road purposes.\nWhile these two movements indicate that the people of Guilford\nCounty are progressive, yet rural statistics show that the country people\nare deficient in three particulars:\n1. There are too many cases of typhoid fever and other preventable diseases each\nyear.\n2. The average farmer needs a training which will the better equip him for his work.\n3. The average country woman needs a training which will enable her to keep the\nhome better and more economically.\n\nTwo years ago there was held a joint meeting of the Board of County\nCommissioners and the County Board of Education to discuss these features\nof rural life and to devise some plan whereby they can be improved. After\nseveral meetings it was decided to secure from the legislature of North\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nCarolina such laws as would enable the boards to spend the proper amount\nof money in developing the people of Guilford County along the lines that\nI have indicated.\nThe legislature of North Carolina passed a law which enabled any\ncounty of the state to employ a superintendent of health to give his whole\ntime to the health work of the county, provided the Board of County\nCommissioners would appropriate a sufficient amount of money to enable\nthe Board of Health to do this. The Board of County Commissioners\nof Guilford County readily agreed to appropriate the money and instructed\nthe Board of Health to secure a competent man for his entire time. In\naddition to the usual duties required of the county superintendent of\nhealth, he must deliver lectures in order to educate the people along the\nlines of sanitation and health, visit the schools while in session, and suggest to parents the treatment that it is necessary for the defective child to\nhave, issue health bulletins, and write newspaper articles to be circulated\nin the county.\nDuring the past school year each teacher was required to report, on\na card furnished for that purpose, a list of the children who had some\napparent defect. Ten per cent of the children who attended school had\nsome defect which was so pronounced that even a layman could detect\nit. When the superintendent of health visited the school he called for\nthose children whose names had been furnished by the teacher and gave\nthem a thoro examination. When he reached an opinion as to the cause\nof the lack of physical development, a card was sent to the parent suggesting the treatment that should be given. Dr. Ross, the superintendent\nof health during the fall of 1911, delivered lectures in various parts of the\ncounty and had stereopticon views illustrating the four principal diseases\nwhich lower the vitality of our people and cause the most deaths. These\nfour diseases which he illustrated by slides were tuberculosis, smallpox,\nhookworm disease, and typhoid fever.\nThe Board of Education of the county and the people for several years\nhad realized that the schools of the county ought to be the means in helping\nto solve the problems which confronted the farmers and their wives. Two\nplans were suggested. One was to establish a distinctively agricultural\nschool at some central point in the county, and make it the means of dissemination of knowledge in agriculture and domestic science thru its\ncourses of study and extension work by the teachers in this school; the\nother was not to establish any distinctively agricultural school, but to\ndo the work thru the high schools which were already in existence by adding\ncourses in agriculture and domestic science to their courses of study.\nAfter a thoro consideration of this important question the Board of Education reached the conclusion that it would be better not to establish any\nseparate schools but to use those which were already created and to work ■\nthru them. The board did not believe it wise to adopt a system which\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS BEING\n\nDONE\n\nBY\n\nGUILFORD\n\nCOUNTY,\n\nN.C.\n\n289\n\nmight ultimately result in two systems of schools when we are not able\nto adequately equip and properly support one system. They furthermore believed that the establishment of a distinctively agricultural school\nin the county might lead to class schools rather than having one system\nwhich would train all the children along various lines. Having reached this\nconclusion, the Board of Education prepared a bill for Guilford County\nand secured its passage by the legislature of North Carolina in 191 1.\nBy this special act of the legislature the County Board of Education\nwas permitted to make an appropriation for the work in agriculture and\ndomestic science. The state duplicates the amount appropriated by the\nBoard of Education. Beginning with last year, courses in agriculture and\ndomestic science were made a part of the curriculum of three high schools\nin the county. Each of these schools runs eight months, has a farm of\nten acres, laboratories, and equipment for prosecuting work in agriculture\nand domestic science. We now have in charge of the agricultural department of each of these schools a competent man, and in charge of the domestic\nscience work a competent woman. Our law requires us to employ as\nteachers of these departments only those who have had special training\nfor the work. In addition to the work in the schoolroom each of these\nteachers is required during the summer vacation to do extension work in\nthe county. The county is divided into three parts and the teacher of\nagriculture at one of these schools is expected to do extension work in\none-third of the county. This extension work consists in holding meetings\nwith the farmers in various sections of the county; getting the farmers\nto visit the school farm in order to get the benefit of the demonstration\nwork; visiting the farmers at their homes and helping them to solve the\nproblems which arise on the farm. Each domestic science teacher has\ncharge of the extension work among the women in one-third of the county,\nand during vacation she is to hold mothers' meetings, and to give instruction in home-keeping and home-making.\nWe find that both men and women are anxious to improve upon what\nthey are now doing and do not at all resent suggestions from those who have\nhad special training in those lines of work. The real test of the effectiveness\nof the work, both in agriculture and in domestic science, is the effect that\nit has upon the home life. We find that boys who have been using the\nBabcock tester during the past year at school have for the first time been\nbrought to the realization of the difference there is in milk. They have\nlearned from tests, which have been made at the school, that two cows\nwhich have a very similar appearance and give practically the same quantity\nof milk may vary considerably in the amount of butter fat which they\nproduce.\nAs these schools are open without tuition to all boys and girls in the\ncounty who are prepared to enter the high-school course, and as some\nattend from almost every section of the county, we believe that the influence\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof these schools is going to be felt in practically every neighborhood in\nthe county. These boys who are receiving Lnstniction in agriculture\nin the school during the winter are going to the farms and work there\nduring the summer. They will put into practice some of the things which\nthey have learned in the school, and their fathers will be given the benefit\nof their training right in the home. What is true of the boys is equally\ntrue with reference to the training which the girls will carry into the home.\nOne day last winter, just after I had left one of the schools in which the\ndomestic science department had given a limcheon, I met a man at the\nrailroad station who had two girls in the domestic science class. I asked\nhim if he could see any difference in the attitude of his two girls in the\nhome since they began taking domestic science work in the school. He\nrephed that there was a marked difference and mentioned especially the\nbread which the family is now eating, contrasting it with the old-fashioned\nsoda biscuit which had formerly been made in the home. Upon further\ninquiry I learned that the whole community had practically abandoned\nthe old-fashioned soda biscuit and are now eating the wholesome Parker\nHouse rolls instead.\nLast summer twelve varieties of peas were planted side by side on one\nof the farms in order to determine which variety is best suited for particular\nuse in our section. The boys were carried to the farm and there saw a\nmarked difference between the various varieties as forage-producers and\nthose which produce more fruit and less forage. The farmers of the neighborhood were also carried to the farm in order that they might see what a\ndifference there is in variety when given the same cultivation on the same\nland.\nIt is not our intention to do experimental work on these farms, but\nrather demonstration work. High-school pupils are not prepared to do\nexperimental work because they are prone to reach a conclusion too quickly,\nbut, by using these farms to demonstrate what has already been proven\nby experiment, we hope to get the farmers of the county to follow approved\nplans and thereby materially increase the amoimt which is raised per acre.\nAs I said in the beginning, last year was our first attempt in the three\nlines of work, health, agriculture, and domestic science, and one year is a\nshort time in which to show any marked change, but we do beheve that\nby and thru these lines of work we can materially increase the efficiency\nof our people. We do not believe that agriculture should be given to the\nboys and domestic science to the girls solely for the purpose of making\nfarmers and home-keepers, but we do believe that we can better train the\nboys and girls by giving them these courses in which they have had some\nformer experience and in which they are more interested than we can by\ngiving them the old standard courses of study. We are not in favor of\neliminating anything that has been given for its training and cultural\ninfluence, but we do believe that the rural boys and girls should be given\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS BEING\n\nDONE\n\nBY\n\nOREGON\n\n291\n\nthe opportunity of selecting those things which pertain more directly to\nthe home life. Two courses are given in these rural high schools, and we\nhave foimd during the past year that over half of the pupils in the high\nschools desire to take the more practical course.\nWhile material prosperity is not the end of education, yet the more\nprosperous and healthy we can make the rural districts, the more able\nthese people are to have the proper system of schools and to bring into the\nhome those things which have an elevating and refining influence. A\ngreat deal of the farmer's work is now lost. It is not an uncommon sight\nin this country to see an entire orchard ruined because the farmer does\nnot know that it is caused by a disease which is so easily prevented. It\nis the business of the rural high schools so to train the boys and girls that\ncome under its influence that they will not permit this waste on the farm\nand in the home to continue. It is also the business of the rural high school,\nthru its extension feature, to teach the farmers themselves and their wives\nhow they can better solve the problems which confront them.\n\nB (2).\n\nWHAT\n\nL. R. ALDERMAN,\n\nIS BEING DONE TO MEET THE PROBLEM\nTHE STATE OF OREGON\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nORE.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nBY\n\nSALEM,\n\nThe State of Oregon is divided into two distinct parts, the Cascade\nMountains forming a natural boundary between the two sections. There\nare two processes of evolution going on in the state, the one tending to\nconsolidate farms, the other to intensify cultivation, and divide them. In\neastern Oregon in the non-irrigated sections, improved machinery makes\nthe consolidation of many small farms into large tracts profitable. One\nman with a caterpillar engine or a large team does the work of many. One\nfarmer buys out his neighbor, houses are far apart, and were it not for\nautomobiles, country life would be very lonely. However, irrigation is\nrapidly spreading thruout these dry sections, making conditions .very\nfavorable for community life. Here the population is becoming more\ndense, and rural conditions are improving. In western Oregon the abundance of water supply, and equable climate make country life conditions,\nas far as the physical side is concerned, almost ideal.\nYet in Oregon the general trend of population follows that of other\nstates, from the farm to the town and city. But little more than a third\nof the population of the state lives on farms. The city attracts. We are\nsocial beings and like to meet our fellow-men. There are many thoughtful\nmen who believe that in the country is the place to live and bring up a\nfamily. Many educators believe that the country boy and girl, growing\nup with many responsibilities, are the ones who really do things in life.\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBut too many in the country are leaving for the city. They go because\ncountry life does not appeal to them. The problem, then, is: Make country\nlife more attractive.\nThe way to solve the country life problem must be found in the main\nby the country-dweller. No set of resolutions adopted by a general conference can be effective. One reason why being a producer is not more\nattractive is because the producer receives only about 40 per cent of what\nthe consumer pays for the same products.\nIn Oregon we do not claim to have solved the country life problem, but\nwe have several things which I think are worth calling to the attention of\nthe National Education Association. They are our rural high-school law,\nour supervisory law, our state-wide children's industrial contest, and the\nnew experiment, school credit for home work.\nCounty high-school fund law. — Many people in the country have a\ngreat desire to give their children a high-school education, and in order to\ndo it, they will go to the high school, if the high school is not brought to\nthem. A canvass of our city and town population will show a large percentage ofpeople who are there to educate their children. In Oregon, in\nmany counties, it is not necessary to move to town for this, as the high\nschool is brought to the country. The ideal is a high school within ridingdistance of every home, so that the child may be in his home at night.\nLane County has eighteen high schools, only one of them being in a large\ntown. Eighty-five per cent of all the Lane County eighth-grade graduates\nof the years 19 10 and 191 1 were in high schools in 1911-1912. This record\nchallenges comparison.\nThe law fosters high schools thru the following provision: Each of the\nfirst twenty pupils in a high school draws $40 from the covmty high-school\nfund; each of the second twenty pupils draws S30 from the fund; and\neach pupil over the first forty draws $12 . 50. The tax for the fund is levied\non all the property of the county. In most cases the amoimt does not\nexceed one-half of a mill. This is a state law made operative only by a vote\nof the county.\nThe rural high schools have a wholesome influence on the rural grammar\nschools, as each child wants to enter the rural high school as soon as possible, and to do so he must make his grade each year. It has been noticed\nthat the attendance in the grades improves when a high school is established.\nThe supervisory law. — By the old order of things, the more poorly\nprepared a teacher was, the farther into the country she was sent, and the\nless supervision she received. Under the new order she is sent just as far,\nbut someone is sent after her to help her. By the Oregon plan every rural\nschool in the more populous counties has a supervisor visit it at least every\nsix weeks. This law has been in operation only one year, but a great change\nhas been noticed already. Sanitary conditions improved at once. H\\mdreds of wells were cleaned and properly curbed. Faucets from small\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS BEING\n\nDONE\n\nBY\n\nOREGON\n\n293\n\ndrinking-tanks, and nidividual cups replaced the old pail and common\ndipper. Walks and outhouses were improved; stoves were furnished with\njackets and ventilating shafts; better lighting was found possible even in\nold schoolhouses. The supervisor, visiting the people often, reinforced\nthe teachers' requests, and stimulated a greater interest in the school than\nthe teacher alone could possibly awaken.\nBut the main thing hoped for and already noticed is the improvement\nof the teacher in service. The idea is that every teacher be helped so that\nshe may be a year's better teacher at the end of each year. The right suggestion at the right time means in many cases the difiference between success\nand failure.\nOur supervisors are selected by a board of five, consisting of the county\nsuperintendent and four people selected by him. Only those counties that\nhave sixty or more districts have supervisors, and no supervisor may have\nmore than fifty nor less than twenty districts under his or her charge. The\nminimum salary is $100 per month for ten months.\nIndustrial contests. — Believing that the main thing in education is\nhabit-building, and that industry is largely a habit, we have this year\nlaunched industrial contests in every county in the state, in connection with\nthe local and county fairs, culminating in the state fair. The State Bankers' Association, the Live Stock Association, the commercial clubs, the\nwomen's clubs, State Teachers' Association, county superintendents,\nparents, teachers, and children are co-operating in this movement, and as\na result we expect to have as many as sixty thousand children exhibit\nsomething grown or made by them. Four thousand school children in the\ncity of Portland had gardens this spring. Thousands of children are raising\nchickens and hundreds are owners of pigs. A boy who had won a pig at\na fair was asked how his pig was this morning. He replied, \"He's all\nright — how are all your folks?\" There is something educative about the\ncare of animals. It broadens one's sympathies. Giving one life into the\ncare of another brings a responsibility that nothing else does. Someone\nwho has taken the trouble to go thru the penitentiaries of the country reports\nthat not one in ten of the inmates ever had a pet to care for.\nBut the best thing about industrial work is that it brings the boy and\nhis father nearer together. I know two farmers, neighbors; twenty years\nago their circumstances seemed very much alike; one of the farmers let\nhis boy have a piece of land, and time to plant and cultivate it himself.\nHe felt that he and his father were in partnership together. When he harvested the crop, he bought the kind of clothes he liked, and had spending\nmoney left over. He would talk over his interests with his father as to a\ncomrade. This boy and his brothers are on the place yet. One is building\na home near his father's house. The family is happy and prosperous. It\nis just such a place as one likes to visit.\nThe other farmer has a fine farm, but he did not take his boys into his\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nconfidence. They felt he wanted from them only what work he could get\nout of them. They are all gone. He is known far and near as a hard\ndriver, and many of his neighbors are unkind enough to say it is his hard\ndriving that makes him so lonely now.\nI have seen fathers this year pat their boys on the head and say, \"John\nhas a fine garden,\" and I have noticed that John almost breaks the top\nbutton off his vest as he swells up with pride. That is worth while.\nIn Yamhill County they have had a school fair for seven years, in other\ncounties for four years, with an ever-increasing nimiber of exhibits, and\never-increasing enthusiasm. Prizes are given for garden products, for\ncooking — usually bread, jellies, and canned fruits — for sewing, mending,\nand for butter-making, and carpentering, as well as for pigs and chickens.\nGenerous prizes have been contributed, amounting to $20,000 this year\nthruout the state. This is partly cash, and partly those things that attract\nchildren — such as pure-bred animals, saddles, writing-desks, Shetland\nponies, etc.\nAll this work is home work, in the case of the country children. The\nschool organization, for the present, acts only as a stimulus and a means\nof communication. Local volunteer committees are formed to encourage\nthe children after the schools are closed for the summer.\nSchool credit for home work. — A few schools in Oregon carry the idea\nof encouraging industry still further by giving credit for it every day in the\nschool. This plan was been worked out with wonderful enthusiasm by\npupils and parents. Some measure the work by hours — or minutes — of\nhome labor, a certain number of minutes being assigned for each task, and\na report sent in signed by the parent certifies to the number of minutes'\nwork done each day. Then there are holidays granted for so many hours'\nwork each month, and prizes at the end of the term to those who have the\ngreatest number of hours' work to their credit. Another method is to have\nthe home work marked by the parent, and as much credit given as for any\none study. In either case, the child is brought to realize that home work\nis important. He learns that there is a pleasure in responsibilities. He\nlikes his home, and if it is on the farm, he becomes interested, and wants to\nstay there. The effect of this industrial work on school work is entirely\ngood. The schools that are accomplishing the most at home are delightfully\nwide-awake in school hours, and have enviable records for scholarship.\nAnother condition developing in Oregon is the new feeling of unity and\nco-operation in rural neighborhoods. This is fostered by the countryhigh schools, which serve as the best type of social centers, forming the\nnucleus of a larger and more public-spirited coimtry neighborhood. The\nactivities of these high schools attract the adults, and the sheds that shelter\nthe pupils' horses in the daytime shelter the family team during the evening\nmeetings, while the parents mingle with the children in debate, lecture, or\nsocial gatherings. A high tone is given to these meetings by the very place\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS BEING\n\nDONE\n\nBY\n\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA\n\n295\n\nin which they are held, and the people appear at their best, for I believe\nthat the happiest social gatherings are those dominated by some appeal\nto the intellect. In my opinion adult education in country or city has\nwonderful possibilities. Again, athletics are drawing the adults together,\nso that practically all in the country are out Saturday afternoons to witness the ball game between the rival high schools. When country life loses\nenough of its strenuosity to permit this in the busy springtime, when it will\ninduce the farmer to drop his plow, and mix with his neighbors at a ball\ngame, and yell like a human being, it shows signs of progress. I remember\nwhen I used to look at my father and wonder why he did not know that\nbaseball is the most important thing in the world.\nThis spirit of co-operation is showing itself in other ways. In some\ncommunities where they raise the same kinds of crops and stock, they do\nnot advertise as individuals, but as a community. Each farmer is interested in his neighbor's getting the best stock. Under such conditions it is\na pleasure to see neighbors talking together. They see clearly that one\nfarmer is not in competition with his neighbor, but that their best interests\nare in working together to the fullest possible extent.\nOne ideal of the Oregon Country Life Commission is to encourage real\nfarm neighborhoods, co-operative neighborhoods, with the high school for\nan intellectual and social center. Another is that Oregon shall excel in the\nnumber of farm homes having running water, bathtubs, and septic tanks.\nWe Oregonians want an Oregon farm to be the best place in the world in\nwhich to bring up a family.\nB (5). WHAT\nJOHN\n\nH.\n\nIS BEING DONE TO MEET THE\nTHE STATE OF NORTH DAKOTA\n\nWORST,\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE\nGOVERNMENT\nEXPERIMENT\nCOLLEGE,\n\nPROBLEM\n\nSTATE\nAGRICULTURAL\nCOLLEGE\nSTATION,\nAGRICULTURAL\nN.D.\n\nBY\nAND\n\nThe time limit placed against my report for North Dakota compels me\nto adhere rather severely to facts, with but scant time for elaboration or\ncomment.\nNorth Dakota, as it is well imderstood, ranks with the younger states.\nPioneer conditions are not yet wholly outgrown. The population of the\nstate, tho rapidly increasing, is yet meager when the vast area of its available farming lands is taken into account. The natural resources of the\ncommonwealth are almost exclusively agricultural. This fact suggests\nvery clearly the character as well as the educational needs of the state's\nindustrial population. The prosperity of North Dakota, consequently,\nnaturally must depend upon the products of the soil and the intelligence\nand progressive character of those who comprise the rural population.\nThe culture and industrial efficiency of the great majority of our\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npeople, therefore, must necessarily harmonize with, and bear direct relation\nto, their rural environment, if the business and social needs of the commonwealth are given practical consideration. The education of our children,\nespecially those of the country districts, in large measure, must be directed\ntoward the farm and in preparation for the best there is in farm life, if the\nstate would discharge its obligation alike to its natural resources and to its\npresent and future interests. The public schools should teach persons how\nto live, how to conserve, how to economize, and also how to spend wisely.\nWe realize that preparation for the work of life, more and more, is coming\nto be the object of education. Happily the educators of North Dakota\nand its foremost citizens are beginning to take this practical view of education. They realize \"that every race dug its civilization out of the\nground\"; that \"practical ethics are best insured by making every citizen,\nat least potentially, a producer,\" because the wealth that supports om*\ninstitutions, whether political, charitable, or educational, must come from\nthe earth. All commercial, professional, and transportation interests of\nthe Northwest recognize in agriculture the primary — almost the exclusive —\nresource upon which they must all depend for whatever degree of prosperity\nthey, or the people in general, may enjoy.\nAs rural life and agriculture are closely correlated, it should require\nno prophet to forecast the importance of fostering to the utmost every\navailable means, educational and otherwise, by which the conditions on\nthe farm may be improved, by which rural life may be made agreeable —\neven attractive — ^for the sake of agricidture, because upon it the world so\ntrustfully depends, and yet for which the world apparently manifests but\nlittle appreciation. Moreover, grave danger must inevitably result from\nany serious neglect of this fundamental vocation which so cheerfully bears\nthe burden of the whole coimtry — except as to the administration of its\npolitical offices — and yet which scatters prosperity with such liberal hand.\nEducation, both practical and theoretical, therefore, is invoked in\nNorth Dakota for the purpose of strengthening the rural sentiment, for\nimproving rural conditions, and for niore firmly anchoring the rural families\nto covmtry life. To insure this end, influences are at work to raise the\nstandard of living on the farms; to improve the business methods of farming; to dignify and render congenial and highly intellectual the labor in the\nfields and with the flocks and herds, and above all, to displace the drudgery\nthat is commonly associated with inefficiency, by substituting instead a\nwelcome toil foimded upon intelligent achievement.\nTraditional education too often covers the fingers with rings, but\ndestroys their power and ability to do things. Few people are needed in\nthis world for mere ornamentation. The modem trend of education,\ntherefore, is to produce useful, productive citizens.\nWhat, then, is North Dakota doing to meet the problem of rural life\nconditions and rural education ?\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS BEING\n\nDONE\n\nBY\n\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA\n\n297\n\n1. The Better Farming Association: This new organization is financed\njointly by individuals and counties and directed by a superintendent with\nsome thirty assistants. These agricultural experts are working directly\nwith farmers at their homes, for the purpose of improving methods of cultivation, conserving moisture and fertility, eradicating weeds and fungous\ndiseases, exemplifying the advantages of improved seed grain and improved\nlive stock, determining the cost of production, and by means of experiment\nand demonstration they aim at placing the manifold operations of the\nfarm upon a highly interesting as well as upon a more profitable basis.\nAlready increased enthusiasm is noticeable. A lively interest in\nimproved agriculture is displacing drudgery and the application of scientific\nmethods and modem machinery to farm management is lifting the burden\nfrom overwrought muscles, both on the farm and in the home. The growing\nplants and the developing animals are looked upon with new interest, while\nimprovements observed in both plants and animals readily appeal to progressive farmers as new creations. The country home shares in the general enthusiasm. The children are beginning to look upon their parents'\nvocation as one of dignity and importance.\n2. Mr. James J. Hill, the empire builder of the Northwest, at his own\nexpense is having conducted hundreds of experiments and demonstrations\nalong similar lines for the purpose of proving to our farmers that there is\nvastly more in rural life and in the business of farming than has heretofore\nbeen realized, and that agriculture is a vocation to be coveted rather than\navoided.\n3. A mass Grain and Stock-Growers' Convention is held annually at\nFargo, North Dakota. This convention holds four-day sessions and is\nattended by an average of three thousand farmers and their wives. During\nits sittings every phase of rural interest, whether of the farm or of improvement of the home, is discussed by men and women of large experience and\nall with special reference to the betterment of rural conditions and rural\neducation. During the last session of this association a rural life commission was appointed with authority to report a plan for general co-operation\nto the next convention.\n4. The Legislative Assembly of the state, recognizing the importance\nof solving the rural life problem in part by means of vocational education,\nand moved largely by influences exerted by the State Educational Association, during the session of 191 1 appropriated a respectable sum of money\nas state aid for the rural schools, providing, however, that in order to be\nentitled to state aid for rural schools, elementary agriculture shall be\nincluded in the course of study, and further that rural schools of the first\nclass shall be maintained for nine months and schools of the second class\nfor eight months each year. An inspector of rural schools also was provided for, together with salary and traveling expenses.\n5. The Assembly of 191 1 also subsidized five city high schools in the sum\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof $2,500 each to meet tHe added expense of giving instruction in agriculture, home economics, and manual training, in the same thoro manner as\nother high-school subjects are taught. The high-school board, to which\nwas intrusted the location of these schools, wisely ordered that these subjects only (or studies directly related to them) may be taught by their\nrespective instructors, and that such instructors must have had special\ntraining for the respective departments over which they preside. The\ninstructor in agriculture must hold a degree from an agricultural college,\nwhile the instructor in home economics and the instructor in manual training must each have had at least two years of special training, above the\nhigh-school grade, for their respective departments.\nThat the number of subsidized agricultural high schools will be gradually increased from year to year is altogether probable.\nThe normal schools of the state offer courses of study and training for\nthe preparation of teachers as here indicated, except for agriculture in the\nsubsidized high schools, while the State University and other state schools,\nas well as the Agricultural College, prepare teachers of agriculture, home\neconomics, and manual training for the public schools.\n6. An act was passed by the same assembly providing for the establishment of county agricultural and training schools and for their joint maintenance bythe state and county and providing for a levy of state tax for\nthe raising of fimds to meet the state share of their cost and maintenance.\nSchools have not yet been organized under the provisions of this law, but\nthe opportunity is open for any county that so elects to take advantage of\nits pro\\dsions.\n7. It would, perhaps, be superfluous to add that the State Agricultural\nCollege is alive to its duties and opportimities to serve both parents and\nchildren, directly and indirectly, so far as the college and experiment\nstations can be of service to them. In addition to four-year graduate\ncourses in agriculture, home economics, etc., for the purpose of training\nyotmg men and yoimg women for the teaching profession and for practical\npurposes, abbreviated three-year courses, requiring college attendance\nduring but twenty-two weeks each year, are offered in farm husbandry, in\nhome-making, and in power machinery. These abbreviated courses,\ndesigned specially for the training of practical farmers, efficient homemakers, and managers of farm or power machinery, are each annually\npatronized by scores and himdreds of enthusiastic young men and young\nwomen, mostly from the rural districts, who are too engrossed with home\nduties to spare more than a limited portion of each year in school. For\nsuch the Agricultural College feels justified in offering courses of study\nsuited to the time and means these young people can spare and that relate\ndirectly to the lives they contemplate living and the things they contemplate doing.\nIn the practical courses of study emphasis is given to living as well as\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS BEING\n\nDONE\n\nBY\n\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA\n\n299\n\nto working; to the betterment of the home and family as well as to improvement of crops and livestock.\n8. Winter short courses of ten weeks each are offered at the Agricultural\nCollege for boys and girls and grown-ups as well, who do not feel able or\nwho are not ambitious to spare more than that much time from home\nduties. These short courses are open to all ages, and consist chiefly of\nlectures and demonstrations bearing upon practical farming and household\naffairs, and appeal strongly to those who are not accustomed to consecutive\nstudy.\n9. The extension department of the Agricultural College, in addition\nto supplying nearly three himdred newspapers, magazines, and agricultural journals with literature and observations calculated to be of service\nto their rural readers as well as to make better and happier country homes,\nalso enlists the country school children in useful outdoor and indoor exercises. These exercises have taken the form, chiefly, of corn- and potatogrowing contests for the boys and bread-making and sewing contests for the\ngirls. For the current year more than fifteen thousand boys and girls have\nentered these contests, generally imder the local encouragement of county\nschool superintendents, but all are directed from the Agricultural College.\nMany prizes for best results are offered by individuals and by local authorities and during the holiday season the prize-winners are given a week at\nthe Agricultural College by their respective counties, where they are provided with free entertainment and daily instruction, consisting of lectures,\nnature themes, athletic exercises, simple demonstrations, etc., all regularly\nscheduled and presented in language adapted to their understanding. It\nis a week crowded with daily programs intended to inspire their young\nminds with the beauty, the orderly arrangement, and the benevolence of God\nas manifested in the works of Nature, and also with man's power to direct\nNature's forces for his comfort and well-being. This visit to the college and\nthe week spent there by these gaily badged and carefully chaperoned youngsters will long be remembered by them as the most enjoyable vacation of\ntheir lives. They return to their homes with keener relish for study and\nwith profounder admiration and respect for the life on the farm.\n10. Movable schools of about ten days each also are conducted by the\nextension department. Farmers together with their wives and grown-up\nchildren freely attend these schools and listen from day to day to the lectures that are offered and to the illustrations and demonstrations that are\ngiven. The course of instruction covers the practical phases of farm management, animal husbandry, and dairying, and the munerous problems that\ninterest as well as perplex the housewife. These schools move from village\nto village during the winter season, and are growing more popular every\nyear.\n11. The Agricultural College Package Library, consisting of collections of pamphlets, bulletins, booklets, clippings, etc., each package bear-\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "30O\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ning upon some special agricultural, economic, or social question and of\nparticular interest to rural communities offers free service to the citizens\nand school children of the state. These packages are in growing demand\nby those studying such subjects as the country church, the consolidated\nrural school, how to beautify the country home, the manly art of selfsupport, etc.\n12. A regular system of farmers' institutes and extension lectures is\nmaintained at state expense, the former directed by a superintendent and\ncorps of lecturers vmder a state board of control, while the latter is directed\nby the extension department of the Agricultural College.\nThe rural life problem is freely discussed at all farmers' gatherings and\nsuggestions offered for its improvement.\n13. I wish to add in conclusion, just to indicate the trend of sentiment\nin North Dakota, and the enterprise developing in favor of rural improvement, that the Northern Pacific Railway Company and the Agricultural\nCollege jointly fitted up a train of twelve coaches, imder the direction of\nthe superintendent of the Farmers' Institute. This train, which completed\nits work just two weeks ago, was the most unique and elaborate of its kind\nthat has ever been attempted in the United States or perhaps in the world.\nThe train carried five types of live stock; a model poultry house with\nchickens, incubators, brooders, nests, etc. ; one carload of grain-cleaning\nand spraying machinery; one coach filled with every modem device for\nlabor-saving and sanitation apparatus for the up-to-date home, exhibited\nin miniature, together with working models showing the advantage of\nhot-water and hot-air heating systems, the pressure tank, septic tank, gas\nand electric apparatus for lighting, cooking, etc.\nEqually in detail were exhibits pertaining to veterinary and animal\ndiseases together with scores of exhibits to illustrate the subject.\nFully as interesting and instructive we're the exhibits of horticulture;\nof chemistry, with special reference to food adulteration, food values,\npatent medicines, etc.; agriculture in all its bearings; biology, with special\nreference to plant diseases, etc.; also engineering with special reference to\nfarm and household machinery. In short, it was the Agricultural College\non wheels for three weeks, with twenty-seven professors and instructors\nin attendance to explain the meaning and purpose of the exhibits as the\nmore than sixty thousand people passed thru the train while on its journey\nthru the state.\nFully a dozen correspondents accompanied the Farmers' Institute\nSpecial to report the enthusiasm with which this train was received by the\nfarmers and villagers wherever it went..\nAt all rural gatherings discussions are mutual. Questions are asked\nand answered. The farmer's problems are considered from his own viewpoint, those of his wife from her viewpoint, and the children's from theirs.\nThe ultimate aim is to make the coimtry home a convenient place to work,\nan attractive place to live, and to make rural business sufficiently profitable\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMANITY\n\nOF HIGHWA\n\nYS\n\n301\n\nand agreeable that rural vocations shall be sought after by ambitious young\nmen and young women instead of preparing themselves to fill, as is too\noften the case, cheap places in overcrowded cities — and I believe we are\nsucceeding.\nTo accomplish this end we recognize the importance of education\ndirected specifically toward the improvement of rural life conditions — education that will dignify labor as well as make it more profitable; that will\neducate the family as well as the children; that will ultimately professionalize agriculture as it has professionalized law and medicine, and thus\nrestore God's great textbook. Nature, to the love and admiration of his\nchildren.\nC.\nMRS.\n\nTHE HUMANITY\n\nOF HIGHWAYS\n\nFRANK DE GARMO, DIRECTOR OF COUNTRY LIFE DEPARTMENT, NATIONAL\nCONGRESS OF MOTHERS, ST. LOUIS, MO., AND COLLABORATOR, OFFICE\nOF PUBLIC ROADS, WASHINGTON, D.C.,\n\nThe child is the one great care of society. It is not at the child's past, but its future,\nthat men look. — Jacob Riis.\n\nNo work for childhood will produce its most desirable results, that\nof developing good citizens, physically, mentally and morally, imless the\nmother, with her mother-thought, and her mother-love, enter into daily\nand active co-operation with those who labor for childhood, in the home,\nschool, church, or society.\nHeretofore, teachers have assumed responsibilities of crushing weight\nby taking every need of the child into the school. The usual home and\nfarm activities, personal hygiene, and play have been added to the already\ncrowded curriculum. What the teachers have not undertaken to do, the\nfactory and the church have agreed to perform. Motherhood is thus\nshorn of its himian and divine attribute, of personally caring for the physical,\nmental, and spiritual needs of the children, as well as rendering efl&cient\nassistance toward their social and recreation development.\nParents demand a high standard of culture and education for the\nteachers. But the same requirements for study, development, and conference along these lines ought to be expected of mothers, before perfect\nco-operation and unity of purpose can obtain between home and school.\nMothers and teachers united would wield by their combined efforts an\ninfluence that would be irresistible and of immeasurable power for good.\nParent-teacher co-operation is the significant movement of the age.\nBut such study and wise co-operation is denied to more than half of the\nparents and teachers of the United States, by the despotism of \"bad roads.\"\nSome of the human welfare characteristics of good roads are:\nBetter economic conditions and better homes.\nBetter schools and better health.\nBetter churches.\nBetter spiritual advantages.\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nBETTER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nECONOMIC\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nCONDITIONS\n\n1. Good roads increase population and bad roads drive people out.\n2. Good roads increase value of property, and shorten the haul to\nmarket by shortening the time.\n3. Good roads reduce the cost of living, because all that we eat and\ndrink and wear — our shelter, light, and heat — come primarily from the\nsoil, from which the materials, raw or finished, must first be hauled over\nroads to stations and wharves for shipment, or to market for sale.\n4. (jood roads would save the farmer $215,000,000 annually, and the\nexpenditure of this sum for the betterment of farms and homes, and the\neducational and religious training of the 37,000,000 children in our country,\neach year, for a period of twenty years, would give to every American\ncitizen in 1930 an annual pension of $320, which, for the children and\nhelpless adults, would be showing divine compassion, for it would succor\neven the undeserving poor.\nThe enumeration of the commercial value of good roads and the thriftlessness of bad ones could be carried on indefinitely; but the Mothers'\nCongress, while urging the motherhood of the nation rightly to exercise\nits queenly power to weave and embroider the fortune of the home by\nattending to the ordinary and constant duties of conserving its economic\nand civic conditions, does not appeal to this divinely hmnan \"fostermother\" organization, the powerful National Education Association,\ncomposed, as it is, of faithful and scholarly members, to aid in the improvement of American highways for the piupose of facilitating the movement\nof traffic, or for the joy of the swift-moving automobile.\nA nation cannot last long as a monetary mob. It cannot become one of the world's\nleading powers, and concentrate its soul on pence.\n\nA nation, to perpetuate itself thruout the ages, must give aU its people\nliterature, science, art, and the ability to enjoy nature thru the avenues\nof its homes and schools, until generations have homologated the cosmopoUte humanity from foreign lands into a people with one language, one\ncountry, a national poem, and a national faith.\nBETTER\n\nHOMES\n\nGood roads turn golden gain into the coffers of the agriculturist. With\nthis purchasing power, the rural home becomes spacious, sanitary, refined\nin decorations and in the selection of its art and literature. It welcomes\nto its hospitable doors the instructors of its children, both secular and\nreligious, and it becomes the haven of play and wholesome friendships for\nall the youth of the commimity.\nGood roads make possible active and frequent interchange of opinions\nbetween parents and teachers, which results in a cordial co-operative\nspirit between home and school.\nMrs. Ella Flagg Yoimg has said:\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMANITY\n\nOF HIGHWAYS\n\n303\n\nObservation of the spirit pervading parent-teacher organizations leads me to believe\nthat in those organizations is the comer stone for that structure which will make the life\nof the child in the home and in the schools a unity, not a life divided between two neutral,\nif not hostile, camps.\n\nWill not this great body of men and women who are building the\neducational fovmdations for our children unite with the mothers in this\nloving unity, with the home and school; doing team work in every public\nor private school, from the kindergarten to the Senior year of college\neducation ? This can be accomplished only thru the permanent improvement of streets and roads.\nBETTER\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nNo longer are mothers content to keep the children at home because\nof bad roads. They have formulated plans of service and co-operation\nthat will keep the children in school because of good roads. Impassable\nroads, tmbridged streams, lack of recreative amusement, a dearth of\nsociability, or of an opportunity to enjoy it, toiling and moiling from dawn\ntill late at night, have combined to make dreary and unwholesome environments for the school children in many sections of our beloved country.\nGood home environment means good school attendance, and studious\npupils, and, consequently, good citizenship. The school reflects the homes\nof a community. The teacher who makes a remarkable change in the\nscholarship and ethical culture of the children of any school has had,\nheretofore, to perform a stupendous task — that of developing the homes\nalong with the school. With improved roads and the prosperous homes\nwill come the consolidated school, the Mecca to which all thinking men\nand women are now turning their attention. Without improved roads,\nthat is, roads good for all time by proper maintenance, the consolidated\nor graded school of the rural districts is only a dream, a beautiful dream.\nGood roads will not only give the country the graded school, but they will\ncreate in that school, with its corps of teacher specialists, an opportunity\nfor the country youth which will keep the boys and girls on the farm, and\nwill aid in \"lifting the veils of monotony and dreary routine from the\nshoulders of the 'worked-out' boy of the farm and his sunbonnetted sister.\"\nThe country graded school will stimulate the neighborhood activities,\nand competition will result. This will enable the boys and girls, on account\nof modem rural-school methods, by their ovra efforts to bring the best of\nlife to their very doors. These school children will not desert the homesteads for city life, but rather, they will be instructed by capable and farseeing educators to stay where there is room to grow, thus strengthening\nthe \"backbone\" of the country.\nIn this school, there will be found special teachers in manual and\ndomestic arts, and sciences, physical culture, agriculture, hygiene and\nsanitation; but among the first, if not the first subject taught in the\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmodern rural graded school will be the subject of highways. You smile at\nthe thought of teaching roads. You teachers, who have never taught in\na country or village school — can you imagine the agony that is a mother's\nwhen she has to awaken her Uttle children and send them thru snow or\nstorm, thru sleet or rain and mud, to a poorly heated, poorly lighted, poorly\nventilated, and poorly taught, one-room country schoolhouse — there to\nshiver thru a day devoted, mostly, by the teacher, to discipline ?\nThe theory and practice of road-building and its benefits have been\nhanded down from generation to generation in most European countries.\nFrom their youth up, the men who were responsible for the building and\nmaintenance of their country's roads acquired the knowledge and the\nspirit that enabled them to carry on the work of their forefathers. We,\ntoo, must inaugurate some system that will provide for the boys (and, since\nbefore long girls will be women and road overseers and commissioners in\nsome of our states, we must not eliminate them), who will in future years\nfor the most part be responsible for the himianity or inhmnanity of the\npublic roads of our nation. The chairman of the Country Life Department of the National Mothers' Congress, acting from this belief, has\nprepared a simple textbook, the Ravenel Road Primer, containing chapters\neasily intelligible to country school children, during this character-building\nperiod of youth, on the value of road improvement for better transportation\n' facilities; also the elementary practices and principles of road construction,\nand the principle \" that the public roads ought to be built by all the people,\nfor all the people.\" These children will take all this to their homes just\nas they do their history lessons, and out of the mouths of babes and sucklings will come the strongest influence for the humanity of highways that\nwe can bring to bear. While this educational campaign should be general\nin our schools, yet perhaps greater stress should be applied to introduce\nthis system in our country schools, working in perfect harmony with the\neducational associations and all other organizations that are intensely\nconscious of the \"human\" value of good roads.\nWe should ask the highway engineers, and others understanding the\ntheory and construction of roads, to assist the teachers; thus bringing\ntogether the two great forces of civilization, the school-teacher and the\nhighway engineer. The youth should be imbued with the idea that good\nroads are the crying need of our coimtry, and that they must rally to that\ncry with the same loyalty and oneness of spirit that they would leap to\ndefend their country's flag.\nIf this elementary instruction were put into all of the schools, immediately the problem of better schools would be solved; intelligent voters\nwill be made; there will be no politics in the \"good roads\" movement,\nwhich has heretofore clogged the wheels of its progress, and country graded\nschools will be the rule in all the states. City teachers will welcome an\nexchange of service from city to country schools, where, by this system of\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMANITY\n\nOF HIGHWAYS\n\n305\n\nreciprocity, they can rejoice in renewed enthusiasm and good health, the\nstars over their heads, and the daisies under their feet.\nBETTER\n\nHEALTH\n\nThe statistics already collected are decisive as to the appalling deathrate, often by slow stages, caused by the impassable condition of the\ncountry roads. Wet feet and cold schoolhouses are responsible for the\nincrease of tuberculosis in rural communities. The modern style of scanty\ndressing for girls has penetrated the country schools and the country\ngirls and boys are quick to imitate the style of dress the teacher has brought\nto the community from his or her \"finishing college\" in a city with good\nsidewalks. Insanity, because of loneliness and isolation, owing to the\nforced imprisonment of women by bad roads; infant mortality, because\nthe doctor came too late; and many other diseases of mind and body are\ntraceable to the unimproved road.\nBETTER\n\nCHURCHES\n\nAND\n\nBETTER\n\nSPIRITUAL ADVANTAGES\n\n\"Life forever keeps the keynote first struck.\" If so, it is but adding\nthe emphasis of time to that of eternity as to the importance of early\nimpressions. They dominate life, and perhaps govern thru eternity.\nIf the child is to grow into manhood, with strength and beauty of character,\nhe must have an opportunity to attend church as well as school. He must\nspend time in the cultivation of those higher and nobler elements that make\nup our humanity. There are three factors necessary to create for him an\natmosphere of noble inspiration: the home, the school, the church; but only\none of these is attainable in a community of impassable roads. When\nbad roads prevail, the home is the only source from which he must obtain\nthis potent quality that makes for righteousness, and but few homes are\nequal to the task of pointing out the grandeur of human life when touched\nby the hand of God, or of making for the country child high ideals upon\nwhich his soul may feed. Without frequent interchange of thought and\nservice, made possible only by permanent transportation facilities, how\nis he to learn the Fatherhood of God, and the brotherhood of man ? Childhood is so ready to respond to that which is high that it is an appalling\nfact to note the lack of training and soul culture caused by lack of good\nroads. We are sacrificing our children, the best asset of the nation, to\ncommercialism. We are wasting their rightful heritage of health,\neducation, and spiritual development by spending only a pittance of the\nfunds of the state or nation on permanent highways.\nHow can children stand erect, and look up to more inviting things on\na higher plane, when their little feet are compelled to wade thru a long\nline of Uquid morass, called a road, to go to church or school! If the\ncountry school is to be supplied with better teachers, and better libraries\nand other necessary facilities, it must have a greater number of children\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand greater wealth to support it; and this can be had only in a commimity\nwhere the roads are in good condition during the winter months so that\nthe children can be transported quickly, cheaply, and safely a greater\ndistance. The solution, then, of the improvement of coimtry child life\nis to secure, by judicious means, good public roads. There is no other\nway to solve these problems.\nThe taxes for school purposes are levied with the intention of securing,\nto every child, equal educational opportunities. But how few country\nchildren are permitted to reap the full benefits from the expenditure of the\nschool fvmds on account of the conditions arising from bad, soggy, and\nimpassable roads. And teaching of the best approved modem school\ncurriculimi is impossible. Such subjects as elementary principles of roadbuilding, scientific farming, household economics, nature-study, athletic\nsports, and spiritual truths, which necessitate frequent associations of\nneighboring children, would tend to produce a high type of intelligence\nand faith, such as would give them a nearer communion with the forces\nof creation, and shed aroimd them a moral beauty which would develop\ngood citizens thruout the coimtry. How many country children, with their\nlimited education, could find\ntongues in trees, books in the running brooks, sermons in stones, and good in everything!\n\nThe present \"gospel of good roads\" movement by the mothers of our\nnation, as a means of uplifting country life, should receive the hearty\nindorsement of the National Education Association, as this organization\ncan have no nobler purpose then the betterment of American childhood,\nby united efifort with the natural guardians of children, their mothers.\nTrue mother-love is proud, and yet imselfish. Noble mother-love and\nmother-thought would give, also, to the barefoot boy and his sunbonnetted\nsister of the farm palatial school buildings; Alhambra-like libraries, massive\nedifices, whose Gothic architecture resembles a \"frozen prayer\"; parks\nand playgrounds; amusement centers, where toiling and moiling of the\nlong day are forgotten in the enjoyment of innocent pleasures. Sympathetic mother-love and mother-thought would give the doctor good roads,\nso that the lives of many more country children might be saved, and sickness and suffering speedily relieved.\nTo be good and do good is human. So are the opposite characteristics.\nThen who will deny that good or bad roads exercise human powers ?\nThere is nothing which hiuts the people more, or costs the people more, or keeps\nthem back more, than bad roads; they make it hard to leave home, hard to get back,\nhard to haul, hard to visit, hard to get to heaven — sometimes. There is nothing that\na man can think of that will do more to help the people than good roads, which make\nit easy to travel, easy to bring goods home, easy to haid your produce and manufactures\nto market, easy to go to school and church, and easy to avoid many bitter thoughts that\nbad roads cause.\n\nWhat means this reaching-out of women to the lonely mother and child\nof the fields and hills ? It is the spirit of God moving upon the deeps of\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAND\n\nENGLISH\n\nFARMER\n\n307\n\nwoman's soul, arousing her from her long lethargy, and impelling her to\naid in continued and higher evolution of the human race. Oh, grand\nwork! To aid in a movement for a higher rural community, and to open\nwide the gate of opportunity to the \"worked-out\" boy of the farm and\nhis little sister, so that the farm will continue to give to our nation.\nMen to match her mountains, men to match her plains,\nMen with empires of brotherhood and mother-love in their brains.\n\nIn conclusion, may I be permitted to quote the following beautiful\nlines as equally valuable to mothers, fathers, teachers, and the \"good\nroads\" sentiment:\n\"What doest thou,\" I asked a budding flower,\n\"To sweeten life?\"\nIt nodded from its bower,\n\"I'm growing!\"\n\"And what The\ndoestcupthou,\"\nI asked a child who quaffed\nof joy,\n\"To help the world?\"\nHe laughed,\n\"I'm growing!\"\nA laden apple tree, old, gnarled, and sore,\nBent down and rustled softly in my ear,\n\"Keep growing!\"\nAn aged man, with child upon his knee,\nEchoed again the wisdom of the tree,\n\"Keep growing!\"\n\"What shall I do,\" I asked an angel bright,\n\"When age draws nigh?\"\nThen smiled he, from his height,\n\"Keep growing!\"\nReach out to pastures now, where the soul feeds;\nReach out and up — God knows the spirit's needs — ■\n\"Keep growing!\"\n\nD. THE SCHOOL, THE COLLEGE, AND\nE. J.\n\nRUSSELL,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nTHE ENGLISH\n\nOF\nTHE\nROTHAMSTED\nHARPENDEN,\nENGLAND\n\nEXPERIMENTAL\n\nFARMER\nSTATION,\n\nTwo well-defined tendencies can be traced at work in English country\nlife: (i) a tendency on the part of the less educated or laboring classes to\ncrowd into the towns; (2) a tendency on the part of the more educated and\nprofessional and commercial classes to leave the town and come into the\ncountry. The laborers go because wages are and must always be higher\nin town than in country, because there is more amusement, and more ways\nof filling up the interval between worktime and bedtime.\nThe professional and commercial classes come into the coimtry because\nthey like the quiet healthy surroimdings after the noise of the city, they have\nlearned to appreciate the beauties of Nature, or at any rate they feel it is\nthe correct thing to afifect an appreciation of the beauties of Nature, and,\nabove all, they genuinely love a garden.\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n{General\n\nWe have got, therefore, a process of changing over, the manual laborers\nmoving cityward and the professional classes moving toward the covmtry.\nNo system of society can be stable, however, unless it keeps a big population on the land, and it has become a serious problem for our politicians\nand educationalists to try and induce our working men to stay in the country\nand covmteract their tendency to move into the city.\nHence our system of education has a threefold aspect: (i) It aims at\ngiving the children of the laborers and small farmers an interest in country\nlife so they will elect to stay in the country just as do the better educated\nclasses. (2) It gives such instruction as will increase their wage-earning\ncapacity if they do stay in the coimtry. (3) It develops their intelligence\nso that they can do weU in the city if circxunstances should call them in\nthat direction.\nIt is absolutely essential that the interest should come first in a democratic country. Every boy must be left free to make his own choice, even\ntho his elders feel that he is not acting wisely. And so, if the child is to be persuaded to make his life in the country, it can be done only by implanting\nin him from his earliest days a deep abiding love of coimtry life. This is\nnot very difficult, but the problem is compHcated by the fact that wages in\nthe city are much higher than in the country, prospects of promotion are\nmore numerous, and advancement is more rapid. I have often seen the look\nof envy on the faces of our village boys as they stood round one of their\nnumber who has retiu-ned on a short holiday from his post in the city, wearing smart city clothes, and affecting the city business air, telling of the high\nwages he is already getting and the still greater things that are in store for\nhim. If the teacher is really to keep the child on the land, he has before\nhim the very difficult task (which he may perhaps only half-heartedly\nimdertake) of con\\-incing the child that twenty shillings in the country is\nequal to forty shiUings in the city. This introduces another aspect of the\nquestion and shows that our educational system must lessen the disparity\nbetween the wage-earning power of the country man and that of the city\nman. During the period when our elementary education system was\nevolved, we had a niunber of years of severe agricultural depression. This\nreacted on our educational methods, and the object, or at least the result,\nwas to train the boy to be a clerk in the city, but not to be a worker in the\ncountry. The teaching was didactic, it furnished the boy with useful facts\nand a faciUty for manipulating words and figures, but it did not help him\nin dealing with things; in consequence, such a boy did fairly well in the\ncity, but very indifferently in the coimtry; when he left school he knew\nnothing that was any use and he had never acquired habits of observation or\nthought.\nThe result was that education became highly unpopular among our\nfarmers. They had to bear much of the cost of it, for education is largely\npaid for by a rate levied in the district, altho, of course, the state makes a\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAND\n\nENGLISH\n\nFARMER\n\n309\n\ncontribution, and they had the mortification of finding that the young men\nwho had been thru the school were not only no better than their fathers,\nbut were not even as good. Even today our keenest observers are probably\nour old shepherds and ploughmen, while very few of our young men are\nequal to their fathers or their grandfathers in manual dexterity and ability\nto perform such country arts as hedging, ditching, thatching, etc. So\nunpopular, in fact, did rural schools become that it was realized that a\nchange must be made in the system: if the child was to be kept at school at\na time when he was most receptive, he ought to have at least as good a\ntraining as the child who was brought up by his father on the farm. Educationalists also began to realize that it was unsound to make the children\npurely passive receivers whUe the teacher was the only active instrument.\nAnd finally, a few reformers pointed out what a loss it was for children\nto sit in a classroom poring over artificial books that were out of date almost\nas soon as they were written, while the great book of Nature lay open\noutside, ever fresh and true and never out of date.\nThe great change came about thru the remarkable extension of gardening that has taken place in England of recent years. This fact is attested\nby all observers, and is revealed also by the great florist and seedman's\ntrade that has now' sprung up, and in the demand for a new type of house\nwith a garden laid round it, and in the rapid development of our garden\ncities. Provision was early made by which laborers and workingmen could\nobtain plots of land — allotments — on payment of a low rent — $2.00 or\n$3.00 a year for a large patch — on which to grow their vegetables and\nflowers. Presently the schools began to get their gardens, and when the\nstate made a special contribution of four shillings per annum for each child\ntoward the cost of the garden, the idea began to spread, and now the school\ngarden is fast becoming a very popular institution.\nHaving now introduced the school garden, the next thing was to make\nit the center round which the education should develop. This was not\nquite a straightforward task because it was essential that the garden should\nsucceed as a garden. The trouble is that our laborers and allotmentholders — especially the older men — are very good gardeners themselves,\nand are extremely critical when other people set up a garden. So long as\nthe teacher keeps to books, the laborers have no way of measuring him up,\nbut directly he takes to gardening, he embarks on a business with which\nall the workingmen of the village are familiar, and in which they will be\ncompetent and ready to criticize all his efforts. If the garden succeeds,\nthe teacher wins the respect of the villagers; if it fails, the respect is qualified\nand the verdict of the village is that he may be a clever man, but he is no\ngardener. Forthwith the school garden loses its hold on the parents and\nchildren. Now every teacher knows how difl5cult his task becomes when\nthe parents scoff at his apparatus, and when you further remember that\nour teachers are subject to a certain amount of local control as well as to the\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "3IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlocal public opinion, yoii wiU see how necessary it is that they should not\nincur the unfavorable criticism of the village gardeners.\nIn trying to make the garden the center for the educational work of the\nschool, the teacher has had this wholly extraneous condition imposed upon\nhim by public opinion — the necessity for making his garden satisfy the\ngardening critic. This has reacted in two ways. It makes the children\nvery keen indeed. They want the garden to look well and to be as good as\nany in the village. But there is also the temptation for the teacher to do\ntoo much of the work himself — this is not good. But the great disadvantage is the tendency for the garden to become a place for growing good\nvegetables rather than a place for educating the children — ^it becomes a\nmarket garden instead of an educational laboratory.\nIt is of course possible to reconcile these ends, but to do so requires a\ngood deal more from the teacher than if he had only one object before him.\nIn many cases the teacher has not been trained to do the work; he has been\nbrought up to consult books rather than to handle things, to believe the\nprinted page rather than the evidence of the senses. He has been in the\nhabit of regarding the child as a recipient of knowledge — not always a very\nwilling or a very passive recipient perhaps — and he is not prepared to\nchange his view at once and let the child become an active seeker after\nknowledge. Fortunately our teachers are a very fine body of men and\nwomen, pervaded with the true professional spirit, and once they see the\nadvantage of a new method, they take it up enthusiastically. And the\nchief reason for the success of the school garden has been that it has the\nwhole-hearted support of the teacher.\nThere are two general methods of utilizing the school garden. The\nteaching may be wholly didactic — the child being told what to do and what\nwill happen — or it may be wholly experimental — the child setting out to\ndiscover truth for himself. The second method is admirable in principle,\nbut very difficult in practice. Those of us who spend our days experimenting know how extremely difficult it is to ascertain even the simplest fact\nwith which we were not previously acquainted. In walking one day with\nmy little boy, we picked up a fir cone and he asked me what it was. Being\na believer in the experimental system, I got him to plant it in his garden- to\nsee what would happen. In due time up came a potato, and he drew the\nperfectly legitimate conclusion (according to the experiment) that fir cones\ngave rise to potatoes. Prima facie the experiment was good, in reality it\nwas bad.\nI know of no more difficult exercise even for the trained scientist than\nto devise an experiment that shall give a perfectly definite answer to a\nsimple question. So often some complicating factor intervenes: the experiment doesn't turn out as was expected and the teacher has to explain the\nresult — sometimes to explain it away. Now this is one of the worst of bad\nmental habits.\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAND\n\nENGLISH\n\nFARMER\n\n311\n\nProbably the most satisfactory course is a judicious combination of the\nexperimental and didactic methods. As the teaching has to be strictly in\nrelation to the child's environment, it is necessary to make full use of local\nmaterial. But as the teacher is preoccupied in his so many other tasks,\nit would be unreasonable to expect him to make out a course for himself\nwithout guidance. We are therefore adopting three methods: (i) Our\nCambridge University Press is publishing a series of nature-study readers,\neach on a single definite aspect of nature, written by experts and containing\nsimple experiments and notes for observations. (2) Our agricultural\ncolleges are arranging summer courses for teachers, dealing with the natural\nhistory of the locality. (3) Young teachers still at college may have a\nthird year's course on nature-study. This last is not very popular. But\nthe summer courses are, and they are doing much to make our school\ngardens the center of the educational work of the school.\nIn an English village, as I hope I have made it clear, a teacher has\nby no means a simple task. If he succeeds, he is not unfrequently\ntempted away to the town by a higher salary and by better chances of promotion. Indeed the operation of economic forces would tend to draw the\nbest men and women away from the country schools, and leave them to\nbe staffed on the principle of the survival of the unfittest, but fortunately\neconomic forces do not entirely dominate the situation. It ought to be\nrecognized everywhere, however, that the country teacher may serve the\ncommunity just as well as the town teacher, and deserves just as great a\nchance of promotion and as good an opportunity of making the best of his\nlife. If this is not done, the teacher may not accept country life permanently unless he is obliged to do so. The essence of the newer methods of\nteaching is to draw out the best that is in the child and make the best of\nthe faculties it possesses. This can be done only by a teacher who is himself a person of distinction and individuality, and the community must\nbe prepared to offer adequate inducements for such persons to enter the\nprofession. Perhaps I ought to apologize for mentioning financial matters\nat a gathering of distinguished educationalists, but I remember I am in\nChicago, where such matters may permissibly be mentioned. What I\nwant to say is this: we often notice a great willingness to spend money on\nbuildings, on apparatus, and on schemes. But I venture to think this is\nthe wrong end. No building or scheme will be of any use unless the right\nman or the right woman works it. Let us but have a good teacher, and\nall the rest follows as the day follows the night. Let the authorities attract\ngood men and good women into the profession; give them a free hand and\na generous remuneration; and I believe the problem of school education\nin country districts will be solved. Such a teacher will make a study of\nthe children, their parents, and their surroundings, and will soon know\njust what common objects of the country will best serve the purposes of\neducation. A teacher in full sympathy with country life will need no\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nscheme; he will select liis material from whatever interests him or his\nscholars most. It is a significant fact that our best results are obtained\nwhere the largest measure of liberty is allowed to the teachers.\nI have dwelt at great length on the elementary school, because experience shows that here the problem is most important. If only the elementary teaching has been right the higher grades present no serious\ndiflliculty.\nAfter the elementary school days are passed, the boys become sorted into\ntwo classes: those who must go to work, and those who are either clever\nenough or sufficiently well off to go to college. The latter need not now\nconcern us, they are munerically in a minority and our facilities do not\npresent any special or novel features. The Itoy who has to leave to go to\nwork presents a more serious problem. For physiological reasons, it is\nnecessary that a boy should have abundance of physical exercise during the\nimportant period between the ages of thirteen and seventeen. He can get\nthis on a farm. He can also train his powers of observation and acquire a\nnewer and broader outlook on life. There would seem to be no valid reason\nagainst his leaving school early if provision is made for his further education. This must be on strictly scientific lines, i.e., the boy must be trained\nto observe and to think and to feel his place as a member of a community\nwith great responsibilities. But while our aims must be high, we must not\nlose our bearings; we must remember that a boy is essentially utilitarian in\nhis outlook and he has to earn his living. In providing the mental training, the teacher must therefore use the common knowledge and experience\nof the best type of countryman and must draw on the new knowledge that\nis being gathered at the various experimental stations. Naturally the\nteacher cannot do this without guidance, and here again our Cambridge\nUniversity Press has come to the teachers' aid. This subsequent education issometimes arranged at night schools and sometimes at winter schools;\nthe latter is so much the better arrangement that provision is now being\nmade for considerable extension.\nWhen the young man is taking a large part in the direction of the farm,\nit becomes necessary to give him a much more frankly agricultural instruction. This is being done by itinerant instructors, by market-day lectures,\nby short courses at the colleges on special subjects, by inspection of the\nfarms and allotments, and by demonstration plots. The success or failure\nof these various schemes is profoundly affected by the attitude of the\nvillage teacher; a keen, energetic teacher who has got a hold on the village\ncommunity is the best agent the special lecturer or instructor can have in\nour country. Only the best types of men, however, are of any use for this\nkind of instruction: our farming is very highly specialized and our farmers\nare extremely capable, the poor ones being speedily crowded out. Again,\ntherefore, the problem reduces itself to finding good men and women,\npeople with sufficient intelligence to see what is wanted, sufficient personality\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nBEST\n\nNEXT\n\nTHING\n\nFOR THE\n\nTEACHING\n\nPROFESSION\n\n313\n\nto get their views accepted, and sufficient energy to get their program carried\nout. So long as such people are forthcoming, the rural problem need present no insuperable difficulty.\nTHE BEST NEXT\n\nTHING\n\nFOR THE TEACHING\n\nALBERT E. WINSHIP, EDITOR OF \"JOURNAL\n\nPROFESSION\n\nOF EDUCATION,\" BOSTON, MASS.\n\nIt would be easy to name many good next things professionally, to\nname the best next things in devices, in methods, in discipline, in equipment, in administration, and in philosophy; that is, the best from one\nman's point of view. None of these is the most vital. They may be\nimportant, but they are not dominant.\nIsn't it time that the National Education Association grapples with the\nbiggest issues, with those that are at the same time the most extensive and\nintensive ? No one ever hits a target who does not aim above it, and the\nfarther away it is the higher above it one must aim. Why should not this\nmeeting of the National Education Association in its closing moments here\nhighly resolve that education shall become the leading American profession ?\nNew times demand new men and new measures. The new times are\nsurely here. The profession that meets the demand of these times will\nbe the leading American profession. Education can meet these demands\nbetter than law, medicine, or the ministry. It is more likely to meet them.\nLaw, once the most eminent of the professions, will not meet the demand\nof the new times with a mission and message for the ennoblement of humanity, imless it ceases to win its greatest triumphs in finding legal trapdoors\nthru which the guilty can escape justice.\nMedicine is not likely to meet the new demand until it ceases to think\nit more professional ^to kill a patient regularly than to have him restored to\nhealth irregularly. Health, riot regularity, must be the professional aim.\nThe coast is clear. Education can be the leading profession of the\ncentury. Education is the only profession that can devote itself exclusively to the making of manly men and womanly women. Education is\nthe only profession that can lead the present generation to virtue, integrity,\nand nobUity thru the influence of childhood. In the long ago it was said,\n\"A little child shall lead\" us into the millenium, and education can compass\nthat highest of achievements.\nEducation was the first profession; why may it not be the greatest?\nIt is the only learned profession whose leaders in scholarship have been\ncalled professors; and the one man who met all the needs of the times, the\ngreatest of all men, was the Great Teacher, the founder of the profession of\neducation. But if education is to be the leading American profession, the\nprofession of the century, there must be from the bottom to the top a complete transformation. If the teacher is to lead the preacher, the physician,\nand the lawyer in the professional race, there must be a transfigvuration.\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n(General\n\nIn three respects, ftom the lowest to the highest, there must be a new\nbirth. We must think in larger units than they; we must be more dominant and less domineering; we must rise above self-consciousness and\nclass-consciousness, and be more subconsciously dominant than they.\nWe shall be measmred by the size of the imits with which we measure.\nA pencil may be measured in inches, a door in feet, a room in yards, a field\nin rods, but distances must be measured in miles or furlongs. ' He who\nwould give the dimensions of a field in inches needs no other judgment as\nto his size. The teachers must cease to measure a boy by any one act, even\nfor the moment, by the mechanics of spelling, by the facts of the text.\nSome of us can remember when it was an educational crime not to do\nwell everything assigned in school, and more of a crime to do anything,\nhowever well, that was not assigned in school. A million boys have been\nthrashed for not knowing things not worth knowing, and another million\nfor doing something well worth doing. All this must go — ^must go completely— and we must measure things, in school and out, by units large\nenough to see the whole boy and his whole life. We must see him as he is\nand as he is to be.\nIf education is to be the profession of the century, it must be dominant and not domineering. This will indeed be a great transformation,\na transfiguration.\nThe law of dominance, as discovered by Mendell fifty years ago and rediscovered and magnified by De Vries fifteen years ago, is as true in the intellectual and moral world as in the physical. If from two well-established\nfamilies of guinea-pigs, one rough-coated and one smooth, you mate one\nfrom each, the four offspring will be rough-coated. That is dominant. But\nif you mate two of these rough-coated offspring, three will be rough-coated\nand one smooth. The recessive quality in the second generation is onefourth the dominant, but thereafter it will appear so raArely that it will soon\ndisappear entirely.\nNo one, not even the parent as a rule, has such an opportunity to dominate a child's life as the teacher. The great mission of the school is to\ndominate the child's thought, motive, and spirit. A graduate of a university recently said:\nOne professor in one semester did more for me than all the others combined. Under\nhim I found myself. I can think with a purpose and have a motive in life.\nUnfortunately the tendency has been to domineer rather than dominate.\nThe ideal of obedience, of regulating the knowledge and the thinking of\nevery child by the teacher's predilection and the professional traditions,\nhas led too often to a domineering spirit. Dominance is good, domineering\nis bad. Dominance is a divine attribute, domineering is the characteristic\nof his Satanic majesty.\nIn one town of less than one thousand inhabitants in western New York\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nBEST\n\nNEXT\n\nTHING\n\nFOR THE\n\nTEACHING\n\nPROFESSION\n\n315\n\nwas a hotel proprietor who was the master-mind of the village. He dominated the youth of the place in an effective and wholesome way. Today\nsix of the best hotels west of the Mississippi River, as good hotels as there\nare in America, are managed by boys of that little settlement. So far as is\nknown only one other boy attained even moderate prominence because\nof the dominance of teachers or preacher, of lawyer or physician.\nA few years ago a serving woman in West Chester, Pa., died, and at\nher funeral were five eminent men — brothers — one from the Harvard\nfaculty, one from a theological seminary faculty, one from an eminent\npulpit, one from fame in medicine, one with the wealth of a banker. One\nof them conducted the service, two others took part therein. It was the\nmost distinguished funeral service ever held in that city. They said that\nfaithful famUy servant had dominated their boyhood life so wholesomely\nthat they could but turn aside from their honors and opportimities of life\nto pay this tribute to a worthy hiunble woman.\nThink of the opportunities that come to a half-million teachers every\nyear! Education must dominate if it is to be a noble profession, and it is\nan entirely easy matter if rightly approached.\nFinally, our imits of thought and our dominance must rise above selfconsciousness and class-consciousness and must react upon the subconsciousnes ofindividuals and communities, of industry and commerce, of\ncivic and religious life. This will be exceedingly diflficult of achievement.\nThe relation of the teacher to the pupils on the one hand, and to supervisors,\nschool boards, and the public on the other, makes self-consciousness almost\ninevitable. Teachers have suffered so long from injustice that there seems\nto be no way to right the wrongs except thru class-consciousness. The\nsuperintendents, the kindergartners, the music teachers, the drawing\nteachers, the normal training teachers, the sewing teachers, the cooking\nteachers, the physical training teachers, the teachers of Latin, of German, of\nFrench, and of mathematics, and now the grade teachers, the women teachers, and the men teachers are all flocking by themselves, hoping to gain\nsomething or retain something by the development of class-consciousness,\nbut there will be no achievement until everybody is more a teacher of boys\nand girls than of any pet subject. Some men have been scared into an\neffort to set the boys off by themselves in the hope that they can develop\na male class-consciousness that will make it impossible for a female camel\nto get her nose into that tent.\nWhat all teachers need, what must be, if education is to come to the\nhead instead of staying at the foot of the profession, is a imiform and universal effort to dominate the subconsciousness of everybody. There is a\nsubconscious purpose to provide good school buildings in cities. It is no\nlonger necessary to campaign for new school buildings. There is coming\nto be a subconscious right attitude toward salaries, tenure, and pensions\nin progressive cities.\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nLet the good work go nobly forward among ourselves and with the\npubHc until all teachers think in large units, until education dominates the\nsubconscious life of pupils and the public, then education will be the greatest\nof professions.\n\nBARONESS\n\nPEACE\n\nAND\n\nARBITRATION\n\nBERTHA\n\nVON\n\nSUTTNER,\n\nVIENNA,\n\nAUSTRIA\n\nI should like to ask the question whether education is merely or\nespecially a matter of schools and universities and has to deal only with\nchildhood and youth. It seems to me that education must be continuous\nand that the greatest educators are life and experience. Every grown\nman or woman who wishes to deal with one of the great problems of the\ntime must practically and unceasingly educate himself or herself in order\nto grasp its multifarious aspects. And since every progress consists in\nthe victory of a new thought over old prejudices, it cannot be thru the\nknowledge of past facts and data, laid down by former generations into\ntextbooks, that the new ethical and political and social systems can vanquish\nthe old ones.\nBut there is one thing that in modem times can be taught and is being\ntaught to our young, namely, that the world is moving onward and upward;\nand that therefore the student mind must be prepared to open to the new\nlights which are continually breaking forth from life and science. This\ndomain is the future and it has hitherto been a great error of educational\nsystems to nm-ture a sort of idolatry for the past, as if all wisdom, all\nheroism, all religion had attained perfection in the foregone centuries.\nI do not speak of America, which is yoimg itself and which forecasts all\nits ideals into the future. I speak of the educational systems in my country\nwhich breed the adoration of the past, the conservation of the present,\nand the dread of everything that is new.\nYou know that the subject of my discourse is universal peace and that\ncertainly is a question of the coming times, for the old war system is still\nin force in our days, in spite of the fact that the ideals of peace have\nalready been introduced into practice by existing institutions. I mean\nthe Hague conferences, the arbitration treaties, etc. On this field appears\nmost conspicuously the difference between the spirit that reigns in your\nAmerican educational practice and the spirit prevailing in the schools of\nmiddle Europe.\nWith great gratification I see that in your programs the peace movement with its history, its principles, and its aims has been given a broad\nplace, that contests and prizes on the subject are introduced into the schoolplay and that Peace Day is celebrated in the schools and cosmopolitan\nclubs founded in the imiversities.\nIn our country it would be out of the question; no such thing exists.\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPEACE\n\nAND\n\nARBITRATION\n\n317\n\nThere, the instruction of youth is entirely based on the military regime.\nThe widest space in history is given to the description of battles and the\nglorification of warriors; the whole system tends to the training of obedient\nservants to the throne, the altar, and the army — a narrow-minded patriotism\nconsisting of pride in the armed world-power of one's own nation, and the\ncontempt of other nations, and unquestioning readiness to fight at the\nfirst sign of the war-lord and to sacrifice any sums for the demands of the\nwar department. Such is the highest virtue which the official school\nmethods tend to implant in the mind of the growing generation.\nLately rifle shooting has been introduced in our schools. The Austrian\nminister of public instruction visited a college to assist in the shooting\nexercises of the boys and pathetically expressed his satisfaction thus:\nI am very glad to see that in spite of the protestations of some mothers and some\nmasters, the healthy and useful branch of rifle shooting has been introduced into the school\nplan: but do not think, my boys, that this merely means healthy exercise or the acquisition ofdexterity. You must look higher, you must elevate your thoughts to the ideal\naim of which you never must lose sight, the aim to defend your fatherland at the call\nof our most high sovereign to whom you must ever be ready to sacrifice your goods and\nyour blood.\n\nIf one approaches such a high functionary with the proposal to prepare\nyouth for the new order of things which, thru the Hague Tribunal, the\narbitration treaties, and the common demands of democracy shall be able\nto avert the dangers of war, then they will answer you:\nIn our seriously conducted institutions there is no room for such dreams. Nay,\nwe consider it as dangerous to the necessary military spirit and patriotic feelings that\nsuch Utopian matters should be mentioned in the schools.\n\nNow see the difference: last year your Secretary of the Interior issued a\ncircular recommending that all the teachers of the state should be supplied\nwith programs for the celebration of May 18, Peace Day, and in this edict\nthe statesman said:\nWhatever we want to have in the nation for tomorrow, we must put into the schools\nof today, these workshops of humanity. Among the many movements of modern times\nfor the advancement of civilization and the relief of humanity from unnecessary burdens\nof expenditure and paralyzing fear, none is more significant than that for arbitration\nand world-wide peace.\n\nSo here, the fundamental principles of peace are fully recognized as\nthat which is wanted in the nation of tomorrow, and I deeply rejoice\nto find it so. It corroborates my confident hope that these feelings and\nthese methods of the New World will spread and conquer the ancient\ntraditions and stagnant spirit of the Old World. Do not reproach me\nfor lacking in patriotism in bringing before you accusations of my own\ncountry. It is love for my country and for hiunanity which spurs me to\nconfide to you my bitter grief and to tell you the wretched truth. You\nmust know how things stand in middle Europe and then you will be more\neager to help us with your example and with your acts. You must send\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "3l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npeace emissaries across the sea from your universities to ours; you must\ntry to missionize our youth and our teachers. If you could but realize\nit, this is necessary to you in self-defense. The interrelation of the nations\nis now so close that the progress which is attained in one country must\nmodify the others or nothing is permanently gained.\nThe danger of expansion of the war spirit in Europe is so intense at\nthe present hour that if it is not counteracted a general conflagration of\nthe whole mass may be expected and would retard even your civilization.\nIn all the civic and social complications with which you are wrestling\nin this country, you are handicapped by mid-European problems and\nvices. The educational body today is forced to confront most of the social\nand economic questions.\nThe child without the breakfast is the doorway into a vista of social\nwrongs. We may procure his breakfast for him — ^but we hesitate to open\nthe doors even for a glimpse. In our informed imagination we catch the\nswift pictiu-e of the sweatshop, the impossible tenement, with its child\nlaborers of delinquents, starvelings, degenerates, tuberculosis, helpless\nmotherhood, the shop girl, the white slave, and so on ad infinitum. Without discussing the remedies, let me ask what is the cause, the farthestlying cause? In Europe mother and child have for centuries labored\nwhile war and army demands father and son. Some of our oldest architecture proves that the sunless tenement has long been occupied by the\nimpossible poor; also it was a sort of commimal defense in time of attack.\nThe white slave and the illegitimate are a war-evil in a military nation.\nIn a nutshell: these problems have been the creation of militarism\nand sent to you full-fledged by the shipload, and in your coimtry with\na federal government spending 70 per cent of its income for war measures\nyou are not financially competent to cope with these important problems.\nYour purse strings are pulled by the armament trust first and not by the\neducator and conservationist.\n' I give these suggestions knowing after all that yo\\ir educator, in the\nlast analysis, is the agency which shall solve these complications, as he\nteaches history, social science, physiology, and the rest.\nAnd now to retiun to the narrower confines of my theme, peace and\nits relationship to the teaching of the young, I should say:\nTeach them the high faith in the right.\nTeach them to stand by this faith when they vote some day.\nTeach them that your federation does not stand alone for justice to\neach other, but for justice to every other.\nTeach them the ideal of the brotherhood of the world from ocean to\nocean, thru the great canals, across the Pacific Isles, into the heart of the\ncolored races. Teach it as a standard and example to every other power.\nTeach them that the ideal of their nation is not to give history another\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPEACE\n\nAND\n\nARBITRATION\n\n319\n\n\"world-power\" to overshadow the rest, but to be a nation brave enough\nto unfold universal brotherhood, the final religion, to all the rest.\nTeach them the courage to refuse to be conquerors.\nTeach them good will to every race and tongue.\nTeach them to aim to keep their nation as the leader for movements\nfor righteousness and peace among men.\nTeach them that pure patriotism means world-welfare.\nTeach them that the greatest protection to their nation is in its moral\ncourage.\nTeach them that good will is a stronger protection than armies and\nnavies:\nGive them the vision of a united congress of all states, working for a\nnew international federation, and international ethical co-operation.\nTeach your youth that they are the real Peace League of the present\nand of the future; that upon them as an army, not of scouts, but of lovers,\nthe future ideal of this race and all races depends.\nTeach them to be interpatriotic, international, interracial.\nAnd while you teach these all-consimiing ideals to your boys and girls,\nyou must watch that you do not co-operate with the enemy without knowing\nit.\nOppose all legislation which appropriates your money for armaments\ninstead of development.\nOppose the fortifying of your great seaports and your canal which\nare destined to be the bridge between the races.\nOppose all plans to put rifles into your schools.\nAwake from the illusion that the Boy Scouts movement is for manly\ndevelopment and character. It was designed by great war captains as\nthe forerimner of conscription to make it easy for your boys to be forced\ninto the army.\nQuestion closely your military schools and your Red Cross movement.\nKnow that the gun merchants are lobbying to sell their wares for sheer\nprofit and are always busy in working up scares to rush thru the appropriations they covet.\nAnd now in closing, let me say to my fellow-workers this:\nThe explorations of the astronomer have already given us the hope of\nthe interworld relationships — relationships which we can never hope to\nenjoy save thru our science-illuminated vision.\nBut we know that the same law of harmony which controls the cosmos\nalso controls oiur social progress. We must unfold for our local star, this\nsphere, the glory and the realization of the interpax ideal for every atom\nof humanity.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCAMP\nGERDA\n\nSEBBELOV,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nFIRE GIRLS\n\nGENERAL SECRETARY OF THE CAMP\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nFIRE GIRLS,\n\nThe most decided intellectual progress often comes after long deliberation in'close contact with nature. Sitting alone on a rugged mountain\nin the quiet of the night while running rivers, washing waves, and wild\nanimals' steps form part of silence itself; out at sea with miles and miles\nof curious-shaped icebergs tinted by the midnight sun which rests like a\nlarge red balloon on the surface of the ocean; on long sleigh drives with a\ndog- team over ice fields and snow; or alone with a horse across the prairies —\nat such times life seems vaster, and strong resolutions come imbidden.\nMen spend a good deal of time boating, hunting, riding — ^being alone\nwith Nature. With girls it is different. In the Western High School in\nWashington, last year, two hundred and seventy-four dollars were solicited\nby the girls and boys to be used for out-of-door sports. There are more\ngirls than boys in the Western High School and always the girls seem to\nbe more successful in their efiforts to secure funds. When the year was\nover, the principal looked into their accounts and found that two dollars out\nof two hundred and seventy-four had been used on the girls. A committee\nwas then appointed whose duty it was to find ways and means of spending\nmoney on girls. Now, there are fifteen Camp Fires in the Western High\nSchool and more to be formed. I have no doubt that other schools in the\nUnited States which want to spend money advantageously on their girls\nwill find the Camp Fire movement a convenient aid.\nGroups of Camp Fire Girls hold meetings every week at which they\nwork together to achieve experience in such things as will make them intellectually, physically, and spiritually strong and independent. The monthly\nmeeting is beautiful. At this the girls meet in ceremonial dresses, around\nan open fire, out of doors, if possible; receive recognition for whatever they\nhave achieved, and learn to laugh together and enjoy. At all meetings, a\nwoman over twenty-one years of age is leader and planner. She is called\nGuardian of the Fire, and has the privilege of giving her experiences of life\nto the girls and helping shape the elastic material of young souls.\nWhen a girl wants to join a group of Camp Fire Girls, she must know\nand understand the Law of the Camp Fire. She comes before the fire at\nthe monthly meeting and says:\nIt is my desire to become a Camp Fire Girl, and to obey the Law of the Camp Fire,\nwhich is\nSeek beauty\nGive service\nPursue knowledge\nBe trustworthy\nHold on to health\nBe\nhappywork\nGlorify\nThis Law of the Camp Fire I will strive to follow.\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "SeaaionsJ\n\nCAMP\n\nFIRE\n\nGIRLS\n\n321\n\nThen she is a Camp Fire Girl and will always stand for the ideals of the\norganization.\nTo attain the second degree of Fire-Maker, a girl must have fulfilled\nfourteen definite requirements including such demands as to prepare and\nserve two meals at the weekly meetings, to hem a dish towel, dam a pair\nof stockings, know the causes of infant mortality and to what extent it has\nbeen reduced in one American community, know what a girl of her age\nshould know about herself, tie a square knot, sleep with open windows, and\nlearn a poem of not less than twenty-five lines in length. She must also\npresent twenty elective honors won from out the seven crafts suggested in\nthe handbook: health craft, home craft, nature lore, camp craft, hand\ncraft, business, and patriotism. She must have perfected herself in experiences that bring. health and efficiency. Once again she comes to the fire\nat the monthly meeting and expresses her desire to bring out her individual\nattainment for the good of the community, saying:\nAs fuel is brought to the fire\nSo I purpose to bring\nMy strength\nMy ambition\nMy\ndesire\nMy heart's\njoy\nAnd my sorrow\nTo the fire\nOf humankind\nFor I will tend\nAs my fathers have tended\nAnd my father's fathers\nSince time began\nThe fire that is called\nThe love of man for man\nThe love of man for God\n\nTo gain the third rank of Torch-Bearer, the girl must be a leader. She\nmust have developed herself personally and desire to use her development\nfor the. good of many. She must actually show thru leadership that she\nis able to help others attain; and thru the attainment of others is she\njudged. It is not driving, it is leading that we demand of our TorchBearer. Individually she must be known to her Guardian as happy,\nunselfish, and a good leader, a good team-worker, and well liked by the\ngirls. She shall present fifteen elective honors, one from each of the seven\ncrafts. Once more she steps up to the Fire and expresses her desire to lead\nby saying:\nThat light which has been given to me,\nI desire to pass undimmed to others.\n\nThen she is a Torch-Bearer, a help to the Guardian, and herself a leader.\nCamp Fire Girls dress reasonably, simply, and beautifully..\nTo put\nupon the market such things as Camp Fire Girls would want to wear, the\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nCamp Fire Outfitting Company has come into existence. It furnishes the\nplain blouse with sleeve emblems of different ranks; a skirt, buttoned all\nthe way down the front and back and with a large pocket (for \"Camp Fire\nGirls have pockets\"; they do not carry imnecessary, imessential things\nin their hands, but put them in their pockets and have their hands free for\nwork in the world); practical bloomers for camping and hiking; a plain,\nbeautiful hat; ceremonial Indian dress; and all the insignia of the different ranks: a pin, a bracelet, and a ring. The Torch-Bearer's pin is round\nand divided into four sections standing for the four seasons of the year.\nIn the one is the rising sim, in a second, clouds and lightning, and in a third,\nthe standing pine which is the individual symbol of the Camp Fire Girls,\nstanding for simplicity and strength. The whole pin means that thruout\nthe seasons, in sunshine and storm, the Camp Fire Girl is sturdy and strong,\nas the standing pine.\nThe Fire-Maker's bracelet is engraved with our watchword, \"Wohelo.\"\nThe Wood-Gatherer's ring — I mention this last because it is most important (itsignifies membership in the organization) — is given to each girl as\nshe joins. On it is a bimdle of faggots, standing for the seven points of\nthe Camp Fire Law. The faggots are part of the pine, the individual\nsymbol. With the ring goes a little poem, teaching the significance of\nmembership in one large body with one high ideal:\nAs faggots are brought from the forest\nFirmly held by the sinews which bind them,\nSo cleave to these others, your sisters,\nWhenever, wherever you find them.\nBe strong as the faggots are stiurdy;\nBe true to your deepest desire;\nBe true to the truth that is in you;\nAnd — follow the Law of the Fire.\n\nThat means individual development for co-operation and team-work.\nTHE CAMP\nLUTHER\n\nFIRE GIRLS AND THE NEW RELATION\nTO THE WORLD\n\nHALSEY GULICK, DIRECTOR OF THE DEPARTMENT\nOF THE RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION,\nNEW YORK\n\nOF WOMEN\n\nOF CHILD HYGIENE\nCITY, N.Y.\n\nIt is my place to sketch the conditions which have created a new relation\nof women to the world; to show why a nation-wide organization of girls\nand women is inevitable; and to indicate some of the main results to be\nsecured by such organization.\nWORK\n\nAND\n\nTHE HOME\n\nMost of the grandparents of those in this hall lived in homes which were\nlargely sufficient to themselves. That is, the mothers knitted stockings,\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCAMP\n\nFIRE\n\nGIRLS\n\nAND\n\nNEW\n\nRELATION\n\nOF WOMEN\n\n323\n\nwove the cloth for and made the clothing; cooked and served the food,\nchurned the butter, made the bedding, did the washing, prepared for and\nserved guests, cared for the sick, had many children, and — died young.\nIn these homes the men tilled the ground, raised the corn and wheat used\nfor daily bread, made most of their own tools, bred their own cattle and\nhorses, raised their own mutton and wool, built their own houses, made\nthe harness, dug the wells, cleared the fields, and on necessity, fought\nIndians and English.\nSCHOOL\n\nDuring the brief winter months the children learned such reading,\nwriting, arithmetic, history, and geography as they could, but unless they\nwere destined for law, medicine, or theology, their schooling bore but slight\nrelation to their essential preparation for the great business of the world,\nnamely, living. The boys and girls working in the house and on the field\nwith their parents learned those trades and arts and industries which later\non were to be their own chief occupation.\nCHARACTER\n\nEFFECTS\n\nSignificant as was this learning to do by doing, the indirect results of\nthe work were even more valuable than was that material welfare which\nwas the direct object of their daily toil. This most precious indirect effect\nof daily work consisted of an attitude toward life and toward the world.\nWork itself became gradually evident as a chief means of attainment, love,\nand comradeship. The steadily broadening moral shoulders of the boy\ngrew under the stimulus of the increasing load of responsibility which came\nto him year by year as he worked by his father's side — each helping each to\nthe necessities of life, both physical and spiritual. In this way, responsibility, power, obligation, and love formed the basis of powerful, true\ncharacter. This was the preparation for life that produced the men and\nwomen who in the main created this country.\nPRESENT\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nThe conditions that our children meet today are fundamentally different\nfrom the conditions which faced our grandparents when they were children.\nSteadily, one after another of the occupations, trades, industries, and arts\nhave been taken hold of by the community, organized, and placed upon a\nbasis of effectiveness unimagined in the old days of home manufacture.\nThe beauty of our clothes, the comfort of our dwellings, the variety and\nquality of our tools, the bewildering world of books, the space-devouring\nrailway, the steel structure business house forty stories high, the great\nhotel, the bakeshops, specialized farms, schools, churches, theaters, clubs,\npolitical parties, universities, world-news, and travel, all proclaim that the\nhiunble attainments of the home were but first steps, and that larger and\nmore varied groupings of human beings could attain ends undreamed of in\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe olden days. It is not, as so many sadly declare, that the home is\ndegenerating. The splendid truth is that infant activities bom and raised\nin the home are now stepping out into the commimity. This is no more\na cause for regret than is the bursting of the shell when hatching time has\ncome, or spreading one's wings to the air when the time for flight has\narrived. The world-experience given by the freedom and power of flying,\nthe great adventure, far surpasses even the beauty, comfort, and safety of\nthe nest.\nMAN\n\nMADE\n\nMODERN\n\nCITY\n\nThis wonderful new social integration of the world became possible only\nwhen man had harnessed power and had invented machines. With power\nand machines he has done most of the things that most of the people of all\nthe world have done during all the ages. He has thus increased the riches\nof the world more in one generation than had been accumulated in all\ntime before. This, as I have already said, was done mainly by man and\nnot by woman.\nwoman's world changed\nThe result has been fundamentally to alter the adjustment of woman\nto the world. In the olden days man, with his weapons, provided food,\nshelter, and safety. Wonian made of them the home — she converted\npassion into love, domesticated beauty, invented industry, and was the\nmother of happiness.\nToday man has again gone out, this time into the social world, and with\nhis tools and harnessed world-power has again brought back food, shelter,\nand safety from the primitive dangers — food from the whole world in a new\nabundance and a surpassing variety, shelter such as was never dreamed of\nbefore — and has doubled the average span of life by lessening its dangers.\nwoman's new work\nMan has made of his new world a wonderful, a magic place in which to\nwork, in which to make physical attainment. He has not made of it,\nhowever, a good nor a beautiful place in which to live. He has made of\nthe community a factory, not a home. In other words, he has not done\nfor the commimity what woman did to the home.\nThe world-old power and skill and devotion of woman are again being\ncalled for and being given, but now not merely to make and preserve the\nindividual home, but to give to the community those spiritual qualities\nwhich she gave to the home.\nWOMAN\n\nFOLLOWS\n\nHER WORK\n\nWoman's work has much of it been taken into the community and out\nof the individual home. Woman is, therefore, following her work into the\ncommunity. She is taking on the same kind of responsibility in the\nconmiunity which she has always carried in the home. Many of the psychic\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCAMP\n\nFIRE\n\nGIRLS\n\nAND\n\nNEW\n\nRELATION\n\nOF WOMEN\n\n325\n\nfunctions of motherhood she is discharging in the school. She is making\nplaygrounds for children, healthier conditions in schools, fairer conditions\nfor the work of men, women, and children in farm, store, factory, shop,\nand mine. The ideal is that of universal motherhood — all the women being\nresponsible that every child is loved, cared for, and given a fair chance.\nShe is beginning to see that she is responsible for much of the municipal\nhousekeeping, the conditions in the bakeshops and grocery stores. She is\nconcerned that food shall be pure and water clean.\nWOMAN\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nLITE\n\nAs woman's deepest service in the home is social, so her deepest responsibility isfor the relations between people in the community. It is not\nenough that evil shall be prevented, that every sort of traffic in human\nbodies and souls shall cease. Human relationships, social life, must come\nto be in the community so that the deepest desires and hopes and passions\nof human beings shall lead toward the development of that which is fine —\ntoward life and not toward death. The relations between young people\nmust be so arranged that all the power of sex and the passion of love and\ndesire shall lead toward attainment and growth and beauty and power, and\naway from death and disease. To make goodness alluring and show the\nshallowness and stupidity of vice — to bring the qualities and spirit of the\nhome into the community, to embody such ideals in the common habits,\nthe daily life of a people, is such a task, such an opportunity, as has never\nbefore been given to the world. Thus are the age-long qualities of women\nneeded in our new world to realize its surpassing possibilities as well as to\nsave it from spiritual disaster.\nSEX\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nIN\n\nSOCIAL\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nWe often hear these days of the conflict between men and women, of the\ncompetition for work on an economic basis, but this is, I believe, a lesser\nand not a larger fact. We are, of course, all human beings and as such\nmost of our qualities and abilities correspond. We all eat and sleep, and\nwork and play. But we are significant in the world mainly by the extent\nto which we, as individuals and as groups, differ from each other. My\nspecial place in the world is due to my differences, rather than to my\nlikenesses to other people. For example, woman is as sure to have the\nsuffrage as the tide is to rise, not because she is as wise, as strong, as skillful\nas man is, nor because she, like him, is a human being, nor for any other\nreason of likeness or duplication at all, but because she is different, because\nshe can do what he cannot, because the world needs her peculiar and special\nabilities. It is because she is different, because these differences are\nfundamental world-needs, that it is necessary that she shall bring these\ndifferences to the service of the world. This fact, whether woman wants it\nor no, the suffrage will force inevitably upon her. Woman has been respon-\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsible for the home — so she had her voice. Now she has thrust upon her a\nnew, terrible, and glorious responsibility and opportunity, for the home and\nsocial aspects of the community. We insist that she must speak, but\nbecause she is different and not because she is like. The vote is no end in\nitself. To serve the community in ways in which she is the creator and\nspecialist is the end, and toward this service the women of the civilized\nworld are pressing, most of them imconsciously — a few of them consciously,\nbut all of them inevitably.\nWORK\n\nAS DISCIPLINE\n\nTODAY\n\n*\n\nThe first and most profound respect in which the new world needs\ncreative service is in the preparation which the community gives to children\nfor the business of living in this new world. We are many of us distressed\nby the lack of responsibility which so many children show — their failure to\nunderstand and yield to the deeper needs of work and its place in life.\nThis deeper moral equipment for life in the old days was associated with\nthe faithful performance of the daily work in the home and the deep lessons\nwhich were learned by working alongside of the parents.\nMANUAL\n\nARTS\n\nWe have thought, however, that these lessons lay in the specific work\ndone — so we have organized the elements of the work with tools into manual\ntraining, we have developed, systematized, organized, and pedagogicalized\ncooking and sewing into domestic science and domestic art (how prim and\nstrange they do look in their new clothes), and we have put courses in these\nsubjects into our schools. From two to four hours of laboratory work per\nweek has taken the place of from six to twelve hours a day of real work with\na real mother doing real work for real people in a real home. The result is\nthat our children know more about the use of tools and the physics and\nchemistry of cooking and the art of sewing than did our grandmothers.\nAnd we are only just beginning to realize that learning how to do work in\nno respect has the character effect of doing work, and that being taught is\none thing, and working with is another, and that knowing how, and having\nresponsibility for, are all different in their effects upon life.\nSOCIAL FUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\nAbout cooking, for example, have grown most of the social feelings and\ncustoms of the family. To break bread or to eat salt together is a social\nfact far deeper in significance than is the knowledge of physics and chemistry\ninvolved in the cooking. To know cooking in its social sense — ^which is its\nimportant sense to all of us who are not to be cooks — is to have developed\nthe art of human social intercourse and relationships. It is to make the\nbody feed the soul. The college girl gets her chafing dish, not because she\nis hungry, but to feed her soul with the charm of comradeship.\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCAMP\n\nFIRE\n\nGIRLS\n\nAND\n\nNEW\n\nRELATION\n\nOF WOMEN\n\n327\n\nI am not trying to say that the science of cooking is unimportant — but\nthat alone it is mechanical. It and the whole family of sciences that can be\ntaught and practiced in school do not furnish us with the equivalent in\nequipment for life that was found in the actual work of the home a century\nago. Nor does it in any way equip the child with the newer social feelings\nand sense that are demanded of the adult in a modem commimity.\nThis is a rapid, tho I trust not superficial, sketch of the present world\naffairs as regards woman. To meet the new and larger responsibilities it is\nnecessary that she shall:\n1. Continue in her learning to do teamwork. To bring about home conditions of\nbeauty, comfort, health, social happiness, and wholesomeness in the commimity means\nthe very highest order of mutual loyalty and of teamwork. This is a new demand upon\nwoman.\n2. It is necessary that the consciousness of dignity, romance, and beauty be again\nrestored to daily work, that it may once more take the fundamental place in the training\nof strong, true character.\n3. The psychic relations between daughters and mothers have been hurt by those\nforces which have lessened their working together. These relations between mothers\nand daughters are not only to be brought back, but to be deepened and rendered more\nbeautiful.\n4. And last, and most important and most difficult, the nature of true social relations\nis to be so revealed that it is evident that the adventure, romance, and happiness are to\nbe found in those human relationships which are found on the broad roads of life and\nwork, rather than in its fenced-off sloughs and deserts.\n\nThe deepest need of woman is the need of being needed. This is why\nshe responds to the sick or crippled child. If ever woman was needed, it is\ntoday. The very riot of our material riches is the peril of our souls.\nWoman is already taking hold of the present material world, giving to it\nand bringing into it the love and service and spiritual relations which in the\nold days created the home and which today are changing the man-made\nworkhouse into a place adequate to the glorious future life of human beings.\nThe Camp Fire Girls is an organization which aims to bring the power\nof organization and the charm of romance again into the humble acts and\nneeds of daily life. It is a deliberate attempt to help meet the new and\nsplendid social world which is before us.\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nST. LOUIS\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nMEETING,\n\nFEBRUARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n27-29, 1912\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION— Tuesday, February 27, 1912\n\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in\nthe Banquet Hall of the Planters Hotel, St. Louis, Mo., at 9:30 a.m., President Charles E.\nChadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo., presiding.\nThe meeting was opened with an address of welcome by Rhodes E. Cave, president\nof the Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo.\nBefore taking up the program for the morning, President Chadsey made announcement of the following appointments:\nCommittee on Nominations\nEllis U. Graff, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr.\nWalter E. Ranger, state commissioner of public schools, Providence, R.I.\nAda Van Stone Harris, assistant superintendent of schools, Richmond, Va.\nOtis E. Hall, superintendent of Montgomery County schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nW. T. Carrington, president of State Normal School, Springfield, Mo.\nCommittee on Resolutions\nFrancis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.\nReed B. Teitrick, deputy superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nBruce M. Watson, superintendent of schools, Spokane, Wash.\nCharles S. Clark, superintendent of schools, Somerville, Mass.\nM. E. Pearson, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Kans.\nThe program for this first session was as follows:\nTopic: Organization Affecting the Course of Study and Economy of Time\n1. \"Waste and Efficiency in School Studies\" — W. H. Elson, superintendent of\nschools, Cleveland, Ohio.\n2. \"Departmental Teaching in the Elementary Grades\" — W. L. Stephens, superintendent ofschools, Lincoln, Nebr.\n3. \"The Child versus Promotion Machinery\" — D. E. Phillips, president of Board of\nEducation, Denver, Colo.\n4. \"Some Adjustments and Changes in the Course of Study and School Organization Suggested by the Needs and the Capacities of Children That Vary from the Standards Set for Average Pupils\" — D. H. Christensen, superintendent of schools, Salt Lake\nCity, Utah.\n5. \"The Junior High School: A New Plan of School Organization\" — ^J. H. Francis,\nsuperintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. in the Planters Hotel Banquet Hall by\nPresident Chadsey, and the program was presented as follows:\n329\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nTopic: The Determining of School Efficiency\n1. \"The Value of the Educational Commission in Determining the EflBciency of a\nCity School System\" — Calvin N. Kendall, commissioner of education for New Jersey,\nTrenton, N.J.\n2. \"The Relation of the Urban Community to Its School System\" — ^M. G. Brumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\n3. \"How May a City Best Determine Its Unmet Educational Needs?\" — ^W. H.\nAllen, director of the Bureau of Municipal Research, New York, N.Y.\n4. \"Quantitative Tests in Education\" — George H. Chatfield, secretary of the Permanent Census Board, New York, N.Y.\nA discussion of the topic of the session was participated in by W. H. Maxwell, superintendent ofpublic schools, New York, N.Y., F. V. Thompson, assistant superintendent\nof public schools, Boston, Mass., and W. H. Allen, director of the Bureau of Municipal\nResearch, New York, N.Y.\nEVENING SESSION\nThe evening meeting was held in the Banquet Hall of the Southern Hotel, and was\ncalled to order at 8:15 p.m. by President Chadsey.\nThe following addresses were given:\n\"Ideals and Modem Education\" — A. Ross Hill, president of the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\n\"The Function of the Kindergarten in the American Public-School System\" — Lucy\nWheelock, Wheelock Kindergarten Training School, Boston, Mass.\n\nSECOND\n\nDAY\n\nMORNING SESSION— Wednesday, February 28, 191 2\nThe meeting was called to order by President Chadsey at 9:30 a.m. in the Southern\nHotel Banquet Hall.\nPrevious to the consideration of the program as printed, H. B. Wilson, superintendent\nof schools, Decatur, 111., spoke concerning the work of the Coromittee of the Department\non Economy of Time in Elementary and Secondary Education, and presented the following motion:\nI move the continuance of this committee for another year, the scope of the committee\nto be extended to cover the work of secondary schools, as well as that of the elementary\nschools; said committee to be known as the Committee of the Department of Superintendence on Economy of Time in Elementary and Secondary Education, and said committee to study and investigate with the aim of making a report and recommendations\npertaining to the matter of economy of time in elementary and secondary education;\nAnd, that it may be enabled to work on the problem in a thoro and extensive way, I\nmove that this Department request the Council to recommend to the Committee on\nInvestigations and Appropriations the setting apart of $250 to meet the necessary expenses\nof this committee.\nThis motion was duly presented and carried.\nThe following program was then given:\nTopic: Problems Relating to Child Welfare\n1. \"The Duty of Superintendents in the Enforcement of Child Labor Laws\"—\nOwen R. Lovejoy, general secretary of National Child Labor Committee, New York, N.Y.\n2. \"How Far Shall the Public-School System Care for the Feeble-minded?\" —\nJames H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.\n3. \"The City Trade School — An Important Instrumentality for Improving the\nVocational Need of the City Child\" — Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n4. \"How Should the School System Contribute to an Intelligent Choice of Vocation\non the Part of the Pupil?\" — George Piatt Knox, assistant superintendent of schools,\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n5. \"The Education of Girls\" — ^L. D. Harvey, president of Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis.\nThe anniial business meeting followed the morning program, and was called to order\nby the president at 12 m.\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n33I\n\nInvitations from various cities desiring the 19 13 meeting were first presented. The\ncities were: Boston, Mass.; Buffalo, N.Y.; Detroit, Mich.; Oklahoma City, Okla.;\nPalm Beach, Fla.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Richmond, Va.; and Washington, D.C. John W.\nCook, president of State Normal School, DeKalb, 111., and W. L. Stephens, superintendent\nof schools, Lincoln, Nebr., were appointed tellers. The first ballot resulted as follows:\nBoston, 15; Buffalo, 106; Detroit, 18; Oklahoma City, 141; Pahn Beach, 87; Philadelphia, 150; Richmond, 84; Washington, 3.\nMr. Treasure, of Maryland, moved that the next ballot be confined to the three highest\nranking cities. The motion was carried.\nMr. Foulk, of West Virginia, moved that if a third ballot be necessary, it be taken upon\nthe two cities having the largest number of votes. This motion was carried.\nUpon the second ballot Philadelphia received 316 votes; Oklahoma City, 195; Buffalo,\n82. Philadelphia, having received a majority of the votes cast, was declared chosen as\nthe place of the meeting of the department for 1913.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was presented by Ellis U. Graff,\nsuperintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr., chairman, as follows:\nYour Committee on Nominations begs leave to submit the following report:\nFor President — Franklin B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nFor First Vice-President — Samuel Hamilton, superintendent of schools of Allegheny\nCoimty, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFor Second Vice-President — Mrs. Ellor CarUsle Ripley, assistant superintendent of\nschools, Boston, Mass.\nFor Secretary — Burr Walter Torreyson, State Department of Education, Little Rock,\nArk.\nUpon the motion of the chairman the report of the committee was adopted, and the\nsecretary was instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the department for the persons\nnamed for the various positions. The ballot was so cast and the persons named were\ndeclared duly elected.\nThe following report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by Francis G.\nBlair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111., chairman:\nYoxu: Committee on Resolutions presents the following resolutions, which it considers\nworthy of the attention and approval of the Department of Superintendence:\n1. Resolved, That we express our hearty appreciation of the solid, earnest, professional\ncharacter of the program presented before this, the greatest meeting in the history of the\nDepartment.\n2. Resolved, That this Department recognize the Panama-Pacific International\nExposition, to be held in San Francisco in 1915, as a great opportunity to exhibit our\neducational progress, and that we urge the state, coimty, and city systems of schools to\nprepare and to send such of their work as will reveal the development of all phases of education thruout the nation.\n3. Resolved, That the members of this Department who are charged with the administration ofpublic-school systems welcome and encourage all fair and candid investigation\nthru commissions or other agencies into the soundness and effectiveness of the policies and\nmethods used and the results obtained, but that we condemn and resent all such investigations whose obvious piuposes are to debase the systems or exalt the investigators.\n4. Resolved, That we approve the work contemplated in the bill now pending in\nCongress providing for the creation of a Children's Bureau, but that we believe that it\ncan be done more eflSciently and economically by the Bureau of Education and that we\nhereby request Congress to appropriate sufficient funds to the Bureau of Education to\nenable it to do the work satisfactorily.\n5. Resolved, further, That this Department of Superintendence of the National\nEducation Association use every honorable means to secure from Congress a recognition\nof the nation-wide need for a great enlargement of the Bureau of Education, and that we\nurge Congress to provide the revenue necessary to carry into effect the wise policies recommended by the Commissioner of Education.\n6. Resolved, That the Committee on Uniform Records and Reports appointed by this\nDepartment two years ago be continued in order to aid in the adoption and use of their\nrecords and reports by school officers.\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATIOl^\n\n[St. Louis\n\n7. Resolved, That we express our hearty appreciation of the hospitality of St. Louis\nand the welcome extended to us by the Board of Education and teachers, and that we\nespecially thank Superintendent Ben Blewett for his courtesy and untiring efiEorts to make\nthis meeting successful, pleasant, and profitable.\nRespectfully submitted,\nFrancis G. Blair, Chairman\nM. E. Pearson\nReed B. Teitrick\nCharles S. Clark\nBruce M. Watson\nCommittee\nThe report was adopted imanimously.\nDavid B. Johnson, president of Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock\nHill, S.C., was next recognized. He presented the following resolution from the National\nCommittee on Agricultural Education, and moved its adoption:\nWhereas, The Page Bill, or Senate Bill Nimiber Three, introduced by Senator Page\nin the Senate of the United States, seeks to accomplish the good purposes of the BurkettPoUard and Dolliver-Davis bills and other good purposes not provided for in those bills,\nand has now been amended to suit the needs of all the states, and\nWhereas, It proposes to co-operate with the states in encouraging instruction in\nagriculture, the trades and industries, and home economics in secondary schools; in preparing teachers for these vocational courses in state colleges of agriculture and the\nmechanic arts; in maintaining instruction in these vocational subjects in state normal\nschools; and in maintaining extension departments in state colleges of agriculture and\nmechanic arts,\nTherefore he it resolved, That we indorse the Page Bill, or Senate Bill Nimiber Three,\nand call upon the members of the United States Senate and House of Representatives to\npass it promptly in the best interests of all the people.\nMr. Downing, of New York, moved that the motion be tabled- His motion was\ncarried by viva voce vote.\nDavid Felmley, president of the State Normal University, Normal, 111., presented\nthe following resolution and moved its adoption:\nResolved, That the Department of Suf)erintendence hereby approve the action of the\nModem Language Association and of the Illinois State Teachers' Association, in adopting\nin their publications and correspondence the simplified spellings recommended by the\nSimplified Spelling Board in its Circular No. 23, and we respectfully petition our National\nEducation Association Board of Directors to adopt at their next meeting the same form\nof spelling in the publications and correspondence of the National Education Association.\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the chair to present our above\npetition to the Board of Directors at its next meeting and to use their best endeavor to\nsecure the desired action.\nA motion to lay the resolution upon the table was carried by a standing vote of 173\nto 128.\ntion:\n\nE. O. Vaile, of Oak Park, 111., presented the following resolution and moved its adop-\n\nResolved, That as an expression of the Department's appreciation of the action taken\nby the Modem Language Association, the American Dialect Society, and the American\nPhilological Association, at their late meetings, indorsing the phonetic key alphabet\nadopted by the Department, February 24, 191 1, it is hereby ordered that the resolutions\npassed by said societies be entered upon our minutes, and a copy of this resolution be\nsent to the secretary of each.\nA motion by Mr. Blair, of Illinois, that the resolution be laid upon the table was\npassed by viva voce vote.\nArthur D. Call, district superintendent of schools, Hartford, Conn., moved as follows:\nThat the vote of this Department at the Mobile meeting adopting the Universal\nSystem of Key Notation be rescinded.\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n333\n\nMiss Blake, of New York, moved that Mr. Call's motion be laid upon the table. This\nmotion was lost by a vote of 129 to 150. The previous question was moved and carried.\nThe vote upon Mr. Call's motion was then taken as follows: Affirmative, 154; negative,\n93. Mr. Call's motion was declared carried.\nThe meeting was adjourned by the president without formal motion.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe members of the Department of Superintendence met in round-table conferences,\nas follows:\n(a)\n\nround\n\ntable\n\nof\n\nstate and\n\nCOtlNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nLeader — Samuel Hamilton, superintendent of public schools, Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nTopic: Agriculture in the Rural School\n1. \"The Educative Value of the Study of Agriculture\" — Earl Barnes, lecturer on\neducational topics, Philadelphia, Pa.\n2. \"The. Teaching of Agriculture in the Rural Schools: (a) To What Extent Can\nAgriculture Be Taught below the High School? (6) What the States Have Done in\nTeaching Agriculture in Rural Schools\" — Philander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n3. \"The Next Step in Teaching Agriculture in the Rural Schools\" — E. C. Bishop,\nSchools Section, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\n4. General discussion, led by Reed B. Teitrick, deputy superintendent of public\ninstruction, Harrisburg, Pa.; F. L. Keeler, deputy superintendent of public instruction,\nLansing, Mich.\n(b)\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\nLeader — M. G. Brumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\n1. \"Types of Special Schools in the Larger American Cities with Special Courses of\nTraining for Special Groups of Children\" — Andrew Edson, associate superintendent of\nschools, New York, N.Y.\n2. \"A Definite Propaganda to Impress upon the American Mind the Necessity of an\nExpansion of the Field of Education to Provide as Ample Facilities for Education by\nWork and. Education by Play as Are Now Provided for Education by Study\" — M. G.\nBrumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nThe following took part in the discussion of these papers: W. A. Greeson, superintendent ofpublic schools. Grand Rapids, Mich.; J. A. Brooks, superintendent of public\nschools, Dallas, Tex.; David Snedden, commissioner of education, Boston, Mass.; J. S.\nCollins, assistant superintendent of public schools, St. Louis, Mo., and N. C. Schaeffer,\nstate superintendent of pubUc instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\n(c)\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF\n\nSMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\nLeader — S. O. Hartwell, superintendent of schools, Kalamazoo, Mich.\n1. \"Scientific Study of School Work in Arithmetic\" — ^J. T. Giles, superintendent of\nschools, Marion, Ind. Discussion led by Cliff W. Stone, State Normal School, Farmville, Va.\n2. \"The Unified High School\" — W. A. Brandenburg, superintendent of schools,\nOklahoma City, Okla.\n3. \"Utilization of the School Plant\" — ^William A. Wirt, superintendent of schools,\nGary, Ind. Discussion by Harlan Updegraff, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C,\nand James G. Riggs, State Normal School, Oswego, N.Y.\n4. Brief discussion of other suggested topics.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 8: 15 p.m. in the Southern Hotel Banquet Hall by\nPresident Chadsey, and the following program was presented:\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\n1. \"Vocational Guidance\" — Meyer E. Bloomfield, director of Vocational Bureau,\nBoston, Mass.\n2. \"America's Most Important Unsolved Educational Problems\" — Philander P.\nClaxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\n3. \"The Schoolhouse as the Civic and Social Center of the Community\" — Edward J.\nWard, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\nTHIRD DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION— Thtosday, February 29, 191 2\n\nThis session took the form of a joint meeting with the National Council of Education\nand was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Southern Hotel Banquet Hall by President\nCharles H. Keyes of the National Coimcil. The program was given as follows:\n1. \"Report of Committee on Uniform Records and Reports\" — Payson Smith, state\nsuperintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me. Discussion by Harlan Updegraff, chief\nof the division of school administration, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C*; E. C.\nWarriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich.; S. L. Heeter, superintendent of\nschools, St. Paul, Minn.; W. H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nGeneral discussion by Walter E. Ranger, state commissioner of public schools, Providence,\nR.I. ; Calvin N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J.\n2. \"By What Standards or Tests Shall the Efl&ciency of a School, or System of Schools,\nBe Measured ? \"\na) \"The Scope and Plan of the Proposed Work of the Committee\" — George Drayton\nStrayer, professor of educational administration. Teachers College, Columbia University,\nNew York, N.Y.\nh) \"Some Determining Considerations\" — ^James H. Van Sickle, superintendent of\nschools, Springfield, Mass.\nc) \" Rural-School Phases of the Problem \" — Edward C. Elliott, professor of education,\nUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nDiscussion by Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis; Z. X.\nSnyder, president of Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. General discussion\nby Charles H. Judd, director of the School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago,\nlU.; Lotus D. Coffman, supervisor of training. State Normal School, Charleston, 111.;\nFrederick E. Bolton, director of School of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa\nCity, Iowa.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Chadsey at 2:30 p.m. in the Southern\nHotel Banquet Hall.\nThe secretary read an invitation from the President and the Committee of Organization to participate in the Fifteenth International Congress on Hygiene and Demography\nto be held at Washington, September 23 to 28, 191 2. Mr. Cook, of Illinois, moved that the\npresident be instructed to make such appointments as are necessary to satisfy the\ncourtesies of the situation. This motion was carried.\nThe program was then taken up, as follows:\n1. \"'The Bookman' in his Relation to the Textbook Problem\" — Frank A. Fitzpatrick, manager of the American Book Company, Boston, Mass.\n2. \"The Effect on Education and Morals of the Moving-Picture Shows\" — ^Joseph R.\nFulk, superintendent of schools, Seward, Nebr.\n3. \"The Standardization of Janitor Service\" — G. M. Wilson, superintendent of\nschools, Connersville, Ind.\n4. \"Relative Cost of Education of High- and Elementary-School Pupils\" — Ernest\nO. Holland, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky.\nAt the close of the program the meeting adjourned.\nHarlan Updegraff, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nWASTE\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nPAPERS\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nSTUDIES\n\n335\n\nAND DISCUSSIONS\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nRHODES E. CAVE, PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION,\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nThe heartiest of welcomes is usually the briefest, and as our welcome to\nyou is indeed hearty, so shall I attempt to make it brief. There is an old\nquotation, no doubt familiar to most of you, but its appropriateness to this\noccasion is so marked that I cannot refrain from its repetition. It is said\nthat that celebrated old teacher Florus, when asked with what patience he\ncould bear to sit in the schools and teach boys, replied:\nI do not wonder that you are now of this opinion with which I also at one time struggled. For in the last four years I had become so wearied of my occupation that I did not\nthink that a more wretched man lived. But afterward, reviewing and comparing my lot\nwith the fortunes and labors of others, the beauty of the work which I had imdertaken at\nlength dawned upon me. Therefore you must know that no kingly power, no praetorship,\nno honor can be compared with this profession of ours. If the mightiest of emperors were\nto bestow on me a centurionship it would indeed seem no small honor, if he should grant\nme a praefectship or a tribunate doubtless it would seem the same; but if, then, not Caesar\nbut Fortune grant me the gift to preside over honorable and generous boys, ought I not\nseem to you to have attained unto a beautiful and glorious office ? For I ask you closely\nto consider this question, whether it is nobler to command men wearing the military coat\nor boys clad in the toga praetexta, barbarous and wild hearts or civilized and harmless\nones ? O, good Jupiter, how regal, how imperial it is to sit upon a raised platform modeling good characters and directing the pursuit of sacred literature.\n\nSuch, gentlemen, is the high, the true appreciation of the profession, of\nthe art, of teaching. Such is the spirit which you must embody; such the\nconception of it with which you must be imbued. Such is the conception\nof it which we know moves and inspires our own superintendent. And\nwith that spirit, in that feeling, and in that conception of this noble profession, itis an exceeding great pleasure not only to those gathered here, but\nto all our city, to open gladly our every door to you as the heads of that\nprofession and to welcome you to our fullest hospitality. Ladies and\ngentlemen, we are indeed glad to have you with us.\nTOPIC: ORGANIZATION AFFECTING THE COURSE\nAND ECONOMY OF TIME\nA.\nW.\n\nWASTE\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nOF STUDY\n\nSTUDIES\n\nH. ELSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND,\nOLD METHODS\nOF DETERMINING EFFICIENCY\n\nOHIO\n\nThe study of educational waste as a factor in determining the efficiency\nof the school is a modern practice. In the past the school was judged\nlargely by the number of its graduates, by the estimate the college placed\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\non the work of the favored few who chanced to go to college, or by the\nexceptional student who \"starred\" in some particular study in his university career. Little or no account was taken of the great majority — of the\nnumber that \"fell by the wayside\" before reaching the sixth grade, to say\nnothing of those who withdrew before completing the course of the elementary school, or before graduating from high school. Nor was attention\ngiven to the length of time required to complete the course, or the number\nof times a pupil might have to go over the same work. In short, the whole\nquestion of educational waste W9.s ignored. Indeed, for many the problem\ndid not even exist.\nNEW\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIn recent years, however, new standards of efficiency have arisen and\nnew criteria for measuring the work of the school have been established.\nThe school is brought face to face with its own losses. The demand is that\nthe school shall adapt its work to the needs of the individual child, in view\nof his ability, opportimity, outlook, and interests. We have begun to\njudge the school by its power to hold pupils once they have entered; by\nits power to carry children thru the course on time; by its power so to adapt\nits work that a given unit may be covered in a given time. These new\ncriteria of efficiency turn the center of administrative interest from the needs\nof the few and the strong to the needs of the many. They place new obligations upon the school — not of doing less for the intellectually bright and\nfor those going to college — but the duty of doing more to adjust its requirements to the abilities of the average children, and of adapting its work to\nthe needs of those who from choice or necessity must complete their\neducation in the public school.\nWASTE\n\nBY WITHDRAWALS\n\nThe failure of the school to hold its pupils is one of the great sources of\neducational waste. In Cleveland it was foimd that for a ten-year period\nbut 48 per cent of all the children enrolled in the first grade reached\nthe sLxth, but 36 per cent reached the seventh, and that but one pupil in\nfour attained the eighth grade. In a word, taking the records for ten years\nas a basis of judgment, it was found that only one child in two ever advanced\nin the elementary school beyond the fifth grade. In the high school it was\nfound that for a ten-year period one child out of every three withdrew\nbefore the second year, one out of every two withdrew before becoming a\njunior, and two out of every three failed to graduate.\nNor do the records show that these losses within the school are due to\nits breaking-down in recent years, for taking the first half of the ten-year\nperiod, the percentage of those graduating from high school or completing\nthe eighth grade is a trifle less than for the last half of the period, thereby\nshowing a slight gain in holding power on the part of the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nWASTE\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nSTUDIES\n\n337\n\nWhen the life-history of ten graduating classes of high school is made the\nbasis of judgment, the losses within the school from withdrawals are surprisingly large. Broadly speaking, it seems reasonable to conclude that of\nthose entering the first grade, 95 per cent leave without finishing the high\nschool, 50 per cent withdraw before reaching the sixth grade, and 75 per\ncent before attaining the eighth grade; while of those entering the high\nschool, one-third leave before the second year, and two-thirds drop out\nbefore graduating. This is fairly typical of the country at large. Naturally\nthe question arises, to what extent is the school itself, in organization,\ninstruction, course of study, standards of values, promotion-scheme, or\notherwise, responsible for these losses and for its own lack of holding power ?\nWHY\n\nDO\n\nCHILDREN\n\nLEAVE\n\nSCHOOL?\n\nAccurate data bearing upon the causes of withdrawals from school are\ndifficult to ascertain. The school cannot, of course, be held responsible for\nall the children lost to education by withdrawals; but in so far as the causes\nof withdrawal lie within the school itself, it must bear the burden of responsibility. Itis important that careful record be made by all schools of the\ncauses of withdrawals, to the end that a wide range of data may be made\navailable, bearing upon the question as to why children leave school, and\nto warrant conclusions as to what extent the school itself is responsible for\nits losses. What is needed is data showing the actual effect on the holding\npower of the school due to changes in organization, courses of study, methods\nof promotion, etc.\nIn this connection I submit data showing the influence of practical\ncourses in attracting and holding pupils of high-school age. Previous to\n1908, Cleveland had six high schools offering the usual college-preparatory\ncourses. In 1908 a technical high school was opened, offering four-year\ncourses frankly preparing for work, without regard to college-entrance\nrequirements. This school opened with 729 pupils, of which 484 had just\ncompleted the eighth grade, 122 were transferred from other high schools,\nand 123 were recruited from shops and factories — children who had left\nschool and had gone to work, but who were attracted by a vocational\nschool of this type. The next year a high school of commerce was opened,\nfollowing similar lines of practical efficiency as that of the technical high\nschool. The following table shows the influence on the holding power of\nthe school as affected by courses bearing an immediate and close relation\nto the everyday activities of life.\nATTENDANCE IN CLEVELAND HIGH 1909SCHOOLS\n1907\nYear\n\n1908\n\n1906\n\nCollege Preparatory. . .\nVocational\nTotal\n\n4,983\n4,983\n\n5,059\n5,059\n\n1910\n\n4,989\n\n729\n4,787\n\n4,989\n\n5,507\n\n1,560\n4,436\n5,996\n\nigii\n5,293\n2,00 c\n\n7,298\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n338\n\n[St. Louis\n\nThe above data show that in three years previous to 1908-9 the high\nschools did not grow, notwithstanding the city was growing at the rate of\ntwo thousand school children each year, as shown by the school census.\nVecetionalSehoo/ Reports be^an in /SOS\n&000\n\nAlmost SO'fc ^ro^vth since. /$08.\n\n8000 Pupils\n\n1500\n\n7500 Pupils\n\n7000\n\n7000 Pupils\n\n6500\n\n6500 Pupils\n\n6000\n\n6000 Pupils\n\n5500\n\n5500 Pupils\n\n5000\n\n5000 Pupils\n\n4500\n\n4500 Pupils\n\n4000\n\n4000 Pupil S\n\n3000\n\n3000 Pupils\n\n2000\n\n2000 Pupils\n\niOOO\n\nJOOO Pupils\n\no\n\nThis is in no sense the fault of these schools, but is merely the inadequacy\nof a single type of school to meet the needs of all the children in a community. In 1908 vocational high schools were started, the technical in\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nWASTE\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nSTUDIES\n\n339\n\n1908, and the high school of commerce in 1909, The result is a growth in\nhigh-school attendance from 4,989 in 1908 to 7,298 in 191 1 — almost 50\nper cent gain in three years. Moreover, it is to be observed that vocational\nhigh schools have started growth in the college-preparatory schools, and\nall are sharing in the revival of high-school prosperity. While for three\nyears previous to the opening of vocational high schools the collegepreparatory schools did not grow, yet these schools reached their highest\nenrollment in 191 1, at a time when more than two thousand children were\nin attendance at vocational high schools. An increase of 50 per cent in\nhigh-school attendance within three years, the creation of a new high-school\nconstituency, tends strongly to the belief that the holding power of the\nschool is tremendously affected by the variety of opportunity offered, and\nby the relation which the school establishes with everyday activities thru\nthe study-courses which it offers. The correcting of the maladjustment\nbetween the school and the industrial and business world outside the school,\nwill have a marked effect in overcoming educational waste.\nWASTE\n\nBY\n\nRETARDATION,\n\nREPETITION,\n\nAND\n\nNON-PROMOTION\n\nBut losses by withdrawals are affected also by retardation, for when\nchildren fall behind their grade they leave school in large numbers. In a\ntypical city the records show that, exclusive of all special schools, onefourth of all elementary pupils were retarded one to four years. Since\nthese data take no account of those having withdrawn, it is apparent that\nconditions as to retardation are even worse than these figures indicate; for\nby the sixth grade more than half of those enrolled in the first have left\nschool. Without regard to cause, retardation can have but one effect, and\nthat is to deprive many children of the work of certain grades of the school.\nSince retardation is the direct result of going over the work a second time,\nrepetition produces lamentable waste. Even in the upper grades, which\ndeal each successive year with an increasingly select group of children, the\npercentage of repetition is surprisingly large. From data available it seems\nreasonable to conclude that, of all money spent on public education in\nAmerican cities, one-tenth to one-eighth is spent on taking children over\nthe work a second time, an enormous loss considered from any point of\nview. As a money tax, paid for the maladjustment of study-courses and\npromotion-schemes to the abilities of children, it is excessive. When the\nschool is tested for efficiency by its ability to carry children thru its course\non time it shows great waste.\nBut just as repetition causes retardation, so non-promotion is the prime\nfactor in producing \"repeaters.\" Obviously, the causes leading to nonpromotion are many, some of which are beyond the responsibility of the\nschool. However, the degree of the burden of responsibility which the\nschool bears can be determined only in view of a wide range of data showing\nthe causes of non-promotion.\nEvery school should, therefore, keep careful\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nrecord of actual causes of non-promotion. From the limited data available\nit would seem that three-fourths of the non-promotions are accredited to\nincapacity and indifference on the part of children. This suggests strongly\nthe need for a revision of standards of attainment and a readjustment of\nthe course of study, adapting it to the abilities of the children. For the\nmaladjustment of the work of the school to the capacities and interests of\nchildren is expressed in terms of withdrawals, retardation, repetition, and\nnon-promotion. The thoughtful student of educational waste cannot fail\nto reach the conclusion that the school is addressing itself to the stronger\ngroup, and setting its standards of attainment beyond the range of the\naverage children.\nMETHODS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF PROMOTION\n\nDoubtless no one factor penetrates so deeply into the life of the school\nand has so much to do with educational waste as methods of promotion; for\nthese involve standards of attainment and modes of advancing children from\ngrade to grade, as well as from school to school. To a large extent, plans\nof promotion have developed traditionally and without much regard to\ntheir effect on school losses. But the time is at hand when standards of\nattainment must be redetermined, and a plan of promotion devised in view\nof its effect on withdrawals and repetition — a plan which shall enable children as a rule to complete the elementary-school course on the average in\neight years, and the high-school course in four years. Such a plan must be\nso flexible that each child shall be permitted to advance thru the school\naccording to his ability and effort. It must allow the bright child to advance\nin less than the average required time, and even tho the slow child may\ntake longer, the average, when all the children passing thru the school are\ntaken into account, should not be more than eight years for the elementary,\nand four years for the high school. It must offer the \"square deal\" to all\nphildren. Such a method of promotion can be devised and administered\nonly in view of a large body of facts with regard to failures in studies, withdrawals, retardations, and non-promotions in a given system of schools.\nA PROBLEM\n\nIN WASTE\n\nAND\n\nHOW\n\nIT WAS\n\nSOLVED\n\nIn Cleveland the following conditions obtained: It was found that for a\nten-year period only one child in two ever advanced beyond the fifth grade;\nthat one child in four was retarded one to four years; that every tenth child\nwas a \"repeater\"; that ii per cent of all elementary-school pupils failed of\npromotion.\nThese facts with reference to withdrawals, retardation, repetition, and\nnon-promotion were brought to bear in determining a new promotion plan\nand in redetermining the length of the school year. To reduce repetition,\nthe annual plan of promotion was abandoned, and a term plan inaugurated.\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nWASTE\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nSTUDIES\n\n341\n\nA term of twelve weeks was made the unit. At the end of this period children are reclassified, and when non-promoted the pupil repeats only twelve\nweeks of work.\nActing on the theory that there were as many pupils in the school who\ncould do more than the average amount of work required as there were\npupils who could do less, opportunity was made for the more rapid\nadvancement of bright pupils. Since the non-promotions less accelerations\namounted to one in ten, provision was made that 10 per cent of the pupils\nin any room might be given a double promotion, that is, jumped over a\nterm's work; provided, however, that no pupil might be given a double\npromotion unless his standing for the term in all studies was 90 per cent or\nabove, and that no pupil should be given more than one double promotion\nin a single school year. Tho double promotion of a given number of pupils\nwill by no means eradicate repetition and retardation, yet in time the\nnumber of children repeating will be equalled by the number given double\npromotion, and the number of children behind their grade for their age will\nbe offset or balanced by the percentage of pupils ahead of their grade. A\nschool system thus becomes its own clearing-house, is made to check itself,\nand certain bad eflEects of repetition and retardation are neutralized. In\nthis way the money cost of the \"repeater\" is offset by the acceleration of\nthe stronger pupils.\nSUMMER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREDUCES\n\nWASTE\n\nThat it might be possible for the large number of retarded children to\nadvance farther in the course of the elementary school, the regular school\nyear was divided into three terms of twelve- weeks each, and a twelveweek svunmer school, offering regular work and giving regular credits,\nwas established, attendance being optional.\nThe twelve-week summer term makes a unit of work corresponding to\na unit of work of the regular school year. Retarded children by taking\nadvantage of the summer term are enabled to reduce the degree of their\nretardation and advance farther in the course than formerly. Three high\nschools were opened for regular work for a twelve-week summer term — a\ncollege-preparatory high school, a technical high school, and a high school\nof commerce — to which pupils from all parts of the city were eligible.\nUnder this arrangement pupils taking advantage of the twelve-week\nsummer term complete a four-year course in three years. In the elementary\nschools there were enrolled in the summer term of 1911, 4,187 pupils, and\nin the high schools 1,279, a total of 5,466.\nIn the elementary schools 3,245 children made up a term's work,\nthereby reducing their amount of retardation to that extent, while 276 of\nthese received a double promotion. Thru the summer term and the\nincreased flexibility of the plan of promotion the school system practically\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[St.Loui,\n\nchecked its own losses and created a balance sheet, the number of children\nwho lost time being equalled by the number who gained time. Moreover,\nthe number of withdrawals was reduced over the preceding year by 2,633.\nIt is to be noted, however, that a regular summer term, correlating with\na unit of work of the regular school year, offers no \"bargain-counter\" conces ions tosummer-school attendance on the part of retarded children. On\nthe contrary, it merely offers a regular term's credit for a regular unit of\nwork, done in the regular way. But a siunmer term which does not correlate with a unit of work of the regular school year, as must be the case under\nan annual or semiannual promotion plan, is reduced to the mere problem\nof allowing failed children an opportunity to remove their condition in\ncertain studies. As a means of making up lost time and reducing retardation it offers merely the impossible, and does violence to children, since\nthey must either fail of advance credit or be given credit for work which\nthey have not done.\nWhether a thirty-six- week school year and a twelve- week summer term,\noptional to children, and whether this mode of promotion will prove idtimately desirable, experience alone can tell. But as a method of solving the\nproblem of educational waste, offered by the set of conditions above outlined, ithas proved thoroly effective. Every school system offers its own\nset of conditions and its own special needs. At all events, these plans are\nillustrations of how definite knowledge of school conditions may be used in\nattempting to meet actual problems of administration. What is needed is\nthat the course of study and the method of promotion shall be so adjusted\nto the abilities and needs of children that the average children advance thru\nthe grades at the normal rate, the slower requiring more time, and an equal\nnumber of bright children requiring less than the normal time in which to\ndo the work.\nNEED\n\nFOR\n\nSTANDARDIZING\n\nSUBJECTS,\n\nDEPARTMENTS,\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nNotwithstanding that the value of studies is fixed by the time allotted\nin the daily program, study-requirements in actual practice seemingly have\nlittle relation to the value ascribed. Reading, for example, in a given\nsystem of schools is given 25 per cent of the total time of the elementary\nschool, language and grammar 12 per cent, arithmetic 15 per cent; in the\nfirst year of the high school, Latin, English, and algebra are given like value.\nNevertheless, the failures in language and grammar were, in view of the\ntime value, almost four times as many as in reading; those in arithmetic\nfive times larger; whereas in the first-year high-school classes 26 per cent\nof the children dropped out or failed in Latin, 15 per cent in English, and\n32 per cent in algebra. Where records of failures in studies are properly\nkept it is not difficult to locate the studies that are the great offenders\nin swelling the ranks of the non-promoted.\nSuch variations reveal a need for standardization, not only in studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEPARTMENTAL\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\n343\n\nbut in departments as well. Standards for completing a study of great\nvalue should be such as will actually put the emphasis on that study, rather\nthan that pressure on one study when measured by the time allotted should\nbe two to twenty times as great as upon another. But until positive data\nare collected with reference to failures in studies in the various grades, and\nthese data made the basis of administrative action, little can be accomplished inequalizing and standardizing study requirements.\nThere is similar need with regard to standardizing individual schools,\nfor there is wide variation in the standards of the several schools in Ihe\nsame system. For example, in a given system of schools, the failures in\nreading, based on total enrollment, ranged from o to 25 per cent; in language and grammar from o to 34 per cent; in arithmetic from o to 37 per\ncent; while the percentage of non-promotions for individual schools ranged\nfrom o to 47 per cent in the first grade; in the second from o to 38 per cent;\nin the eighth grade from o to 55 per cent. Such variations in standards in\na single system can scarcely be countenanced. That schools should be\nrightly judged with regard to their work, and that there should be reasonable uniformity of requirements in different schools, there can be no doubt.\nYet before this can be brought about data must be collected with reference\nto failures in studies and non-promotions in different schools; upon the\nbasis of these, city-wide standards fixed, and the requirements of individual\nschools equalized.\nCONCLUSION\n\nA study of educational waste forces the conclusion that in, the collection\nand use of data to guide in measuring the efficiency of the school and in\ndetermining administrative action, a mere beginning has been made; that\nif the efficiency of the school is to be definitely measured careful record of\nschool losses must be kept, to the end that study-courses and promotionschemes may be adapted to the abilities, needs, and interests of all the\nchildren, and the school itself be thereby enabled to check its own waste.\nB.\n\nDEPARTMENTAL\nW.\n\nL. STEPHENS,\n\nTEACHING\nGRADES\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nELEMENTARY\nLINCOLN,\n\nNEBR.\n\nThe tendency thruout the country toward departmental teaching in the\nmore advanced grades of the elementary school is pronounced. This\ntendency has in the main resulted from the following generally prevailing\nconditions: (i) the difficulty of securing efficient teachers for the upper\ngrammar grades; (2) the desirability of preparing pupils to assume more\neasily and successfully the larger freedom and responsibility of the high\nschool; (3) the vitalizing of instruction by the specialist to the end that the\nwaste resulting from unskilled teaching may be lessened.\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nThe influence of these conditions led to the introduction of departmental\nteaching in the elementary schools of Lincoln three years ago. Four of\nthe ten grammar schools are using the plan, the essential features of which,\nas adapted to our work, are as follows:\n1. The sixth, seventh, and eighth grades are included in the departmental scheme.\n2. Four clearly defined departments have been created, i.e., mathematics, geography\nand history, grammar and composition, Uterature. Music is assigned to one of these\ndepartments; art to a second; and writing to a third. Each teacher gives instruction in\nspelling, civic and moral training, and hygiene.\nFurthermore, each teacher is held responsible for the instruction of the pupils in the\ncorrect use of English in speaking and in writing.\n3. Each class has a teacher, termed the class sponsor, with whom it spends in recitation and study about one-third of the time, and who is responsible for the general\nconduct and attendance of the class.\n4. No pupil recites to more than foiu: teachers. This number does not include\nteachers of manual training, cooking, and sewing.\n5. Weekly conferences of the departmental teachers with the principal are held, to\nunify and correlate the work and to discuss the needs of individual pupils.\n\nThis plan has been in operation for a time sufficiently long to justify\nthe drawing of certain conclusions with reference to its dangers and weaknesses as well as with reference to its advantages.\nThe first danger likely to be encountered- in instituting the plan results\nfrom over-departmentalizing the work. Pupils should not be required to\nspend the whole day in the department. Not less than one- third of the\ntime should be spent with the class sponsor, whose influence will largely\nmold the general welfare and deportment of the pupils. She is the anchor\nthat will prevent the pupils from floating out of sight of land. A common\nobjection raised to departmental teaching is that the influence of the teacher\nover the pupils is materially lessened. In grades below the sixth, in my\njudgment, this is true. But even under the single-teacher plan inherent\nweaknesses exist that lessen or overdevelop this influence. Many teachers\nwho are considered efficient do not influence favorably aU the individuals\nunder their charge. Many children are not reached in a wholesome manner\nby the personal attraction of the teacher. Incompatibility of temperament,\nmannerisms, voice, or dress may exert a harmful effect upon certain children,\nand this often results without realization on the part of the teacher. Moreover, the \"mothering instinct\" is too highly developed in some teachers.\nThey have come to consider the chief function of the teacher that of protection and coddling. In such a presence, pupils fail to realize that school is\na workshop wherein they grow to independent thought and action thru their\nown initiative. To remain a year with such a teacher spells disaster to many\na pupil during his school career. These weaknesses of the single-teacher\nplan are not advanced in the attempt to strengthen the argument in favor\nof departmental teaching, but simply to remind you that dangers lurk in\nboth systems.\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nDEPARTMENTAL\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\n345\n\nHowever, in the departmental plan, every pupil will find some teacher\nto whom he is strongly attracted and whose influence will be continuous for\nseveral years. I recall a teacher in one of our departmental schools who\nespecially appeals to boys and whose desk at intermissions is usually surrounded bylads eager to secure her advice relative to all their school activities. To another teacher, the girls are attracted; they tell her freely of\ntheir difficulties and troubles, even more freely than many of them tell\ntheir mothers. The influences that flow in upon pupils from several teachers\nare more like those of life. In the home and on the playground the child is\nnot subject to the influence of one person wholly, but to the influence of\nmany. As a result of this composite influence the child is more likely to\ndevelop symmetrically and to preserve his individuality than if he were too\nconstantly under the influence of one person alone. In my judgment\nthe intimate, rare, and lasting relations between teacher and pupil are more\ncommon under the departmental plan than under the single-teacher plan.\nThe second danger of departmental teaching is the confusion that arises\nbecause of the pupil's contact with several teachers whose standards of\nrequirement and whose methods and ideals of teaching differ widely. A\nsixth-grade boy expressed the idea in this way: \"Just when I have found\nout how to do things the way one teacher directs, I'm sure to be in trouble\nwith another if I follow the same plan. I can't always remember which is\nwhich.\" Closely related to this, is the fact that no one teacher realizes all\nthe problems and difficulties that confront the individual pupil, and in her\nzeal to promote the interest and magnify the importance of her department,\nshe forces the child beyond his power of endurance and assimilation.\nHerein lies the greatest danger of the departmental teaching. To meet\nthese difficulties we have foimd the following methods of procedure\nnecessary:\n1. Regular weekly conferences of the teachers and principal, at which the character\nand scope of the work being done by each is discussed. At these conferences the\npossible correlations of subjects are determined. Length of assignments and amount of\nhome work required in each department are discussed, so that each teacher realizes all\nthe demands made upon the pupil. The weakness of a pupil in any department is disclosed and his work in the other departments is also discussed. In this way the teachers\nget in mind the whole work of the child, who in turn gets a fair and impartial rating.\nThese conferences are of the most vital and far-reaching consequences. The status of\nthe individual pupil is established, the interdependence of studies pointed out, and the\nvision of the teacher enlarged.\n2. Clearly outlined courses of study, so that the scope of the work is clearly understood by the teacher and the temptation removed as far as possible from the overambitious\nand enthusiastic specialist to go beyond the required work of her department.\n3. The admission of pupils to the department not earlier than the seventh grade. We\nadmit the sixth grade to the department in order to make available four teachers for\ndepartmental teaching, but after a three years' trial, I am convinced that sixth-grade pupils\ndo not carry successfully the responsibiUty imposed and are confused by the contact\nwith several teachers. At the earliest opportunity we shall revert to the single-teacher\nplan for the sixth grade and employ an additional teacher for the departmental work.\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nThere is, however, one advantage in having the sixth grade in the department. After\nhaving the opportunity to become thoroly acquainted with the pupils in the sixth grade,\nthe departmental teachers find the adjustment between sixth- and seventh-grade work\neasily made, and more can be accomplished by the pupils during the two remaining\nyears of the grammar-school course.\n\nThus far the paper has dealt with the dangers of departmental teaching\nand the manner in which these dangers can be lessened or eliminated. Let\nus turn to a consideration of the advantages.\nUnder departmental teaching the discipline is materially improved.\nSome reasons for this are disclosed in the answers of the pupils to this question, which was sent to all eighth grades in the departmental schools:\n\"Do you consider the plan of departmental teaching superior to the\nplan formerly used ? Give your reasons for your answer.\"\nNinety per cent of the pupils favored the departmental plan. Of those\nfavoring the plan 80 per cent gave these two reasons:\nThe change and relaxation in passing from room to room kept them\nalert and prevented restlessness.\nThe teacher, confining her efforts to one or two subjects, became more\nexpert in teaching and made the class work more interesting and more\neasily imderstood.\nThese statements of the pupils themselves are significant. The educative value in coming in contact with different teachers and different environment during the day is restful, pleasing, and stimulating. Furthermore,\nthe pupil realizes that he is a member of a larger social group, whose activities ifdirected aright will be more influential for 'good in the life of the school\nthan those of a smaller group. He feels his importance more keenly and\nrealizes that it is possible for his influence to have a wider sweep, therefore\nhe is willing and anxious to assume larger responsibility. He is impelled\nto exert all his powers to meet successfully this larger opportunity, which\nis presented at the very time in life when he has an uncontrolled desire to\nbe like the \"grown-up,\" to bring things to pass, to go forth relentlessly to\nhunt the dragon and when he is found to slay him on the spot. Thus boys\nand girls find themselves. Under the single-teacher plan a pupil may\ncease endeavor because he believes, and the belief is an honest one, that the\nteacher is partial, imjust, and unsympathetic. Under the departmental\nplan, if the pupil discovers that several teachers are placing the same estimate upon him, he begins to realize that the fault must lie within, and such\nrealization is the first step toward reform. The opportunity, then, to relax\nat the end of a recitation period, to come in contact with different environments which produce variety in reactions, and to become a part of a larger\nsocial whole wherein lie larger responsibilities and opportunities, produces\nthe most wholesome disciplinary effects.\nBetter equipped classrooms have resulted from departmental teaching.\nThe apparatus for the teaching of history and geography, including maps.\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEPARTMENTAL\n\nTEACHING\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\n347\n\nglobes, stereopticon, and other illustrative materials, is collected in one\nroom. A similar plan is followed in the rooms devoted to the work of other\ndepartments. The advantages are obvious. All the material for use in a\ngiven subject is to be found in one room, ready for instant use, instead of\nbeing scattered in three or four rooms, meagerly equipping any one room,\nand making it necessary to convey equipment from room to room. Often\nthe apparatus needed for illustration, arising from some unforeseen condition in the recitation, is in another part of the building, not subject to the\nprinciple of \"the recall.\" Under the single- teacher plan the instructor is\nin almost constant distress over exchanging hurriedly the illustrative\nmaterials used in one recitation for those to be used in the following recitation. This shifting of scenes to keep the performance from dragging often\nreminds one of continuous vaudeville. In the departmental plan, these\ndifficulties are almost entirely removed, and instead, each room with its\nproper equipment has an atmosphere characteristic of the subjects therein\npresented, which has a most refreshing and stimulating effect upon the\npupil as he enters.\nAnother advantage lies in the added efficiency from the standpoint of\nadministration. Several factors are involved in this phase of the problem.\nUnder the single-teacher plan, when a class begins the work of a new term\nin all subjects imder a new teacher, several weeks may elapse before the\nunderstanding between the class and the teacher is sufficiently clear and\nsympathetic to bring satisfactory results. In departmental teaching, the\nclass will never begin a new period under an entirely new corps of teachers.\nResponsibility for results in any subject can be fixed with more certainty.\nThis is a decided. advantage from the viewpoint of administration. For\nexample, if glaring weaknesses are disclosed in mathematics by the supervision, the teacher of this subject cannot escape responsibility by attempting\nto heap censure upon the previous teacher. One of our teachers may have\ntaken herself too seriously when she said: \"If a decimal point is discovered\nout of place in this building, I can't escape the responsibility,\" yet she was\nin a frame of mind to render effective service.\nThe unity and force of the management is further increased by reason of\nbetter preparation for, and closer articulation with, the high school. About\none-half the time devoted to study is spent under the direct supervis'on of\nthe teacher for whose recitation the pupil s making his preparation. The\nremaining study periods are spent in independent study. This plan enables\nthe teacher to give definite directions to the pupi. how to study; it also\naffords the advantage of throwing the pupil upon his own resources in study.\nThis independent study, together with the training the pupil acquires in\nadapting himself to the methods and ideals of instruction given by several\nteachers prepares him for the larger freedom and responsibility characteristic of the high school. At the risk of digressing somewhat at this point, I\nwish to say that on the whole the effect of departmental teaching upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[St. Louis\n\npupil is wholesome. Theopportunity for freer action is afiforded; the forming of independent judgment, encouraged more consistently. The dull\npupil thrives better, because the specialist is more keen in discovering latent\ntalent. He seeks the advice of the teacher whose personality appeals to\nhim most strongly. Favoritism is lessened; and pupils are kept in school\nlonger.\nUnder the departmental plan more skillful teachers will be developed.\nThis will result first thru a process of elimination. It not infrequently\nhappens that teachers who under the single- teacher plan are rated as satisfactory fail in the departmental work. This is probably due to one of two\nreasons, possibly to both. Pupils, as they come in contact with several\nteachers, rapidly grow in their ability to distinguish superior training and\nteaching ability. At the same time, they discern more keenly the lack of\nthese on the part of weak teachers and take advantage accordingly. The\nlatter kind of teachers must be removed from the department or disorganization is likely to follow. It should be noted here that the departmental plan\nnecessitates more searching and intelligent supervision on the part of the\nprincipal. This plan does not possess such inherent power that, once let\nloose in a school system, it will run itself. The principal must constantly\n\"be on the job\" and in sympathy with it. As a result of this closer supervision, the weaknesses of the teacher will be more surely revealed.\nThe development of more efl&cient teaching will result, in the second\nplace, from the opportunity afforded the teacher to specialize in one or two\nsubjects or in a group of related subjects. It is distressing to note what is\nexpected of the teacher under the single- teacher plan. A few of the subjects\nthat she is supposed to teach are herewith enumerated: arithmetic, algebra,\ngeometry, history, geography, composition, grammar, literature, music, art,\nspelling, writing, civics, morals and manners, elements of science, including\nbotany, physics, astronomy, geology, hygiene with special reference to the\neffects of stimidants and narcotics, essence of patriotism (whatever this is),\nand physical training. The time allotted to this paper forbids the mentioning of others. If there is anything more perfectly designed to drown out\nthe spirit of study and investigation on the part of the teacher than this\ndeluge of subjects, such has not yet been revealed in the realm of human\nknowledge.\nTo secure teachers properly prepared for departmental teaching constitutes a serious problem. Our present plan is to select from the system\nat large those teachers who have shown unusual skill and interest in teaching a given subject. • The state university offers courses after school hours\nand on Saturdays in order to give these teachers an opportunity for further\nspecialization. The development is slow but ultimately success is assured.\nThe normal schools should recognize the fact that departmental teaching in\nthe elementary schools is rapidly gaining in favor, and should so remodel\nand extend their courses that the specialist may be trained for work of this\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE CHILD\n\nVERSUS\n\nPROMOTION-MACHINERY\n\n349\n\ncharacter. The training now received in the normal schools does not prepare for such teaching. In the end the departments will demand the teacher\nwhose training is little, if any, less than that of the high-school teacher, and\na salary commensurate with the training demanded must be paid. As a\nresult of this preparation, the lives of boys and girls will measurably be\nenriched, not by adding subjects to already congested curricula, but by\nthe teachers' bringing a broader view, riper scholarship, and richer illustrative material to bear upon the interpretation and presentation of what we\nnow have.\nIn conclusion: If the adaption of departmental teaching to the upper\ngrammar grades is made \\vith the following necessary provisions: avoidance of over-departmentalization; frequent conferences to determine the\nneeds of the individual pupil and to correlate sanely the work of the departments; the hearty sympathy for, and belief of principal and teachers in,\ndepartmental teaching, results more satisfactory than those found under\nthe single-teacher plan will be secured. The discipline will be more wholesome, classrooms better equipped; stronger unity and force in school management evolved; better preparation for the larger responsibilities of the\nhigh school acquired; a more skillful corps of instructors developed, whose\nteaching will be vitalized by the spirit that nourishes the life and growth\nof the child for whose welfare the school exists.\nC.\n\nTHE CHILD\n\nD. E. PHILLIPS,\n\nVERSUS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nPROMOTION-MACHINERY\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nI find that a paper presented to this body thirteen years ago apologizes\nfor presenting a matter of \"minor consideration.\"' I apologize for lack of\nability to make clear in twenty minutes the paramount importance of this\nsubject in relation to the entire educational system. I declare it second to\nnone save that of the direct moral welfare of the child, and it also has much\nto do with moral life.\nI also find that thirty-two years ago, the sane and sensible statement\nwas made to the National Education Association that promotions should be\nmade at any time during the term, whenever a pupil is prepared to take up and\nunderstand the work of the next higher grade. Yet today I have among my\nreplies howling objections to this sensible statement, calling it \"chaos\" and\na \"retrogression of our excellently perfected machinery.\" It was about this\nsame year, 1881, that Superintendent Rowland of Chicago took the breath\nout of the high-school principals by announcing that henceforth all pupils\nwould be admitted to the high school on the grade principal's recommendation, and on that alone. The poor high-school teachers felt hopeless without\nsome definite percentage to tell just how much past knowledge to expect of\nthe child. The horrors of not knowing whether the dead line of 75 per cent\n> W. W. Chalmers, \"Report,\" 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "3SO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nhad been passed! This- was a master-stroke of administration. Its fruits\nhave spread to the whole country.\nYou are all familiar with that valuable report of the New York and\nBrooklyn teachers' associations. I have intentionally directed my remarks\nto points not made prominent in that report. The thoroness of that work\nwill account for some of the omissions in my brief paper. But if anyone can\npass in silence some of the statements, not by the committee, but by educational correspondents, on such subjects as \" allowing a child to work to his\nfullest capacity,\" and \"doing over work satisfactorily passed,\" it is more\nthan I can do.\nThe committee well states that \"the rapid evolution during the past\ntwenty-five years of the American common-school system of education\ninto a hard-and-fast graded system is xmiversally recognized\"; that \"no\nadequate incentive for highest endeavor is inherent in our present graded\nsystem.\" I heartily agree with the committee that our primary aim should\nbe to put the child where he may work up to his fullest capacity to the best\nadvantage to himself as a child.\nMy remarks are based upon a short practical experience some years\nago; upon the study of educational problems; upon observations of the\npractical working of the very system which many call ideal, but declare\nimpossible because they have never given it a proper test; and finally upon\nabout two hundred replies from grade- and high-school principals and from\nsuperintendents concerning this subject. Nearly all of these replies are\nfrom the Rocky Mountain States; two-thirds of them from my own state.\nTwenty minutes afford no time for details of the many systems in use.\nI shall attempt to bring to your minds five ideas:\nFirst, the two dominant and opposite tendencies as represented by my returns.\nSecond, several significant efforts to take care of the backward and the bright pupils,\nnot coming under the general systems; such as, the Cambridge, the Pueblo, the Batavia,\netc.\nThird, to show that the method of daily percentage grades with final or periodic\nexamination-percentages, by which the fitness of a child to be promoted is determined, is\nabsolutely pernicious, unjust, and productive of intellectual chaos. It is this topic that\nthe valuable report to which I referrjed has entirely omitted. In many ways I believe it\nmore important than the promotion itself.\nFourth, the cloud that is in some places settling over our country schools.\nLastly, I shall try to maintain that each child should at all times be at work in the\ngrade and in the subjects that he can get most out of, without regard to what he knows\nor does not know about studies behind him, and without regard to how much less or more\nhe knows than other pupils.\n\nLet us now turn to a brief consideration of these five points.\nI. A few representative quotations from the returns must suffice.\nThe old conservative hard-and-fast system and the power of tradition\nare still powers in practice, if not in theory. A superintendent writes:\n\"We have mid-year promotions in only a part of our subjects. In others\nit is a whole-year credit or nothing. We reserve the privilege of counting\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nVERSUS\n\nPROMOTION-MACHINERY\n\n351\n\n25 per cent on application, and ma.y fail a student who passes a good examination.\" Another says: \"Numerical grades are sent to the office to be used\nin special cases.\" A grade principal says: \"We promote on the half-year\nplan. Provided a student fails in more than half his work, he is required to\ntake the entire half-year's work again.\" Again: \"Promotion is dependent\nupon making a certain fixed average with the exception that a child may be\npromoted on condition, if he is low, not to exceed two studies.\" The same\nprincipal adds that he has a boy in the eighth grade who did not pass the\nseventh, who is making up and will finish the eighth all right. Another\nsays: \"I favor, in theory, promotion by subjects. This we find difficult\nin practice.\" A superintendent of some twenty-five teachers writes: \"We\nhave numerical grades. This seems to be a necessity that we may know\nwhere we are at. There must be some guide and loca ting-place.\" Another\nsuperintendent says: \"The term promotion-machinery is more dreadful in\nname than in actual operation in well-regulated schools.\" A principal of a\nlarge grade school writes: \"We have numerical grades and pupils are\nrequired to attain a certain minimum standing in order to be promoted.\nHowever, our superintendent has a rule which he calls 'service promotion,'\nunder which pupils are promoted after two years in one grade.\"\nThe best statement of the conservative method of promotion on a\npercentage-basis comes from a superintendent of one of the first-class\ndistricts in Colorado. \"I would say that we base our promotions primarily\nupon percentage of grades earned in the more important studies. The plan\nof making promotions entirely on the judgment of the teacher may be excellent in theory, but in actual practice it very often produces grave annoyances, such as the feeling that the teacher is partial to certain children, but\nhas it in for certain other children, who thus do not have a fair opportunity.\nWhen there are carefully selected questions given to the pupil who is old\nenough to answer in writing, it gives the child an opportunity to make a\nrecord concerning which there can be no reasonable dispute\nAfter\nthe child has gone over the same work two or three times it is our custom\nto promote that pupil 'by courtesy.'\" Again, a principal of a large high\nschool says: \"Yes, we have used the numerical system of grading, feeling\nthat it tends to carefulness and accuracy on the part of teachers.\"\nThis is a glimpse of what I should call the conservative undercurrent;\nbut I am rather sure that nearly every one of these would claim to be quite\nprogressive.\nNow just listen to a few conservative sentences taken from page 86 of\nthe report already cited. In response to the question: Should the child\nbe placed where he may work up to his fullest capacity ? here are some of\nthe things that have been said: \"No, it makes them unbalanced.\" \"No,\nsuch a condition is imbecile.\" \"No child should get to the high school\nbefore fourteen years.\" \"Pushing children through the grades and out\nat the top before they are mature enough in body and mind to profit by\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nsecondary education is akin to man-slaughter, for it is little short of childslaughter.\" \"It is a crime against childhood to crowd children through the\ngrades.\" \"I do not believe it wise to advance precocious children more\nrapidly than is provided by regular promotion.\" This makes me want to\nfight on behalf of the God-gifted child that is not yet able to fight for himself.\nNow a few remarks from what may properly be called the liberals or\nradicals. From my returns I condense the following: \"The old system is\nvicious, and has literally slain its thousands. Bright girls have been held\nfor all the work of a grade because the teacher's recitation book and examinations only totalled 64 per cent instead of 65, perhaps in a single branch,\nperhaps arithmetic. This is the only question I ask any teacher to decide:\nHas the pupil power to do the work of the next class or subject? If so\nlet him do it and do it now.\" Again: \"For twenty-one years I have had no\nsystem. Systematized promotions tend to defeat our end — to advance the\nchild according to his capacity. A himdred or more promotions have been\nmade already this year, and only in two or three cases did we make a\nmistake. They are easily corrected.\" A superintendent says: \"If promotion periods are too far apart the boy with red blood — the leader — resents\nsuch conditions; and if not relieved, breaks out into the world where he\nfeels he has a fighting chance.\" \"My trouble,\" writes a principal, \"is to\nhave teachers realize that the child is greater than any system. I hope\nI was never so devoid of common-sense as not to place a pupil in the highest\ngrade in which he was able to do satisfactory work.\" A principal who for\nmany years has run a large school, who has demonstrated the falsity of the\nclaim of necessity for grades and stated examinations, the absolute falsity\nof the repeated statements that a school nm imder flexible conditions costs\nmore, and the falsity of the statement that promotion by subjects in the\ngrades will not work, writes me as follows: \"Pupils are promoted from\nclass to class and from grade to grade at any and all times; so soon as a\npupil is discovered who can do, or should be doing more work, no matter\nwhat the grade, if the physical condition permits extra effort, he is advanced.\nIt often occiirs that pupils are promoted who are required to recite in two\nclasses, imtil evenness in grade work is attained. No examination for these\npromotions is required.\" Again: \"Whenever a child has the power to do\nadvanced work he should be promoted, and by the application of commonsense any teacher should know fairly well when that is.\"\nAbout one himdred and fiity communications are of this liberal type and\nthe writers are practicing what they preach, and thank the Lord they have\nnearly all abandoned that make-believe justice of recitation percentage and\nfinal grade of sixty-five or seventy-five,\n2. I have accounts of dozens of ways for helping up the backward child.\nBare mention can be made of only a few. Combination of backward\npupils of a higher grade with bright pupils of the lower in the same room\nunder a skilled teacher; imgraded rooms for backward children; the\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nVERSUS\n\nPROMOTION-MACHINERY\n\n353\n\npractice teachers being used to help up the backward children; substitution\nfor the so-called important subjects of some of the less essential ones;\nattendance in night schools; combination work in eighth grade and high\nschool: these are examples of some of the methods used. The lastmentioned system is admirable where both schools are in the same building\nor near by. It relieves both the backward and the more capable pupils.\nOne system of relief for the most capable permits the child to recite for a\nwhUe in two grades in the same subject, and drop the lower one as soon as\nhe is sure of doing the other,\n3. The most unreasonable educational idea that has hypnotically\nspread from the colleges down to the first grade is the idea that a teacher\nwith forty children can ask a question, call on a child to recite, grade him o,\n4, or 10; keep this up for five or ten months, then present an array of\nquestions to be answered and graded in like manner, and by the final addition of these results determine the child's knowledge and fitness for promotion. Yet college professors and principals stand up and say that such a\nthing is a necessary evil. It is only the power of habit and the suggestion\nthat such things are necessary that dominate our teachers and the commimity. Only a few days ago, I heard a principal say that he tried to get along\nwithout grades and report cards for three months, and found that all concerned preferred the old system. Can you educate a community or teachers\nout of a lifelong custom in three months ? In that same city are schools as\ngood as ever run in America in which such necessary evils have never existed.\nSome months ago, thru the kindness of Dr. Clarke, I copied the examination manuscript of a boy's final test for promotion from the eighth grade.\nIt was a paper in arithmetic. In -some institutes where teachers were\ninclined to talk glibly about grading on what the paper is worth, and\navoiding partiality, I gave the teachers this paper to grade. One hundred\nand fifty teachers gave grades ranging from 29 per cent to 88 per cent.\nBut they immediately began to say that they would be obliged to know\nthe boy first. I said, \"Very well. But why do you then pretend that you\nbase your percentage wholly on the paper ? \" They then named fourteen\ndifferent things that should be considered in passing that boy. They were\nright and could have mentioned more. Again, what is poor work for one\npupil may be excellent for another, and absolutely worthy of praise.\nWhoever observed a growing, bubbling child knows that the expressive\nside of life never keeps up with the receptive side. The highest, truest, and\ndeepest value of education can never be measured objectively. You feel it,\nor read it in the soul of the individual. Some things are qualitative and\ndefy quantitative measurement. There is some truth in the paradox\nthat the more we know about a thing the less able we are to define it.\nWhen a high-school boy I could define electricity better than Edison can\ntoday; and God knows that I could define Him better when a Simdayschool pupil than I can after years of study.\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nI repeat that this system of promotion on a fixed percentage supposed\nto represent so much knowledge in any given subject is the greatest piece\nof injustice ever invented by any educational system. It is a deception and\na snare that prevents the operation of the common-sense of parents, pupils,\nand teachers. Who will stand up here and tell us the list of geographical\nfacts a child must know in the fifth grade before he can do sixth-grade\nwork?\n4. The danger that threatens our country schools can be presented in a\nfew words. Some states have developed the system by which the county\nsuperintendent or a state board prepares the questions that determine\neighth-grade graduation. They are sent to the teachers in closed envelopes,\nto be given to the pupils, answered, and returned for correction. If such a\nvicious system was not found in my own state I would say what I think\nabout it. During the whole year both the teacher and the pupils keep\nguessing what the questions may be. Proper interest, independence, and\noriginality are crucified. How does the superintendent or this clairvoyant\nboard know whether or not a child whom they have never seen should enter\nthe high school ?\nThe great nation of Italy fixes the grade percentage for passing in its\nnational legislature, and they actually debate for days whether it should\nbe 65, 70, or 80, and under what conditions, if any, a child should be excused from the final examination. China has had some such method for a\nthousand years.\n5. Finally, / must maintain that each child should, at all times, be at work\nin the grade and in the subjects that he can get the m^ost out of without regard\nto what he knows or does not know about studies behind him, and without regard\nto how much more or less he knows than other pupils. Is it not comical to\ntalk about promoting a child \"by courtesy\" after he has been over the\ngrade two or three times? . Or of a \"time-service promotion\" ?\nStephen Phillips describes \"the Woman with a Dead Soul.\" Sm^ely\nthere must be some men with dead souls, or at least those whose only evidence of life is their desire to produce more souls as dead as themselves.\nI further believe that the difference that separates educators is not at\nbottom so much a question of practical possibility as a question of the\nfunction of knowledge. I hold that outside of the immediate business or\noccupation of an individual the primary function of facts is to create the\nproper attitude toward the activities and problems of life, and to arouse\ninterest and intellectual activity. Will it not be found that the old system\nof \"know so much before promotion\" exactly reversed this order? Under\nsuch an idea attention, interest, and intellectual activity existed for the\naccumulation of facts and knowledge.\nOver-thoroness and acciuracy have been made an immense burden\nwithout sufficient after-results in life to justify them. Intelligence, not\nmemory, is the most precious thing in the imi verse; and in the language of\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n355\n\nPrincipal Bishop, of Detroit, \"You are doing a rank injustice if you make\npupils mark time or keep them back in anything,\"\nTo allow the child to make the most of every moment of life in our\npublic schools is not impossible. It is being done. When shall we learn\nto teach children and not subjects and textbooks? When shall we learn\nthat in our effort to educate all the children we must deal with minds of all\ngrades from the imbecile to the greatest geniuses that God ever turned loose\non this earth, and that it is our business to provide for all of them ? When\nshall we learn to look into the soul of the child and realize how far above our\nmachinery that soul might soar if only we would not care more for the\nmachinery than for the growing soul of the child ?\n\nD. SOME ADJUSTMENTS AND CHANGES IN THE COURSE OF\nSTUDY AND SCHOOL ORGANIZATION SUGGESTED BY THE\nNEEDS AND THE CAPACITIES OF CHILDREN THAT VARY\nFROM THE STANDARDS SET FOR AVERAGE PUPILS\nD. H. CHRISTENSEN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSALT LAKE\n\nCITY, UTAH\n\nDr. Chadsey has asked me to speak to you on \"original and suggestive\nwork in the Salt Lake City school system along the lines of what might be\ncalled the unusual.\" The rather pretentious topic assigned suggests the\nline of thought that I shall attempt to follow. While our movement is not\noriginal, it may have a few distinctive features. At any rate, it has been\ninaugurated to meet a condition and not to substantiate a theory.\nIn the discussion of this subject I shall for convenience divide it into\nthree distinct sections, each one of which will deal with a department in\nwhich in our schools there is a well-defined, purposeful movement.\nIn the first section I shall consider the preparatory school which includes\nwithin its scope seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, and which may with\npropriety also encompass the tenth. It provides for some elective work,\nbut not for the purpose of specialization.\nThe department has been established in recognition of the right of the\nchild, even the \"unusual\" child, to receive from the school the kind of\ntraining best suited to his needs and capabilities. To secure harmonious\nrelationship, the course of study must be adapted, not the child. Any\nchange that the child undergoes must be growth and not adaptation to\nartificial standards.\nIn the second section the function of the ungraded room in serving the\npurposes of the child that is above or below the average in his class will be\ndiscussed. The department looks quite as much to the interests of the\nbright, precocious child as to the interests of the slow, backward child.\nIt is not, however, intended for the mentally deficient or subnormal child.\nWhen discovered, he is transferred at once to the school for backward or\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nmentally deficient children, which is the third section for consideration.\nThe school for these deficient children is centrally located, and they are\ntransported to it at the expense of the Board of Education. It is used\nexclusively for this type and is, in part at least, a laboratory as well as a\nschool. The head of this institution has been especially trained for his\nwork, and his assistants are teachers selected because of their pronounced\nfitness for this class of work.\nThese three departments, it will be seen, are so varied in their combined\nscope as to provide a place for every child that does not belong to the large\ngroup of children whose interests are well guarded in the regular classroom.\nTHE PREPARATORY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIt is manifest to all students of the school curriculum that the difi&culty\nof meeting the needs of the individual child in class instruction increases\nas he moves upward in the grades. The nature of the prescribed work in\nprimary grades and in the lower part of the grammar department is such\nas to appeal to the interests of practically every child and to meet his\ngeneral requirements. His marked personal tendencies and aptitudes\nbegin, however, to assert themselves as he passes thru fifth and sixth grades,\nwhich in so many respects represent a transition period in his life, and when\nhe enters the seventh grade his natural bent is likely to be easily discerned.\nIn some cases, perhaps the quality of his previous teaching may be a factor\nin predetermining this inclination, but most likely it is an expression of his\nown individuality developed under proper environment — the home and the\nschool, and it may be that heredity has played its part. At any rate this\ncondition arises, and who will say that the disinclination to attend school\nmanifested by so many fifth- and sixth-grade boys, which all educators\nrecognize and which has had voluminous discussion from many leaders in\neducational thought, is not due in part, at least, to the fact that the prescribed work in seventh and eighth grades, which under present conditions\nhas so little regard for individual aptitudes and inclinations, is too restrictive\nin its scope and fails to appeal to them? Germany in her splendidly\norganized system has long since taken cognizance of individual proclivities\nand needs and has provided elective work with certain well-guarded restrictions as early as the third year. We cannot hope to begin so low in the\ngrades, even if it were desirable, but the opportunity for some degree of\nchoice should be given at the beginning of the seventh year. Every year\nit is necessary, in the interests of justice and fairness, to promote to the\nhigh school some pupils with a \"minimum\" mark in some subjects and a\n\"condition\" in others. The minimum subjects are supposed to be those\nfor which the child has a minimum capacity and in which he cannot even\nwith faithful and persistent effort reach the degree of attainment required\nfor promotion. They are always, however, the ones for which he has a\ndislike and the ones in which little interest is aroused. The requirement\nthat makes it compulsory for him to pursue these studies frequently results\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n357\n\nin a permanent aversion to them, whereas a temporary discontinuance of\nthem during a period of development of one or two years would likely bring\nthe child to the place where he not only finds pleasure in pursuing them,\nbut where he can do so at a much smaller expenditure of energy and with\ndecidedly better returns than would formerly have been possible. I would\nnot include in this class those branches the necessity of which as fundamentals all recognize. It is, however, in no way rare to find a bright and\npromising young girl forced to the point of failure and subjected to constant\nhumiliation in her arithmetic, when her reading and language work give\nunmistakable evidence of an unusual intellect. The constant dread and\nthe humiliation caused by her low standard of work in arithmetic not only\nrob her of the charm and delight of her school days, to which she is justly\nentitled, but her efficiency in the subjects in which her aptitudes are pronounced isperceptibly lessened. And then, too, it is not improbable that\nthe constant worry consequent upon the doing of that work for which such\na child has a natural aversion, an aversion which the best teacher cannot\novercome, may have an adverse effect upon the health of the pupil, especially\nthe girl who is just entering the adolescent period of life. Experience shows\nthat many of such pupils during their seventh and eighth years — and here\nI have in mind particularly the girls — can distinguish themselves, and at\nthe same time realize the maximum of pleasure in the effort, in the study\nof languages, particularly modern languages.\nOur experience shows that these yoimger children acquire a vocabulary\nwith surprising quickness and ease, they master idiomatic forms of expression readily, and they get a better foreign accent than do the older children.\nAnd above all else they find a pleasure in this work that more mature students seldom experience. They talk and read within the range of their\nacquisitions from the initial lesson. Grammatical forms are considered\nonly as occasion arises for their use. Every new word or idiom learned has\nan immediate and, so far as possible, a constant application.\nUnfortunately, the teaching of languages has by some been considered\nthe exclusive function of high schools, when, in fact, the very nature of\nmind development makes an earlier period in life the more economical and\neffective time for their acqmsition and mastery. The arithmetic work\noutlined in seventh and eighth grades, if it must come some time, can in\nsome cases be done more effectively and in a shorter time later in school\nlife, when more experience has been acquired and when a more mature\ndevelopment has taken place. Some parts of history, of civil government,\nand of grammar now included in the eighth grade might well be moved to\nthe ninth grade, and some of the science and the English offered in the first\nyear of high school could be at least as effectively taught in seventh and\neighth grades. It is, then, a safe and conservative position to hold that the\ninterests of the individual child require the overlapping of the course now\noutlined for the first year in high school and the work prescribed for the\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "3S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nupper part of the grammar department, and that the resultant must be an\nimprovement in grammar-grade work, and an added efficiency in highschool work because of more efifective instruction in the ninth grade (freshman high-school year) and consequently a better equipment for the second\nyear of high school and the work that follows. A condition that would\nenhance the pleasures of school life and also likely prolong it, is not to be\noverlooked.\nIn reorganizing the remaining part of the high-school course it might be\nadvisable to extend it to three and one-half or make it even as it now is— four\nyears — but even that necessity would not invalidate the argument for the\nreorganization of the work of seventh, eighth, and ninth grades on the lines\nindicated.\nTHE UNGRADED\n\nCLASS\n\nFrom the nature and scope of a course of study it is based almost\nentirely upon the need and the capacity of the average boy and girl, altho\nit must be admitted that the interests of the child above or below have not\nbeen entirely overlooked. But in school organization in the regular classroom an effort is made under conditions not altogether favorable to provide\na condition that will permit the teacher to eliminate, in a measure at least,\nthe exclusively group or class plan of instruction. This tendency finds\nexpression in her conscious effort to adapt her instruction to individual\nneeds in the course of the development of a subject. For the thoughtful,\ncarefully prepared teacher, this task is not difficult when she is dealing with\npupils whose rank and capacity place them within close range of the\naverage child, whose group, by the way, consists of the major portion\nof the class. The difficulty, however, is greatly enhanced when some of\nthe children, by reason of exceptional native ability or development or\nbecause of limited capacity, are much above or below the class standard.\nIt will be noted that a period of development represented by one semester\nor a half-year separates each class from the one above and the one immediately below, and consequently the variations from class standards must be\nfoimd in the intermediate ground or else they would naturally fall into\nanother group. An effort to adapt the teaching to the needs of the few\nadvanced children places the instruction beyond the full grasp of the major\nportion of the class and interest on their part will necessarily lag and the\npossibilities of the recitation must be greatly minimized, while the endeavor\nto move on the plane occupied by those low in the class rank will fail also\nto appeal to the majority and results are again imsatisfactory.\nThe pupils of a class a month or two after the beginning of the semester\nmay then be resolved into three groups, at least two of which are foimd in\nmost rooms :\nI. The middle group including those that are of average rank and also the ones just\nbelow and immediately above the class standard. In this section we usually find from\n60 to 90 p>er cent of the children.\nIn fact, this group may include the whole room.\nFor\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n359\n\nreasons that are evident, it is not unusual for the entire 2B class to belong to this group\nduring the first semester of the year.\n2. Those farther below the class standard than the ones already listed. These children again fall naturally into two groups: (a) the older, more mature children who have\nbeen promoted because they have met the \" time \" requirement in the class below and have\nbeen regular in attendance and faithful in work, but whose capacity for development\nseems limited at present; and {b) the ones who have at least average ability but who are\nbehind because of irregular attendance.\n3. The pupils in advance of any in Group i. It is not likely that Group 3 will have\nin its membership any below the average child of the class in mentality, because it is\nprobable that if such slow child were above the average of his class in development and\nin his acquisitions he would be given the benefit of all reasonable doubt and be moved into\nthe low or the average group of the next class, where he would find an environment better\nsuited to his needs. In Group 3, however, may be found several subdivisions, especially\nin the latter part of the semester: (a) the precocious child who is in the habit of outstripping his classmates; {b) the retained child who has fallen behind because of irregularity or because of lack of effort, but who has resolved now to make a \"special\"; and\n(c) occasionally the once seemingly sluggish child whose powers, for reasons that baffle\nthe teacher and parent alike, begin to imfold at an unusual rate of development.\n\nA room in which all of the pupils at the beginning of the semester\nappeared to belong to Group i, may soon, in spite of a conscious and welldirected effort on the part of the teacher, give evidence of a membership\nin the upper and the lower groups. Sometimes they seem to appear simultaneously, but generally, tho not necessarily always, the lower section shows\nitself first. This priority is due to the fact that the membership of the\nlower group, if it have any, is responsible to already existing, but not\nnecessarily discernible, causes. Membership in the advanced group is\nusually determined by causes arising as the work progresses. A welltaught room is likely to develop an ever-increasing tendency toward the\nupper classification and a decreasing one toward the lower.\nBut the cause of this multiplicity of such classes in the modern graded\nschool is of interest and value only as it aids the effort to meet and solve\nthe problems that naturally arise. And the problem of most vital concern\nis that relating to the environment and instruction best suited to the needs\nof the children materially above or below the class standard. The so-called\nungraded room into which such children are brought for individual instruction and study, for such time as their interests may require, has demonstrated its suitability over the regular classroom. Frequently after a few\nweeks' traiaing some of such children advance until they meet satisfactorily\nthe requirements of the next advanced class, while others move upward\ninto the middle or normal group of their own. As they pass out, new\ncandidates come to take their places, and thus the ungraded room has an\never-changing enrollment. The experiment of the ungraded room in this\ncity has been tried enough to prove its place in our scheme of education,\nthe aim of which is to reach and to serve the interests of the individual\nrather than the mass.\nReports of the work in several classes give some interesting points.\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\nSUMNER\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe ungraded room certainly does not lack variety in the class of pupils which gather\nwithin its walls. These pupils, I think, might be divided into three groups: (o) those\nwho with a little help and guidance can easily do the work of the higher grade; (6) those\nwho are behind their class on account of enforced absence; (c) those who find great diflSculty in keeping up with their class on account of their inability to grasp one of the\nfundamental subjects.\nThe class first mentioned come to the ungraded room as permanent pupils for the\nspace of time required for them to catch up to the higher class. They go to their own\nrooms for music, drawing, and spelling so that their day's work is not top monotonous.\nThe remainder of the time is devoted to the fundamental subjects which they must know\nthoroly in order to do the work of the advanced class. In the higher grades these subjects\nare geography, grammar, and arithmetic; in the intermediate grades language takes the\nplace of grammar, and in the primary grades reading is very imp>ortant.\nIt is a great pleasure to work with these pupils, for they are very appreciative and so\neager to get every point needed. That they are very anxious to show us that we made\nno mistake in choosing them for a special promotion is shown by the number of times they\nlater call on the ungraded teacher with their monthly reports and their marks received\nin tests. The mid-year tests show that our pupils who made special promotions this year\nare very near the head of the lists.\nThe second class usually need but little attention given to them unless they have been\nabsent for a very long time. These are not permanent pupils but come to the imgraded\nroom for one or two periods during the day at such times as they can best afford to miss\nthe work of their own rooms — usually at study periods. Glad of this opportxmity of\nkeeping up with their class, they willingly do at home the preparation work missed in\ntheir rooms. WTien they have mastered the important points needed they are again\nfull-fledged pupils of their class.\nThe last class is really the one that does the hardest work, for these pupils are trying\nto master a subject which probably has been hard for them during their entire school\nlife. The explanation given in class on a subject in arithmetic or grammar which the\nmajority of the class readily grasp, they do not imderstand, and if given no extra attention\ngo on to the next subject with only a hazy idea of the one just passed. In the ungraded\nroom with fewer pupils they have the opportimity of personal attention and are very\nhelpful to the teacher by frankly stating what they do not understand. In some ways\nthis is the most discouraging part of the work, as there are some pupils, notwithstanding\nour best efforts, who will never be equal to the average pupil in all subjects. We have\nhad five children in our school from one family not one of whom could get a good understanding ofarithmetic. In such cases one's only consolation is that they might not do\neven so well without our help as they do with it.\nfn this latter class the imgraded teacher sometimes finds pupils doing unsatisfactory\nwork in a subject on account of some error, the righting of which puts them among the\nbest. A fourth-grade boy could never get a correct result in his multiplication problems\naltho he knew his tables perfectly. Watching him I foimd he added one every time he\nhad a number left over to \"carry\" to the next product, whether the number that.should\nhave been added happened to be six or eight. He was delighted to find where he made\nhis mistake and that removed all his difficulty in multiplication and long division.\nAnother, learning long division, constantly made mistakes in his subtraction, altho he\nnever made a mistake in a problem given as a subtraction problem. When asked about\nit, he said that he always thought one had to subtract in some different way when doing\na problem in long division. These are but examples of the mistaken ideas that children\nget, and the ungraded teacher working with fewer pupils has a much better chance of\nfinding these mistakes than the regiilar teacher with a larger nimaber of pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n361\n\nThese pupils are anxious to get aid and often ask for extra work to take home that\nthey may bring it back in the morning for correction.\nNumber of pupils given special promotion and now doing regular work in advanced\nclass: 4A, i; 5B, 2; 5 A, 2; 66,3; 6A, 2; 76,6; total, 16. Many are leading their class.\nNumber of pupils who, because of special help, were able to be promoted at the close\nof the' first semester: 3B, ij 3A, 9; 4B, 24; 4A, 7; sB, 16; sA, 9; 6B, 11; 6A, 20;\n7B, 9; 7A, 15; total, 121.\nViolet Whitworth, Teacher\nWHITTIER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nI submit the following report of the results obtained in our ungraded room for the\nfirst semester:\nThe total nvunber of pupils taught is 121. The number of pupils receiving help in\nthe various grades and thereby succeeding in making regular promotion to the next grade\nis 60. And the number of pupils receiving special promotion is 39.\nThe object in our building during the first term was to meet the immediate need of\nthe pupils, enabling them to do their regular work more intelligently and thereby to make\ntheir regular promotion more probable. Phonics, reading, spelling, and arithmetic were\nchiefly the subjects taught.\nThe work has reached pupils ranging from the 2A class to the 7B class.\nThe original plan, and the one pursued for the first term, was to give help to pupils\nin the various grades who were weak in one or perhaps two subjects. These pupils reported\nto the ungraded teacher at a time when their regular work would be the least affected by\ntheir absence from their room. The classes usually varied from one to five in number,\nand were made up of nearly all primary pupils. It was soon discovered that large classes\ndefeated the very purpose of the work by reducing the personal contact of the teacher.\nThe second term the plan was materially changed. The morning session was wholly\ngiven over to grammar grades and the pupils remained all the forenoon. The pupils\nwere those over-age and those who with special help were able to make a special promotion. Arithmetic, language, and reading were the subjects mainly taught. Undivided\nattention, application, and perfect deportment became the law accompanying all these\nspecial privileges.\nThe pupils who took the work, especially those who were given the opportunity of\nmaking special promotions, grasped the opportunity with great eagerness and continued\nthruout with the spirit of earnestness. Within a few days a new light of purpose and\nintent could be read on their faces; this was very marked in some cases.\nAs a result, personal endeavor and application, mental alertness, and a new interest\nin school have been awakened. Standards for promotion must be carefully maintained\nby both teacher and principal and inestimable good will result to the individual child\nenjoying these opportunities given by the ungraded room.\nErnest E. H. Scott, Principal\nEMERSON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIn my report to you on our ungraded room, I wish to state that no teacher in our\ncorps is rendering greater service to the system than is our imgraded teacher.\nIn almost every grade, we have pupils who have come to us from other systems and\nwho are perhaps equal in strength to the others of the class, but owing to some differences\nin the work pursued in different systems, these pupils need individual help along certain\nlines in order that they may work well with the class.\nNot infrequently along the line, we have pupils who from various causes are behind\ntheir grade in one subject. The ungraded room furnishes the remedy in these cases.\nAnother case in which the imgraded room has proved of great benefit is that of the\napt pupil who, by means of this assistance, is enabled to shorten his course to the high\nschool.\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nThen comes the timid child, the child of jjeculiar temperament or disposition, and the\nnervous child, all of whom have received help in the ungraded room.\nOwing to our imgraded room, the number of retained pupils in our school has been\nreduced at least 50 per cent.\nMary Dysakt, Principal\nDEPARTMENT\n\nFOR BACKWARD\n\nCHILDREN\n\nThe sphere of the preparatory school and the ungraded room has now\nbeen considered. These departments provide a place for the normal child\nwho shows an appreciable variance from the class standard set. Some of\nthese pupils are above the average child of their grade and some below, but\nall of them are capable, at least so far as we can determine in advance of a\ncareful individual study, of moving eventually into and thru the high\nschool, altho those in the lower stratum will require more than the allotted\ntime. But there is still another group — a small one, to be sure — one in\nwhich the members are deficient mentally, some bordering on idiocy.\nUnfortvmately, but few states have made provision for them. They do\nnot belong in the mental hospital, and justice forbids that they be excluded\nfrom the benefits of the public school, until such time at least as the state\npro\\ades for their care and training. However, these children have no\nplace in the regular classroom. All are a direct hindrance to the progress\nof the other children and a few are a menace to the welfare of the other\npupils. For their own sake and for the sake of their associates they should\nbe segregated from the other children and brought together in an environment especially suited to their own needs. The course of instruction for\nsuch children must be quite narrow in its scope, and it should aim largely\nto give motor and sensory training. Whether the lower types should be\ntaught reading, even if possible, is open to grave doubt.\nA very conservative estimate places the number of feeble-minded persons under 21 in Salt Lake City with a population of less than 100,000 at\nleast as high as 70 and the number is likely nearer 200. In this estimate I\nam including only the marked types of feeble-mindedness. The proportion\nis equally as large in other parts of our country and statistics show that the\npercentage is much greater in some places. Including all children that\nshow three years or more of retardation, which condition is made the basis\nof classification by some clinicians, the nimiber is greatly increased. It is\nestimated that in England and Wales one out of every 250 persons is feebleminded and that the proportion of insane is nearly as great. The percentage in America is in all probability as large. Dr. Fernald says: \"There are\nat least 200,000 pronouncedly feeble-minded persons in the United States.\nOf these, 16,000 are inmates of almshouses, while only 18,000 are cared for\nin special institutions.\"\nOur department for mentally deficient children does not aim permanently to care for the lower types of feeble-minded children. Thru the\ncombined efforts of the expert in charge, the psychologist, and the school\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n363\n\nphysician, we hope to be able to secure sufficient reliable data in each case\nto enable us to classify the children into two general groups — the imbecile\nand the moron. It is not likely that the lowest type — the idiot — will reach\nthe classroom.\nBut the t5q)e of feeble-minded children classed as imbeciles has no permanent place even in the special school. It is evident that most, if not\nall, of these are hopelessly deficient. Their proper place is manifestly in\na state institution established, organized, and conducted for their type only.\nIt is hoped that our special department may help to crystallize public sentiment to such extent that a state legislature in the very near future will\ntake cognizance of this great social need, and permanently exclude the\nimbeciles from the unfortunate privilege now enjoyed of commingling\nindiscriminately with the community at large.\nAccurate and reliable statistical information compiled by eminent\nauthority proves most conclusively that the feeble-minded perpetuate their\nkind in alarmingly increasing numbers and thus add unnecessarily to the\nsocial problems and the criminal records of the future. It is evident to the\ncareful student that heredity is chiefly responsible for the appalling increase\nof the feeble-minded, including the imbecile and the idiot. Unless precautionary measures be taken in the form of segregation and permanent\nexclusion, society will ere long have a greater burden in satisfactorily\nadjusting conditions than can easily or comfortably be borne.\nIn attempting to care for the lower type, the public school cannot meet\nthe needs of society. The state must receive him and care for him kindly\nand tenderly during his natural life. Any attempt to care for the feebleminded inan institution that is organized and maintained as a hospital for\nthe care and treatment of the insane is not likely to meet with unqualified\nsuccess. Sentiment in matters affecting human happiness cannot be\nignored, and frequently it proves callous to cold reason.\nThat segregation and permanent exclusion will prove to be for the\ncommon good will be, I believe, generally admitted. But several cases\nshowing the penalty of neglect are here cited.\nA feeble-minded girl of only thirteen, whose being encompasses the\nunbridled sensuality of the degenerate and the cunning of the savage, has\nalready polluted the morals of at least twenty boys, most of whom might\notherwise have passed thru the adolescent period of their lives without the\nsurrender of their self-respect.\nAnother but several years older has bequeathed to society two illegitimate children, both of whom appear to have combined in their natures the\ntraits that distinguish an idiotic mother and a criminal father.\nTwo parents are known to their charitable neighbors as \"harmlessly\nsilly\" but \"well meaning.\" The father does the commonest kind of menial\nlabor and thus earns a meager livelihood for his family, while the mother\ndischarges apparently acceptably her domestic duties in their modest home.\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nSeveral sons have resulted from this union. In each case nature has\nimposed a woeful restriction on the mental capacity. Years of painful plodding on the part of the child and even more painful effort and patient\ndevotion on the part of the teacher have brought a reward that approximates\nthe attainment of a normal child at the end of the first year. Disciplinary\nproblems with each of these children, whose subverted natures have been\nruled and guided by a type of intelligence that apparently can be responsive\nto that environment only which appeals to the lower instincts of human\nnature, have been both numerous and various. Their possible acquisitions\nmeasured in terms of school work seem to be circimiscribed by a little less\nthan the first two grades.\nAnd then the expense! Reckoned in the least significant form —\ndollars and cents — ^it has exceeded several times that paid for equal advancement of a normal child. A greater cost has come in the lessened eflSciency\nthat results in a room where the subnormal child associates on terms of\nequality with the normal child. His presence cannot but h^ve a depressing\neffect on the youthful aspirations of the other children. His moral standards— ^if he have any appreciable ones — are low and his presence contaminates. And then, after all, what has been gained ? To the individual, it\nmay sadly but truly be measured in negative terms. He may be, and in fact\nis likely to be, a less efl&cient member of society, because the school has\nattempted to do that which, from its very nature and purpose, it Cannot do.\nAnd the school itself in its vain attempt to accomplish an impossible task\nhas sustained a loss that cannot be designated as a negligible quantity.\nThe older of these boys are now approaching manhood, and unless\ntheir imfortimate tendencies fail to assert themselves in what seems to be\nthe natural way, the greatest cost is yet to come.\nWith the commitment, then, of the imbecile and the idiot to a state\ninstitution, the department for backward children has a field rich in promise\nin the training of the moron, or higher type of feeble-minded child. The\nscheme of instruction or \"treatment\" must embody within its scope a\ncareful and thoro individual study of the history of each case by the trained\nexpert with a view to prescribing a line of instruction or treatment (possibly surgical) calculated to remove or at least to lessen the cause of the\ndeficiency. In oiu- experience some cases have been so completely \"cured\"\nas to justify transfers back to the regular classroom and others have had\ntheir capacity for development so greatly improved as to render the services\nof the special school quite effective.\nIn the consideration of environmental causes of some lighter types of\nmental deficiency, comparatively few in number and practically all responsive to the right kind of training, I am constrained to place an indictment\nagainst the school.\nIs mental deficiency of the lesser type a by-product of the American\nschool ? To some degree at least, and in a very serious way, this seems to\nbe true. First, in a negative way, as a kind of sin of omission, the schools\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n365\n\nseem to be responsible, by failing to provide possible and practicable educative means readily at hand for the elimination and lessening of mental\ndeficiency; and secondly, in a- positive way, as a kind of sin of commission,\nthe schools seem to be responsible, first by refusing in an aggressive way to\npermit the child to obtain at will the kind of training which might stimulate\nnormal mental development, and, second, by forcing upon the child a kind\nof training which by its very nature is mentally stunting in its necessary\neffects.\nThe first phase of the problem here suggested has to do with the child\nwho is of recognized normal mental capacity, but who is just enough below\nthe average in mental ability to be habitually unsatisfactory in scholarship\nand occasionally failing to pass in his class or grade — altho at the same\ntime he may show continual progress under regular class instruction, however slow or even sluggish it may be. Many of such children, who possess\nnormal mental capacity but display subnormal mental ability, have been\nbrought up to grade, tor a standard of satisfactory scholarship, by means\nof individual instruction and attention.\nThe second phase of our proposed problem has to do with the child,\nnot of recognized normal mental capacity, but with the child who is apparently subnormal in mental capacity — the child who is not only mentally\ndeficient but who is seemingly mentally defective — the child who is practically at a standstill in school progress, and who is incapable of being\nrestored to normality even by the individual instruction of the ungraded\nclass.\nThis class of children may include some of the lower grades of the merely\nbackward type, but, in the main, is made up of what is now coming to be\ntermed the high-grade feeble-minded, or \"moron\" class of mentally deficient children. They are to be foimd stranded in the lower grades, anywhere\nfrom the first to the fourth grades; occasionally, because of size and age,\nthey are permitted to be in the fifth grade; in rare instances for the same\nreason they are allowed to sit in the sixth grade.\nSuppose that a child of normal mentality were retained in the kindergarten, year after year, from four or five years of age until twelve or fourteen years of age. What would, manifestly, be the result? Associating\nwith little children, being treated as a little child, and consequently thinking, feeling, and acting as a little child during a period of several years, the\npupil at first thought could scarcely be imagined as turning out in any other\nthan one definite way; namely, stunted in general mental development.\nShould not his habits, thru years of repetition, become so crystallized into\npermanent traits of character as to present a case of extremely retarded\ndevelopment ? Would not his reactions be the same as those of a typically\nhigh-grade feeble-minded child ?\nUpon further consideration, we might say that the result in our illustration would vary more or less according to the nature of the environmental\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louia\n\nexperiences of the child outside of his long detention in the kindergarten.\nBut, supposing that these experiences were about the same as those of an\nordinary kindergarten child — splaying with children of kindergarten age,\ndoing the things that kindergarten children do, and treated by adults as\nkindergarten children are treated — then could the outcome possibly be\nother than that indicated ?\nHave we not here an essentially homologous case as compared with\nactual cases of mentally deficient children who are for long periods detained\nin primary grades, with primary children, and under primary treatment,\nuntil they become of grammar-grade age and even of high-school age?\nWere children of normal mentality thus detained in primary grades, would\nnot the necessary result be the same as in oUr illustration, or, if any difference, would it not be only quantitatively different and not qualitatively\ndifferent ? Would they not in their youth be childish, foolish, or children\nnot grown up, as, indeed, the defective child of arrested mental development\nreally is ?\nIs it not possible that many so-called defective children at the beginning\nof school are subnormal only in the fact that they have not the same degree\nof aptitude for scholastic learning as the ordinary child; or in other words,\nthat they have not the native memory retentiveness for the symbols of\nlanguage and nmnber? And, furthermore, is it not possible that most of\nthe other traits of mental defectiveness, such as poor judgment, lack of\ninitiative, weak power of concentration, want of serious purpose, indifference toward the responsibilities of life, extreme credulity, simple and indiscriminate responsive affection, and other such qualities as are habitually\ndisplayed by the childish, the foolish, the feeble-minded — is it not possible\nthat some of such traits are merely the outgrowth of their detention in the\nprimary grades where the normal habits and attitudes of little children\nbecome crystallized into permanent traits of character?\nLet us suppose that a child of normal mentality, beginning school at\nthe ordinary age, were forced thru all the branches of the common-school\ncurriculum in four years instead of the customary eight. What would,\nmanifestly, be the result? Could it be anything else than a chaos of\nscholastic mental confusion, as would be expressed by the most absurd and\npathetic mixtiu^es of half-assimilated memory facts ?\nIs it not possible that some of the mentally defective children in our\nschools are also largely the outgrowth of an ill-adapted course of study thru\nwhich they are taken at a rate and in a manner totally out of harmony with\nthe developing natiu-e of the \" imusual \" child, or the average child ? Let\nus keep in mind that the defective child is from the beginning in a class that\nis in scholastic advance of his own mental development; and thus in the\nregular classroom he continues during his entire school life to be improperly\nclassified.\nThis discussion leads us no farther than to the somewhat reasonable\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n367\n\nconclusion that some grades of mental deficiency may, in part at least, be\nthe products of wrongly adjusted courses of instruction; i.e., courses\nwrongly adjusted for subnormal children.\nBe it observed, however, that this reasonable possibility is not claimed\nfor all cases of mental deficiency in the schools, nor is it claimed, at present,\nfor any particular percentage of the subnormal children. On the contrary,\nit is readily to be admitted that there is unquestionable and abundant\nevidence that certain cases of mental defectiveness in the schools, particularly those bordering on imbecility, are the products of hereditary\ninfluences, or generative conditions, or traumatic injuries, or other causes\nentirely foreign to the school; and that the defectiveness thus caused\ncontinues incurable whether the child attends school or not.\nIn the fall of 1910 the head of the department for backward children in\nthe Salt Lake City schools made a preliminary survey of conditions in the\nschools, spending two months in the work of examining all extreme or\nserious cases of pupils whose retardation had been observed by teachers and\nprincipals. As a result of this investigation, several notable things were\ndiscovered. One observation in particular, which seemed to be a distinct\ncontribution to the problem of mental deficiency, was this rather surprising\ncondition: Mental deficiency in any individual is evidently not integral;\nit is fractional. That is to say, contrary to the generally accepted theory,\nit was found that the mind is not defective as a unit in its sociological\nreactions; and that, on the contrary, the mind might be extremely defective\nin one field of sociological reactions and at the same time entirely normal\nin other large and complex fields of sociological reactions. For example, a\nchild might be arrested in school progress and be extremely defective in\nscholastic ability, but, at the same time, such child might be normal or\neven supernormal in social development, or in vocational ability, or in\nethical habits, or in religious sentiments.\nFrom the observations made, it seems unfair to say that a child is\nmentally deficient, when in fact he is only scholastically deficient, and when\nhe might have normal or even supernormal mentality in other fields of\nsociological adaptation.\nLater in the school year 1910-11, a more intimate acquaintance with\nthe subnormal children, thru personal contact with them, as a teacher of\nspecial classes, revealed a possible explanation as to why there appeared\nto be no uniform relation between development or retardation, scholastically, vocationally, socially, ethically, and religiously; and also revealed a\npossible explanation as to how the school might be the cause of mental\ndeficiency in some cases and in other cases of subnormality have little or\nno injurious influence.\nIn his report to my office the head of this department says:\nIt was observed that the most pronounced cases of mental defectiveness in the schools,\nand those whose deficiency came nearest to aflfectin the mind as a whole in all of its\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\npsychological and sociological reactions were, as a strikingly general rule, those pupils\nwho had been the longest in school, the most regular in attendance, the most industrious\nin their efforts to learn, and the most trustworthy in deportment. And, on the othei\nhand, it was observed that the less pronounced cases of mental deficiency in the schools,\ni.e., those that, while being defective scholastically, came more nearly to being normal\nsocially and vocationally, were those pupils who (i) had been very irregular in school\nattendance, or (2) had practical vocational experiences outside of school, or (3) had been\nincorrigible and mischievous while in school.\nThus it appeared that mental deficiency among subnormal children varied directly\nwith the extent to which they came in contact with the school — mentality being inversely\nproportional to the environmental influence of the school — and the degree or extent to\nwhich the school seemed to retard mental development being measured by the ratio which\nthe influence of the school bore to environmental influences outside of the school.\n\nPersonally, I have been unable yet to confirm these rather startling\nstatements, but they are made by a careful, conservative, and capable\ndepartment head.\nIn conclusion, I may with propriety say that school systems which still\nhold exclusively to the method of \"mass\" instruction, and provide no means\nfor individual attention for the pupil of habitually unsatisfactory scholarship, are culpably responsible for an educational waste, because they fail\nto utilize the practical and inexpensive means readily at hand for the\nelimination, or partial elimination, of this milder type of mental deficiency.\nIn the process of adaptation necessary for eflfective teaching, the course\nof study must adjust itself to the child and not the child to the course of\nstudy.\nE.\n\nA REORGANIZATION\n\nJ. H. FRANCIS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF OUR SCHOOL\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSYSTEM\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nIn the interests of economy I am convinced that the best results may\nbe obtained by a brief and direct description of what we are attempting to\ndo in Los Angeles in the way of reorganizing our school system.\nIt is to be understood that the plan is not to be dubbed the Los Angeles\nPlan. I do not know how many other cities are attempting the same things\nand with what results. Recently someone mailed me a copy of an address\nby Edward Van Dyke Robinson, University of Minnesota, on the reorganization of the graded and high schools. I did not learn who this kindly\ndisposed but unkind friend was. Since reading it I am certain that I shall\npractice plagiarism in this paper and upon future occasions. In fact I\ndiscover that either he or I have been at it in the past, for I might well\ncontent myself with calling your attention to his address which has been\npublished in pamphlet form and which fully covers the points involved in\nthis discussion.\nOUR PLAN\n\nThe plan toward which we are working in our city, broadly speaking,\nfollows:\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA REORGANIZATION\n\nOF OUR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n369\n\n1. One to two years in the kindergarten. Our state law compels the\nadmittance of children to the kindergarten at a tender age, a prophecy of\nthe days when the nursery shall become an integral part of the public-school\nsystem. This ofttimes results in a child's spending more than one year in\nthe kindergarten, and in turn raises serious questions concerning kindergarten methods and content of work.\n2. Six years in the elementary schools, assuming responsibility for the\nphysical, mental, and spiritual development of the child between the ages\nof six and twelve. Because of economic and social conditions and principally because of the wicked folly of educators hiding behind the gray old\nfallacy of conservatism, this age limit too frequently reaches thirteen,\nfourteen, and even fifteen, thereby robbing the individual of the most sacred\nthings in all the worlds that be — his hidden pride and confidence in the\nefl&ciency and power of his own personality. Fortunately the boy, for it\nusually is a boy, finds some sort of deviltry in which to give expression to\nthis personality and thereby retain a portion of it which his good sense\nmay later lead him to turn into legitimate channels.\n3. Three years in the intermediate or junior high school, which, if the\nchild has been fortunate, submissive, and not too individualistic, may be\ncompleted at the age of fifteen, covering nine years of school work.\n4. Five years in the high school, which brings the student to the age\nof twenty, a good average age to begin the business of life despite the philosophy of my friend President Benton who holds we should remain infants\nuntil twenty-one years old.\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nThis general outline of work designed to meet the needs of the largest\nnumber of American boys and girls is supplemented by:\n1. The trade school, admitting pupils according to physical development irrespective of academic attainments.\n2. Continuation schools open before and after school hours, offering\nwork in manual subjects and optional with the pupil. This work we hope\nsoon to enlarge and include in it music, art, mechanical drawing, and public\nspeaking.\n3. Vacation schools during the summer months, open in the forenoons\nand designed to conserve two purposes: (a) to occupy the time of younger\nchildren in music, folk dances, play, gardening, natural language work,\ndrawing, and manual arts. Since this is development work, no effort has\nas yet been made to join it onto the regular system, which, if it ever was\nmeant to be developmental, has degenerated into a scramble to furnish the\nchild with an education by passing him from one grade to another until\nthere are no more grades to conquer; (6) to furnish regular academic work\nfor those who wish to make up previous failures or secure the coveted official\ncertificate in subjects yet to be taken before they can be vouched for as\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\neducated young men and women. Since this work is both uneducational\nand undevelopmental, it adjusts itself excellently to the regular scheme and\nhas great advantages as a time-saver and hope-preser\\'er. Many pupils\nreturn to school in the fall with new courage because they are up w^th their\nclasses and can see the end ahead. These schools also keep pupils off the\nstreets and out of more unprofitable occupations and save the city money\nin carrying them an imwarranted length of time in the school system.\n4. Night schools for all grades and for all classes of people. But few\nphases of our school work have greater significance than this one. Purpose\nupon the part of the individual pupil, so lamentably lacking in the regular\nschool, is a prominent characteristic here. If this nation has one prevalent\ndanger it lies in the number of her school children passing thru school just\nto be passing thru, wholly lacking in intelligent or worthy purpose.\n5. Special schools for the unsocialized individual who refuses to adjust\nhimself to the regulations, formalities, and conventionalities of the schoolroom. These schools are the eddies into which the driftwood of the school\nsystem may gather and be treated until sufficiently seasoned to risk again\nin the educational current. They are necessary and strikingly convenient.\n6. A liberal use of the ungraded room, which is but a tardy recognition\nof the fact that since some children will differ in essential particulars it is\nfolly to subject them all to the same educational treatment and expect\nthem to assimilate all its ingredients with equal facility and profit.\n7. The social center, not yet a year old but a very promising educational\nyoungster.\nSIMILARITY\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nGERMAN\n\nPLAN\n\nSimilarity of this to the German plan is to be frankly conceded, which\nleaves a beautiful opening for the American patriot to orate on the virtues\nof the American and the defects of the German system. The German system, however, shovdd not be adopted for our needs but adapted to them.\nThere must remain one fundamental, vital difference between the present\nGerman and the future American plan. The latter must have no blind\nalleys, and her educational cross-roads joining the main highways must be\nkept in as good condition as the highways themselves. This becomes\npossible with the assumption that the coming generation of American\neducators will cease to be frightened at the imaginary chasms between these\nhighways, and discover that a good traveler who has been moving on his\nown steam upon one will need fear no great hardships or difficulty in traveling\non any other. This also suggests the other significant difference — American\nvocational schools can no more afford to sacrifice the so-called liberal studies\nthan can academic schools afford to eliminate constructive and applied work.\nTHE INTERMEDIATE\n\nOR JUNIOR HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAccording to the topic printed on the program this paper should concern itself principally with that part of the school system covering the work\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA REORGANIZATION\n\nOF OUR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n371\n\nof the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades done in the organization known as\nintermediate or junior high school. At present we have five such schools in\nLos Angeles, enrolling approximately three thousand pupils. We expect\nto increase this number until all the pupils of these grades shall be accommodated in schools of this character. Four of our intermediate schools\nare five months old and one can boast a year's experience. Three uniform\ncourses are offered in each of them: a general course, a commercial course,\nand an elementary industrial course. These courses are planned with\ntwo classes of pupils in mind: (a) those intending to enter the high\nschool and (b) those electing to leave school at the end of the ninth year.\nBoth are given full tenth-year standing in the high school.\nIn attempting to plan work for these we also concern ourselves with the\nindividual independent of what he intends to do or where to go. This,\nof course, is the age-old problem and the fundamentally important one,\nlikewise the one most poorly solved.\nIn the seventh year one option and in the eighth and ninth years two\noptions are allowed out of a group of six or seven studies.\nWHAT\n\nIT WILL ACCOMPLISH\n\nFor the pupil going thru the intermediate school we expect to accomplish the following:\nI. An ability upon his part to do some thinking that may be more or\nless his own, probably less. We concede that this is ambitious and may\nhave to be content with limited results. Slight results, however, will be\nrefreshing and give hope. Doubtless American boys surpass those of all\nother civilized countries in their willingness and ability to do things and in\ntheir unwillingness and incapacity to think logically, consecutively, and\ndeeply. In this latter the American boy is surpassed, if at all, only by the\nAmerican girl, with honors close. The cause is easy to discover. The\nsystem and not the child is at fault. We have been asking the pupil to\nrecite what he has just read from the pages of a textbook that never\nshould have been published and never would have been save for the money\nthere is in it. The lesson begins on page ten and ends on page twelve and\nexcept for these pages it begins nowhere and ends at the same place. The\npupil's passing thru the grade rather than passing the grade thru him has\nbeen emphasized until it has become the main problem. Since this is\naccomplished thru satisfactory recitations, the stereotyped, formal, and\ndeadening recitation in turn has become the important activity of the\naverage schoolroom. Real thinking is of minor consideration. The time,\nenergy, and life wasted in recitations in the American schoolroom would\nserve as the comedy of the ages were it not the tragedy.\nIt might be legitimately asked how the intermediate school can imprpve\nupon the grade schools in inducing pupils to think. The reply must be\nqualified, but a specialist who is supposed to think more deeply on his\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nparticular subject must be conceded to be better prepared to lead his\npupils to do the same.\n2. To accustom the pupil to departmental work and hence to prepare\nhim for high-school methods. The educational death-rate in our ninth\nyear or first year of high school is alarming. This again is easily explained.\nThe pupil who has enjoyed the maternal care of a conscientious teacher\nwho knows his strong and weak points and is equally well known by him\nenters a great high school and becomes lost. There is no one to look after\nhim to tell him when to get his lessons and how to conduct himself. The\nchange is too sudden and too violent. He fails, becomes discouraged, and\ndrops out. Our experiment so far has resulted in i8 per cent of ninth-year\nintermediate pupils failing in one or more subjects as against 42 per cent in\nthe same grade of our high school.\nThe pupil in becoming accustomed to, also enjoys the advantages of,\ndepartmental work. These are incomparably great compared with the\nold plan of one teacher for the entire curriculum. The mother-teacher\nidea belongs to the pre-adolescent child. Adolescent boys and girls are\nentitled to learn from those who are masters of what they teach. This is\nimpossible when one person is required to teach arithmetic, geography,\nhistory, literature, language, science, penmanship, music, art, ethics, hygiene,\nagriculture, needle-work, etc., the et cetera to include those subjects which\nmay have escaped my memory. Specialists and specialization ofifer serious\nproblems in education but they are not hopeless ones, as are those presented bythe unprepared teacher. Teachers are not at fault. They are the\nvictims of a system that demands the impossible of them. Nor can departmental work be brought to its highest efficiency under regular grade-school\nconditions. On account of lack of numbers of equal grade, diversity of\ninterests running thru so many grades, intricacies of programs, and attitude of principals and teachers, departmental work in the grade schools\nmeets with unnecessary difficulties.\n3. The intermediate school conserves the time and interest of the\npupil. Six years is sufficiently long for the mastery of the arts. The last\ntwo years of grade-school work occupies itself natiu-ally with repetition.\nAn attempt has been made to enrich these years by the introduction of new\nmaterial. The result has been an educational hash. The niunber of\nyovmg people lost to the schools, thru lack of interest in their work caused\nby repetition or by work superficially done, is a startling commentary on\nthe wisdom of school men and women. The adolescent youth begins to\ninquire, reason, and judge, and he must have material upon which these\nqualities of mind may feed.\nOf all the inexcusable follies to be chalked against us as teachers,\npossibly that of compelling the child to repeat the work of an entire grade\nbecause of failure in one or more subjects is the most glaring. It is possible\nto avoid this in the grade schools, but inconvenient. This inconvenience\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA REORGANIZATION\n\nOF OUR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n373\n\nis the main cause for the practice, altho it is not conceded to be so. In the\nintermediate school the practice disappears naturally and necessarily.\nI do not hesitate in the belief that under a well-organized system of\nintermediate schools children will finish the ninth grade at least a year\nahead in development, possession of knowledge, and the power to acquire\nit, of the ninth-year pupil imder the present plan.\n4. The intermediate school offers to the pupil an equipment and\norganization not possible under the grade plan, such as science laboratories,\nwell-equipped shops, art and mechanical drawing-rooms, cooking- and\nsewing-rooms, commercial rooms, music halls, gymnasitmis, auditoriums,\netc.\n5. These schools should develop in the individual social- and selfresponsibility at an age when responsibility to society and to self become\nmost important. The theory that the older and stronger pupil of the\nschool should look after the interests of the yoimger and weaker one is\nbeautiful. It has one serious defect: it does not work. The facts are\nthat the farther our school children progress in the system the less they\nseem disposed to assume any responsibilities. We are sending out armies\nof boys and girls, men and women, possessed of the spirit of getting what\nthey can and giving as little as possible in return, the spirit that in social,\npolitical, and economic life is a menace to the nation.\nStudent-government and other student activities should be organized\nin the intermediate school to offer opportunity and encouragement for the\ngiving of self to a legitimate and worthy cause. Our young people must be\ntaught that it is more blessed to give than to receive.\nToo much is being attempted for the child, too little by him. Too\nmany safeguards and restraints, too much protection, advice, and guidance\nwill not result in a race of men and women with the mettle of our fathers\nand mothers. They developed the real stuff within them thru early sharing\nthe responsibilities of life and playing their part in the game. Somewhere below the university and below the high school we must lead the individual to\nrecognize the fact that the world owes him just what he is worth to the world\nand he owes himself just what he is worth to himself. This belongs to the\nperiod of adolescence, but is very difficult to develop effectually in a school\nwhere the pre-adolescent child greatly outniunbers the adolescent. Our\ngrade schools are usually dominated by the atmosphere of the child-world\nor the world of men and women. It is a rare corps of teachers with a rare\nprincipal who succeed in harmoniously blending the two worlds. Much\nof the lack of interest in, and the dissatisfaction with, his school and most\nof the bluff and bluster of the average eighth-grade boy are due to his\nenvironment which is not in harmony with his nature. The average\neighth-grade girl is equally, tho perhaps differently, affected.\n6. The intermediate school offers opportunity to secure men teachers\nfor its pupils. As this convention is composed largely of men I leave it to\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nyou to pass upon the merits of the proposition. It should be noted, however, that the plan does not exclude women teachers, and while teaching\nis not a sex problem it, will be conceded that so long as men and women\ndiffer widely in their experiences the adolescent mind should come in contact with both the masculine and feminine viewpoint. This is necessary\nto insure the mental balance of the individual pupil.\n7, The intermediate school concerns itself with the child not going to\nhigh school. The American high school has grown within the last decade to\nbecome the greatest educational institution in the world, largely because\nit has been compelled to concern itself with the interests of the pupil not\ngoing to college. He was the more important because there were more of\nhim. The intermediate school in the next decade will be doing for the\nboy and girl not going to high school what the high school is now doing\nfor the boy and girl not going to college. It will then surpass the high\nschool in importance because of numbers benefited. The high school\nin its efforts to care for the boy and girl not going to college has increased\nthe number of college students many fold. So will the intermediate school\nincrease the high-school enrollment. The colleges are coming to recognize\nthat the high-school pupil who is prepared well to leave school at the end\nof his course is well prepared to continue work in college; so will the high\nschools discover that the intermediate pupil who has given the most thought\nto, and taken the greatest interest in, his work is best prepared to meet the\nrequirements of the high school.\nThe inquiry will probably be raised here of what can be done for the\nchild in the intermediate school to prepare him for life. The reply is\nanything the system and teacher are prepared to do. The limitations are\nnot in the pupil but in systems and teachers. If the psychologist challenges\nthe statement, I would call his .attention to the growth of education during\nthe last quarter of a century, in which time we have witnessed the high\nschools advancing far beyond what the colleges were then doing and the\ncolleges and universities occup3dng fields then imthought of. Even the\ngrade schools, in music and art, have far surpassed the dreams of the\nuniversity enthusiast a quarter of a century old, if there were any at that\ntime. To say that we have reached the limit of the child's capacity is to\nindulge in academic twaddle. We may be reaching the end of his capacity,\nbut which end?\n8. The intermediate school offers opportimities for the child to find\nhimself. Possibly no greater service can be rendered to him by the public\nschools. Certain it is that too few do find themselves in their school days\nand too many of these do so too late to take advantage of all or much the\nschools have to offer them. The belief that young people are not prepared\nto decide upon a vocation until they have finished college is dangerous and\nwasteful. The young people of this country must know earlier what they\nare to do in life and prepare to do it. Whether they afterward do it or not\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA REORGANIZATION\n\nOF OUR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n375\n\nis of minor importance compared with what they become in preparing to\ndo it.\nA system of education that is worthy of the time, effort, and money\nspent on the America schools should be one of widest possible opportimities\nin which young people may discover their best qualities and powers. It\nshould also induce them to develop and exercise these powers in the service\nof mankind.\nVocational advisers may be helpful and even necessary but vocational\nsubjects properly presented offer a safer guide to young people in making\ntheir choice. These can be given with but limited success in the grade\nschool; the intermediate schools furnish excellent opportunities for their\nintroduction.\nTHE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nVERSUS\n\nTHE\n\nSIX- YEAR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe intermediate has distinct advantages over the six-year high school\nwhich proposes to admit pupils in the seventh year and carry them\nthru the twelfth. In some of the smaller districts where they are erecting\nexpensive high-school buildings to accommodate a small number of highschool pupils it would seem best to organize the system on the six-year\nhigh-school plan. In the larger cities, however, where high schools are\nusually crowded and almost uniformly too large in numbers, the intermediate-school planis better. The transition from grade to departmental\nwork should be gradual. This is one of the important problems of the\nintermediate school, where it can be better worked out than in the large\nhigh school with other problems of its own. High schools have not solved\nthe transition problem between the eighth and ninth years. To make the\nbreak as violent between the sixth and seventh as it now is in the ninth year\nwould be adding to our difficulties.\nSeventh- and eighth-grade pupils are too old to associate in school with\nfirst- and second-year children but too young and inexperienced to work on\nan equal footing with eleventh- and twelfth-year pupils.\nIn most states children are compelled by law to remain in school between\nthe ages of six and fifteen inclusive. A school, therefore, that completes\nits work with the child at the age of fifteen is a logical unit in the publicschool system. Its business will consist in the solution of problems raised\nby pupils of these grades and this it can do better than the large high school\nwhich is more interested in other problems.\nThe item of transportation to high-school centers and the unnecessary\ndangers to which young people would be subjected in traversing our\nlarge cities argues strongly for the organization of intermediate schools\nwithin walking distance of practically all its pupils.\nTo include the ninth year in the intermediate school insures an additional year's schooling to a large percentage of public-school children.\nHaving finished eight years of work, they will remain the additional year\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nto graduate with their classes and complete the courses they have undertaken. If they were admitted to the high school in the seventh grade the\ntemptations to drop out of school earlier would be stronger.\nThe three divisions of the school system are physiologically, psychologically, sociologically, and logically correct. The present organization of\neight years in the grades and four years in the high school violates the\nprinciples of all these sciences.\nTHE\n\nESTTERMEDIATE\n\nAND\n\nEXTENDED\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nThe intermediate school assumes its true significance only when considered inconnection with the extended high school. With but six years\ngiven to the mastery of the arts and the remaining eight years to the development of the individual and his preparation either for jimior college work or\nfor a definite vocation in life, our system of education opens up tremendous\nopportimities and possibilities for the school children of the coimtry and\nwill make returns for the nation out of all proportion to the additional cost\nnecessary to operate it.\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nTHE\n\nDETERMINING\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nTEE VALUE OF THE EDUCATIONAL\nDETERMINING THE EFFICIENCY\nSCHOOL SYSTEM\n\nCALVIN\n\nN.\n\nKENDALL,\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nOF EDUCATION\nTRENTON, N. J.\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nCOMMISSION\nOF A CITY\nFOR NEW\n\nIN\n\nJERSEY,\n\nThe attempt to determine school eflSciency by means of commission\ninvestigation is the most recent method of answering two questions: ,\nWhat return is the community getting from its investment in the schools ?\nHow can the investment be made to yield greater retimis ?\nThe movement to test efficiency in this way has by no means become\nwidespread. So far as I know, the schools of not to exceed half a dozen\nmunicipalities have been examined and reported upon. The investigations have been carried on within the past eighteen months.\nThe data are consequently both insufficient in amount and too recently\ngathered to afford sufficient information upon which to base definite conclusions as to the real or ultimate value of such investigations and reports.\nNevertheless, a consideration of the value of commission reports is worth\nthe attention of this department, even tho the discussion must be largely\nacademic or theoretical, rather than pointing to what has already been\naccomplished. A consideration is worth while because signs are not wanting\nthat such investigations will gradually become more common. What are\nthese signs ?\nFirst, pubUc interest in education is growing, as evidenced by the\nincreased amount of public discussion concerning it. A generation, itself\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCOMMISSION\n\n377\n\neducated in the schools, is bound to ask questions about the schools of the\npresent day. It would indeed be a discouraging comment upon the schools\nof the past if it were not so.\nSecond, there is increased confidence in the possibilities of the schools,\nas Dr. Eliot has pointed out. \"Democracy is looking more and more to\nthe schools to make things go well in this country.\"\nThird, public education is becoming slowly but surely a more serious\nbusiness. Efficiency tests are likely to be demanded at a time when\n\"eflSciency\" seems to be the popular catchword. This is an age, too, of\nincreasing publicity in regard to all public affairs. The educational statistician isabroad. His figures throw light upon certain phases of efficiency,\nand are of use so far as they reveal measurable conditions. In this practical\nage there is sure to be a search for tangible results of educational processes.\nBut is it too much to affirm that there must remain some vagueness and\nimcertainty in ascertaining the results of education ? In the realm of the\nintellectual and spiritual, with which education has so much to do, there\nis a very large residuum, the value of which cannot be measiu*ed by figures\nand tables.\nAs a result of my observation of teachers in action in many schools, I\nam skeptical of finding, by any known test or commission report, a definite\nmeasure of the value of much of the teacher's real work. The factory is\none hvmian institution, the school is another. The value of the output of\none may be determined in the office, but the whole measure of the other\ninstitution, the school, cannot be so measured.\nWith this qualification, the educational commission affords a means,\navailable to every community of considerable size, of reaching conclusions\nregarding the efficiency of its schools; measured, first, by what figures and\ntables may show; second, by the extent the administrative methods, the\norganization, the course of study, the schoolhouses and their equipment,\nare in accord with what has come to be widely accepted as the standard\nfor American schools, so far as there is a standard; third, by observation\nof the teaching, and, speaking somewhat vaguely but nevertheless confidently, the general spirit of the schools.\nI am of the opinion that school superintendents should not look with\ntoo great suspicion upon this movement, or regard it as another means of\nmaking their work more hazardous than it is. Broadly viewed, the educational commission should not be regarded as a club to be wielded in the\nhands of the enemies which every capable superintendent sooner or later\nmakes.\nInvestigation may be of constructive value in two ways. In the first\nplace, it may reveal to the school board and to the public the strong points\nof the schools — features which are locally tmknown or imappreciated. In\nthe second place, it may point out the desirability of certain improvements\nor changes, which the superintendent has perhaps urged in vain upon\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\ncallous boards or an indifferent public. For example of the first, in Baltimore the Commission last spring found much to commend in the well\nworked-out and extensive plan of grouping in special classes or schools\nparticularly able pupils. For example of the second, the Baltimore Commission reinforced the recommendations of the superintendent, that the\nschools needed additional supervisory officers.\nIn East Orange the report pointed out to the community that the\ngrammar-grade children are excellent spellers. It also pointed out that\n\"there should be a more thoro systematization of the work of the Board\nof Education, the superintendent of schools, and the other officers of the\nsystem, such as shall specify the fimctions and responsibilities of each,\"\na matter which the superintendent had before strongly advocated.\nThe report of the commission may be valuable, in the third place, by\npointing out the need of more money for the schools. The Baltimore\nreport showed that of the cities of its class in popiilation, the expense for\nschools was less in Baltimore than in the other cities. The Montclair\nreport stated that it is false economy to save money temporarily by doing\nwithout satisfactory playgroimds. \"Ultimately,\" the report goes on to\nsay, \"the city will find it necessary to provide them at a greater cost;\nand meanwhile the children must go without the really indispensable\neducation playgrounds afford.\" The Boise report showed that the term\nof service of teachers in that city was altogether too short, and this due to\ninadequate salaries.\nI am of the opinion that the investigation and report should not overlook a consideration of the influence of any general political agencies that\nmay be at work in the community to undermine, impair, or overthrow\nsound educational policies for the development of the schools. These\nagencies may be found among members of school boards, or among politicians outside, or even, imfortimately, among a minority of the teachers\nthemselves. The existence of these agencies may be imsuspected by the\ncommimity. If they exist, the commission, from its own independent\nposition, might well give voice to its convictions on the subject.\nThe activities of a system of schools are now so varied, so complex,\nso extensive, that some of these, in the best schools, are imperfectly carried\non. This same imperfection is true of railroads, manufacturing establishments, department stores, scientific farming, and every organized hmnan\nendeavor. It is true of the best of these, and managers are on the lookout for improved methods.\nSo, likewise, it should be with the schools. In fact, an increasing\nnumber of superintendents are studying the problem of increased efficiency.\nThe commission, from its independent study of conditions with an\nunprejudiced point of view, may be able to enlarge the vision, clarify the\nviews, and recast the opinions of superintendents in respect to some of\nthe many-sided activities of his work.\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCOMMISSION\n\n379\n\nIn my judgment, the commission should not neglect to touch upon the\nmost important factors which contribute both to school efficiency and to\nschool inefficiency. The list of these factors is a long one — the dangerous\nconditions of buildings in respect to fire, pointed out in several reports of\ncommissions aheady made; the inadequacy of playgroimd space, also\npointed out in more than one report.\nOther matters to which attention has been called in reports are as\nfollows: imperfect light; slovenly school buildings; absence of constructive, inspiring supervision; failure in the rules to give the superintendent\nadequate power in the appointment of teachers; low salaries in comparison\nwith other cities; far too numerous changes in the teaching corps; the\nretardation of pupils; the overcrowding of rooms, usually in the primary\nrooms, where the children are docile enough to stand it; lack of professional attitude on the part of teachers; the lack of provision for backward\nor subnormal children by means of special classes; measures to promote\nhealth; provision for industrial training; the adaptation of the life of primary schools to child life; the quality of teaching, so far as there may have\nbeen opportunity to observe it; the spirit of the teachers as affected by the\nquality of the supervision; freedom in the interpretation of the course of\nstudy; the interference of board members in the work of teachers, in the\npromotion of teachers, in the general morale of the teaching corps; the\namount of home study; the relations of parents to the schools; the equipment of schools, not overlooking the seating; the abuse of the examination\nsystem; the course of study.\nIt is conceivable that the extent of a comprehensive survey may reveal\nto the board, for the first time, the nature and extent of a modem school\nsystem, and may afford to the public a glimmer of the many-sidedness of\nthe work of a superintendent.\nThe report should commend the achievements of the schools. The\npublic needs education in this direction, as well as in the direction of still\ngreater achievement in the future.\nThe following is taken from the Baltimore report:\nThe net result of our inquiry into the system of education is an opinion favorable to\nthat system. While we find much to criticize adversely, we have taken into account the\nhistorical development of the system and its very moderate cost at the present time. In\nview of these considerations, we are justified in rendering a report which in its main\noutlines is positively favorable. With reference to any school system the important\nthing is not so much the question, What is its present status? as that other question,\nIs it moving in the right direction? It is clear to us that, under the charter of 1898, in\nspite of certain particulars in which changes are still called for, the general movement in\nBaltimore has been unmistakably in the direction of improvement. We have, in fact,\nbeen repeatedly struck with admiration for progress which has been made in the face of\nmore than ordinary difficulties.\n\nWhile the report in certain particulars may reflect upon the judgment\nof the superintendent, or upon some policy of his, yet a strong man need\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "38o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. LouU\n\nnot fear this. The day is past when any educational system is regarded\nas perfection, or any man or set of men as having said the last word in\neducation.\nMuch depends upon the manner in which the commission is appointed,\nor rather at whose instance it is appointed. The superintendent may\nindeed take the initiative in securing the appointment of the commission.\nObviously it is much the wiser course for him to take the initiative than\nto have it taken by hostile influences in the community. The former\ncourse was taken in one of the small cities of the coimtry, where the\nsuperintendent felt that certain conditions might be made better, but\nhe needed the support and testimony of outsiders. He had the confidence\nof the leading commercial organization of the city, as well as that of the\nBoard of Education. The commercial organization was induced to finance\nthe expense, and the board agreed to co-operate. With this unusual combination ofsuperintendent, school board, and commercial club all working\nin harmony, the subsequent report was received with much interest and\nconfidence. The commimity was unusually enterprising. The commercial\nclub was far-sighted enough to realize the value of good schools in making\nthe city more attractive as a place of residence. The result was that all\nthe recommendations made in the report were adopted by the school board,\nand the superintendent, strong from the outset, became stronger still\nbecause he had initiated a plan to bring in outside views or counsel.\nMuch depends, too, upon the character of the man or men on the commission. Obviously the commission should not from the outset be antagonistic toward the superintendent. On the contrary, it should be sympathetic\ntoward the complex work of the superintendent.\nWhat have been the tangible results of commission reports cannot be\naffirmed, because, as stated earlier, there is too little evidence yet available.\nIn Baltimore conditions have been such as to preclude a serious official\nconsideration of the main features of the report. The neglect of the report\nthus far in that city should not be taken as evidence that reports elsewhere\nwould be treated in the same way. In Boise, on the other hand, all the\nrecommendations were acted upon favorably within a brief period after\nthe report was submitted. Conditions in the two cities are very different.\nOne of these is the fact that one city is large and the other small. A large\ncity school system is likely to move more slowly than a small one, even if\nall other conditions are the same.\nHow to turn an expert interpretation over into an unquestioned\nacceptance by public opinion is not an easy matter. Most of us know\nthat reforms in educational practice do not go on by leaps and bounds, but\nby slow degrees. The suggestion is offered that after a report is submitted,\nit would be advisable for the commission to meet, in a series of conferences,\nthe school board, the administrative officers of the system, the principals,\nthe commercial organization, newspaper editors, and other leaders who\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAN\n\nURBAN\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nAND\n\nITS SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n381\n\nhave the power to shape public opinion and to get action. People who are\nsingularly averse to reading reports may be interested in a public discussion conducted by the makers of such reports. The report must be got\nby some means into the public consciousness after its submission. It\nshould not be pigeon-holed.\nEven tho there be no visible results of its activities, the work of the\ncommission nevertheless may be positive and definite. It may be serviceable\nto other and even distant communities. It may confirm the educational\nconvictions and revise the standards of the more thoughtful among the\nteaching body. Such a result alone is worth while. It is too much to\nexpect that such reports will all at once recast public opinion or immediately\nrevolutionize the action of school oflScials, but unless educational conditions\nin a city are unusual, the report of a disinterested, capable commission\nwill be valuable in shaping educational policies.\nB.\nMARTIN\n\nTHE RELATION OF AN URBAN COMMUNITY\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM\nG. BRUMBAUGH,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTO ITS\n\nOF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nPublic education is the state's effort to promote and to provide efiicient\ncitizenship. It best accomplishes this necessary result by training each\nseparate individual in its citizenry to co-operate most freely and fully with\nall other individuals. The state, for the ends of democracy, commits to the\nschool the solemn and sacred service of fitting the child to do his part for\nlife in that great social and civic activity which we usually think of as\ngovernment in its broad sense. The individual can play his part in this\norganized game of life only so far as he is given such knowledge of the game\nas to enable him to play it understandingly and cordially. If to this is\nadded the fact that the individual is by birth a member of the committee\non rules, intrusted with the power to amend the rules of the game from time\nto time, it is manifest that the fate of this thing we call government is conditioned upon a proper preparation of each member of it to do his part in\nsuch manner as to promote the welfare of the entire group.\nThe essence of school training is co-operative and not competitive.\nIt consists in giving to each member of the social group the common elements\nof a universally necessary education. These tools of democracy are the\nstable elements that must always lie at the heart of a school curriculum.\nThe possession of these is essential to the life of democracy. The imparting\nof these is the business of the school.\nSo long as the school is the only social agency broadly at work in a community and the life outlook of its pupils is only to a career of individual\nindustry, one has a rural situation. Education here is a relatively simple\nprocess. But when the school is set in a great urban community in which\nall activities of the individual are trenched upon by a multiform and highly\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\norganized economic situation, education becomes a vastly more complex\nprocess.\nThe school has definite and important obligations to an urban community. These I do not propose to discuss. But what is the relation of a great\npopulous commvmity to this institution set to fit its individuals for wisest\nrelations to society? The function of the school is limited in scope by\nlegislative enactment. In this restricted scope it is further limited by the\nfinancial support the commimity provides. Within the bounds of statutory law and local taxation, the school, as an agency of the state, must carve\nits career and define its fimction.\nThese limitations should always be considered by citizens, who in\ntheir zeal to broaden, and, as they believe, enrich the work of the school,\ninsist upon incorporating into the school's activities certain reforms that\nare either legally or financially impossible.\nThese limits upon the school tend to make it conservative. Private\ninitiative frequently outruns public policy and the school is made to appear\nas hostile to the progressive spirit of many good citizens. This situation is\nalways possible in a great city, with its many divergent educational ideals\nand with its non-homogeneous commimities. It is, however, wiser and\nbetter to be held by some as conservative than to be held by any considerable number in the urban group as extravagant and Visionary. The issues\nof public education are too momentous to allow of radical experimentation.\nWhat then is the outlook ?\nThe school plant, its physical appointments, belongs to the people,\nand should be freely used by the people for all sorts of educational activities\nthat are not yet demonstrably within the range of the school. We are\npassing rapidly from the old and narrow idea that the school building is\nmerely a place to educate children of a certain age in a defined way, to an\nimderstanding of the fact that schoolhouses are the people's forum — to be\nused by them for every wholesome intellectual, social, recreational, and\nmoral purpose that makes for the common good. We are coming rapidly\nto the opinion that the school building should be open day and night for\nevery legitimate use that the community as a whole can vision.\nThis newer concept of the use of the school plant in an urban community opens the way for substantially unlimited experimentation. There\nare many unsettled problems in the educational policy of a social democracy.\nWise and public-spirited citizens, quite apart from the accepted procedure\nof the schools, may find in this newer use of school property a legitimate\nsphere of exploitation. This enterprise may take the form of public discussion or the vastly more promising form of public demonstration of those\nthings which once proven to be educationally good may find permanent\nplace in the scope of the school's legal and financial possibilities. Private\ninitiative is thus given a definite relation to constructive educational\nprocedure. It is saved the imfortunate relation of destructive criticism — a\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAN\n\nURBAN\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nAND\n\nITS SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n, 383\n\nrelation that in general disturbs and does not promote the stable educational\nprocedure of a great city.\nIn the immediate past or in the present private initiative has been most\nhelpful in promoting in an intelligent way, and for the most part in publicschool buildings, the movement to enlarge and to enrich the entire school\nactivity of a city. And all this, be it remembered, may be done with the\nfull sympathy and co-operation of those who by law are charged with the\nadministration of the schools. It enables the citizen with a great thought\nto carry it to a successful demonstration and to see it finally made an\nintegral part of the training given the children of the city. He has some\nincentive to devote time and money to his enterprise when the community\nregards with expectancy the issue of his enterprise. He has relieved the\nschools of an expensive experiment, promoted their effectiveness, and\nachieved a notable good.\nOn the intellectual side, private initiative can promote such important\nagencies as:\nHome and school associations.\nFree lectures.\nStudies of racial groups.\nHigh schools on a modem basis.\nSchools for the mentally defective.\nSchools for the mentally retarded.\nOther special classes.\nSchool gardens.\nVacation schools.\nTrade schools and continuation schools.\nCirculating libraries for pupils and parents.\nIndustrial education in the elementary grades.\nDecoration of school buildings.\n\nOn the physical side it can promote such agencies as:\nMedical inspection.\nSciiool nurses.\nSpecial treatment of defective vision.\nSchool visitors.\nZones of silence.\nOrthopaedic clinics.\nClinical care of children's teeth.\nMothers' alliances for the care of babies.\nTreatment of the deaf and blind.\nOutdoor schools for pupils suffering from incipient tuberculosis.\n\nOn the social side it can promote such agencies as:\nPlaygrounds.\nEquipment of school yards.\nSocial centers.\nEmployment agencies for pupils leaving school.\nRecreation centers.\nPublic baths.\nKindergartens.\nPlay carnivals\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "384 .\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nOn the moral side it can promote such agencies as:\nSavings banks.\nParental schools.\nSpecial classes for unusual girls.\nOrganized moral training.\nSimple housekeeping.\nSuch other forms of volitional education as will result in securing to every child habits\nof right action, as surely as he forms habits of right thought.\n\nThe real friend of the state aims to confirm and extend these stable\ninstitutions of society, the church, the home, and the school. He is ready\nand alert to give time and money to the promotion of all legitimate progress\nin the social order. He is willing and anxious to try out in experimental\nform whatever bears the promise of help to childhood. He is always\nco-operative and constructive, and never cynical and destructive. He\nsends, half in hope, half in fear, the dove across the mist-hung waters,\nglad if on its return it bears the promise of better laws and loftier ideals\nfor the training of citizens for the republic of men and for the Kingdom of\nGod.\nC.\n\nHOW\n\nMAY\n\nA COMMUNITY LEARN\nNEEDS?\n\nITS UNMET\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWILLIAM H. ALLEN,\nDIRECTOR OF BUREAU\nOF MUNICIPAL RESEARCH, AND\nNATIONAL TRAINING SCHOOL FOR PUBLIC SERVICE, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nBy six lines of attack must a community learn its immet school needs:\nBy democratizing the purpose of the schools.\nBy demanding that the public be continuously informed regarding school work.\nBy making it easy for newspapers to report what the schools do and need.\nBy denying that the schools are better than the health department, police department,\ntax assessor, or the politics with which school children must learn to cope. Schools are\nweakened, not helped, by being separated from the main currents of community life and\nby being protected against problems which play upon and educate the child before going\nto school and after its few short years at school.\nBy encouraging school teachers, principals, superintendents, and commissioners to\ntell currently what they want, what they need, and what they dislike, and where they fail.\nThis means adequate comparative statements, first by supervisory ofl&cers for schools\nwithin each community, and then by coimty and state superintendents, by the United\nStates commissioner of education, and by national comparing agencies such as the Russell\nSage Foundation. Having given up the fiction that there is something sacred about\nschool curriculxmi, school policy, or school men, there will at once become available a vast\namount of testimony, interest, and constructive suggestion on the part of those who best\nsee the unmet school needs, namely, the men and women who are meeting the children\nand the problems of curriculxmi, management, and health. This will follow, not precede,\nthe establishment of definite and continuous tests for the efficiency of school trustees and\nof the mayors who appoint them or the publics which elect them.\nBy making individuals sq proud of their schools, and so interested in school problems\nthat they will paraphrase Louis the Great and feel and say: \"L'Ecole c'est moil\"\n\nNo community will be able to see clearly its educational needs not met\nwhich has not the habit oi studying and challenging frankly the educational\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nAND\n\nITS\n\nUNMET\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNEEDS\n\n385\n\nneeds which it thinks it is meeting and the methods of meeting those needs.\nThe first requirement is, therefore, a system of school records and reports\nwhich will begin at the first day of the school year and record important\nfacts regarding pupil, teacher, principal, superintendent, and system. But\nbecause no community lives by or for itself alone, every community will\nbe helped in studying its own needs if it may see the experience of other\ncommunities. To help itself, therefore, every city should adopt the imiform records and reports which are being recommended by the special\ncommittee of the National Education Association.\nFrom its own acute needs, however, and from its own disputes a community may learn more than from comparative tables for the whole coimtry.\nTo local reports we have a right to look for a special listing of doubtful or\ndisputed points and for weak links in the administrative chain. No commimity which has not such special lists easily available cd,n currently ascertain and study its unmet school needs.\nThe adequate current test of efficiency of teacher and curriculiun\nbecomes an adequate warning and serves the purpose of the \"Glencoe\nbumps\" at every street crossing which one Illinois town finds more effective\nthan policeman or fine in preventing fast driving by automobiles.\nOf urgent importance in aU communities is a more definite standard\nthan we have yet developed for the responsibilities of the school trustee.\nThe time will come when we may safely say to those looking for unmet\nschool needs: Ask the school trustee.\nBecause familiarity breeds astigmatism, myopia, despair, or at least\nprocrastination in dealing with immet needs, it is necessary now and then\nto bring in some outside light. One method of tearing away cobwebs is\nto send trustees, superintendents, principals, or teachers to the schools of\nother communities. This method has not been as productive as it ought\nto have been, largely because such visitors have not been expected to report\ntheir findings frankly to their colleagues and to their communities; in New\nYork City, for instance, reports which cost thousands and thousands of\ndollars and which, if used, might have saved millions of dollars, lie in dust\nheaps unfiled, unindexed, unhonored, unused.\nAnother method of getting outside light is to bring in outside investigators. No community needs outside light more than a community which\nhas been studying itself frankly and progressively, which has nothing to\nconceal, and which is eager to find where it can improve its school system.\nSuch a community would do well to apply the following tests to its plan\nfor a school inquiry:\n1. Place the inquiry in the hands of a small local committee, each member of which\nhas the \"fact sense\" and each member of which will be able to keep in constant touch\nwith the inquiry. Obviously the program of this committee should be impersonal, nonpartisan, and non-factional.\n2. Give the committee enough time and enough money to insure a fair test of the\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nrecommendations and constructive steps that should grow out of the publication of its\nfacts.\n3. This local committee should not delegate to outside investigators its responsibility\nfor making the inquiry currently efficient. Pledges should never be made \"to publish\nreports as submitted\" unless reports stand efficiency tests — ^as to content and form.\nPledges should, of course, be made, if needed, that the investigators' report will not be\ndistorted.\n4. No investigators should be hired who do not know how to break educational probems up into their elements.\nIt is far more imp>ortant to have investigators willing and\nable to learn what school men believe and disbelieve, and who know how to get facts \"in\nsupport of beliefs and disbehefs, than it is to have \" experienced educators.\"\n5. The inquiry's plan and method should be explained by the committee to the public\nover and over again. Any part of the investigation which the public cannot be made to\nunderstand is not worth imdertaking. It is doubtful if any benefits from investigation\nare worth while which the public does not understand.\n6. To help inform and interest the public and to keep the public's questions constantly before official and paid investigators, some volunteer citizen committee should\nbe organized and equipped to use this opportimity.\n7. The inquiry should start with problems uppermost in the public mind and should\nproceed from most obvious and most pressing to less pressing and less obvious questions.\nInquiries are often fruitless because inquirers insist upon looking for x and z before they\nseek a and b.\n8. One hundred per cent problems should take precedence over i per cent or 10 per\ncent problems.\n9. Facts, not opinions, should be expected from the inquiry,\n10. The inquiry should be conducted not only with dispatch but with obvious\ndispatch.\n11. The inquiry should be obviously constructive from the first day, i.e., should be\n' ' vocational \" not \" academic. \" Each forward step taken by the schools brings new needs\nand new facts to light.\n12. The inquiry should be democratic, i.e., not by the investigators for themselves\nor for the committee, but by everybody for everybody thru the investigators.\n13. Reports on each subject should be threefold: (o) description, {b) criticism, (c)\nremedy or reason for maintaining present practice.\n14. As rapidly as conclusive facts are obtained, and as rapidly as forward steps are\npossible, report should be made to the schools and to the public.\n15. School officials should be publicly put on record as to facts, criticisms, and constructive suggestions as each subject or field is reported upon by the inquiry.\n16. No more should be reported at one time than the public can imderstand, i.e.,\nnot only should interim reports and reports of progress be made rather than one final\nreport, but these interim reports should be given to the public in \"doses\" which the\nnewspapers will take and the public understand.\n17. No conclusions should be stated and no constructive suggestions made which\ndo not proceed from facts.\n18. Conclusions should be so stated that constructive steps will be taken.\n19. Lists of questions raised by the inquiry, for answering which facts are lacking\nand further inquiry needed, should accompany each report of facts obtained.\n20. The necessary follow-up work by schools and commimity for utilizing the results\nof the inquiry should be outlined as the inquiry progresses and simimarized as the inquiry\nends, as, for example, how current and periodical records and reports need to be modified\nso as to reflect the extent to which follow-up action is taken by the schools.\n21. Money values and money tests should be emphasized and not evaded because\nboth the money cost and the money value of schools are certain to be given ever-increasing\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nQUANTITATIVE\n\nTESTS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n387\n\nweight in all American communities. It is affectation to decry the same efficiency tests\nfor public education which are now demanded for other branches of public business and\nfor all branches of private business. Any school expenditure which is too esoteric to be\ndiscussed in terms of what it costs and what it is worth does not deserve a place in the\npublic-school curriculima.\n\nThe era of school inquiries has hardly begun. Within a generation,\nif not within ten years, every state in the Union and every considerable\ntown will be asking itself the question : \" What are our educational needs ? \"\nThe Training School for Public Service, conducted by the New York Bureau\nof Municipal Research, has already begun the preparation of men for answering these questions for communities, beginning with the field study of\nWisconsin's school system for the state board of public affairs.\nThe National Education Association can do much to expedite and\nfacilitate both the current and the special tests which go by the name of\n\"school inquiry.\" The opportunity of a generation now confronts it in\nthe application of the United States commissioner of education for a hig\nenough program, hig enough staff, and hig enough appropriation. To secure\nfimds for this wider program of comparative study is to take tremendous\nstrides in helping every community in the country answer for itself the\nquestion: \"What are our unmet school needs?\"\n\nGEORGE\n\nD.\n\nQUANTITATIVE\n\nH.\n\nCHATFIELD,\n\nTESTS IN EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY\nOF PERMANENT\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCENSUS\n\nBOARD,\n\nThe efficiency of our school systems is questioned. Not within memory\nhas the attention of school men focused so persistently in this direction.\nInvestigations of the schools of great cities follow in rapid succession.\nMethods of organization, of administration, of teaching are subjected to\nsearching analysis. Findings, critical and constructive, dissenting and\napproving, are presented. Yet the tide of discussion is swelled, not lessened.\nCommerce, industry, politics, philanthropy, and other great fields of\nendeavor are similarly agitated. Before the impact of the oncoming\ngeneration, idols, long worshiped, long cherished, are falling. The old\norder yields slowly; it clings tenaciously to known realities; it rejects the\nclaims of the new propaganda; it denies their universality. And so the\ntide of conflict moves back and forth in the great fields of human endeavor,\ndisclosing in the lull of struggle the ine\\itable processes of change.\nElimination of waste is the fundamental doctrine of the innovators —\nof waste in material, in effort, in energy, in lives, in property, in justice.\nNowhere may the advanced stages of the struggle be seen more concretely\nthan in industry, for no field has a more constant and compelling motive —\nprofit. Here are exhibited new processes, new labor-saving devices, new\nmethods of planning, more detailed instructions, more exacting records.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nAstonishing statistics show results doubled, tripled even many times.\nA decreased cost for the producer is claimed — an increased product for the\nworker. Not that these results remain unchallenged. Where incontestable,\nthey are ascribed to unique and specially favoring circumstances. Aside\nfrom these instances, old methods are asserted to be displacing the new\nwherever the latter have long been tried.\nApart from the matters in dispute, there is in all well-conducted businesses strict accoxmtability for raw material, labor, machine energy, overhead expense, completed product, and residue. Inspection, supervision,\nrecords, at all stages of the process; inventories, balance sheets, detailed\nperiodic reports, mark the intimate connection between facts and income.\nThe absolute dependence of effective administration upon complete and\nwell-ordered information is clearly recognized.\nFor example, in the. Middle West a great corporation manufactures\nstoves on a large scale. The shop history of each stove is kept in detail\nfrom raw material to shipment of finished product. The name of each\nworkman responsibly concerned in the inspection of raw material, in the\nmaking of any part, in examination and shipment of the completed stove,\nis recorded. A complaint from a purchaser immediately locates the\nresponsibility upon the workman at fault. The article upon which this\ncare is lavished retails at $15 and upwards. The annual per-capita cost\nfor elementary-school instruction in New York City, by comparison, is\napproximately $35.\nA Pennsylvania steel company is largely engaged in the manufacture of\nsteel tanks and similar articles. A necessary part of the process of construction ithe\ns\ndetailed estimate of the sales agent, the orders and receipts\nfor material in the shop, including such details as the number of rivets,\nthe time spent by each workman and machine, a distribution of the overhead expense, and all these records in summarized form enable the sales\nagent in a distant city to make future profit a certainty, not an accident.\nThe conductor of a freight train is seemingly far removed from clerical\npursuits, yet no care which he exercises over his trailing caravan is of more\nimportance. He and every yardmaster concerned painstakingly report\nthe number, point of origin, and destination of every car imder their respective charge. The zealousness of operating employees is not the sole reliance\nin bringing a shipment to its destination. The central office expects to\nlocate a car for any given date and to approximate closely the date for\ncompletion of the journey. Thus it meets the regular and emergency\ndemands of traffic. How fortunate in comparison that school system which\ncan approximate the date a pupil first came within its jurisdiction, and trace\nhis progress from class to class, to say nothing of the date of arrival at his\nhoped-for destination.\nFinally consider the New York Central Railroad and the public-school\nsystem of the city of New York — the former run at an operating cost of\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nQUANTITATIVE\n\nTESTS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n389\n\n$74,000,000; the latter, on the educational side, at an expense of nearly\n$26,000,000. For recording and compiling information, the former expends\nproportionately four times as much as the latter, and the same proportion\nholds when the material and educational phases of the school system are\ncontrasted. As a matter of fact, when the efficiency of school systems is\nin question, the material of discussion is largely opinion. A technique of\ninvestigation and measurement is slowly arising, but its development is\nretarded by the absence of a generally accepted and recorded basis of fact.\nThere are many figures, but for the most part they are unanalyzed\nand unrelated, and carry, even to the sophisticated, notions as exact\nand luminous as the volume of the wheat crop or the fluctuation in\nsteel tonnage.\nNo doubt at this point there will be impatient protest that for that living\ncomplexity, the child, such comparison is meaningless. But is it too much\nto say that at least the administrator should be expected to know whether\nall these living units actually come within the scope of his influence, and\nto what extent ? How else may he justify himself on the purely quantitative side when the business man complains of his product; when the social\nworker recalls the juvenile delinquent; when the criminologist points to\nthe youth of the convict;- when the child reaching maturity, imskilled and\nunwanted, points an accusing finger at the school he was so glad and so\nquick to leave ?\nThese are not mere generalities. More than 9,000 children in the New\nYork City public schools could not be located by the attendance officer\nlast year; more than 6,000 were removed from the rolls for physical disability as the law requires; more than 12,000 were arraigned before the children's courts, and in 1910, more than 9,000 were convicted; 40,000 children\nreceived employment certificates; 60,000 children and more passed from\nofficial view and responsibility.\nThe state has virtually a monopoly in the field of elementary education.\nIt excludes private enterprise because of its own immediate concern. The\nfuture citizen, the future producer and taxpayer, are so important to it\nthat it undertakes the business of education for these ends. The statistics\njust quoted — and they are characteristic of the coimtry at large — show that\nit is content to know the great majority have been reached, content to\nignore those of whose existence and identity it is unaware. It further\nchooses to ignore the question whether its training has been efficient,\nwhether it has produced the good citizen, the competent producer and\nrate-payer. It knows that the wheels of industry and trade and. government continue to revolve, but it is unable to define or evaluate its part in\nthe process.\nSuch is the common course of monopoly of all business from which the\nspur of competition has long been removed. While dividends are regularly\ndeclared, while needs do not outpace income, information is of little moment.\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nist. Louis\n\nThe passing of dividends, the need for greater income is the signal for its\nproduction. The public now questions the returns for the great sums it\nso lavishly expends on the schools — it is examining its waste products, the\njuvenile delinquent, the yoimg criminal, the wayward girl, its matured\nyouth, unskilled and ill adapted to employment. It is noting the success\nof the great Teutonic giant which long ago set its house in order.\nHow shall the state measure qu*ititatively its fimdamental problem ?\nHow evaluate its efforts at solution ? It must account for its raw material\nat every stage — its waste products, its marketable commodities. It must\nknow the nature and extent of its ever-shifting market — the opportimities\nopen to the labor and effort of youth and maturity so that training may be\ndefinitely correlated to such opportunities. This is the fimction of the\ncontinually recurrent census — in more concrete form to know who all the\nchildren are, where they are, and the conditions imder which they live —\nwhat they have done in school and after leaving school, until it may be\nfairly inferred that the aims of the state have been realized. If the underlying theory is correct, a child can no more be lost to the appropriate training process in one part of the state than in another and, whether the community be large or small, such may be the result unless the responsibility\nfor continuously recording each individual child be definitely located.\nThe work of the permanent census boards of the state of New York —\nthere are three, one for each first-class city. New York, Buffalo, and Rochester— is founded upon this conception. These boards were created by act\nof the legislature in 1908, the new statute displacing one providing for a\nbiennial census. The earlier law had met with indifference — the new\nstatute faced vigorous opposition. General Bingham sought its repeal,\nthe mayor failed to take any action. It was not until Commissioner\nDraper demanded a yea or nay answer and threatened to withhold the\nschool moneys, that compliance was secm^ed, but indifference still continues.\nThe Census Board is a separate corporate entity, consisting of the\nmayor, the police commissioner, the city superintendent of schools. It has\na separate budget and is not subordinate to the board of education or any\nother city department. The law, in the following definite language, sets\naside the administrative problem of the Board:\n.... said board shall always have on file a complete census of the names and residences of the children between such ages and of the p>ersons in parental relation thereto.\n.... Such census shall include all persons between the ages of four and eighteen years,\nthe day of the month and the year of the birth of each of such persons, their respective\nresidences by street and number, the names of their parents or guardians, such information relating to illiteracy and to the enforcement of the child labor and the compulsory\neducation law as the school authorities of the state and of such cities shall require and also\nsuch further information as such authorities shall require.\n\nThe information just described must be recorded for every child between\nfour and eighteen years of age and provision made for keeping it practically\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nQUANTITATIVE\n\nTESTS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n391\n\ncurrent in point of time. Change is the most marked characteristic. While\nsome children are passing beyond the reach of the law, others are coming\nwithin its scope, and the facts are changed for many of those already\nenrolled. In any absolute sense, there is no solution with the means\navailable. In a practical way, it is possible to meet the requirements.\nThe law requires the initial enumeration and the amendment of the census\nto be made by the police and contemplated the use of the regular police\nmachinery. The opportunities thus afforded for policemen on street duty\nto be off post caused a separate detail of policemen to be made.\nA census blank was first devised to be made out for each child. Compactness and accessibility of information were prerequisites, for they meant\neconomy of time, money, and effort. A periodic census may neglect\nthese factors; for one continuously recurrent, it would have been disastrous.\nDoubling the area or weight of the record card meant doubled filing equipment and floor space, doubled effort in filing and locating records.\nA smaller record, clear and related in form, concentrates the attention\nof clerks, lessens effort, lessens error — augments results. A 4X6 inch card\nwas used. For filling out many items, \"Yes\" or \"No\" was checked.\nAll returns were made in ink by the police; the records were filed without\nrecopying.\nThe initial canvass was made as follows. The public and parochial\nschools filled out census records for each child on register. These records,\narranged alphabetically by street nimiber on the block basis, were assigned\nwith the corresponding territory to the police officers for verification.\nSpecific directions were issued for the interpretation and filling-out of each\nitem. Every family was to be visited, every building and vacant lot to\nbe accounted for. A daily summary of the work of each enumerator was\nrequired and compared with the returns. Periodic statements were prepared grouping the results impersonally, and furnished to the individual\nenumerator, accompanied by his own record. Careless work was retiirned\nfor revision. Buildings and vacant lots reported were compared with\ndetailed street atlases, and discrepancies explained by outdoor inspection.\nFourteen enumerators, indifferent or careless, were remanded to regular\npolice duty. The remainder did excellent work. The initial canvass\noccupied nearly two years — from January, 1910, to December, 1911. As\nthe sixteen months allowed by the statute for preliminary organization had\nbeen frittered away, part of the first year was devoted to planning and\nexperiment. Fifty-six men and a lieutenant were at work from May, 1910,\nto July, 191 1 ; 200 men would have been required to do the work in a few\nmonths. Further delay was caused by the requirement of Commissioner\nDraper that the census be kept amended in every district where the initial\ncanvass had been completed.\nViolations of the compulsory-education and child-labor laws, as reported from day to day, were transcribed and forwarded for the action of\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "39i\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfSt.touls\n\nattendance oflScers. These numbered nearly 27,000. Children physically or\nmentally defective, and not already known to the authorities, were reported\nto the number of 3,600 — of these, more than 1,100 were mentally defective.\nOne thousand eight hundred neglected and destitute children received\nsimilar attention. Criticism has been made as to the validity of the violations of the compulsory-education and child-labor laws reported, but they\nwere imdoubtedly correct when discovered and referred. Much time\nelapsed before action was taken by attendance officers; in the meantime, the\nlaw had been complied with as directed by the police enimierators.\nIt has been said that a current census is impossible. The contrary has\nbeen demonstrated in the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx. Here\nthe census was kept up to date for the better part of a year. A complete\nre-enumeration is not made. During the initial canvass, abstracts were\nprepared for each block, showing for each building, the name of each\nfamily and the number of children. (These are shortly to be superseded\nby new forms giving in addition the given name and date of birth of each\nchild.) Individual census records for children at work or specially reported\nare also included. Of changes in register reported from the schools, some\n600,000 are received annually — those involving discharge or change of\nresidence are similarly classified by residence for the enumerators. To the\nforegoing, are added the names of immigrant children arriving in New York\nCity for residence, by way of Ellis Island. Armed with these details, the\nenimierator verifies the facts already recorded and makes new entries only\nfor changes. Visiting frequently the sections where moving is common, less\nfrequently the sections where tenants are more permanent, a highly accurate\namendment of the census is possible. Reporting of changes by houseowners and lessees has been advocated but is not yet approved by public\nsentiment.\nThe location by name from the files of so-called \"lost\" or individual\nchildren is not yet possible, an alphabetical file being necessary for this\npurpose. Its preparation is a year's work for ten clerks, including, as it\nwill, more than a million and a quarter names. The appropriation for this\nwork was refused this year.\nAn enimierator must cover a definite territory. From an alphabetical\nfile, an assignment of work for such a definite territory is not feasible.\nStatistics also are generally wanted for small areas, usually by blocks..\nTo meet these conditions, the original census records are filed by street\nnumbers and blocks. Until lately, but few requests have been made for\nthe location of lost children. The demand for statistics, the necessity for\namendment work, have been constant and not to be ignored.\nMachine tabulation has been largely employed, but is completely\nsatisfactory only for congested areas. Small numbers are more readily\ncared for by hand. A punch card, 7! inches by 35 inches is divided into\nvertical fields or columns — each column permitting a possibility of twelve\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nQUANTITATIVE\n\nTESTS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n393\n\nprinted numbers — o to 12. Each column or field — two or more columns\nmay be combined — corresponds in position to a field of census facts, the\nnumbers in the colimin to variations in the facts, as shown* by a code. The\noperator punches a card for a census record. The pxmch cards for a block\nare electrically sorted in ntmiber groups for each field and counted electrically. The punch cards are filed by blocks and amended, as their corresponding census records are amended. By amending the tabulating\ncards up to a given date, a correct tabulation as of that date can be had —\nthe work of amending the census not being in the meantime disturbed.\nThe financial and educational authorities of the city of New York\nfind no problem more difficult than the provision and location of adequate\nschool accommodations. However vast the siuns granted for this purpose,\nthe increase and shifting of masses of the population have been greater.\nCensus statistics now afford a reliable foundation of fact. The number\nof sittings, actual and available, for each school building is a matter of\nrecord. The niunber of school children, actual and potential, distributed\nby age and kind of school attended, is known for each block. Properly\nrelated on maps, it becomes a simple matter of arithmetic to fill up a school\nto its capacity, from the immediate neighborhood. As the process advances\nthe areas lacking school accommodations are inevitably disclosed. With\ndue allowance for natural and artificial barriers, the size and location of a\nbuilding to serve the unprovided area may be readily determined. Automatically, the requests of the educational authorities are supported or\nopposed, the areas neglected or ignored are disclosed.\nIn 191 1 the report of the Census Board to the financial authorities\ncovered requests aggregating nearly $10,000,000, recommended an additional building in a congested section, and disapproved of seven others\nrequested^ — a reduction of more than $2,000,000. As time passes, comparative figures by years for blocks and areas will show rates of growth or decline.\nThis will be supplied for buildings as well as population. The general\npopulation figures for 1900, 1905, and 1910 have been similarly related.\nFacts are also available for the study of the conditions affecting highschool attendance, and the consequent development of a system of high\nschools. These factors are type of school, age, and nationality of pupils,\ndistance from school or transportation, length of residence, and occupation\nof parents. When connected with adult population figures, these statistics\nhave a similar value for the location of evening schools, recreation centers,\nplaygrounds, lecture centers, etc.\nThe consolidation of schools and classes will ultimately be based on\ncensus statistics, showing the nimiber of children attending different schools\nby age, grade, and residence, thus accurately relating means to end. Similar\ninformation will be available and required for the annual school budgets.\nTraining for vocation and vocational guidance are topics concerning\nwhich much is said today — less is known.\nThe schools are urged to take\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nup this work extensively. The information already gathered by the Census\nBoard shows that opportunity for minors in the skilled trades does not\nexist in large amount. If the extension of vocational work in the schools\nis not to be more than wasted, exact knowledge is wanted concerning conditions and opportunities of work for yoimg people today. Such information requires contact with the individual worker — the worker on the census\nlists — as well as with industry itself.\nThe city of Munich this year placed 2,150 out of 2,200 elementaryschool graduates in specific callings. How did it do this ? Not by guesswork. Each such calling had been carefully studied as to opportunities\nand requirements, each boy carefully studied to an extent that Americans\nare likely to call ridiculous, and a careful adjustment made. In New York\nthe Census Board has statistics of workers from fourteen to eighteen years\nof age. The detailed study of specific occupations is part of its declared\nfutiu-e pohcy.\nEarlier in this paper, the existence of census boards was justified because\nof the immediate concern of the state for the future citizen and rate-payer.\nEnough has been said to indicate the way in which the problem has been\napproached. The census board under this, or other more significant\nname, will undoubtedly become a bureau for children's welfare, in the sense\nof providing information. At present a struggle has begvm for enabling\nlegislation in a definite direction. This may best be described by the following quotation from a report to Commissioner Draper in answer to a query\nas to the value of the census bureau as a basis for the proper and complete\nenforcement of the child-labor and comptdsory-education laws:\nAt present the two statutes are enforced through four different agencies; the census\nboard, the board of education, the board of health, and the state department of labor —\ndealing respectively with the registration of children, the issuance of working certificates,\nthe enforcement of school attendance, and illegal employment. Each phase, save that of\nregistration, is a minor fimction of a great department of the state or city government —\na method of distribution of powers and duties that can be defended only on the ground\nof exceptional efficiency, since inherently it makes for friction, obstruction, and delay.\nThis office, as a mere reporting bureau, is unable to demonstrate the validity of its cases\nand, indeed, must present them to agencies supposed to cover the field from a different\npoint of view.\nSooner or later these functions must be centralized and because of the broad basis\nof fact upon which the census work is organized, the conclusion seems logical that the\nduties earUer described should be joined to its present duty of registration. The work in\nPhiladelphia has but lately been reorganized on such lines, and has been most successfully carried on in this way in London for a number of years.\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nFUNCTION\nLUCY\n\nWHEELOCK,\n\nIN\n\nTEE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nOF THE KINDERGARTEN\nSCHOOL SYSTEM\nWHEELOCK\nKINDERGARTEN\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN THE\nTRAINING\n\n395\n\nPUBLICSCHOOL,\n\nThe story of life begins in a garden. It was a pleasant garden, so full\nof delight that today its name Eden means paradise. But it was not a\nplace of idle delight. There was much to do in that garden. The world\nwas young and the occupants of the garden were new to it. They must\ntake possession of it and learn how to use it. Their education began in\nobserving all the plants and trees of the garden, all the birds of the air, and\nthe beasts of the field, and in naming them. And there was education by\nwork, for the garden must be tended and cared for.\nSo life began in happy work, and obedience to the Lord of the garden.\nBut an overweening desire for knowledge destroyed Eden, and its dwellers\nwere driven forth to toil where no pleasure is, and to discover the misery of\nbroken law.\nThis story of Eden is the continual parable of human life. The world\nbegins again for each new life and all things are to be seen and named and\nused. A natural education begins in the activity of the senses, in the acquisition oflanguage, and in learning the need of obedience to law. More than\nhalf a century ago a man, Friedrich Froebel, with the wisdom of the philosopher and the soul of a child, had a vision of what education could do for\nhuman beings with such favorable natural beginnings. He gave form to\nhis vision in a scheme of education to which in a moment of happy inspiration he gave the name \"Child Garden,\" thus indicating its scope and purpose. It exalts development and training above knowledge. Its function\nin a school system is to make the right beginnings of the educational process.\nIt is a part of a whole, necessary to the excellence and completeness of the\nwhole. As a system it has its own distinctive characteristics, and special\ninstrumentalities and methods, which must be preserved in order to demonstrate the principles on which it is foimded, and to realize its aim.\nAll kindergartners would agree on three fundamental Froebellian\nprinciples. These are the importance of each stage of growth, the development\" of self -activity, and the belief that we are all members one of another.\nTo exemplify these in practice thru carefully selected means and the organization ofthe play activities is the special function of the kindergarten.\nA consideration of the first principle shows at once that the kindergarten isnot static, but dynamic — that educational means and methods\nmust conform to the stage of development reached and must be progressive.\nIt demands that the selection of educational means must keep pace with the\ngrowing needs of children, that they be suited to varying local conditions,\nmodified by temperament, racial traits, and the degree of culture of any\ngiven group.\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nA recognition of the importance of each stage of development constitutes also the strong claim of the kindergarten as part of public education.\nWe will let Froebel himself speak:\nVigorous and complete unfolding and improvement of each succeeding stage of life\ndepends on the vigorous, complete, and original development of. each preceding stage.\nThe boy is not a boy, or the youth a youth, simply because he has attained the age of boy\nand youth, but by virtue of having lived thru, first, childhood, then boyhood, faithful to\nthe claims of his soul and mind and body.\n\nNeglect of any stage of a growing thing means defect. Neglect of an\nearly stage means serious loss, because wrong tendencies and habits are\nestablished.\nTo the school society relegates the task of equipping its future members\nwith capacity for service and abUity and desire to work for the good of the\nwhole. The state insists upon a certain period of school training, that it\nmay preserve its own integrity. This period is abbreviated more and more\nby the pressure of industrialism. If it be true that in America nearly 50\nper cent of school children leave school before the sixth grade, and that the\naverage period of school attendance is only five years, then every year\nconserved for education at the beginning is of the utmost economic value.\nIt would also seem economically desirable to give the best tuition and\nguidance at the beginning, when the kind of world each child is to see and\nto make is largely determined. From the relative cost of education in\ndifferent sections one would judge that this fact has not been fully recognized. In the 1910 report of the superintendent of public instruction in\nCalifornia, made with no reference to an argument for the kindergarten,\nthe following figures are given:\nCost per year for each pupil enrolled in public kindergartens\nCost per year for each pupil enrolled in elementary schools\nCost per year for each pupil enrolled in high schools\nDoes not include buildings.\nCost per year per prisoner in penitentiary\nThis cost in addition to earnings of prison.\n\n$ 22.80\n31-98\n74 ■ 85\n255 . 85\n\nThe recent report of the Boston School Committee gives the following\nfigures:\nCost per pupil in elementary schools\nCost per pupil in Latin and high schools\n\n$31 .98.\n76 . 63\n\nCost per pupil in Boys' Latin Schools\nCost per pupil in Girls' Latin Schools\n\n94-31\n69 . 69\n\nThe cost for elementary schools includes salaries of the supervisors of\nkindergartens and of domestic science and salaries of twenty-two truaiit\nofficers, aggregating over $30,000 yearly.\nIn favored Brookline, with small classes, the city expends $55.20 for\neach kindergarten pupil, and $91 . 02 for a high-school pupil.\nFrom the West, Miss Vandewalker reports that in Milwaukee the\ncost per pupil in the grades is $29, in the high schools $58. In Chicago it is\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n397\n\n$33 in the grades, $57 in the high schools, and $89 in the Technical High\nSchool. In Detroit the cost in the lower grades is $31, in the grammar\ngrades $41, and in the high school, $67. These figures were taken a year\nor two ago, but the proportion probably remains about the same.\nHas this economy in equipment and teaching force in the lower grades\nanything to do with the necessity of employing truant officers at considerable outlay of school funds ? Would the boy crawl like a snail unwillingly\nto school or go under escort of a truant officer, if he found there a place\nwhich satisfied all his desires to know, and all nis wish to express, and his\nwill to do ? The teacher who can thus minister to the needs of childhood\nis beyond all price; but she also demands a price.\nA recent article in the Journal of Education shows the value of the\nkindergarten to the school system in minimizing the niunber of retarded\nchildren. About one-half of all retarded children are retarded in the first\ntwo years of school life.\nThe retarded pupils cost the taxpayers upward of $25,000,000 a year. They cause\nfour-fifths of the nervous strain of the teachers. They rob the rest of the pupils of much\nof the teachers' attention that belongs to them. To save the $25,000,000 waste, the\nteachers' nervous strain, the time and effort that belongs to all the children, would be a\nvast achievement. The kindergarten can do all of this and more if the primary grades\nwill accept their share of responsibility for the adjustment. If the primary school accepts\nits responsibility, a kindergarten promoted class may keep itself very near a unit for the\nentire eight grades. The kindergarten may save the taxpayers many times the cost, may\npostpone the teachers' retirement several years, and impart to the work with the other\nchildren an inexpressible impulse.\n\nIn Boston the raising of the school age to five or five and a half years\nmeans a longer period in the kindergarten and has already shown a reduction in the number of retarded pupils.\nSo far the school system provides better for the small number who\nfinish their education in the upper grades than for the many in the kindergarten and the lower grades, who never get to the top.\nThere are about 5,000 kindergartens in the United States which enroll approximately\n250,000 children. But this is an insignificant niunber, less than the number enrolled in\nlittle Belgiiun or in Austria-Himgary, and less than half the nmnber enrolled in the infant\nschools of either England or France, altho the population of both of these countries combined does not equal that of the United States. [Nina Vandewalker, in The Kindergarten\nthe Basis for Public Education.]\n\nThe development of the fundamental before the accessory muscles\ngives a natural term to large, free-play movements, before the hand is ready\nto grasp the pen as a tool of language. The gradual awakening of the powers\nof careful observation and discrimination, dependent on developing brain\ncenters, points to the wisdom of preparing for the recognition of the signs\nof language by preliminary exercises in form, color, size, and measurement.\nAn alphabet of things should precede the alphabet of the primer. The\nprogress thru the school grades and the development of later capacity will\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfSt. Louis\n\nbe the final test of the \"wonder-working\" Montessori system, which initiates\nchildren into the arts of writing and reading at the age of four.\nAristotle, Quintilian, and other wise men of the past argued that the\nbest teacher should be given to the youngest children, on the groimd that\nthe formation of right tendencies, aptitudes, and character was of the\nhighest importance to the state. For the moderns, Professor John Dewey\nhas said:\nThe American people believe in education above all else, and when the educators\nhave come to some agreement as to what education is, the commiuiity will not be slow in\nplacing at their disposal the equipment and resources necessary to make their ideal a\nreality.\n\nWhen kindergartners, superintendents, and other educators decide\nthat the kindergarten furnishes the best basis for the public-school system,\nand agree as to the type of kindergarten desired, it will be established as\nfirmly as the primary school and not subject to the vicissitudes of opinion\nof short-sighted taxpayers.\nThe advocates of the theory that the young child is a \"little animal,\"\nand should be left free to carry out his animal impulses in some convenient\nback yard, forget the scarcity of back yards in a congested city district.\nThey also ignore the world-wide proof of the claim that those who guide the\nfirst seven years of a child's life may make of him what they wdll. They\nfail to see that a civilization which desires to \"let the ape and tiger die\"\nmust view the child as father to the man. The state may later have to pay\n$255 a year to protect itself from the neglected child, who may be initiated\nin his formative period into the standards and ideals of the social group at\na tenth of that cost. As a thinking animal a child's mind demands some\nattention, as well as his body.\nIf it be conceded that the beginnings of education are important, what\nis the best beginning ? Has the kindergarten demonstrated its reason for\nbeing? Has it made good? Judgment of any system based on random\nobservation of individuals is unreliable, whether made by a university professor or in the columns of a popular journal. No careful and extended\nexamination has yet been made of a group of kindergarten children kept as\na unit thru the grades, and compared with other groups not starting in the\nkindergarten. Until such findings have been made public there are no\ndata for accurately determining the more rapid transit of kindergarten\nchildren thru the grades.\nWith prejudice it is useless to reason, as it did not come into the world through reason.\n\nWe must judge the kindergarten as we do any other part of the school\nsystem, by examining its aims and methods to see if they are true to the\ngeneral purpose of school-training. We must then insist that its practice\nconform to its declared educational aims. No one can claim that the\nkindergarten has fully realized its aims any more than the high school has\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n399\n\nreached its ideal of scholarship, or our democratic country the ideal of\ndemocracy.\n\"A man's reach exceeds his grasp,\" and the kindergarten has still its\nheaven to reach. Its aim is growth, not knowledge or intellectual advancement— ^growth in wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man.\nIts method is determined by the two great principles already stated: selfactivity and interrelationship. As to the first, there seems to be rather\nuniversal testimony from primary teachers as to its effectiveness. The\nobjection to kindergarten children most often heard from first-grade teachers\nis that they are \"too lively.\" In a process designed to promote elQiciency,\ninitiative, and power, that is not a serious objection. The opposite of\nlively is deadly, and no grade would accept that term as descriptive of its\nprocedure. Where the best co-ordination has been made between the\nkindergarten and the primary grades, the best results of kindergarten\ntraining are observable.\nFor the thirty years of its existence in this country, the kindergarten\nhas held to special educational materials designed to aid and abet the child's\nself-activity. These materials are used to develop the powers of observation, comparison, investigation, experiment, and invention. They are\norganized into a series, that there may be progressive guidance and consecutive exercises. They offer means of sense training, but this is not their\nfinal purpose. Neither is motor training or manual training the chief end.\nTheir goal is complete activity, leading to efficiency, which is the power to\ndo, to produce.\nSays Froebel:\nWe must begin in infancy to discipline and train the hands and fingers. We must\nteach the child to use aright the different members of his body, so that when he becomes\ncapable of productive activity the objects he produces may have real worth.\n\nThe \"complete activity\" demanded by Froebel, \"in which are blended\nbody and soul, mind and heart,\" calls for application, interested attention,\n,and the artist's joy in making. It would dispense with truant officers.\nLack of fiber and disinclination for real work discovered among the students\nin some universities are not to be traced to the oft-times sporadic and brief\nperiod of kindergarten training, but to social conditions. Master Reginald,\nin his luxiurious home, surrounded by dumb waiters and speaking waiters,\nwith buttons to press for the supply of all his whims, whose very toys are\nwound up to spare him the trouble of starting them, will no doubt carry\nmarks of enervation with him thru all the school period, which the best\nkindergarten cannot eradicate in three or six months, or even a year.\nThis aim of productive activity distinguishes the kindergarten at once\nfrom the Italian system now so much before the public. In a recent article\nin the New York Times illustrating this system we read:\n•\nAlthough the games are played and the lessons taught with mechanical toys and\nblocks, bits of wood, and pieces of cardboard, and silk and leather cords, the children do\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nnot follow out any ideas of manual training in \"making things.\" They do not make anything. They simply play with the apparatus the games that teach the day's lessons.\n\nThe theory of education thru play is common to the two systems, but the\nuse of play-materials to provide a quick and easy approach to the arts of\nwriting, reading, and arithmetic is not a part of the kindergarten scheme.\nIts materials are developing, not \"didactic.\" It makes sense training and\nmotor training a part of its educational plan, but not the whole. Nor does\nit limit its production to handwork. To build a city is well, to make a City\nBeautiful is better.\nThe song of the singer, the rhyme of the poet, the tower which is \" frozen\nmusic,\" the vision of the artist, who sees an angel in the marble, the words\nof the preacher — these are the city's best wealth. The possession of these\nthings makes any city a Rome to which all the world builds roads. Because\nwe believe this, the kindergarten introduces those elements of culture which\ndevelop power of appreciation and love of the beautiful. It gives various\nmeans of expression, that the child may learn to speak a varied language and\nso come to choose his own. The walk to read the great story-book of\nNature, the excursion to see how the world works, gardening to teach the\nlessons of growth and nurture — these are the means the kindergarten uses\nto open the eyes of children to the world in which they live.\nThe song, the rhyme, the dramatic play, and the story appeal to feeling\nand influence the imagination — that faculty which rules the world. The\nscientific pedagogy of Dr. Montessori places emphasis on practical life,\nand disclaims any appeal to the imagination. But it is most impractical\nto ignore the faculty which has built cities and adorned them, boimd\ncontinents together, and given to man the bread of Ufe. It is necessary to\nacquire language and a good vocabulary, to secure good pronunciation and\nenunciation, but there is a speech uttered from the heart out of which are\nthe issues of life. The child is a poet, and song and rhyme are a part of his\nnatural utterance.\nFinally we must consider the function of the kindergarten as a place\nfor social training. It would be difficult in a public-school system to\npromote any theory of education which did not recognize the value of group\nand co-operative work. The ideal citizen is the neighbor. Who is my\nneighbor ? is a question the school is to answer, if it meets the demands of\nthe society which supports it. School is not preparation for society. It is\nsociety. Here as in the greater world the law of membership holds: \"We\nare all members one of another.\" The preliminary to working together is\nplaying together, and at all stages we must live together.\nThe breaker of the law, from the man who overspeeds his automobile to the man\nwho defrauds investors and stockholders, from the dnmkard to the professional thief, is a\nman who has no sense of responsibility to his fellow-men. He doesn't feel his membership\nin society. A child who has been to kindergarten has learned to play fair; to think of\nhimself as only one among many; to acknowledge the rights of others; to work together\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAND\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\nLAWS\n\n401\n\nand not against. These things become part of him, are instilled into his blood, woven\ninto his nerves. His prejudices and impulses are all toward good citizenship. [Quoted\nfrom Professor Holmes, Does Kindergarten Pay ?]\n\nFree play gives scope for the development of individuality. It originates. Itdiscovers. It explores. It gives freedom and power.\nOrganized and guided play gives collective power. It enforces the virtues of the group — loyalty, a sense of law and order, obedience and selfsubordination, and co-operation. It is a drama in which each must act\nwell his part. Organization and direction of the play impulses, control, and\nobedience to the law of the whole are absolutely essential in any group of\nchildren where educational and social motives are considered. Our\nAmerican republic is founded on the belief that \"United we stand, divided\nwe fall.\" Men are willing to bleed and die for this belief. To fail to\ndemonstrate it in school training would be a fatal defect.\nBecause of its adherence to basic principles of education and life the\nkindergarten claims its place in a public-school system. By its industrial\ntraining it makes the beginnings for practical life, by its cultural training\nfor a good life, and by its character training for a righteous life. In the\npast its task has been to leaven the school with its spirit, to demonstrate\nthe educational value of play, resulting in the municipal playground, to\nshow the importance of the story and dramatic game in education, and the\nsignificance of group work in relation to community life. Its task today\nis to improve itself by better practice of its own ideals, and to prove its\nclaim to be the basis of the public-school education.\nIts mission is to keep and tend a Child Garden wherein grow the seeds\nof the tree of life, whose fruits shall bless the school, whose leaves are for\nthe healing of the nations.\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nTHE DUTY\nOWEN\n\nRELATING\n\nTO CHILD\n\nWELFARE\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENTS IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF CHILD-LABOR LAWS\n\nR. LOVE JOY,\n\nGENERAL\nCOMMITTEE,\n\nSECRETARY, NATIONAL\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\nOur critics are urging that the National Child-Labor Committee add\nwhat they call \"constructive\" features to our campaign. Many say in\neffect:\nWhat good do you accomplish if you only shut the child out of the factory, mine,\nsweatshop, and street trade and leave him in idleness ? Is not your work all negative ?\nDo you not overlook the entire positive side of the problem ? Is it not more important\nthat the child should get a good education than merely that he should be taken out of\nthe mill ?\n\nIf this criticism were fair it would be a severe indictment of a philanthropic enterprise that has made powerful appeal to the public. There\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\ncan be no justification of a policy which efiEects a half-cure and leaves the\nvictim to limp out of the hospital to fight a battle against misfortime.\nThe record of better child-labor laws secured in thirty states last year and\nin many states in our preceding six years of work means little if it stops\nthere. But we refuse to plead guilty to the indictment. The effort to\ntake little children out of industry and to prevent older ones from excessive\nor dangerous exposure is not an isolated enterprise, but it is a specialized\nenterprise. We recognize the existence of other agencies better equipped,\nmore highly endowed to safeguard the interests that may be left exposed\nby our work. This is an age of specialization and our specialty is the\nrelease of little children from imfavorable industrial conditions. If we\nattempted more we should doubtless fail in even this.\nWhile we acknowledge intense interests in the educational problems\nof our day and always co-operate in efforts to secure better educational\nlaws, and while we realize that certain defects in school methods and\nequipment seriously confuse the whole problem of child-labor reform, we\nmust at the same time decline any responsibility beyond that of other\nintelligent citizens. That side of the problem belongs to education. If\nchildren are thrown into vicious idleness as the result of laws which end\ntheir servitude in workshops and mines, the responsibility is not ours — it\nlies at the door of the schoolhouse. The American public-school system\nis said to cost our people not. less than $400,000,000 per year, while various\nchild-labor committees expend, I suppose, less than $100,000 per year.\nBut there are people influential enough to defeat our child-labor bills before\nstate legislatures because we will not guarantee to put and keep every child\nin school whose labor is interrupted by the proposed law.\nOur work is of mutual interest and our efforts must interrelate, and\nrecognizing the service school superintendents can render in the enforcement of child-labor laws I venture a few specific suggestions.\n1. Public school not a misfit. — I need not dwell on the importance of\nemphasizing the dignity of the American pubHc school as it is. Not even\nthe church is subjecting itself to so merciless a grilling. Its most emphatic\ncritics are school men. And while we should like to go on record as indorsing\nall efforts to strip the school of outworn or meaningless incumbrances,\nthere is something to be. said for the school system on its present basis and\nwe are in danger of driving children away by our frank confession that it\nis so bound by tradition and custom and a top-heavy curriculum that it\nis foreign to our present needs. Even as it is, let us make it clear to the\npublic that the school is neither a misfit nor a failure. I mention this\nbecause of my second suggestion.\n2. Push compulsory attendance. — The school superintendent can help\nenforce child-labor laws by pushing compulsory education laws into every\nsection of the country. This is taken for granted in most parts of the\ncountry, but there are still sections in which, because of ignorance, pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAND\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\nLAWS\n\n403\n\njudice, or tradition, the people are unwilling to accept this only foundation\non which a public-school system can rest. It is not difficult to annoimce\nour belief in compulsory education at a convention like this, but what I am\nurging is that the man, whose duty calls him to the South and to places\nnot south where people are hostile to compulsory education, shall have the\ncourage of his conviction and insist that the children of those sections are\nentitled to the same educational benefits that accrue almost automatically\nto children of New York, Massachusetts, or Ohio. A powerful association\nlike this can and should back to the limit one in such a position.\nA glance at the census report of illiteracy in the various states outclasses\nall argument that can be advanced for compulsory school attendance,\nbut from the standpoint of the working child the service of such laws is\ndemonstrated by the fact that most children begin work within a few weeks\nof the birthday set by law as the minimum age. If the law releases the\nchild from school and to work at fourteen he goes to work at fourteen, if\nat twelve he goes to work at twelve, while in the few states in which employment of children under sixteen is being made inconvenient they are tending\nto stay in school to sixteen.\n3. The public school is public. — I further suggest that it is the school\nsuperintendent's duty to get all the children in school. For this he must\nhave a correct school census which can be best checked up for accuracy\nby frequent reports from teachers. These can keep him in touch with the\ndelinquent members of their classes, and with the family life of the community. They can get from young scholars valuable information about\nolder brothers and sisters — their ages and occupations. Obviously a\nschool census must also cover every parochial and private school, and no\nargument has to my knowledge ever been advanced against placing in the\nhands of public-school superintendents such a complete compendium of\ninformation about all the children in the community that he wUl be in\npossession of a full census.\nThe school superintendent is not clothed with discretionary power.\nWhen 10, 15, or 25 per cent of the children of a city are not in school,\nwhen their existence even is unknown, and when they are left to their own\ndesires as to their future, someone has been false to a public trust. The\npublic school is public: the taxpayer contributes to its support as a matter\nof business. We beheve popular education contributes to a man's life;\nhis family is more secure; his property enhanced; the market for his\nproducts stimulated according as the people of the country are intelligent.\nTherefore the citizen has a stake in the education of every child — not of\nalmost every child, but of every child — and he has a right to demand that\nhis contribution to the public fund in the form of taxes is equitably distributed.\nI need not pause to discuss the practice of truant officers. The employment of one man to chase truants scattered over a himdred miles of streets,\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nor the employment of a truant officer whose only recommendation is that\nfifty years ago he bravely carried a musket, or one whose only service\nto his city has been as the tool of some political party: these and other\nexamples have made the truant officer in many locaUties a sorry joke.\nBut without discussing this and tmning to more satisfactory examples,\nwe are aware that the typical truant officer considers his duty done if he\nroimds up the children who have fallen out of school for a few days and\ngets a fair percentage of them back. The exceptionally good truant\nofficer feels his duty done if he gets every enrolled child in school. But\nwhere is the truant officer who regards himself responsible to the state to\nsee that no child in the commimity is missed; to look up the family that\nmoved to town last week; to report to their destination those children\nwho move away ? The duty is not easy to perform and we are too prone\nto overlook the demand child labor makes, not only on those children who\nare under age, but on all those with insufficient schooling. Whatever\ncriticisms have been made of the truant officer rest in their final analysis\nupon the superintendent. His regulation of this department of the work\nmay be difficult and may involve him in embarrassing compUcations, but\nthere can be no question that the matter is vital and should be made with\nhim a determining issue, if necessary.\n4. The school a social agency. — The school superintendent will help\nenforce child-labor laws by recognizing that the school is the servant of\nall the children all the time. The interest of many teachers appears to be\nconfined to children actually in school, or if to all the children who ought\nto be in school, is frequently confined to those only during school hours.\nIn other words, it is a professional interest. This is said not in criticism,\nbut in explanation, and the superintendent is in the best possible position\nto combat this professionalism among the teachers. The man fulfills his\nprofessional duty when he sees that children are properly cared for between\nthe hours of nine and foiu\", but the problems of education are so intertwined\nwith the family problems of food and clothing, of employment, of recreation\nand rest, of ventilation and sunlight, that we cannot separate them. Many\nof us see in the public school the promise of a social supervision of the\nhome care of children which shall eventually mean for every child an\nopportunity to develop. The school superintendent and his staff can best\nof all public officials recognize the existence, problems, temptations, and\npossibilities of children of school age before nine o'clock in the morning\nand after four o'clock in the evening. Discussions of delinquent and backward children are superfluous imless accompanied by facts gathered by an\ninvestigation as in every science. These facts can best be seciu\"ed by\nschool workers studying the living problems of their owti communities.\n5. Why children are let out of school. — Superintendents can directly\naid in the enforcement of child-labor laws by arousing in their principals\nand teachers a conviction that it is improfessional to misrepresent the age\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendeace]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAND\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\nLAWS\n\n405\n\nand ability of children in order to get them out of school. In many cities\nit is the official duty of the school principal to furnish the information on\nwhich children are released from school and inducted into industry. Even\nwhere laws are specific they are sometimes disregarded. Affidavits are\nissued by subordinate clerks entirely ignorant of the law. Sometimes\nwith a dispatch which can only be explained on the ground that the principal believes that the child will be better off out of school than in, these\nhelpless children with no guide at home or elsewhere are thrust by thousands\nout of the schoolhouse and into our child-employing industries. Whatever\nour legal standard may be, we should insist on its observance and should\ncompel definite steps to guarantee that no improper child shall be released\nfrom school, and at the same time every facility shall be given to the proper\nchild to make the transfer he desires. To perform this service the superintendent must see to it that every teacher on his staff knows the child-labor\nlaws of the state in which the city is located. This can be done by means\nof teachers' meetings, by placing copies of the laws in the hands of each\nteacher, and by putting the school in direct touch with the Department of\nFactory Inspection, the board of health, the juvenile court, and child-labor\ncommittees.\nThe superintendent should resist the desire of teachers to rid their\nclasses of backward, unruly, or disagreeable children. We recognize that\nthere are children who fit all these descriptions and that one of the sore\nafHictions of the school teacher is the endurance of such. Nevertheless\nthese are a part of our citizenship; these are the very children on whom\nspecial attention should be bestowed rather than allowing them to drift\nout of school to lose henceforth any inspiration or guidance this institution\ncan afford. When the child begins to lose interest in school, partly because\nof his own changing mental and physical condition which ordinarily occurs\nat about the fifth or sixth grade; partly because his parents are nagging\nhim to earn his own living; partly because of the example of other misdirected children, he becomes an offense to the ambitious teacher who is\neager that the whole class shall make a fair showing and that her faithful\nseed-sowing shall bring forth abundant fruit. At this point the effort to\narouse a public sentiment in favor of child-labor laws is imperative. The\nschool superintendent is the best possible person to do this, and many are\ndoing it by encouraging teachers to a personal acquaintance with pupils\nand their home environment; by developing parents' associations; and\nby attempting to secure an exchange of experiences between teachers and\nparents' associations thru such agencies as the Public Education Association, giving special attention to exceptional children. If there were no\nsolution offered by educational institutions themselves, I should hesitate\nto appeal to this point for exceptional children, but special classes for\nchildren defective in sight, hearing, or mental equipment have been so\nwell established in a number of states that the idea of special training is\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nno longer an experiment. The superintendent must be the schoolmaster\nof the board of education and the whole community regarding that percentage of his school children who slip thru the fingers of the authorities\nand become lost for lack of a substantial increase in school equipment in\norder to meet their special needs.\n6. Practical education. — The superintendent can help enforce childlabor laws by giving the child who wants employment something to do.\nWe must articulate the school with life instead of making it fit only the\nfew who want to go to college. The demand today is widespread that we\ndevelop in our highly organized city-school systems a principle which\nwas fully developed, altho in very crude form, in the old log schoolhouse\nfamiliar to some of us thirty years ago. It was possible there to combine\nindustrial training — training which existed not for its own sake but for\nthe sake of getting things done on the farm — with what little scholastic\ntraining the school had to ofifer. It was unclassified and bungling, but it\ntaught hmidreds of boys and girls the dignity, honor, and necessity of\nhard work and it made them appreciate during the school hours that they\nwere not and could not be isolated from the actual problems of life. We\nshall hold the children in school; we shall win the support and loyalty of\nparents; and we shall eventually win the wholesome respect and right\nco-operation of those elements in the community that want to use these\nchildren, according as we emphasize the practical phases of education and\nlink every course to living problems. It is for the educational effect on\nthe children quite as much as for the purpose of securing obedience to\nchild-labor laws that we urge this educational revolution. At the present\ntime the three defenders of child labor are the employer, the parent, and\nthe child. Progress against such a combination is slow and discouraging.\nA school curriculiun fitted to the needs of our industrial civilization will\nrapidly win the allegiance of at least two of these allies, and with the parents\neager to keep their children in school to the very last moment and with the\nchildren quite as eager to remain, the advocates of child-labor reform could\nafford to ignore the desires of that small percentage of employers who\nfatten on the product of the children's toil.\nMuch has been said recently in criticism of the eight-year course and\nthe six-year law. It has been pointed out that the child who obeys the\ncompulsory school law in many states leaves school before completing\nthe primary course and it has been proposed to redivide our course of study\ntaking two years from the elementary coiu\"se and adding two years to the\nhigh school. It is, of course, imfortimate that the line of cleavage in\nschool comes at the line of cleavage in the pupil. It is doubtful, however,\nwhether the change suggested would accomplish the purpose desired, or\nwhether on the other hand it might result only in the child breaking away,\nin many instances, two years earlier than now, having completed his\nprimary-school course.\nShall we not aid more in holding children in\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAND\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\nLAWS\n\n407\n\nschool if we develop some plan of filling the last two years of the elementaryschool course with practical applications of the instruction which has been\nmostly theory in the first six years ? We might thus try to get the child\nstarted in his new line of educational development; might arouse his\ninterest in the laboratory methods involved, and, having given him two\nyears of this before he finishes the elementary grades, awaken in him an\nintensity of interest in the four years of opportunity to follow. We shall\nthus help to bridge the chasm into which so many children now fall.\n7. The teacher must know industry. — It will be impossible, however, to\ndevelop wise industrial training in our public schools unless superintendents\nand teachers become familiar with local industries. The development of\nvocational guidance is one of the most interesting adventures of the new\neducation: it is worthy the highest commendation and encouragement.\nBut I believe I voice the opinion of the leaders of this movement in Boston,\nNew York, Cincinnati, and other cities when I say that there is in this and\nin the attempt to develop industrial education a point of caution we must\nnot overlook. Many assume that if the children of our schools can have\nthis new education instead of the old; if we can train them in school to\nmake things of wood and iron and brass and cloth and dough, instead of\nas in the old days teaching them only Latin, Greek, and calculus, we shall\nbe able at once to turn out into American industry an army of skilled and\nhighly intelligent operatives who will lift oiu* industries from their present\nunsatisfactory plane and will give employers of labor good and faithful\nservants.\nWe have watched with intense interest the development of half-time\nschooling for high-school and college students, combining education thru\nbooks with technical training; but we need to recognize that when we\ntreat of the elementary-school child, there is another factor. There are\nindustrial opportunities offered for the sixteen- or eighteen-year-old boy\nin many of our communities. He should be encouraged to seize opportunities and advance upon them. The same is not true of the twelveor fourteen-year-old child, and when it is assumed that if a thousand\nchildren of this age are properly trained in school they can at once find the\nthousand jobs awaiting them in their city, the fact is overlooked that an\nexamination of those jobs will reveal that at least seven hundred of them\nare \\mfit for a child under any conditions. This is true anywhere outside\nof agriculture. Economic pressure because of family poverty, and the\npressure of industries which want to employ children are, in my judgment,\nthe two chief factors in drawing children away from school today. If the\nteacher knew the nature of the job that awaits the child on leaving school,\nhe could often dissuade it from entering that industry. Complain of the\npoor training our children get in school if you will, but American industry\nneeds training more than do American children. The job that awaits the\nchild is farther from the ideal than is the child. If our effortg to train our\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nchildren industrially and to direct their minds toward vocation simply\nserve to make a larger number of them appear to fill the jobs that yawn\nfor them at twelve or fourteen years of age, we shall have committed a sin\nagainst our civilization, and against the laws of human economics for which\nit will be hard to atone. But if I rightly imderstand the motives of those\nvocational guidance leaders who are fashioning new educational movements\ntoday, I agree with them that our chief interest in vocational guidance\nand industrial training is because of our belief that this work will help\nto revolutionize the school course. By bringing industrial considerations\ninto our school course; by making children intelligent as to the history,\nsignificance, and opportimity of various occupations; by teaching the\ndignity of honest labor and the economic sin of making bad goods out of\ngood material and the twin economic sin of paying wages that will not\nsustain life in reward for labor, we shall enrich and enlarge the school\ncurriculum, making it so attractive that children will voluntarily remain in\nschool one or two years longer than at present, and we shall save just that\nmuch of childhood to a richer, fuller maturity.\nThe simi of all this is that our work is one. While school authorities\nand child-labor committees may seem to be working in different fields and\nasking aid and favors of each other, our efforts interact in the same field.\nOn the one hand, our efforts to secure child-labor laws and their enforcement, which sometimes appear arbitrary, are in fact only a part of the\neffort to lift from children the pressure which now crushes them out of\nschool. And when we ask school superintendents to aid in enforcement of\nchild-labor laws we are only seeking to offer them a tool with which to do\ntheir work more conveniently and to make the school serve more of the\nchildren.\nB.\n\nHOW\n\nFAR SHALL THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM\nTHE FEEBLE-MINDED?\n\nJAMES H. VAN\n\nSICKLE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCARE FOR\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe opinion is gaining groimd that the care of the positively feebleminded, like that of the insane, is a state function and not one for local\ncommimities. Few states have yet made adequate provision for the care\nof the feeble-minded, consequently for the present most cities and towns\nmust do what they can independently till the state is ready to carry the\nfull burden. The public is slow to realize the extent and gravity of the\nproblem. One of the most competent authorities places the number of\nfeeble-minded in any commimity at three to every one thousand of the\ngeneral population. These are individuals who cannot sustain themselves\nin competitive industry. They remain children all their lives — children\nin intellect and will, tho adults in stature and in instincts.\nBoys of this class, if left to themselves, are likely to drift into criminality.\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nFEEBLE-MINDED\n\n409\n\nBeing too inefficient to secure steady employment, a life of criminality proves\nthe path of least resistance for them and they soon come upon the state for\nsupport in our penal institutions. We know that large numbers of the inmates of our jails and prisons are mentally defective. At the expiration\nof their terms they are again thrown out upon the community no better\nable than before to sustain themselves honestly, and with even less will to\ndo so. Out of prison as well as in prison they are a public charge.\nThe feeble-minded girl, if unprotected, is a still greater menace to the\ncommunity. While there are feeble-minded children born into good families, such cases are sporadic. They amount to less than 20 per cent of the\nwhole number. Eighty per cent of the feeble-minded are so by inheritance.\nTo prevent the marriage of feeble-minded girls, and to shield them from\ntemptations to which they are notoriously easy prey, is obviously the duty\nof society as a plain matter of self-defense.\nWhat can the schools do ? The public school is one of our social institutions and as such it may justly be expected in work with the feebleminded to do whatever its publicly provided facilities permit it to do without neglecting its other functions. Some of the things it can do in this\ndirection are as necessary for the protection of the normal children as they\nare advantageous to the feeeble-minded themselves. Each t5^e needs\ninstructions different from the other. The school can gather the feebleminded into groups for special treatment and care, and it must do so much\nin the interest of normal children whose progress the subnormal impede\nif retained in regular classes. Furthermore, since the obscene and indecent\nacts which teachers sometimes have to correct are almost invariably committed by mentally defective children; on this account also the school\norganization should see to it that normal boys and girls are protected as\nfar as may be from association with those whose sense of decency is lacking.\nWhile feeble-minded boys are within the usual compulsory-attendance\nage, they are not a menace to school or society if taught in separate classes.\nIt is when they are fourteen or sixteen years of age or over that they become\na menace. The feeble-minded girl may become a menace several years\nearlier. The public school cannot, therefore, with safety retain feebleminded children very long without a radical addition to present means for\ntheir care in the form of residential homes or colonies with farm, garden,\nshop, and productive industry such as are now provided only by the state.\nThere must be separate homes for boys and girls to which they would be\nlegally committed for life. This would not, of course, be necessary where\nthe feeble-minded boy or girl has a good home and reliable parental protection. Itwould, however, be necessary in a very large majority of the\ncases.\nIt has been suggested, if parents are unwilling to have their children\ntransferred to such a colony after they have exhausted the resources of the\nspecial public-school classes and have left school, that the feeble-minded\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nmay be guarded by teachers or probation ofl&cers who keep watch of them\nat their homes, and, upon any indication that they are going wrong or\nbecoming in any way a menace to society, take immediate steps to have\nthe state interfere and take such children to the colony home. Should\nsociety adopt this plan of self-protection, the school might properly be\ncalled upon to aid, since the teachers of the special classes are the only ones\nwho know intimately the characteristics of the children in question. At\nany rate, it is manifestly important to have all subnormal children, except\nidiots, attend school diuiig their earlier years, if only for the pmpose of\nbeing studied. Some thus studied prove to be only backward or slow in\ndeveloping and may safely be returned to the regular classes after time and\nspecial help have co-operated toward improvement. Specialists expert in\nthis work find it impossible to determine, except after long observation\nextending in many instances over several years, whether a child is feebleminded or merely backward, hence the special class in the public school\nserves its most useful purpose as a clinic in which suspected cases are slowly\nand carefully diagnosed. The mental condition of a child should, however,\nbe determined as early as possible, certainly within the first two years of\nhis attendance at school, lest habits of inattention too bad to be corrected\nbe formed, and lest he become chronic in never accomplishing anything.\nThese children are in special need of the inspiration of success. This they\nget in the special class where the tasks set are within the grasp of their\nfeeble powers.\nThe teacher of the special class should be equipped, not only with technical knowledge of mental defects, but with ability and willingness to enter\ninto sympathetic and friendly relations with parents of feeble-minded\nchildren, gradually and gently acquainting them with the child's real condition and with the advantages which the state colony offers, and finally\nsecuring their consent to a transfer to the institutions. The most delicate\nand individual work is required here, and the teacher who undertakes this\nservice must be an exceptional person. One such in any single city, except\nperhaps in a dozen of the largest, would probably be suflScient, since other\nteachers with less scientific preparation could serve in auxiliary centers\nunder the guidance of the single expert. Teachers of regular classes should\ncall the attention of the specialist to suspected cases. These the specialist\nshould observe in their rooms and advise for or against a transfer to the\nspecial class.\nThe school physicians and other physicians of the community, and\nsocial agencies of various sorts, should be drawn into co-operation so that\neach child may be put into as good physical condition as possible — his teeth\nmended, his defective eyesight aided by glasses if necessary, his body nourished by food and protected by clothing, either at public exp>ense or by\nphilanthropic endeavor. Hygiene, exercise, and manual industry should\nbe the prominent features of the schooling of these children. The ordinary\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n4II\n\ncurriculum should be in evidence only incidentally. The public school\nwill render its greatest service in fitting these positively feeble-minded\nchildren, as far as may be, for self-support under close supervision in some\nof the simplest industries that can be carried on in colony homes, and in\nsifting the human material that it handles so that the various elements will\nreach their proper goal, this goal being life in society for the curable cases,\nlife under protected conditions for the inciu'able.\nAnother service which the public school can perform is that of acquainting the public with the gravity of the situation and the need of greatly\nincreased facilities for dealing with the growing menace of the feeble-minded.\nTo this end it is important that permanent records be kept which will\nafiford cmnulative evidence of a convincing character. Such records have\nbeen kept in Springfield. During the past six years thirteen pupils have\ngone from the class to the state institution at Waverly, sixteen have regained\ntheir places in the school grades, three have entered parochial schools,\neleven have moved away, and eighteen are regularly employed. Twentynine have had physical defects remedied.\nIn the words of Dr. Fernald, of Waverly, Mass., from whom I quote:\nThe one great deduction from the sixty years' experience in the education of the\nfeeble-minded is that under the best conditions only a very small proportion even of the\nhigher-grade cases become desirable members of the community. They need protection\nand care and the family and conamunity should be protected from their certain tendency\no drift into pauperism, prostitution, and crime.\nIt should be remembered that under the most favorable conditions hitherto, a very\nlarge proportion of feeble-minded persons, even of the higher grades, eventually become\npublic charges in one way or another. No one familiar with the physical and mental\nlimitations -of this class can believe that any plan of education will ever materially modify\nthis fact. Any relief as to public support to be obtained from public-school training can\nbe only temporary. Feeble-minded children may be tolerated in the community, but it\nis a great responsibility to inaugurate any plan on a large scale which does not withdraw\nfrom the community the defective adults. The feeble-minded are powerless to resist the\nphysical terhptations of adult life and should be protected from their own weakness.\n\nC.\n\nTHE\n\nCARROLL\n\nCITY\n\nTRADE SCHOOL— AN IMPORTANT INSTRUMENTALITY FOR IMPROVING THE VOCATIONAL\nNEED OF THE CITY CHILD\n\nG. PEARSE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\nAs young people grow up they betake themselves to various avocations.\nSome enter commercial pursuits; they become bookkeepers or cashiers or\nstenographers or salesmen, or in some such manner have to do with buying\nand selling or the records thereof. Some enter the professions and become\ndoctors or lawyers or engineers or preachers. Some become farmers or\nstock raisers, and coax the soil to give up its wealth. Some are laborers\nwho do the unskilled work of the world for the unskilled workman's wage.\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nSome find their way thru the more or less difficult channels which lead into\nthe skilled trades and become craftsmen, or craftswomen.\nThe state has long recognized its duty to provide vocational training of\ncertain sorts. Engineers ana doctors and lawyers, as well as farmers and\ndairymen, have long been taught for their work at state expense; of late\nyears the need of commercial training has been fully recognized and vocational training of this kind is now given in a multitude of high schools.\nBut not all young persons wish to enter the professions, or to work in\ncommercial lines. A considerable number wish to learn trades and become\ncraftsmen. A considerable number, also, of the contingent who now drift\ninto some form of unskilled labor, have the ability to become skilled\nmechanics if a suitable opportunity were given and their attention turned\nto the matter. There is a demand for some adequate means whereby these\nyoung people can learn trades.\nBut this is true not merely from the side of the young people; the manufacturing and building employers want more good mechanics than they\ncan get. The supply and quality of skilled craftsmen is not being kept up.\nAnd this need felt by employers is supplementary to the need of the yoimg\npeople who must have the proper training to fit them to fill the responsible\nplaces into which the employers of skilled labor would be glad to put them.\nIt is reasonably clear that some means, either old or new, is required to\nsupply this demand for industrio- vocational training.\nThe old methods of training skilled mechanics have broken down; they\nare not, today, producing either the nmnber or the quaHty needed. This\nsituation is probably the result of two causes: first, not enough youths enter\nupon and complete apprenticeships; second, those who do serve apprenticeships do not get the same kind or quality of training which apprentices\nreceived a generation or two ago.\nThe shoe is no longer made by a single shoemaker, who cuts and lasts\nand soles and binds and finishes; it is made in a factory where the completed shoe has passed successively thru the hands of a score or two score\nof pieceworkers, each contributing a single part or performing a single\nprocess. Commercial considerations usually keep each worker at the\nsingle process or machine at which continued practice gives to him most\nspeed, and to the establishment most profits. Few, very few, have a chance\nto \"work thru\" all the processes of the trade and become familiar with all\nthe machines; the great, the very great majority become pieceworkers or\npartmakers. They do not know, and if called upon, could not do, more\nthan the one or the few processes thay have learned. In other trades,\nmachinist and toolmaker, carpenter and joiner, blacksmith, weaver, the\nsame change has come. Under these conditions the manufacturer develops\nthe \" machine-tender\" instead of the mechanic. And, because they are able\nto get along with a smaller proportion of men skilled in all departments of\nthe trade, employers sometimes take no apprentices, and thus dry up their\nsupply of skilled labor.\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n413\n\nIn the shop the apprentice of today seldom leams his trade under the\neye of the master, the owner of the shop, as he did in the past, until within\na generation. Instead of a sympathetic and kindly master, who had a\npersonal interest in the lad and charged himself with his instruction and\ndevelopment, he works as one of a roomful of men; the foreman feels\nresponsible, not for the development of the apprentice, but for the profit\nto be made out of the apprentice's performance; it is likely to be, in his\neyes, far more important for the lad to get skill in a few processes by which\nhe can learn quickly to turn out profitable piecework, than to take all the\nexercises and learn most thoroly all the departments of his handicraft.\nThe boy learns what he happens to, what he can pick up, and what is\nnecessary to enable him to become, most quickly, a profit-producing member of the working crew. Under these conditions, with the probability that\nhe will be able to learn only the fragment of a trade, is it strange that the\nboy is discouraged by the prospect, and goes into another line of work, or\ndrifts about trying various forms of unskilled labor ? And sometimes the\nregulations of trades unions prevent boys from entering upon apprenticeship.\nThe rules of the union perhaps provide that only a certain nmnber of\napprentices shall be allowed, in proportion to the number of journeymen;\nthe quota is full, and the boy must seek something else.\nTo meet these conditions which have arisen in our day, the trade school\nhas been established and seems certain to become more of a factor each\nyear, in the education of both boys and girls for at least the commoner\nskilled handicrafts.\nTrade schools may be classified as of two general types: First, that\nt)qpe usually thought of when the term \"trade school\" is used in this\ncountry; a school equipped with all the requirements for work at the\ntrade and manned by skilled teachers, themselves masters of the trade\ntaught; a school to which a youth of proper age may come and learn all\nthe things an apprentice should learn in order that he may take his place\nin the trade as a \"graduate apprentice,\" or \"beginning journeyman.\"\nSecond, that type of school probably most commonly found abroad, a type\noften in the minds of persons who have traveled abroad when they speak\nof \"trade schools\"; a school to which apprentices learning the trade by\nthat system, and even journeymen already practicing the trade, may come\nin the evening or during some hours of the day, and receive instruction in\ndepartments of the trade which they cannot get so quickly or so well in\nthe shops, and also in mechanical drawing and in the knowledge of scholastic\nsubjects which will make them better mechanics.\nThis latter type of trade schools, now successfully operating in a number of cities, is likely to be most easily established and less costly, and can\nbe made to serve in the near future the youth of many cities which are not\nyet prepared for, or cannot at present afford, trade schools of the other\nty^e. The benefits of schools of this sort may be promptly realized upon\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nin the form of a supply of young mechanics of improved general quality in\nthe community.\nFor the boy who desires to learn his trade at the school, as well as for\nthat one who for one reason or another is excluded from an apprenticeship,\nthe trade school of what has sometimes been called the American type\nsupplies a very real need.\nAlong with many and marked advantages, such a school has some\ndisadvantages in the teaching of certain trades. In some building trades\nespecially, it will probably be necessary for the apprentice to have at least\na limited experience on outside work, \"on the job,\" before he is as selfreliant and resoiurceful as the lad who served his apprenticeship in the old\nway, before he is as able to put things together and fit into the general\nscheme, under the varying conditions in different buildings, the parts of\nthe job for which his trade is responsible. But the boy from the school has\nthe best instructors to teach him in all the branches of his trade and not\nonly to teach him all parts, but the best way to do each particidar thing;\nthe boy trained outside does not by any means always have this. And the\nboy from the efficient trade school will more quickly get the necessary\npractice and expertness in making ends meet — adapting means to ends —\nthan the \"outside\" boy will get the knowledge of reading and making\ndrawings, of the mathematics that relate to the trade, and the general\nknowledge regarding it, which are rarely given to an apprentice in a commercial shop.\nThe trade school of this t3^e does not give to any graduate the speed\nin certain trade processes which the \"outside\" beginning journeyman is\nlikely to have. This, however, is a minor matter. Such speed is the fruit\nof repetition and practice; it is acquired in a few months — often in a few\nweeks. As soon as this is accomplished the trade-school boy is more\nvaluable to his employer on account of his more complete and betterrounded training, and his superior general knowledge of the trade and its\nprocesses, and the principles which underlie it. The. foreman of an important department in a great industrial plant recently said that, while tradeschool boys sometimes lack speed on first leaving the school, the handicap\nsoon disappears, and thereafter the balance lies in favor of the trade-school\ngraduate. A large employer of labor has stated that, of two boys entering\nat the same time upon the learning of a trade, one devoting four years to\na regular apprenticeship, the other, the two years usually required for a\ntrade-school apprenticeship, and then going to work at the trade, by the\ntime the shop lad has finished his apprenticeship at the end of four years\nthe trade-school graduate is so universally superior that there is no\ncomparison.\nIt was the fashion, when schools like the Williamson School of Mechanical Trades, the David Rankin, Jr., Trade School, and the Milwaukee School\nof Trades for Boys first came into notice, for skeptics to proclaim that such\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n415\n\nschools could never teach real mechanics; the plant might look very nice,\nbut skilled craftsmen could be made only by the old system. The experience of a few years and the showing made by the graduates of those schools\nhave already dissipated these gloomy prognostications. The graduates\nget places. Sometimes the prejudice of foremen or employers makes it\nless easy than it ought to be, but all who want places get them. And after\nthey get the places the trade-school graduates hold their own. The best\nproof of such a product is its satisfactory use under regular commercial\nconditions; and the employers of these young people have no question as\nto their value or to the success of the trade-school training. Only those\nwho do not know continue to maintain that trades cannot be successfully\ntaught in properly equipped and officered trade schools. In a few years\nthis claim will be heard as infrequently as the claim that schools of medicine cannot properly educate doctors, or law schools fit lawyers for successful practice at the bar.\nA good illustration of the money value of the training given in a good\ntrade school is the showing made by fifty of the fifty-one members of a\nclass (the fifty-first did not report) which graduated in March, 19 10, from\nthe Williamson School of Trades. Six months after graduation fifty\nmembers of this class, 12 bricklayers, 13 carpenters, 4 steam and electrical\nengineers, 11 machinists, and 10 pattern-makers, were earning an average\nwage of $16.60 per week. Incidentally it may be noted that all but one\nof the fifty reporting liked the trade, and all but two were working at it.\nOf these two, one, a carpenter, owing to temporary dullness in his trade,\nwas inspecting material in an automobile factory, intending to return to\nwork at his trade as soon as possible; the other, a pattern-maker, was\nworking as draftsman. One year later, eighteen months after their graduation, the fifty were receiving wages averaging $18.05 per week. Another\nincident may also be of interest. Up to last April the Milwaukee School\nof Trades for Boys had graduated 12 pattern-makers, 12 machinists, and\n10 plumbers. Of these thirty-four boys, 2 were working as draftsmen, i\nwas working in a foundry during the dull season for plumbing, i was taking\npostgraduate work at the School of Trades, i was a student at the imiversity,\nI in business with his father, i was just graduating; the other 26 were\nworking at their trades. Of these the average wage of the ten patternmakers, counting the same number of hours as in case of the graduates of\nthe Williamson School, was $17.41 per week; the wages of the nine\nmachinists was $17.89 per week; the wages of the seven plumbers,\n$29.43 per week. These twenty-six young men were earning an average\nweekly wage of $20.81. The average time these young men had been\nworking at the trade since graduation was eighteen months. Only casual\nconsideration of the matter is required to make clear to anyone how\nthe wages of the graduates from these two trade schools compare with the\npay of the average young man under twenty years of age who has entered\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "4l6\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(St. Louis\n\nsome unskilled employment to work with his hands. The Milwaukee\nSchool of Trades for Girls has been in operation a trifle more than two\nyears and only seven graduates have been sent out; but some facts are\nalready established. The girls from the school who have completed only a\npart of the course in millinery are in demand in the shops and wholesale\nhouses at wages from 50 to 100 per cent higher than girls of similar age\nwho are at work in various unskilled employments; girls who have only\npassed two or three of the six parts of the course in dressmaking are now\nable to go out and earn, either in dressmaking shops, or as dressmakers in\nprivate homes, wages that compare well with those of girls from the\nmillinery department.\nIt is objected to trade schools that they are expensive, that is, more\nexpensive than most other schools supported by the public. It is even\nalleged that it costs $200 or $300 a year to educate a boy in such a school.\nProbably trade schools are more expensive now than they will be by\nand by, when plants are built and equipment installed, the most effective\nand economical plans of administration and instruction ascertained, a\nsufficient supply of well-prepared teachers at hand, yoimg people and their\nparents educated to the value of the education which the schools offer, and\nthe school plants filled so as to utilize them up to their capacity. But it\nmay be that even a cost of $200 or $300 a year, for some two years, is not\nan exorbitant price to pay for the making of a first-class mechanic.\nSomeone has said that \"to pay out $2,500 to make a $1,000 boy\" is\neducational waste. Is it, if by \"a $1,000 boy\" is meant a boy who can earn\nat his trade $1,000 a year ? I have recently been looking up some manualtraining instructors. Several intelligent mechanics have applied for these\npositions. I have foimd that all of those who measure up at all to the\nrequirements in their ability as mechanics are able to earn from $900 to\n$1,100 a year. Perhaps a skillful, steady mechanic is about \"a $1,000\nboy.\" If so, at 4 per cent he might be capitalized at $25,000. It is\ndoubtful if the average imskilled laborer earns more than one-half of\n$1,000 a year. His earning power, say $500, if capitalized at 4 per cent,\namounts to $12,500. If an investment of $2,500 in a couple of years would\nincrease the capitalized value of a man by $12,500, it would not be so bad.\nBut when that cost is not more than $600, and in two years can increase\nthe capitalized value of a man's service by $12,500 — ^more than twenty\ntimes the amount of the investment — ^is such an investment to be denominated \"educational waste\"? Instead of being rated as an \"expense,\"\nmoney paid out for the trade schools ought to be considered as an investment; and if the school is managed with reason, and turns out a product of\ngood quality, the investment should be rated as a good one.\nThe trade school is not meeting all the need of the community for\nvocational training; but it is meeting an important part of that need, and\nmeeting it in an effective manner. It is meeting it, too, at a cost which is\nnot imreasonable.\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendencel\n\nD.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nAND\n\nCHOICE\n\nOF\n\nVOCATION\n\nHOW SHOULD THE SCHOOL SYSTEM CONTRIBUTE\nAN INTELLIGENT CHOICE OF VOCATION ON THE\nFART OF THE PUPIL?\nGEORGE\n\nPLATT\n\nKNOX,\n\nASSISTANT\nSUPERINTENDENT\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nOF\n\n417\n\nTO\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe limits of time and the scope of my paper do not admit of a discussion of the question: '^Why should the school system contribute?\" altho\nthe temptation is strong to plead the advantages of the measures I shall\npropose, but I address myself at once to the proposition: \"How the School\nSystem Should Contribute to an Intelligent Choice of Vocation on the Part\nof the Pupil.\"\nThe fields affected by the proposed activity are the child, the influences\nwhich make him what he is, and the life-calling which he is to follow. The\npublic-school system is but one of the organized forms of society, and our\nproblem is to minister to the need of the pupil intrusted to our care by\npointing him as successfully as possible on his way. To accomplish the\nbest results we must understand the child, be alert to all the other forces\nwhich influence him, know the facts of the vocations which he may enter\n^and by continued instruction and sympathetic interest lead him to choose\nwisely and stimulate him to do his best.\nWe must not be content simply to direct the child, find a place for him,\nand laimch him forth on his life-work, altho this process is easy compared\nwith the better way. Our aim must be to bring the child to understand\nthe real values in his environment and to detect the best opportunities\nopen to him for a life-work, and then so far as possible lead him to choose\nintelligently which call he will follow.\nIt should not be our aim to determine for the child and his parent what\nhe should do or into what vocation he should enter. Workers in vocational\nguidance should stand most firmly against the suggestion that we are to\nforce the youth of our land into certain established occupations or trades\naccording to a predetermined schedule or prearranged scheme. If we are\ntrue to our democratic ideals, we shall not permit any group of men or any\nauthority to dictate what shall be the occupation of the child, nor should\nwe ourselves make such an attempt. For any organized eff^ort whatsoever\nto say that so many children may be taught a certain trade, or that this\nchild may learn it and his neighbor may not, is a usurpation of function\nwhich must not be tolerated.\nTo choose wisely one's vocation, an appreciative knowledge of the\nimmediate environment is essential, for altho there is so much movement\ntoday from place to place in the pursuit of a livelihood, the vital factors in\nthe environmental conditions are really the same, even if they are more or\nless colored by geographical influences.\nWe must help him to understand the vocational opportunities open to\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "4l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nISt. Louis\n\nhim. It is pitiable to what a large extent choice of vocation is made quite\nin the dark. If we can only give to om: youth a fair imderstanding of the\nnature of the opportunities open in professional and industrial and commercial lines, we shall make a great advance over present lamentable conditions.\nWe must help the child to understand also the responsibilities involved\nin his vocational life, since they exercise so strong a 'determinative influence\non his larger service as a citizen in a great democracy.\nWe must urge the value of preparation. One of the surest signs of\na lack of wisdom in choosing a vocation is the evidence that the youth and\nhis advisors lose sight of the far-reaching importance of adequate, patient\npreparation. This preparation should both precede and follow the choice\nof vocation. The choice will be much more intelligently made if preceded\nby studies in the relative. values of vocations, while it is easily demonstrable\nboth logically and statistically that after the choice is made time and\neffort devoted to preparation more or less specifically provided for the\nvocation chosen are most wisely spent. The general public does not see\nthis, and it is a very large part of our opportunity in vocational guidance\nto lay emphasis on patient and wise preparation. This proposition rings\ntrue to the great thought of lengthening the period of infancy, and needs\nno championship on this platform.\nWe are not, in this paper, to discuss the propriety of the pubhc school\ndoing something, altho we know that we are hedged about by tradition\nand deterred by a certain sensitiveness arising from professional obligations\nfancied and real; we shall not concern ourselves with the feasibility of the\nscheme, altho we admit that we are restrained by legal rights and restrictions; we shall not stop to argue the question of its advisability, altho we\nare faced w4th a popular conception of the domain of the public school which\nis in many quarters very limited; we are set to consider what the public\nschool can do and how best it should do it in spite of the charge so often\nbrought against us that we lack initiative.\nWhat, then, and how should the public school contribute to an intelligent choice of vocation on the part of the pupil ?\nIn the organization of the work, very large attention must be paid to\ninvestigation, both preliminary and continuous. Investigation to be\nadequate must cover three great fields: the child, his environment, the\nvocations.\nThe child must be considered physically, mentally, and temperamentally, for not only is the welfare of the whole child at stake in this\ntransaction, but the work will go astray if the factors which spring from\nthese phases of child nature are ignored.\nInvestigation of the child may best be accomplished by enlisting both\nthe judicious interest of the teacher and the trusting frank assistance of the\nparent. Neither the teacher nor the parent alone can make up a fair analysis of the characteristics of a child which will fit or unfit him for certain\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nAND\n\nCHOICE\n\nOF\n\nVOCATION\n\n419\n\noccupations or professions. Ignorance of these characteristics is fatal to\na wise choice. This work should not be haphazard and unorganized, but\nit must be made very definite and specific as to the points to be noted and\nthe results must be made permanent and accessible to those who have a\nright to use them. This information should be gathered only by qualified\npersons and prepared and used only by competent parties. EflSciency is\npromoted by the employment of expert investigators who will secure from\nparent and teacher the information desired, but if this is impossible, at\nleast the questionnaire should be prepared by the expert. With this chart\nas a guide, the teacher can evolve the information in conjunction with the\nparent. I wish it were my privilege to plead here and now for the propriety\nof placing this work in the hands of a public-school worker carefully chosen,\nwho would bring to it the devotion of a teacher and the skill of a trained\nstudent of child nature, and at the same time be armed with the confidence\nof the public, without which there can be no large success.\nNot only must the child be studied before he makes his choice of vocation, but he must not be lost sight of in case the school can hold him for\nbetter preparation. For the sake of the extremely valuable information to\nbe gained only by experience, the youth who has passed out into his vocation must be carefully and persistently followed up, his successes or his\nfailures noted, and his trials and efforts made a part of a record which shall\nguide those who later come to choose, to make their choice more wisely.\nFor this work, a central ojQ5ce more or less specifically designated is desirable.\nIt may be done by the principal of the school last attended, or by the teacher\nwho knows the pupil best. The exact method depends upon the complexity\nof the school system, but the information is too valuable to be allowed to\nslip by unnoted.\nChildren who go to work by permit can be followed up by securing legal\nrequirement upon the employers of such child labor that every case of\ndischarge or of voluntary withdrawal shall be by them reported to some\ndesignated office. Such action also prevents the child thus quitting work\nfrom drifting about in idleness or loafing.\nThe environment must be investigated and should include a careful\nstudy of the usual factors: the home, the church, and the unorganized\nsocial influences. It may or may not be wise to have this portion of the\nstudy conducted by organized activities and made to take the form and\nnature of a general \"survey\" of economic and social conditions of the community. Such work is invaluable, altho it does not entirely meet the need\nof careful study of these phases of the environment of the individual child\nwho is to receive guidance. A general survey conducted scientifically\nserves as the best basis for the rounding out and interpretation of the facts\nascertained in the consideration of the individual case. We must have\nknowledge of the home conditions in which the child has developed. Are\nboth parents living, are both present in the home and ministering to its\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nwelfare, how many children in the family and how many already at work,\nthe occupation of the father and other wage-earners, something of the\nnationality and school training of the parents, the present economic pressure bringing real or apparent need of early entrance of the child into his\nvocation, locality and housing of the home, its moral and spiritual tone,\nrecreational habits of the family and of the child — these and other inquiries\nare most pertinent if the counselor is to assist the child understandingly.\nConditions of the church and larger spiritual influences on the child are\ncommonly considered as outside the realm of proper inquiry, but careful\nconsideration develops salient factors, altho they function indirectly.\nUnorganized social influences have tremendous weight on the growing\nchild. One scarcely knows where to begin. The street influences, in which\nall too often the child moves from school vmtil bedtime, vary all the way\nfrom legitimate occupation, such as paper-selling, down to loafing and\ngang rowdyism. Then, the cheap amusement places claim their great army\nand with or without proper supervision our school children frequent popular amusements and absorb their not carefully chosen lessons so vividly\npresented.\nA knowledge of the vocations is essential. The opportunities offered vary\ngreatly with geographical and political influences reacting to make varying\neconomic conditions, so that a study of the opportunities offered in one\nlocality does not at all suffice for another community more or less distant.\nHere is where the local color comes in and necessitates a great amount of\nwork before a fair grasp can be had on the problem. The points to be\ncovered include the temporary and relative openings in the various professions and industries, and the conditions, physical and moral, which\nimpose demands upon the time and strength and health and morals of the\nworker who enters. This investigation should include questions of wage,\ninitial and future, of the opportunities of advancement to positions of commanding influence, the hours of labor, the sanitary conditions, with their\neffect upon the physical and moral health, the helps and hindrances in the\nopportunities for individual initiative and invention, and many other\nfactors familiar to all who have watched the development of the problems\nin vocational guidance.\nPresent points of contact between the seeker and the opening offered\nmust be investigated, such as the activity of employment agencies, official\nand unofficial, maintained from philanthropic motives or for private gain.\nThe provisions open for specific vocational training, such as professional\nschools of law, medicine, dentistry, etc., the so-called business \"colleges\"\nwith their short-time courses, the plumbing schools, automobile schools,\nmillinery colleges, dressmaking institutes, schools for the training of barbers\nor waiters, and the like, must all be critically examined and necessitate\ncareful discrimination. Note must be taken of those occupations in which\ntraining is provided by the industrial concerns and by public utilities, such\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nAND\n\nCHOICE\n\nOF\n\nVOCATION\n\n421\n\nas the telephone and street-car companies. Recognized institutions of\ncollege, university, and technical standing are, of course, most worthy, and\nthe opportunities they offer must be included in a fair knowledge of avenues\nof training for the occupations.\nAll this material covered in my too brief survey must be collected by\nexperts who are trained to see clearly and to judge wisely. It must be\nbrought together, organized, and systematized also by experts. Further,\nit must then be recast into popular form so that those who are in immediate\ncontact with the child — the teacher or the parent — shall be able to use this\ninformation effectively as tho it were a matter of their own investigation\nand knowledge. This organization and adaptation following after the\ninvestigation is a vital point, for it is a large part of the equipment of the\ncounselor.\nBefore leaving this question of organization, we must consider the\nlinking-up of the forces at work. There is room enough for all who care,\nbut all the wor^cers, philanthropic, official, and parental, should be organized\nand brought into co-operation so that there shall be no duplication of effort,\nno work at cross-purposes, no stumbling blindly in the dark when the saving information may be ready prepared, close at hand, and yet not known\nto the needy one. Here is one of the greatest points in favor of the organization of vocational guidance under the care of the public-school system,\nbecause without an authorized head to the work, the agencies interested\nfail of mutual appreciation and support and there is much loss of time and\neffort. With such an organization, the person in control not only gives\nspecific direction, but communicates inspiration, disseminates information, and provides for the correlation of the workers as can be done in no\nother way. As I have said, there is room enough for all, but no effort\nshould be wasted, and the energies can best be conserved and efficiency\npromoted by the single director who shall have behind him all the power\nand the prestige of the public-school system.\nThe complexity of the organization of the particular system must\ndetermine the specffic office of this director. Whether the system be that\nof a state or county or of the rural schools, successful conduct of the work\ndemands some one directive mind, who shall be able to see clearly the entire\nfield of activity, and both vitalize the work and safeguard its efficiency.\nIn the large system, the ability and strength of a director of vocational guidance will be severely taxed even with all of his time devoted to this effort,\nwhile under other conditions the county superintendent or school principal\nmay well care for this in connection with his other duties.\nLet us now pass to the consideration of the specific vocational guidance\nof the child. Simple direction or dictation may be accomplished in one\nbterview, but not true guidance. Either the teacher knowing the child\nand informed about the vocation, or a worker knowing the vocation and\ninformed about the child can in one interview accomplish much that is\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\ndesirable, but the guidance of the child vocationally is a matter of education\nas well as of information. Education takes time and involves training,\nand the preparation of the child for a wise choice of vocation can be done\nbest by the schools.\nWell down in the grades, even in the kindergarten, the life-work interest\nmust be developed in keeping with the advancement of the child. Industry,\ncommerce, and the arts are the sources of material, while number work and\nreading in the lower grades, arithmetic, geography, and history in the\nintermediate are the main processes thru which the child is equipped.\nHandwork plays a large and ever-increasing part in prevocational training.\nSupplementary reading and the library furnish rich food. The museum\nwith its illustrative material makes its unique contribution. Classes from\nthe schools should visit local industries, centers of trade and transportation,\npublic utilities, etc., while from all these, and from the professions as well,\ncompetent persons should be secured to come to the school and there\npresent vi\\ddly, either with or without illustration, the salient factors and\nconditions of their own vocation.\nWith all this material worked out in adequate methods and the teacher\nalive to her opportimities, even the child who must enter an occupation\nat the earliest permissible moment will leave the school with a considerable\nequipment for wise choice of life-work. Those who remain for the upper\ngrades and the high school — and their number should be much increased\nwhen the life-motive is infused into all their work — will receive a larger\nview of vocational opportimities, especially looking toward the professions.\nSuch vocational content will be welcomed by the teachers, but its\npreparation must be accomplished by the supervisory office of the school\nsystem, preferably by the vocational director, who must be well trained in\nschool work.\nA further necessary equipment for wise vocational guidance is the\npreparation and dissemination of literature setting forth the facts secured\nby investigation. Some of the work already done in the gathering of\nmaterial into printed form and published as charts and pamphlets has\nproven to be of greatest value. This printed information can never take\nthe place of personal consultation between the teacher, the child, and the\nparent but it is essential as a preliminary source of information for teacher\nand parent.\nWho shall serve as coimselor to the child and parent when the time\ncomes for decision ? By all means the teacher, and by teacher I mean either\nthe one in the classroom or the principal of the school, but in either case it\nmust be one who knows the child, the vocational content in the course of\nstudy, and the material prepared from the investigations. It has been\nproposed to give over this personal constdtation to an expert called in from\nthe particular vocation, who, knowing the vocation, shall advise (and\ndoubtless induce) as many children as possible during the visit. An address\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nAND\n\nCHOICE\n\nOF\n\nVOCATION\n\n423\n\nto the students by such expert may be decidedly illuminating, but only one\nwho knows the child can render the high service of properly guiding him in his\nchoice of a life-work. As our school systems are at present organized, either\nthe school principal should act as counselor or else a teacher in the upper\ngrades who knows all the pupils and who is by virtue of the school work\nin closest contact with them should serve in this important capacity. In\nthe high school, a carefully selected group of teachers may be given the\nwork. Those teachers should be selected who care most, and who are\ntemperamentally best fitted for this delicate task. For more is needed than\nsimple advice — the pupil must be aroused, steadied in his choice, and then\nset on his way of preparation or, if it must be, inducted into the work\nwith high purpose, clear vision, and large enthusiasm.\nAt this time of decision regarding the course to be pursued, the counselor\nshould make every possible effort to urge upon the parent and the child\nthe value of adequate preparation. One of the best results which it is\nhoped will accrue from vocational guidance is that children shall be held\nlonger in school, and better still, with an added interest in their school\nwork. Vocational guidance to be worth anything must, so far as consultation goes, be individual in character — one child at a time, with the parent\nin conference with the counselor. This process is necessarily very expensive,\nbut if it results in markedly lengthening the school life and ministering to\nthe school interest in the child, who shall say it is not worth while ?\nThe conferences between child and counselor should be frequent, with\ntlie parent present at strategic times. The best place is the school building,\nthe time to be arranged to suit the local conditions. In some schools, a\nvocation oflfice is maintained with announced hours for consultation. For\nthose parents who cannot come to the school or who are free only in the\nevening, opportimity must be offered for them to secure information and\nadvice from the office of the vocational director who is in charge of the\nwork thruout the system.\nThis central office must, in the nature of the case, be maintained by\nthe public schools. From this office the work should be guided and\nthe records of investigation should be kept here after they are prepared for\nuse. It may well be the workshop of the experts in the preparation of the\nmaterial gathered and the point of issue from which the investigators daily\ngo forth in their work.\nThe teacher who is intrusted with the privilege of meeting the child in\nhis guidance, vocationally, must add to a ready interest and abundant\nenthusiasm a certain amount of skill. While much can be gained from\nexperience only, one of the strongest avenues of effective work on the part\nof a vocational director's office is the systematic training of the counselors,\neither by regular meetings or by repeated conferences, or still better by\nboth. The directive head of the work should minister to the worker by a\nconsistent course of training and a never-failing source of enthusiasm.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\ncounselors may well be organized into committees for mutual assistance,\nand general meetings for discussion of problems have proven to be of\ninestimable value.\nPossibly thru the avenue of the interest of the child we can best touch\nthe parent and enlist his co-operation. The parent must be reached, and\nonly when we interest all those who have children in our schools and\ninfluence them effectively, can we feel that we are really occupying the\nfield. Printed literature does much good if carefully disseminated. The\nvocational director can give splendid service thru enlightening the community and arousing enthusiasm by means of addresses, illustrated talks,\nand popular press articles.\nEmployers must be enlisted and their co-operation enjoined in vocational\nguidance. The experience of the workers who are already engaged proves\nalmost without exception that employers are easily interested and are glad\nto co-operate, both for the help they can give and from the fact that their\nown welfare is advanced by such activity. This also requires careful\nplanning and wise direction of the details involved.\nThe central office of vocational guidance, appointed and sustained by\nthe public-school system, may or may not engage in the actual work of\nplacing the child. The question of the maintenance of an employment\nbureau by this office is debatable, and with the advantages and disadvantages so nearly equal, no solution is yet ready. But the employment bureau\neither should be maintained by the school system, or, if by private parties,\nshould be in some way absolutely imder the contrbl of the public-school\nvocation office. If the state maintains an employment bureau, it should\nwork in harmony with this vocation office, either by legal enactment or by\nofficial agreement.\nEither with or without an employment bureau, careful attention must\nbe paid to \"follow-up\" investigation, as earlier outlined. Some of the\nmost valuable information can be secured by watching closely and recording the careers of the individuals after they have entered their vocational '\nlife. Questions of permanency, of advancement, of adaptability, of\nadvisability can best be considered in the light of information thus gleaned.\nThe great American public believes in its schools and trusts its school\nofficials. Activity in vocational guidance will be welcomed by the commvmity at large and it is easy and advantageous to organize committees\nof public-spirited men and women to co-operate with the school vocation\noffice and give assistance which is invaluable in the way of advice, sympathy, and support. Here again local conditions must determine the\nform of the organization.\nFinally, experience only will give us the wisdom best to conduct this\nwork. I believe very strongly in the advantage of a central office maintained bythe public-school system in which all parties at work in vocational\nguidance or in investigation leading thereto shall be sympathetically and\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\n425\n\norganically connected. True vocational guidance includes consistent training of the pupil in the school and at the critical times personal consultation\nwith the sympathetic teacher his counselor.\nInvestigation, organization, co-operation, devotion: these four, and the\ngreatest of these — devotion ! The youth of our land call us to ever renewed\neffort in their behalf. The wide-open door of opportunity for us publicschool workers is today labeled \"Vocational Guidance.\" Let us thoughtfully, carefully, bravely, and devotedly enter in !\nE.\nLORENZO\n\nD.\n\nHARVEY,\n\nTHE EDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nOF\n\nSTOUT\n\nMENOMONIE,\n\nWIS.\n\nA generation ago discussion waxed warm upon the question of the physical and mental ability of the girl to do the work prescribed for her brother\nin the higher educational institutions, in the same time and in the same\nway that he was to do it. The opening of the doors of these institutions\nto women on the same basis as to men, and the success of the girls in them,\nis a suflSicient indication of the answer to that question. The discussion\nhas practically been closed. The girl has demonstrated and is demonstrating her ability to achieve success in the highest fields of educational\neffort. But the settlement of that question has not settled the other —\nwhether the girl needs and should have the same education as the boy.\nUntil very recently, the organization of school systems, the framing of\ncourses of study for elementary and secondary schools, and of the curricula\nof higher educational institutions have proceeded upon the assumption\nthat the needs of the boy and the girl in education were the same, and to be\nmet thru the study of the same subjects. These subjects were chosen and\ntheir scope determined almost solely with reference to the boy. It was\nleft for the girl to proceed along the same line if she were to proceed at all.\nSome men and many women have argued effectively for the right of the\ngirl to follow in the educational footsteps of her brother — until that right\nhas been conceded. In recent years, the question as to whether this is the\nonly right to education possessed by the girl has been coming to the front,\nuntil today it is one of the most important questions to be considered in\nconnection with the development of our educational system. Some concessions have already been made — the introduction of sewing and cooking\nas subjects of instruction in many public and private schools is a slight\nrecognition of the fact that the girl needs for her training something that\nhas no place in the training of the boy.\nThe elective system in the higher educational institutions, coupled with\nthe conservative admission of subjects that might be attractive to girls,\nif not to boys, and the election of these subjects by many girls, is a further\nrecognition of this difference in needs. A serious consideration of the question discloses the fact that an adequate differentiation of the materials,\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nmeans, and methods to be employed in the education of girls and boys has\nnot yet been made. We have been for years multiplying special, technical,\nand professional schools of varying aim and scope to fit boys and young\nmen for the active duties in life, growing out of changed industrial, social,\ncommercial, and political conditions. These schools have come into existence because of the demand for that kind of education which shall fit yoimg\nmen to do what, by reason of their manhood, they may do, and by reason\nof the requirements of society, needs to be done. Many of these schools\nthrow their doors open to women, and a few women have availed themselves of the opportxmity thus afforded. They have not proved attractive\nto girls in the same measure as to boys, for the reason that the world recognizes certain classes of work as peculiarly men's work, and other classes of\nwork as peculiarly women's work. That some women and fewer men do\nnot recognize this distinction does not alter the situation. If a woman\nconceives herself able to do the work which society at large has regarded\nas the work of a man, she has an opportunity to fit herself for it, and if she\ncan find employment, she is at liberty to engage in it, but the fact remains\nthat her entrance upon this field of activity is only an incident. With the\nman it is a life-work — ^with a woman it is liable to be interrupted at any\ntime by the demands of her womanhood for home and family life. Few\nwomen have the physical and mental strength to meet the demands of the\nhome life and the demands of a vocation or a profession outside of the home,\nand win success in both. That one occasionally does, is no warrant for\nassuming that it is a general rule. That she wins success outside the home\nat the expense of the home life is an admission of failure.\nThe immense broadening of the field of educational effort for men in\nrecent years is not an accident. It has come because we have been studying the needs of the individual, of society, and of the state. We have been\nfinding out what a man needed to know and do in order to measure up to\nthese demands, and have been framing courses of instruction to more definitely fit men to do this work. We need to study the question of the education ofgirls seriously, and from the same standpoint. What a boy needs\nto know and to do to fit him for success in any of the usefid activities of life\nupon which he desires to enter is the basic element in determining the character of his education. What a woman needs to know and to do in order\nto meet the responsibilities that come to her in life is the basic element in\ndetermining what her education shall be. There is an immense amount of\nwork needed to meet the needs of society that a woman cannot do and ought\nnot to undertake, but which a man can and ought to do and do well. He\nshould be fitted to do this work. It is a waste of time and energy to try\nto educate a woman for that work. There is an immense amoimt of work\nneeded in the world which a woman can do and which a man cannot do and\nought not to undertake. The absurdity of trying to educate him to do the\nwork for which he is imfitted by reason of his sex has been recognized, and\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\n427\n\nit has not been attempted. There are many lines of work needed to be\ndone in the world which men and women may do equally well. Equal\nopportunities should be given for the education of each in the direction of\nefl&cient performance of these lines of work. In the lines of general culture\nand training, the education of men and women may be the same — but in\nso far as their work varies and demands special knowledge, differing in\none field from that in the other, in so far as effectiveness in action depends\nupon special training required in one and not in the other, the necessity for\ndifferentiation exists.\nToday we are realizing as never before the lack of efiiciency in the vast\nmajority of those who do the work that society demands. If the possible\nefficiency of the farming population were realized, the products of the soil\nnow under cultivation in the United States would be increased at least loo\nper cent. We are beginning to realize this fact, and hence the demand from\nall parts of the country for the sort of education for the country boy and\ngirl that shall hasten the development of this efficiency. The manufacturers realize the inefficiency of their employees of every grade, and these\nemployees, if they do not fully recognize their own inefficiency, see the lack\nof those kinds of educational facilities necessary to develop efficiency in their\nchildren, and they unite with the manufacturers in demanding a place for\nindustrial education.\nThe great transportation companies are admitting the lack of efficiency among their operatives and are providing the educational machinery\nfor securing it. Workers for civic and social uplift find themselves handicapped by the inefficiency of the agents thru whom they must work, and\nin response to their call for help, educational agencies are being provided\nto develop competent workers in these fields.\nThe impulse of this awakening to the call for efficiency is felt everywhere\nthruout the length and breadth of the land, and the demand is becoming\nmore insistent every day for such a broadening of educational means and\nends as shall make it possible for those who are to do the work that society\nneeds to have done, to acquire the knowledge and training essential for\nefficiency in the doing. The demand is no less for the cultural element in\neducation, no less for the highest professional and technical training for\nthose who have the ability and inclination to secure it, but there is an added\ndemand for the millions who have neither the ability nor the inclination\nto secure this training — a demand that educational effort shall be directed\ntoward preparing these millions to do something well that needs to be done\nin order that they and society may both be benefited by their increased\nefficiency in doing. A narrow range of useful knowledge coupled with\nefficiency in its use is better for the individual and for society than a wider\nrange of knowledge, useless or useful, without efficiency in action.\nThe home is the unit of society: within it are found influences and\nforces that are most potent in shaping the life of the individual, in deter-\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nmining the state of society and the character of the national life. From it\nhave come the millions who constitute the population of this country. From\nit come every year more than two million new-born citizens. Within the\nnext decade there will be born more than five times as many children as\nthere were souls in this coimtry when we became an independent nation,\nand two-thirds as many as there were people living in the United States\nwhen the Civil War began. Thru infancy, childhood, and early youth,\nthe care and nurture of the individuals composing this vast army is a most\nimportant part of the work of the home. The physical condition, the\nshaping of tendencies, the character of habits formed, the mental and moral\ndevelopment of the child, the promise and potency of later life are influenced most profoundly, one may say are determined almost exclusively,\nby the influences of the home life. Are these influences and forces of sufficient importance to demand intelligent effort to prevent their being left\nto be the sport and play of ignorance or accident ?\nHow much is involved in the two words care and nurture of the child!\nFor its proper care, there must be intelligent action, and intelligent action\nmust be based upon a knowledge and proper care of the physical organism\nof the mother and her child; of what is essential for both for the best physical development of the infant, and later, of the child considered solely as\na healthy animal.\nIt is thought to be necessary for a farmer who would raise hogs or\npoultry successfully to study the structure and organism of each type, the\nproperties of foods best adapted for their development, the preparation of\nthese foods, the proper times for feeding, and the variety and amount of\nfood to be given at different times and for different purposes. Few realize\nhow much more difficult is the problem of feeding the child. It comes into\nthe world perhaps the most helpless of new-born things. Of the two million\nchildren born annually, one in six dies before the end of the first year; one\nin three by the fifth year. Boards of health, physicians, and scientific\nexperts who have investigated this subject imite in declaring that a large\npercentage of this death-rate is due solely to ignorance on the part of those\nresponsible for the feeding of the child.\nIt is impossible to say how large a proportion of the illness of adidts in\nthe home is due to the same kind of ignorance — ignorance of what is proper\nin food, of what is proper in its preparation and care, and of what is essential in amount and kind to meet the varying needs of the older members of\nthe family.\nConnected with this single problem of feeding the family is another\nof no small importance, and that is the economic problem. The bearing\nof this problem on different members of the family is one of vast social and\nindustrial importance. Proper feeding of the family, when no account has\nto be taken of expense, is a simple proposition compared with the proper\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF GIRLS\n\n429\n\nfeeding, when at every moment the lack of money makes wise choice and\nproper preparation of food a much more difificult problem.\nThe health of the different members of the family as affected by other\ncauses than incorrect feeding is a matter of vital importance. Knowledge\nof the proper means for the prevention of disease thru proper sanitary\nconditions in the home, proper care of the person, and of means for the\nprevention of bad effects from unavoidable exposure, immediate treatment\nin cases of accident, and the proper nursing in . case of illness are essential\nfor the proper discharge of the responsibilities of the homemaker.\nSanitary conditions in and about the home as related to heating, lighting, ventilation system, water supply, sewage disposal, and care of\ndrainage system, are factors affecting the health of the family.\nThe clothing of the family, involving wise choice with reference to\neconomy, adaptation to needs, durability, care, and pleasing effect, is\nanother subject demanding a wide range of knowledge and skill in order\nto secure the best results.\nThe housing of the family, involving wise selection of furnishings and\ndecoration, is another responsibility devolving upon the homemaker,\nrequiring special knowledge of wide range in order to secure the highest\ndegreee of comfort and aesthetic effect at a minimum cost.\nThe development of the child's mental power and spiritual nature\nwhile in the home, in such manner as to fix tendencies and develop characteristics essential for the best and most complete later development, is a\nproblem that may well tax the mind of the wisest individual.\nThis is a brief tho fairly comprehensive statement of what may be\nregarded as the most important of the duties devolving upon the homemaker. That these duties may be discharged with efficiency is essential\nfor the well-being of the home, of each individual in it, and of society at\nlarge.\nWho is the homemaker ? She is the girl who is to be educated today\nand who, as the woman of tomorrow, is to assimie these responsibilities.\nThe home is a imiversal institution; it is found everywhere; practically\nevery human being has come from it, and has been affected for good or ill\nby its influence, its direct or indirect teachings. More than three-fourths\nof the women of marriageable age assume sooner or later the responsibilities\nof the homemaker. It is the one occupation which is most universal for\nthe woman. The perpetuity and well-being of the race depend upon\nthe maintenance of the home and upon the proper administration of its\naffairs. Practically every woman looks forward to the time when sooner\nor later she shall assume the responsibilities of the home, and, for the great\nmajority of them, that time will surely come; and considering their importance to the race, it seems an inevitable conclusion that no education for the\ngirl is adequate which does not take these responsibilities into account and\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nprovide for such instruction and training as shall insure their effective\ndischarge.\nIt is sometimes argued that the place for the girl to secure this knowledge and training is in the home. The complete and sufficient answer to\nthat argument is that she does not there secure it, and that her mother is\nnot competent to give such instruction and training, even if she had the\ntime and inclination to do it, and if her daughter had the time and inclination to secure it. Every phase of knowledge indicated as essential for the\nproper discharge of the duties of the homemaker is capable of being organized for instructional purposes and it may be taught in the school. If it is\nnot dealt with there, it will be dealt with nowhere in any adequate manner.\nThe woman's instinct is sometimes spoken of as a safe guide in all these\nmatters, but in view of the results obtained, and in view of the truths of\nbiological science, such a claim is too absurd for consideration. Not all\nof these matters have as yet been properly organized as pedagogic material,\nbut this is rapidly being done. The great problem is to find a place in our\npresent school organization where that work may be done.\nIt will doubtless mean the elimination of some subjects from the\ncurriculiun which girls have been required to study, not because the study\nof them best ministered to their needs, but because of tradition, harking\nback to the time when courses of instruction were orgaiuzed for boys upon\nthe theory of general culture and training.\nWe do not meet the situation by providing means for general culture\nof which at best only a limited number of girls can avail themselves. We\nrecognize the need of special education of the masses to fit them to do something well. We are pressing vigorously for the development of this special\neducation for efficiency in action in the agricultm-al, commercial, and industrial world, but we are practically ignoring the claims of the most important\nvocation in which himian beings can engage and in which a larger number\nare siire to engage than in any other vocation that can be named. We hear\non every hand the claims for special education for the eight million wageearners, women and girls, to fit them to earn a larger wage and to better\ntheir social and industrial condition. Too much cannot be said upon this\npoint and yet we are ignoring the fact that by the majority of these eight\nmillion wage-earners, the present vocation is regarded as temporary, a mere\nmakeshift until the opportimity presents itself to assume the responsibilities ofhome life, and that for the assumption of these responsibilities\nthey have had practically no preparation whatever. The woman is the\nhomemaker, the wide range of activities demanded of her in this field of\neffort, the vital importance of these activities to all concerned demand\nspecial preparation which she is not now receiving. The welfare of society,\nthe well-being of the nation depend upon the efficiency of the woman in\nthe home, and that efficiency depends upon special education for such\nefficiency.\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nVOCATIONAL\nMEYER\n\nBLOOMFIELD,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n43 1\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nOF THE VOCATION\n\nBUREAU,\n\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nVocational guidance is not a new thing. What is new about it is the\nintelligent and energetic effort now going on thruout the country to organize\nsuch counsel, information, and safeguards as shall adequately protect the\nyoung people of our land during the critical passing from school to work.\nThe widespread interest in this matter of better bridging the transition period from the shelter of school life to the strange liberties of wageearning indicates an appreciation of what is taking place and a deep-seated\ndesire that the present waste shall cease.\nAt the time in life when our children most need watchful care and wise\nassistance a vast number of our boys and girls leave school in the various\ngrades and take their plunge into working life.\nThere are kindly teachers, of course, whose personal help has started\nmany a boy or girl up the ladder of success; there are homes which still\nhelp shape the future of the child. But nobody acquainted with the heavy\nprofessional duties of the modern teacher, the diflEiculties and the struggles\nof the parents, particularly in our cosmopolitan centers of population,\nand the technical complexities of modem commerce and manufacture,\nwith all their specialization and subdivision, can for a moment believe that\nthe chance advice and help of the average parent, teacher, or busy man of\naffairs is at all adequate to deal with the present situation.\nThat thousands of children drop out of school, thru no economic\npressure, to go to work as soon as the law allows, we well know. An intensive study typical of what is going on everywhere is to be found in Volume\nVII of the United States Bureau of Labor reports on the women and child\nwage-earners in the United States. It is entitled \"Conditions imder\nWhich Children Leave School for Work.\" This study of seven carefully\nselected towns in the North and South proves that only about one-third\nof the children who left for work needed to do so. The other two-thirds\ncould have remained.\nIn many cases the parents have had no voice in this decisive step.\nIndeed, we all know of instances where the parents did not even know\nthat their children had left school and were at work. If any fair number\nof those so leaving were in occupations where they could develop, learn\nsomething, amount to something, matters would not be so serious. But\nthis is not the case. How can untrained and unguided children find their\nbest opportunity? How can they possibly know where they are going\nto come out in a few years, there being nowhere at hand the information which can spare them years of drifting, waste, and too often tragic\ndemoralization ?\nTo understand an occupation from the vocational-guidance standpoint\nis no longer the simple matter it was in the days of Benjamin Franklin,\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nwhen his father took him on a round of inspection of shop, factory, and\nother workplaces in order to influence the boy's choice of a life-pursuit.\nWere such excursions more common today, an inspection such as this\nwould not necessarily reveal the facts one needs to have in order to judge\nan occupation intelligently. In the first place, consider that the making\nof a coat in a highly organized clothing establishment involves twentyfive and more different workers, each of whom is specializing in his own\npartial operation. This is true in the making of watches, pins, shoes,\nand other commodities; it is true in retail business, and it is the process\nnow radically modifying professional pursuits.\nBut even an understanding of these subdivisions does not begin to\ntell the whole story. There is a growing literature on occupational diseases,\nindustrial hygiene, public-health reports, actuarial statistics, and monographs dealing with the relation to the worker of certain operations, work\nconditions, fatigue, nerve-exhaustion, and general enervation. There is\na considerable body of economic literature dealing with the changing\ndemands of certain articles, and with the changing conditions and opportunities, the displacement of manual labor by machinery, of child labor\nby adult labor, boy work by girl work. There is a mass of social literature\ndealing with the moral influences of certain employments, their mental\nand ethical consequences. All these things and more need to be understood\nby somebody somewhere in order to end the present gambling in their own\nfutures by so many thousands of our children.\nEqually necessary is it to realize what the training should be for those\nwho would enter the desirable employments. Nothing can be more misleading than the initial high wage often paid to the fourteen-year-old\nin occupations which take so much out of their young workers. Our\nstudies in the vocations open to Boston boys prove that the occupations\nwhich hold out any future to their young workers often start them at a\nfraction of the wages paid where advancement is practically impossible.\nWe further learn that the most desirable employments want better-fitted\nand more mature workers than do those which teach but little. Would\nnot many parents sacrifice even more than they do could they be shown\njust where their children would come out after three or four years of\nwork? Would they not co-operate with the schools in keeping their\nchildren longer under a system of training carefully planned to start\ntheir boys and girls on a higher plane ?\n\"Over three thousand families in Massachusetts told the investigators\nof the Commission on Industrial and Technical Education that they could\nafford to give their children vocational training.\nSLxty-sLx per cent of the families investigated said that their children\ncould have continued in school; 33 per cent of the children were foimd\nin vmskilled industries; 65 per cent in low-grade industries; less than 2\nper cent in high-grade industries.\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n433\n\nThis is not at all surprising. The boys leave for a job, not for a vocation. They leave orie job after another, attracted by all sorts of reasons\nexcept that of fitting themselves for a life-work. This drift from place to\nplace spells sheer waste to the employer, the child, and the community.\nAnd at the time of life when serious responsibilities of life begin these\nyouth are unfitted for permanent and profitable employment.\nIf we need statistical evidence of the consequences of this aimless\nentrance into wage-earning, thru the only open door of undeveloping jobs,\nwe need only read some of the evidence before the Royal Commission on\nthe Poor Laws. There is unanimous testimony to the effect that the\nchaotic state of affairs which confronts the young people who drop out of\nschool is daily manufacturing that most pathetic class of English poor,\nthe un employables. We have them here too; they are in the poolrooms\nand street corners of our towns, they are before the courts daily, they are\ncrowded about the want-ad bulletins of the daily papers and drifting about\nthe employment agencies, both public and private.\nI have described only what is occurring among the fourteen- year-old\nchildren; among those who get their working papers as soon as they can.\nTo a marked degree there is a similar want of plan and intelligent choice\namong high-school and even college students. Until the precious years of\nschooling minister more definitely and aggressively to the life-work interests\nof the pupils, until we awaken in telling form the motive and provide the\nmaterial for a better launching into bread-winning pursuits, we shall see\ncontinued the present human waste.\nWhat has vocational guidance to suggest as a practical way to cope\nwith this situation ? Every intelligent school official, parent, and teacher\nadmits the value of scientific educational and vocational information.\nThere is no argument as to the need of wise and well-informed assistance.\nHow shall we organize this most effectively? Doubtless there are\nmore right ways than one for helping yovmg people to find themselves,\nand I shall describe the Boston plan as a suggestion toward one way.\nFirst, as to what we are not attempting to do. We do not prescribe\nor decide a particular occupation for anyone. This is the business of the\nparents and the natural protectors of the child at home. Decision must\ncome from within and not from without. We are not trying to divert\nanyone from any class of pursuits or to direct particular attention toward\nthem. It is not the business of vocational advising to favor or disfavor\noccupations. It is primarily its function to know the facts, analyze, classify,\nsimplify, and apply them, where they will do most good. Let the facts\nspeak for themselves, but drive them home. The responsibility rests\non the shoulders of those who make the decision. But knowing the facts\nis no child's play, neither is their skillful dissemination.\nIn Boston we have made up our minds, first of all, that the public\nschool is the logical starting-point for vocational advising.\nHere the best\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\npreventive work can be done; here there is the best foundation for that\nco-operative decision in deciding upon a life-work which brings the various\nchild-welfare agencies into service for the individual child. Moreover,\nthe child is under constant observation here and family problems make\nthemselves known in coimtless ways.\nThe first step was to appoint in each school some teacher or assistant\nprincipal as the vocational adviser for that school. This fixed a certain\nresponsibility and made a point of contact between our vocation bureau, a\nphilanthropic body, and the teacher. For two years we have met regularly\nto hear the best representatives of various trades and professions tell in an\nintimate way about their particular callings. Many questions were asked,\nand the notes taken by the counselors at these meetings were often used\nfor classroom work. The range of employments thus presented has positively enlarged the teacher's visions of the world of work, and the child and\nits endowments are better understood thru this concrete study of occupations and the types of employers presented as speakers. In all cases the\neducational foimdations for success in this or that pursuit were definitely\nbrought out, and the close of the last school year showed an imusual\namount of educational advising, counsel as to the kind of high school or\nother training opportunities to choose in order to advance in this or that\ndesired calling. A wider range of choice, a wider sympathy with a larger\nvariety of employments, has resulted. There can be no question that\nthe work thus far has directly enhanced the appreciation of what more\neducation could offer.\nSupplementing this work we began to put into booklet form our studies\nof the typical vocations open to Boston boys. Here is concrete and practical material for choosing a life-work. Here is a navigating chart for\nyouth seeking a port. Again the educational foundations of eflSciency and\nsuccess are clearly analyzed and brought out. So far from directing the\nchildren's minds away from school to work, the very opposite is the result\nachieved and intended. We join here with school and employer in helping\nto lift the boy or girl from a drifter to a learner. These booklets cover a\nnumber of points of interest. The Boston superintendents are now planning to incorporate this material into the regular courses under a heading\nto be called \" Contemporary Boston — Civic and Vocational.\"\nActual placement is not yet attempted because it will take some years\nfor these principles underlying vocational guidance to find themselves in\nsuch common practice that there will be little danger of opening the doors\nto a new form of child exploitation. Some time will be required to produce an adequate vocational survey of the commimity, and some time will\nbe reqviired before we can develop enough trained vocational advisers who\ncan be intrusted to do this work on full time. In Boston we believe that\nthe time has come for specially preparing those who are to serve the schools\nas vocational advisers. Thru Harvard University we are laying foimda-\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n435\n\ntions for a training course in this service. The Boston teachers as the\nresult of two years of study and thought in this subject now recognize the\nneed of a body of expert auxiliaries to do this particular work. Indeed\nthey now openly and generally ask for the appointment of special counselors and the establishment of a vocational-guidance department. Note\nthat this demand comes from within, from the rank and file, from the\nchildren's most devoted friends who want to co-operate and who realize\nthe size of this task of counseling.\nThree picked teachers from the group of coimselors are detailed this\nyear to give their time to the needed investigations preparatory to such a\nvocational-guidance department. One is planning a new organization of\nthe employment-certificate department. The superintendent has assigned\nher to study the methods of granting working-papers. The thought is to\ndo this work in a way to help the child who must go to work with advice,\nmedical examination, and vocational information. This work will not\nstop here nor begin here. Back in the grades children who are likely to\nleave will be discovered and helped in every way to stay longer, or to continue their development if they do leave. The other two are investigating\nthe careers of those who left in certain schools five years ago, and those\nnow leaving and why.\nVocational guidance does not proclaim itself as a solution of all the\nserious problems confronting the child at work. But it has withui its\npossibilities hitherto unused relationships between the employer and the\nschool. The changes going on in schools are no more significant than are\nthose in the field of employment.\nHow does the business man view this movement ? More and more the\npublic-minded employers are realizing that the high percentage of constant\nturn-over of employees, the incessant shifting and restlessness, are an\neconomic waste for all concerned. While changes on the part of beginners often lead to slightly better pay and opportimities, in the long rim\nthe results do not indicate any substantial gain in the direction of permanent life work. Most of the drifters find themselves at the threshold\nof manhood at an impasse. To the industries which are learning the\nvalue of a permanent and progressive body of employees these continual\nreplacements of employees coimt up in definite losses and ineflSiciency.\nHow about the dead-end or blind-alley occupations, which cannot\nprovide in their operations for stimulus or development of any kind?\nHere we must stand squarely for the proposition that so far as law and public\nconscience can avail, no youth shall be permitted to suffer an arrest of\ngrowth because of industrial maladjustments. In these employments\nabove all others, compulsory training opportunities must be provided during\nthe only hours when a night school for the young should be in session —\nthe daylight hours. In Massachusetts the State Board of Education is\ninvestigating the educational needs of working children between fourteen\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nand seventeen in certain typical employments where a large number of\nyoung people are in work not particularly educative.\nWhatever may be the final solution, whether thru compulsory continuation schools, drastic reduction of working hours, improvement of work\nconditions, social scrutiny of employment, and the exclusion from all\nindustry of the fourteen to sixteen-year-olds who are admittedly improfitable\nto the employer in legitimate callings and improfitable to the community\nin parasitical callings, we must hold fast to the proposition that no occupation shall \"graft\" on the service-resources of our youth.\nWe go to great pain and sacrifice to fit o^xr boys and girls for the job;\nwe want the job to be fit for the boy and girl. We want to give the world\nof work the best trained, best advised, and best prepared corps of workers\nwe can turn out; we ask that this investment and this equipment shall be\nnot ruined, even if not enhanced.\nWe stand with the employer in a demand upon the individual for\nefliciency; let it be social as well as individual. The employer will ask\nmore and more of the school; the school will ask more and more of the\nemployer. School life and working life must co-operate to make of the\nstudent an efficient producer, to make of the efficient producer a responsible\nconsumer and a serviceable citizen.\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nAS THE CIVIC AND\nOF THE COMMUNITY\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nEDWARD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\nJ. WARD,\n\nOF\n\nWISCONSIN,\n\n\"This is going to make the neighborhood feel like home in spite of\ntelephones, newspapers, trolley cars, and all the modem improvements.\"\nHe was a banker who spoke and the occasion was the opening of a\nschoolhouse as a social center in a middle-western city.\n\"When I was a yoimg man,\" he went on, \"back in Licking County,\nOhio, folks used to meet like this in the old drab, weatherboard schoolhouse. We called it the 'Literary'; in some places they called -it the\n'Lyceum' and in some it was just 'schoolhouse meetings.' The old double\nseats weren't any too comfortable; the light from the kerosene lamps, with\ntheir tin reflectors, wasn't any too good, but there was a human spirit in\nthose gatherings, a man-to-man frankness and democracy that made\nAmerica mean something to us young fellows. And there was a spirit of\nneighborhood there — not only in the sociables, the spell-downs, and singing\nschool, but in the meetings where folks just listened to speakers, and\ntalked. Getting together about things we had in common, whether it was\nwhat kind of a bridge we should have across the creek, or the tariff, we felt\na first-hand responsibility for being citizens.\n'I came away to the city. I got into the scramble. I've been at it as\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\n437\n\nhard as anybody, and I've succeeded fairly well. But all the tune there\nhas been something missing. I know a lot of fine people, but I don't know my\nneighbors. I obey the laws and vote at election time, but somehow I don't\nget the feel of being a citizen. The fact is, I've lived here twenty years\nand it has never felt like home. But tonight when we're getting together,\nnot as a party nor a sect, nor as a particular social set, but just as folks, as\ncitizens, as neighbors, in this building which embodies the greatest of our\ncommon interests, that old feeling comes back, and as we go on with this\n— ^I tell you — even the city is going to feel Uke home.\"\nUnlike most of the great significant movements in modem days, the\nmovement to make the schoolhouse the civic and social center of the\ncommunity appeals most strongly to the older, more conservative American.\nThe statesman, recognizing the fundamental importance of making the\nschoolhouse the citizens' common-council chamber, the working-center of\nan alert and self -informing common citizenship organization, welcomes this\nmovement by as much as he recognizes the truth of Washington's words:\n\"In proportion as the structiire of government gives force to public opinion,\nit is essential that public opinion should be enlightened.\" And Justice of\nthe Supreme Court Charles E. Hughes says, \"I am morQ interested in what\nyou are doing and what it stands for than in anything else in the world.\nYou are buttressing the foundations of democracy.\"\nThe religious teacher — the priest, the minister — grasping the vital\nrelationship between the leisure activities and the moral life of the community, welcomes the movement to make of the school building a common\ncenter of wholesome recreation. And we find not only that religious\nassociations oflEicially indorse the opening of the school buildings for use in\nthe evening, but in many commimities the chief promoters of social center\ndevelopment are the clergymen. For instance, in the little town of Stanley,\nWis., the use of the high-school building as a \"Peoples' Club House\" came\nas the result of the tmited leadership of the Lutheran pastor, the Roman\nCatholic priest, and the Presbyterian minister. The Rev. Richard H.\nEdwards says, \"It is unthinkable that the churches should oppose the\nsocial center movement.\"\nThe artist, recognizing that the worthy expression of the American soul\nin forms of beauty can come only with the cultivation and expression of\nmusic and the drama in an atmosphere democratic and free from the\nmerely commercial motive, sees the vision of the use of the common schoolhouse as a democratic center of artistic culture and expression for the whole\npeople. And Forbes Robertson says, \"This is a program worthy of\nAmerica.\"\nSchool superintendents, principals, and teachers recognize that this\nmovement to make the schoolhouse the comprehensive common center of\nthe community means improved architecture, better equipment, more\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nvital interest, and increased support for the school in its present service.'\nThe National Education Association has unanimously indorsed this movement; and in a himdred commimities school principals and teachers are\nlending their service in promoting community gatherings of one kind or\nanother which look toward the full community use of the schoolhouse.\nBut not even the youth, for whom the social center means gymnasium,\ngames, and club opportunities which otherwise he might not have, welcomes\nthe social center with more keen appreciation and zest than do the older\nmen and women in the average community, for to them it is not only an\nadvance, it is also a restoration.\nTwo generations ago, in the average community in the Middle West,\nand quite generally thruout the country, the schoolhouse began to be used,\nnot only as a center for the education of the children during the day, but\nalso in the evening as a center of democracy, a center of recreation, a center\nof neighborhood.\nHistories have to be rewritten continually as our viewpoint shifts from\nthat which regards only military exploits as important, to that which\nemphasizes constitutional changes, and then to that which looks for industrial developments, and finally to that which gives full recognition to the\nsocial life of the past.\nWhen an American history shall be written from this more intimate\npoint of view, it will be recognized that nothing in oiu* national life has done\nso much to foster the American spirit of democracy, of spontaneous community feeling and sense of solidarity as this free association of citizens\nupon the common ground of civic interest, of recreation, and of neighborhood in the schoolhouse in the early days.\nOnly in a time of social strife and strain can we fully value the common\nties of civic unity and friendliness. It was at the verge of the Civil War\nthat Lincoln used these words:\nWe are not enemies but friends. We must not be enemies. The mystic chords of\nmemory stretching from every battle-field and patriot grave to every living heart and\nhearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the union when again\ntouched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.\n\nIn those words Lincoln recognized, as the strongest force that made for\nunity, the memory of how the fathers united in the common cause of the\nnation's independence. If in the face of the straining social and economic\nproblems of om* time, of the divisive, separating tendencies, we take account\nof the imiting memories of democracy and good-will, there is none so powerful, so characteristically American, so ail-inclusively friendly as this common\ntradition of how we v^td to get together in the schoolhouse evenings for\nspell-downs and singing \"chools, and for first-hand discussion of common\nproblems. In this memory today is most vividly expressed\nthe true democracy that batters down the walls that separate us from each other, the\nwalls of caste distinction and prejudice, and hatred and rpligious contempt.\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\n439\n\nIn this common tradition is brought to us\nthe proof that we are all of one blood, one bounden duty, that all these antisocial prejudices\nare as shameful as illiteracy and that they will disappear as soon as ever we shall come to\nknow each other well.\n\nThe schoolhouse in the simple primitive community began to be the\nfocal center of the common life. But as the commimity grew older, and\nespecially as it grew more populous, there came in the wedge of division, of\nseparation, of specialization.\nInstead of assembling to talk about political questions as matters of\ncommon interest, we separated into mutually antagonistic partisan organizations. We gave up the use of the schoolhouse as a citizens' commoncoimcil chamber. We gave up the common ground of friendly man-to-man\nimderstanding in politics. We gave up the real headquarters of popular\ngovernment in a democracy. And instead of meeting to reason about and\nunderstand politics, as \"the science of government,\" the field of common\ninterest, we have made that word synonymous with partisanship.\nWe separated also in the pursuit of pleasure and the use of leisure. We\nformed the specialized library and art gallery, the specialized dramatic\ncenter and music hall. Failing to develop our recreational life as a community expression, by expanding the use of the schoolhouse where it began,\nwe gave over our recreation largely to commercialized exploitation and the\nwholesome play instinct became the prey of the saloon and the vice resort.\nAnd with the civic cleavage and the recreational diversity, came the\nutter break-up of our community social organization and we went apart to\nsatisfy ovir outreaching friendly instincts by various sorts of exclusive\ncliques and circiunscribed brotherhoods and fellowships. Abandoning the\nuse of the schoolhouse as a common social center, we lost the power to think\nin terms of the community, the very word society became restricted in its\nuse, and we began to develop pride in the myopia of exclusiveness.\nIn other words, we yielded to the centrifugal force which flun§ us apart\nin the following of special party leaders, the pursuit of special recreational\ninterests, the development of special association tastes, imtil these things\nwhich would have been the means of binding us together and unfolding our\nunity, had we kept them in co-ordination, have become means of our\nseparation, our mutual exclusion and misunderstanding.\nSo, from being a common civic and social center, this community\nbuilding became simply the education place of the children.\nIf instead of abandoning the civic, recreational, and social evening uses\nof the schoolhouse by adults and older youth, these uses had been promoted\nand developed and the use for the children had been given up, we would be\nwise to ask whether this common social machinery half used would be\ndoing its full service, just as, having developed the children's part of this\nbuilding's use, we are beginning to ask whether this half of a commimity\ninstitution is making good.\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nA few years ago, before the Connecticut State Teachers' Association,\nPresident Eliot said that compared wdth what was hoped would result from\nthe establishment of the common school, this most important of all our\ninstitutions is a failure, and he gave a catalog of some ten of the common\nevils of our time, which the public school fails to right. These evils may be\ngrouped under three heads: misgovemment in place of intelligent democratic efficiency, dissipation and idling in place of constructive use of leisure\nin recreation, cleavage and class feeling in place of social order and public\nspirit.\nThis is a tremendously serious charge, for the distinctive success or failure of America lies in our efficiency or failure in collective self-government,\nour waste or good use of free time, our capacity or failure to weld a harmonious whole out of the varied elements of our population and to produce a\nrace of socially conscious men and women, the maxim of whose choices\nshall be the common good.\nBut before we lay the blame for failing to develop citizenship capacity,\npower for better use of leisure, and social consciousness upon the teaching\nof the children in the schools, it is well to see whether the public school as\nsimply an education place for the child is not so limited in its essential\nnature that it cannot meet these needs.\nThe pubUc school as an institution for the education of the child has,\nof coiu-se, its great service to perform, than which nothing can be more\nimportant, but granting all possible improvement in personality of the\nteacher, in equipment, and in method, the public school as an education\ncenter for the child does not and cannot meet these civic needs.\nThe public school as simply an education center for the child does not\nand cannot produce \"good citizenship,\" for in its nature as such it is and\nmust be a monarchy, a place of training in obedience. We may veil and\nsoften the authority into the most careful fostering guidance, as Froebel did\nand as Madame Montessori does, but the authority must be there and the\nlaw of the school must be obedience. Now \"good citizenship\" is more than\nobedience. Good citizenship in a democracy is the consciousness of\nresponsibiHty not only for obeying the government, but for participation in\nbeing the government.\nIt is only thru the use of the school building as a civic center, that is,\nthru its use as a citizens' council chamber, a legislative assembly place, and\na ffiial supreme court room, that this common institution can serve America's\ngreatest need in the development of a positive consciousness of democracy.\nYears ago, John Stuart Mill said, speaking of such public association on a\ncommon groimd:\nWhere this School of Public Spirit does not exist scarcely any sense is entertained that\nprivate persons owe any duties to society except to obey and submit. There is no unselfish\nsentiment of identification with the public. Every thought and feeling, either of interest\nor of duty, is absorbed in the individual or in the family. The man never thinks of any\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\n441\n\ncollective interest, of any objects to be purchased jointly with others, but only in competition with them, and in some measure at their expense. A neighbor not being an ally\nnor an associate, since he is never engaged in any common undertaking for joint\nbenefit, is therefore only a rival.\n\nThis responsibility for the use of the schoolhouse for the development of\ncivic capacity cannot be shouldered off upon the child. We shall not cease\nto regard the government as being located at Washington, at the state\ncapitol, or at the city hall — ^we shall not get the democratic point of view\nand sense of responsibility except as we make the schoolhouse the headquarters of an organized citizenship where men frequently assemble to\ndiscuss together and with their public servants the problems of democracy.\nNot long since, President Taft spoke before the \"Ohio Society\" in New\nYork City against the proposed placing in the hands of the citizens of the\npower to recall the judiciary. No doubt President Taft would agree with\nLincoln when he says: \"Why not repose patient trust in the ultimate\njustice of the people ? Is there any better, is there any equal hope ?\" But\nas President Taft said, the difficulty is that the people have (or rather use)\n\"no machinery \"•other than the partisan irresponsible newspaper and the\nbiased appeal of the orator, for determining how they shall act. The\nschoolhouse as a center of civic discussion offers such a \"machinery\" as is\nneeded to develop intelligent public opinion. \"It is no exaggeration to\nsay,\" says Henry Campbell, \" that in making the schoolhouse the forum of\nthe people lies the chief hope of perpetuating the republic and perfecting its\ninstitutions.\" The legislature of Wisconsin has recognized this fundamental civic use of the schoolhouse as a center of democracy, as a right of\nso great importance, that the school boards are required to make provision\nfor this use. And this great function of the schoolhouse as a foothold of\ndemocracy, a handhold upon government, a working-center of citizenship\ncannot be met by the school as an education place simply for the child.\nSecond only to the need of developing the citizens' capacity for intelligent government, in the great enterprise of America's making good, is the\ndevelopment of a strength-building recreational life, \"the capacity to have\nfun without doing wrong.\"\nFrancis H. McLean, after a year's careful investigation of the community needs in many parts of America, placed as first in importance the\nneed of wholesome recreation. Does the public school simply as the education center for the child tend powerfully toward the supplanting of vice and\ndissipation by constructive recreation and toward the free devotion of\nsurplus energy to beautiful expression ?\nThe public school as simply the education center for the child does not\nand cannot meet this need, because in its nature it is restrictive. The child\nin the school is not free to do wrong. The attendance is compulsory.\nThere is little or no training in spontaneous play expression.\nOn the other hand, the opening of the school building as a center of\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nentertainment to which one is free to come or not as he will, the fostering\nthere of the individual's free self-realization in recreational activities, in\nmusical and dramatic expression, does directly and powerfully meet\nthis need.\nIn the city of Milwaukee, up to a few years ago, Schlitz Beer Garden\non Vliet Street was a popular and much frequented resort. Today if you\ngo there, and, entering the old beer hall, go up to the bar, put yoiu* foot on\nthe rail, and ask for something, you will receive a book from the branch\npublic library. Why the change ? Simply because the city has begun to\nfurnish music in the parks. Formerly when a man would take his family\nto hear good music, he went to the beer-garden. He paid the wet tax, not\nbecause he wanted the liquor, but because he wanted the music — and that\nwas the price. When music was furnished free in the public park, he went\nthere. The beer-garden ceased to be profitable and was sold at a low figure\nto the city.\nThe time of greatest need for recreation opportunities is the time of\ngreatest leisure, the evening. When every schoolhouse is equipped with\ngymnasium and baths, with bowling alley and games, with music and other\nforms of entertainment for the evening, the property of the evening dissipation places will be \"for sale cheap.\" And when, as in Richmond, Ind.,\nthe community provides the services of a musical director, and as has been\nbegim in New York City, the services of a dramatic director, to develop\nin the school buildings the latent orchestral, choral, and dramatic resources\nof the commimities, the level of leisure activities, the recreational taste,\nand the moral character of America will be raised.\nThere is a phase of this service of the schoolhouse as a recreation center\nwhich has a fundamental bearing upon the most vital problem of the future\nof the family in America. Here is possible the acquaintance, imder wholesome environment, of the young men and women who will be the fathers\nand mothers of the next generation. Today there is for very many no such\nrecreation place which is at once free, attractive, and wholesome.\nThis common need of elevating the recreational life of the community,\nthe schoolhouse as a center only for the education of the child, does not and\ncannot meet.\nAnd finally, does or can the public school, used simply as an education\ncenter for children, develop that social consciousness, that breadth of\nhimian sympathy, that sense of solidarity and power of collective action\nupon which all those who do not accept the doctrine of \"the class struggle\"\nbase their hope of human progress ?\nThe public school is a socially supported institution, and yet as a children's education place it is individualistic in the tendency of its training.\nThe main lines of conscious influence, obligation, and responsibility do not\nrun horizontally from child to child, but perpendicularly from the teacher to\neach child. This is necessarily the case. So long as children are imder a\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\n443\n\nteacher, and, of course, so long as children are children they must in school\nbe under a teacher, the chief feelings of interest and loyalty will be directed\nupward toward the teacher, rather than outward as social feelings. Moreover, the whole development of child study is the consideration of the\nchild as an individual, and the main tendency of its training is to develop\nthe child's capacities and powers as an individual.\nThe individualistic training is vitally important, but it is also vitally\nimportant that there should be training in, or at least an opportunity for,\nthe development of the community spirit, the social consciousness. The\ncommunity building used only as an education place for the child is a\npaternal training-place. Used as a gathering-place for adults for selfeducation through discussion, recreation together, and acquaintance, it is\na fraternal training-place. Both are necessary; each supplements the\nother, and neither can take the place of the other.\nThe possibilities in the development of the social consciousness and the\npower of united action, for whose unfoldment the use of the schoolhouse as\na social center makes way, were suggested by Governor Wilson in these\nwords:\nIt seems to me that what is going to be produced by this movement — not all at once,\nby slow and tedious stages, no doubt, but nevertheless very certainly in the end — is, in the\nfirst place, a release of common forces now undiscovered, now somewhere banked up, now\nsomewhere unavailable, the removal of barriers to the common understanding, the\nopening of mind to mind, the clarification of the air and the release in that clarified air of\nforces that can live in it, and just so certainly as you release those forces you make easier\nthe fundamental problem of modern society, which is the problem of accommodating the\nvarious interests in modern society to one another.\n\nThe school as a center for the education of the child tends to unfold\nindividual capacity; it does not and cannot awake the dormant social\npossibilities of a concerted life.\nThe movement to make the schoolhouse the civic and social center of\nthe community, is, however, not by any means merely the result of the\nobservation on the part of the educator, that the present service of the\nschool is inadequate as a training-place for democracy, for better use of\nleisure, and for social consciousness; and the decision, following that\nobservation, that the schoolhouse shall become the civic and social center.\nTo be sure this is an iinportant factor, and the welcoming of this movement\nby school men will help to hasten its realization. But the fact is that the\nmovement to make the schoolhouse the focal center of the community has\nitself the character of the institution which it aims to develop. That is to\nsay, the social center movement is a focalizing of many movements whose\naim is the public welfare.\nMen and women form local or national organizations to promote the\npublic welfare along various lines. They work away at their special\nproblems for a while. Then they make the discovery that, with communities as with individuals, that which is really beneficial is not what is done\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nfor one, but what one does for himself, and that the wider use of the\nschoolhouse ofifers the convenient, economical means whereby the community can secure for itself the improvements in which they are interested,\nor by this means the commimity can protect itself against the evils they are\nfighting. So the members of one of these organizations start to agitate for\nthe opening of the schoolhouse, and when they do they usually find that\nother associations working on other lines of public service have made the\nsame discovery.\nThe fact that eleven different organizations, of various sorts, united to\nsecure the opening of the schoolhouses in Rochester, N.Y., is an iUustration\nof this gathering of forces into a common movement.\nThis is typical of \"\nthis movement thruout the country. It is a focusing of the efforts of\nvarious organizations which aim to promote the public welfare.\nFor instance, in nearly every commimity there is a group of men in\nwhom the spirit of revolt against corruption becomes aggressive. When\nevidences of \"graft\" appear the first impulse is to catch somebody and put\nhim in jail, and for a time that seems the final remedy. After a while,\nhowever, the men who are engaged in this pursuit begin to dig down to find\nthe cause of the condition, and Mr. A. Leo Weil, the prosecutor of the recent\ngraft cases in Pittsburgh, sums up his study of the whole subject by saying\nthat \"the indictment of grafters is the indictment of the commimity.\"\nThen he points out the cause in the condition since we left the use of the\nschoolhouse as a center of cxwic expression. \"With the increase of official\nbusiness there has come to the individual a decrease in the opportunity to\nparticipate either by the expression of his will or of his opinion, notwithstanding the greater necessity for such expression.\" So in Bviffalo, William\nWright, who in that city and in the state legislature for years has fought\nthe corrupting influences of special interests, turns to the schoolhouse for\nthe remedy: \"The men who have special interests get together to look out\nfor their special interests. Only as the citizens get together and organize\nto look out for their interests wall the public welfare be steadily protected.\"\nWherever \"reform\" movements reach the constructive stage, they tend\nto become factors in the movement to make the schoolhouse the civic and\nsocial center of the community, for their leaders recognize that this is the\nmeans of securing that civic health thru civic exercise which will fortify\nthe body politic against disease. Judge Lindsey says: \"We have been\nfighting the beast; you [social center promoters] will make the dirty animal\nimpossible.\"\nNot only the fighters against political evils, but those who are interested\nin various specific measures of improvement, are turning to the idea of the\nestablishment of the use of the schoolhouse as a citizenship organization\ncenter and civic forum. Whether the improvement projected be the\nadoption of another form of government for the city, the approval of a city\nplan, the matter of a bond issue, or some other special measure, the men\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nAS THE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\n445\n\nwho seek to wake their communities to take some action of civic improvement are coming to recognize the benefit and the saving of energy that\nwould come if there were the opportvmity to present the proposed measure\nfor discussion in established community civic forums; and these men\ncombine their request with that of the \"reformers\" to open the schoolhouses.\nThe uniting of the religious and moral leaders of the community in\nurging the opening of the schoolhouses for clean evening recreation has been\nspoken of. In one city, during the past year, a leading clergyman said:\nSome time ago, when I began to recognize the need of a recreation place, especially\nfor the young people, I thought of building a parish house in connection with my church.\nI then thought that it would be more economical to unite forces with others in the building\nof a Y.M.C.A. Today I see that the money that a Y.M.C.A. plant would cost would go\nvery much farther and benefit a hundred fold more people if it were devoted to the equipment, supervision, and opening of the schoolhouses for physical training, club work,\nand entertainment.\n\nThe Playground and Recreation Association of America began with\nchief emphasis upon out-of-door recreation facilities, but it is now actively\npromoting the opening of the schoolhouses for wider use. Dr. Luther H.\nGulick, the first president of that association, has showed his perception of\nthe fundamental significance and need of the social center in these words:\nOnly upon a basis of personal understanding and mutual confidence is efficient and\ncoherent social action possible. This is the foundation of democracy. Communities\nmust have, therefore, material and social machinery by which various classes shall come\nto know each other; some instrument that shall cross-section racial, financial, and social\nstrata; something that shall go beneath these and touch fundamental human interests.\n.... The machinery most natural, as well as most available, is the public-school system.\n\nBut not only do these and other organizations which are formed to\npromote general civic, moral, and recreational improvement imite in\nindorsing and advocating the opening of the schoolhouse as a community\ncenter. There is also the active indorsement of those who are engaged in\nvarious specific forms of public service. In nearly every city and town the\npublic library stands ready to co-operate by making the schoolhouse a\nneighborhood branch library. This is now being done in Grand Rapids\nand other towns. The co-operation of the Richmond Art Association is\nback of the movement to make the schoolhouses of that city neighborhood\nart galleries. The movement to make the schoolhouse a community music\ncenter has back of it the interest of such men as Walter Damrosch. The\nNational Board of Censorship of Motion Picture Films is promoting the\nidea of making the schoolhouse the neighborhood motion picture theater.\nIn some cases organizations co-operate in maintaining special extensions of\nthe use of schoolhouses. For instance, the Rochester Dental Society maintained the service of the first dental office to be opened in a schoolhouse in\nthat city. Of course the societies formed to promote the public welfare in\nrural communities are practically all in agreement with the recommendation\nof the country life commission looking toward community center development in the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nBut the social center movement has its roots deeper than the recognition\nof its need on the part of students of public problems in America. It is the\nexpression of the great fact that the tide has turned. The dominant force\nof this century is not centrifugal but centripetal. We have passed the time\nof social analysis and are entered upon the time of social synthesis. As Dr.\nElmer E. Brown puts it: \"The very forces that have been drawing us\napart into groups and classes have been making us sick of artificial separations.\" Little Jack Homer is growing up, and he no longer regards it as\npraiseworthy to pull a pliun from a pie while he occupies a seat in the\ncomer. For fifty years we have devoted our best energy to the construction\nof a fabric of machinery by which things would work together for good. We\nare now turning to the development of machinery by which folks may work\ntogether, and think together, and enjoy together for good. And the social\ncenter movement is assuming the force of a practical American commonsense idea generally held.\nThere is not space to deal at length with the question of administration.\nThe National Education Association included in its resolution indorsing\nthe social center movement the statement that the administration should\nbe kept in the hands of the constituted school authorities. Obviously, this\npoints the necessity of the school board or trustees having a comprehension\nof the values in the use of the schoolhouse as a center of democracy, a center\nof recreation, a center of neighborhood, as well as an education center\nfor children.\nThe cost to a city of having a school board which does not recognize it\nas a duty to allow and encourage the largest possible community use of the\nschoolhouses is illustrated by the experience of Chicago. Twenty years\nago, the Chicago School Board refused requests to allow the schoolhouses\nto be used for evening club activities and recreation. The movement to\nmake provision for community social and recreational needs was then\nturned to the building of special community buildings to meet these needs.\nSince that time, Chicago has spent nearly twenty million dollars in securing\nthese duplicate plants. Had this amount of money been devoted to\nincreasing the equipment and developing the use of the existing community\nbuildings and groimds, instead of having seventeen of these recreation\ncenters, the city of Chicago would have an adequate commimity center\ndeveloped in each district in the city, and its school system would be a model.\nBut today the average school board would not take such a stand. On\nthe contrary, there are many school boards whose members recognize the\npossibilities and benefits of social center development. For instance, Mr.\nJoseph Scott spoke not only as one of the counsel in the McNamara case,\nbut also as president of the Los Angeles school board, when in an address\nbefore the Southern California Teachers' Association, just after the confession, hepointed out that the problem of industrial control is the problem\nof this century, than which there is only one greater; and this greater\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nCENTER\n\n447\n\nproblem is, whether in the solution of the economic question we shall\npreserve our civic imity and our common-sense of justice and good-will, our\nfundamental human friendliness, and, said he, the possibility for the right\nsolution of this greater problem lies chiefly in the use of this community\ninstitution — the school.\nIt may be said that the responsibility for promoting social center\ndevelopment Ues back of the school board, that this body as a rule has no\nfunds for this extension. In view of the fact that the school board is, in\nmost cases, free to make out its own budget, it has within its hands the\npower of correcting this lack, and as a rule is able to make a beginning with\nfunds in hand.\nThe first step is, of course, the engagement of a man as an assistant to\nthe superintendent, to take charge of this field of the wider use of the school\nplant. The average superintendent has his hands full with the regular\nwork of the school. This office is that of a social engineer. The man who\noccupies this position should, in the first place, be familiar with the beginnings that have been made in social center development thruout the\ncountry. He should grasp, of course, the idea of the use of the schoolhouse\nas a center for community organization of citizens, for this organization is\nthe democratic foundation of the social center. He should recognize that\nhe and his assistants in the various neighborhoods are not teachers, but\nservants of these neighborhood civic clubs, aiding in the preparation of\nprograms, the work of publicity, and otherwise serving the owners of the\nbuildings. He should be familiar with the methods found successful in the\nuse of the schoolhouse as a lecture center, as this has been developed in\nNew York and other cities. He should know the experience of Los Angeles,\nWorcester, and the other towns which use the schoolhouses as polling-places.\nHe should be familiar with the use of the schoolhouse as an art gallery and\nmusic center as it has begun in Richmond, Ind. He should know the use\nof the library as it is in Grand Rapids, and should grasp the possibility of\nmaking the librarian's desk the local employment office and information\nbureau as this was begun in Rochester. He should be familiar with the\nschool museum system of St. Louis. He should know the methods of boys*\nand girls' club organization worked out, for instance, in New York. He\nshould be familiar with the gymnasium equipment and methods of direction\nwhich have been found satisfactory in Cincinnati, and he should know the\nvarious methods in the recreational use of the schoolhouse as these have\nbeen developed in New York, Chicago, Columbus, and other cities.\nBut the man who is qualified for this position must recognize that the\nbeginnings that have been made are only fragmentary and that the opportunity inthis field is for constructive pioneering.\nThe training for this position should, of course, include an understanding\nof the technique of the school in its present use, so that there may be a\ncorrelation between the day and evening use of the community building.\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nHe should, of course, also have a thoro practical grounding in sociology\nBut while the work of a social engineer is like that of a mechanical engineer,\nor a civil engineer, in requiring technical knowledge for efl&ciency, unlike\nthese, it chiefly demands qualities of personality.\nObviously, the first requirement of the head of a staff of social center\nsecretaries, boys' and girls' club directors, gymnasium directors, librarians,\nmusical and dramatic directors is the capacity for organization and\nselection.\nSome materials are conductors of electric currents and some are nonconductors. Some men are conductors and some non-conductors of social\ncurrents. A social engineer is a human being serving other human beings\nas a \" social missing link.\" He must not only be common in his sympathies\nand understanding, free from all pettiness and bias; he must also be a\n\"conductor.\"\nBut above all he must have the consciousness, and be able to inspire in\nhis fellow public servants in this work the idea of social service, not at all in\nthe usual sense of these words, but in the frank Tecognition that he and\nthey are the hired men and hired women of the people who pay their salaries.\nAnd finally, he must have a grasp of the social center idea in its big\nsignificance, that deep significance which was suggested by the banker\nquoted at the beginning of this paper, in the words, \"This is going to make\nthe neighborhood seem like home.\"\nFor this is the fimdamental significance of the social center movement.\nThe education of the child is a family function. The man and woman\nbegan to be human when they got together for the education of the child.\nIt was thru their association together upon the common ground, and under\nthe common roof of the child's education that they learned co-operation,\nmutual consideration, affection. It was thru their association together\nupon this common groimd under the common roof, consecrated to the\neducation of the child, that they learned to think in terms of each other's\nwelfare, that they developed the home feeling within the little unit group\nof the family.\nNow, out from the household have gone the industries and the arts, out\ninto the street and shop and store. And out in that realm the rule is caveat\nemptor and suspicion, and selfishness. We have not learned to think in\nterms of the larger group. But out there in the public school is that claimstake of our faith that the larger group of the neighborhood has in it the\npotential quality of a household. Out there is the education of the child.\nAs we get together under that common roof, upon that common ground\nconsecrated to the education of the child which made us human in the\nsmaller group, we shall develop, thru association and acquaintance, the\nhousehold sense of common interest, of mutual consideration within this\nlarger group, which will make the neighborhood, even in the city, seem like\nhome, not only to the old folks who remember how we used to do, but to\nall of us.\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBOOKMAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nTEXTBOOK\n\nPROBLEM\n\n449\n\nOnly as the social center movement is organized and developed in a\nspirit true to the democracy, the freedom, the all-inclusive good-will and\ntradition of the \"way we used to get together back home,\" will this development fulM its promise and be worthy its place as the characteristic institution of America, an efficient means for fimdamental hiunan progress.\nTHE\n\nBOOKMAN\n\nFRANK\n\nIN HIS RELATION\nPROBLEM\n\nTO THE\n\nA. riTZPATRICK, MANAGER, AMERICAN\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nBOOK\n\nTEXTBOOK\nCOMPANY,\n\nThe textbook publisher in this country is of comparatively recent origin.\nHe came into existence when schools began to demand that every pupil in\nthe same class should use similar textbooks. Dealers in school furniture,\nheating, ventilating appliances, and school supplies developed as industries\nsomewhat later. Seventy-five years ago in New England, outside of a\nfew cities, schools were greatly hampered by their inability to require\nand procure uniform textbooks. As the West developed, settlers brought\nwith them their old schoolbooks, and trouble and confusion resulted therefrom in the schools. The practice of giving an exchange price for old books\nwas a concession on the part of publishers to aid the school authorities in\ngetting out of the hands of pupils the diverse textbooks in the schools,\nwhich, remaining in the commimity, made classification impossible. The\nentire volume of the textbook business of every grade and description in\nthe United States and its dependencies is under rather than over twelve\nmillion dollars per annum, divided among more than one hundred publishers.\nBriefly stated, the cost of textbooks of all kinds in any town or city never\nexceeds .fifteen cents per capita of the population in such community.\nPublishers advertise their new and forthcoming books in educational\njournals, in circulars, by mailing books free as samples to thoughtful and\nable teachers, that school authorities may know these books and ascertain\nfor themselves the merits of the plans therein presented. When some\npublishers have sought to limit this advertising expense by cutting their\nnumber of donated sample copies, they have been so deluged with letters\nfrom teachers and school officials threatening them with loss of future\nbusiness, that this expensive advertising practice still continues. Yet\nthese agencies are feeble in comparison with personal presentation of the\nmerits of a textbook by a skilled and tactful bookman.\nA textbook first appears in the method of treatment of some excellent\nteacher in the schoolroom — ^friends, visitors see its merits and get in that\nway some of the ideas. The next step is to ask for all phases of the treatment, i.e., have the teacher write out a copy of his presentation. This\nfinally becomes a serious task and the author works out his plan in detail\nand presents his manuscript to some publisher. It is criticized by editors,\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "4SO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nreferred to other critics, its adaptability considered — and accepted. His\nmanuscript may be rejected; neither editor nor readers may get the idea\nor thought of the author; because the author's ideas rim counter to the\nviews of those who read the manuscript; because the manuscript is believed\nto be so contrary to prevailing usage in the schools that the sales would be\nsmall. In the beginning, authors and founders of publishing houses were\nboth printers and salesmen. When Professor Davies, of West Point,\nwrote his series of arithmetics he found a publisher in a yoimg man, the\nfounder of a great business, who took the risk of printing, and personally\ncanvassed teachers and boards of education. As business increased, it\nbecame necessary to delegate the sale of textbooks to other hands than\nthose who wrote, published, or printed them. To market a new idea, or\narticle, salesmen of a special character are needed. They must be able\nto demonstrate the value of this article. To sell a new type of locomotive,\nits merits must first be explained to officials; its advantages must be pointed\nout to engineers who will have charge of it; future orders depend upon\nthe way the new engine stands the tests made by the railway people.\nThe general introduction of music in the schools is largely owing to the\npersonal efiforts and demonstrations, years ago, of two bookmen, who,\nagainst great indifference on the part of school officials and more skepticism,\nin frequent contests with each other and others, proved that music coidd\nbe taught just as other subjects. Similar services have been rendered to\nthe schools in their time by many other bookmen. At present, any new\nidea affecting the schools, their well-being, such as results from better\nheating, lighting, ventilating, must be virtually taught and demonstrated\nto school officials and authorities by the representatives of such industries,\nmuch the same as other topics are taught in the schools and in the world.\nThe commercial world thus becomes an important factor in bringing about\nbetter conditions. In a recent article Professor Duncan quotes a famous\nchemist, Professor Bernhard of Paris:\nFormer discoveries of mine I gave to the world and they have practically died.\nThe last one I have patented because only by making it an object to some commercial\ninterest to make it, can it be brought to man's attention and the world benefited.\n\nAn article that anybody can make, a book not protected by copyright,\nis not likely to be made by anyone. Any publishers can publish the great\ndebates between Lincoln and Douglas. The copyrights on niunerous\nbooks of great literary value have long since expired, but if you want to\npurchase a copy, the only place that one can be found is probably in the\nstock of the dealer in second-hand books.\nThe bookman, in his first relation to the schools, exists, directly, to\npoint out and exploit the aims and methods of the author of the textbook\nthat he is trying to sell; indirectly, to help the schools thru betterment of\nmethods of teaching. For these piuposes he needs opportunity to lay his\nfacts and points before teachers and superintendents; otherwise, it might\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBOOKMAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nTEXTBOOK\n\nPROBLEM\n\n451\n\nbe months and years before these busy people would discover what this\nauthor has to tell them. ' The cost of textbooks of all description does not\nexceed 3 per cent of the appropriation for running expenses of the schools.\nYet to the pupils in the schools it may be a question of 50 per cent of their\ntime and opportunities, to have this problem thoroly studied and solved,\nto the end that the tools used by them shall be of the best quality and\nlatest pattern. Therefore, teachers and superintendents must and do\ntake all the time that they can spare from their other duties to acquaint\nthemselves with the contents, methods, and aims of textbooks.\nThe bookman, coming into contact with the schools at various points,\nis quick to find excellent teachers, teachers with inventive minds, and to\nencourage them to express their powers in the line of authorship. Thru the\nbookman a very large number of the best textbooks come to be written\nand published. He is, therefore, an important factor in the growth and\nmaintenance of good teaching and the consequent uplift in the schools\neven tho the immediate results of his work are not so visible as those\nresulting from the efforts of others. Another function of the bookman is\nto secure and insure a high quality of workmanship in the manufacture of\ntextbooks. He is an important factor in this because he witnesses in the\nwear and tear of books in the schools shortcomings in binding and printing,\nand learns of defects in methods of treatment from the criticisms of teachers\nand patrons. These faults he is more anxious to correct than anyone else.\nThis causes him to be alert at all times in the interest of his customers —\nthe schools.\nBookmen are not interested particularly in any one system or plan\nof adopting textbooks. They are in favor, as a rule, of the existing plan\nin their respective fields. They cannot see, however, why teachers and\nsuperintendents with their interest in the well-being of the children in the\nschools can fail to oppose the form of state adoption; for under this plan\nthe influence of the teacher, principal, or superintendent is practically\ndestroyed. Where the town or city is the unit of adoption the trend is more\nand more to place the decision of textbook questions in the hands of teachers\nand their responsible superior officers. In my opinion, \"Massachusetts\nis in advance of any other state in its solution of the problems involved in a\nrepresentative government.\" The textbook law in Massachusetts, on\nthe statute books over forty years, is as follows: \"Changes may be made\nin the textbooks used in a town at any time, notice having been given at a\nprevious meeting and two-thirds of the members of the Board voting in the\naffirmative\" — simple, compact, progressively conservative, affording opportunity for changes, requiring careful consideration. Last year the legislature passed an act requiring the superintendent of schools to make his\nrecommendation of textbooks to the Board of Education, as a prerequisite\nto action on the part of the Board of Education. The bookman always\nwelcomes the trend of the question of selection of textbooks to the skilled\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nteacher modified by the judgment of principals and superintendent. By\nthat method he escapes the influence of the politician, of the relative of\nsome board-member's wife, of the enthusiasm for a rival's wares because\nsomeone belongs to the same college fraternity, or went to the same\npreparatory school.\nStrange as it may seem to some, pubHshers of textbooks and their\nemployees, the bookmen, are leaders in the development of better methods\nand higher ideals in the conduct of business. Yet this paper would be\nincomplete without some discussion of the faults and misdemeanors of\nsome few members of the profession. The bonus system — ^postdating of\nbills, extra discounts, cutting of prices when times are dull, etc. — is a\ncommon practice in many lines of trade. Banks are still soliciting depositors' accounts by promising interest on monthly balances. Dealers in\npianos, automobiles, certain kinds of new machinery, continue the practice\nof pa)dng commissions directly and indirectly for new business. Publishers\nof magazines offer premiimis in various forms to new subscribers. It is\nan axiom in the business world that a business cannot be developed on\nany other basis than that of absolute and unswerving honesty. But\nthere is always a small percentage of business men who are not built right\nactually always to do what they beUeve is right. A salesman knows that\nif he misrepresents an article, hides defects in it, exacts too high a price\nfor it, overstocks his customer by an inordinately large order, that the\ndoing of any one of these acts will react upon himself and work an injury\nto him and his future prospects. Yet some salesmen, who have not been\nconsciously disciplined by experience, will still take a chance. Man's\nmoral fiber has not yet been sufficiently strengthened in his struggle upward,\nalways to withstand temptation. The ability to put aside an apparent\nimmediate benefit, even when one's intellect teUs him that in the long run\nsuch decision is right, is an attribute not universally possessed. Happily\nfor most of us, life is not a tragedy but a comedy. The conflicts in the\nsphere of duty which constitute tragedy, in a comedy, are always modified\nby happenings which mediate these conflicts. It is like a bad dream which,\nenmeshing us in its horrible chain of circumstances, is suddenly ended\nby an awakening. We are told by the moralists that this course is right\nand that is wrong — why hesitate a moment over your decision? In\nactual life, however, such a clear proposition is seldom presented — usually\nthere is always some wrong mixed in with the right and some right with\nthe wrong— and one's decision in such cases is not so easy as the professional\nmoralist would have us believe.\nNow, the oftener a man is required to act, exercise his judgment and\nthe nimiber of different planes in which these actions lie, bear a relation to\nthe munber of errors he will make. As bookmen need to act on inferences\noftener and on more fields than teachers or principals, they ought certainly\nto make more mistakes. When such error or mistake in judgment is com-\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBOOKMAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nTEXTBOOK\n\nPROBLEM\n\n453\n\nmitted by a bookman who has a quasi-public position in his world, it is\nlikely to have much more publicity than similar shortcomings on the part\nof other business people. The author, the editor, sees his mistakes in\nblack and white, but the errors of teachers, superintendents, managers\nof businesses, bookmen are not so definitely chronicled. Yet some bookmen have been guilty, in prosecuting their business, of errors, faulty\njudgments, and indiscretions. Teachers, principals, college professors,\nministers too, have erred in our time to such an extent as to bring some few\nindividuals within the meshes of the law. But you cannot successfully\nindict a whole people, nor a whole class, nor a whole profession because\nsome individual member has erred. On the whole, bookmen, in their\nmethods, their line of action, their life in and out of their business, challenge\ncomparison with any other class of business men.\nFor this present purpose I assimie that teachers may group our errors\nunder four heads:\n1. Discrimination in terms — giving to one place better rates than to another in\norder to secure business, some phase of the bonus system, etc.\n2. Undue activity in the politics of the National Education Association and state\nteachers' associations.\n3. Meddling in the affairs of the school — assisting teachers and superintendents to\nsecure places; the use of political influence in or outside the schools.\n4. Personal criticism of competitors for imagined business gain.\n\nFirst. In over twenty-five years' experience in the business I have\nknown and been informed directly and indirectly of not more than twelve\ninstances of irregular practice on the part of bookmen. The motive in\neach case was intense personal feeling against some rival bookman and\nthe desire to win at all hazards. Of course such actions are reprehensible\nand should be frowned on by everyone inside and outside the business.\nIf this is true, it will be asked why does the publisher not promptly discharge the offending bookman and publicly disown the wrong act ? For\nthe same reason that in the family we do not publicly disown one of its\nmembers; for the same reason that a superintendent of schools does not\nrecommend the discharge of a teacher who does some stupid thing or gets\ntangled in the maze of questionable action. Again, the spirit of the age\nno longer permits the penalizing of employees for errors or faults which\ncan be eliminated thru wise coimsel of superiors.\nSecond. Undue activity at meetings of state teachers' associations\nor at the National Education Association. If bookmen are members of\nsaid association, or associations, they have as much right as other members\nto express their convictions on matters relative to the policy of the association. As a matter of fact, bookmen rarely take any interest in either the\nprogram or the politics of such associations. They never do unless solicited\nby superintendents or teachers. In such cases the votes and support of\nbookmen are as various and diverse as the votes and action of any other\nclass of voters. Publishers themselves have no interest in such matters.\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nThird. Meddling in local politics or use of political influence. In\ncommunities where such influences control school affairs, such as the election of a superintendent, the appointment of teachers, the selection of\njanitors, the choosing of. school sites, the erection of buildings, etc., it can\nhardly be denied that they may also affect the adoption of textbooks.\nHere are conditions into which the bookman is thrown, and for which he\nis in no way responsible. A man of ability and character, who has worked\nlong in a limited field, has acquired an extensive acquaintance; he comes\nin personal contact with leading people in the various parts of his territory.\nHe must be politic and tactful, as well as energetic in the prosecution of\nhis business. Under such conditions he may be tempted to use the local\npolitical forces; the high-grade bookman never does, because of the ultimate danger to his business from such an alliance: because such aid becomes\na biu\"den on him and his business. No one regrets more than do the publishers and the bookmen interference in educational matters thru politics\nor politicians. But I know of no ground which justifies any general accusation against the bookmen of resorting to politics in the prosecution of their\nbusiness. Probably such charges in nearly all instances originate in the\nattempt of an unsuccessful rival to account for his failure. Superintendents\nin search of competent teachers for an immediate vacancy seek the advice\nof bookmen at times because of their large acquaintance. If a bookman\ncommends some worthy teacher, in response, isn't it imgenerous to intimate\nthat he has other motives than serving the schools and a worthy teacher ?\nPersonally nothing gives me greater pleasure than to serve an excellent\nteacher or superintendent, because I feel that by so doing I am helping\nthe schools — ^no one ever suggested to me that I had an ulterior business\nmotive in such action. In my own case I am as careful in recommending\nteachers as I was when superintendent.\nFourth. Personal criticism of competitors for imagined business gain.\nThe evil of \"knocking\" one another, in the slang of the day, is more or\nless prevalent in every line where there is intense competition. It occurs\nin the professions and thruout the commercial world. Echoes of such\nmisrepresentation are heard from small people in college faculties. The\nbusiness of publishing school books and selling them* ought to be above\nand beyond this sort of thing. It is with great regret that I admit that\nthis is not always the case. We are too prone to gossip and to criticize\nothers, to the loss of our own dignity and the consequent impairment of\nour business. This practice, however, brings its own punishment. The\nlawyer who indulges in personal insinuations or reflections upon his opponent\nfails to rise very high in his profession. The doctor of medicine who is\nprone to point out the weaknesses or incapacity of his rivals loses caste.\nThe practice comes from a low view of business ethics by the publisher,\nand from a futile tendency to magnify himself, which is sometimes a byproduct of acute business rivalry. There can be no question that such\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nBOOKMAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nTEXTBOOK\n\nPROBLEM\n\n455\n\nhabit is very objectionable, contrary to sound business principles, and should\nbe frowned upon by all right-thinking people. Bookmen are, in effect,\nthe attorneys of their respective houses; though cordial in their treatment\nof each other, when not engaged in contests, the intense personal antagonism between rival bookmen in heated and long-continued rivalries sometimes presents a demoralizing picture when viewed by a spectator who is\nnot conversant with conditions. Rival real estate agents buying a particularly coveted property, newspaper reporters on track of an important\nnews item, all men engaged in a fiercely competitive business go thru\nsimilar experiences. That the large majority of bookmen waging war\nagainst each other, living their lives in a small territory, nearly always\nin the limelight, can carry on their business efficiently and successfully\nand continue to receive the respect, the confidence, the friendship of practically every high-class man or woman with whom they come in contact\nin the schools, is a high tribute to the integrity, honor, and character of\nthe profession.\nWlien suitable opportunity to meet teachers and superintendents is\ngiven bookmen, only good can come from their visits. It is a maxim among\nbookmen that the busiest, ablest, and most prominent school ofl&cials and\nteachers are always the easiest to see. It is so rare when a bookman is\ndenied an interview or prevented from prosecuting his missionary work\nthat such occasions are a negligible quantity. An insistent, ill-mannered\nindividual may, it is true, place himself outside the pale of even the great\ncourtesy of the school world. Of com\"se there are some narrow-minded,\nself-centered, all-knowing school officials who look upon the bookman as\nan unnecessary evil. Such men are rare; such attitude being reflected\nin their school activities elsewhere usually brings about a proper point of\nview. Trade, commerce, and science are interwoven together. Nothing\nis more anomalous, illogical, and unjust than antagonism between publishers, bookmen, and teachers. There should be complete sympathy and\nunderstanding between them. The bookman should express this policy\nin his actions at all times. Courteous, respectful but not apologetic,\nanxious to perform his principal duty as salesman, reasonably jealous of\nthe ethics and responsibilities of his profession, but conscious that he is a\nfactor in the cause of education.\nTo my mind, therefore, the bookman belongs properly in the system\nof education. He has a necessary function to perform. He will perform\nthat function until other parts of the system develop so that the work\nperformed by him can be better performed by them. Then, in accordance\nwith the law of progress, he will pass away. Until that time it is to be\nhoped that he will live his life with the agencies for good in the schools\nand do his part toward reducing the nimiber of his shortcomings, that\nthereby the efficiency and well-being of the schools may be increased.\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "4S6\n\nTHE\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nEFFECT\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\nON EDUCATION AND MORALS\nMOVING-PICTURE SHOWS\n\nJOSEPH R. FULK, SUPERINTENDENT\n\n[St. Louis\n\nOF THE\n\nOF SCHOOLS, SEWARD, NEBR.\n\nThe moving picture has developed a form of public entertainment that\nhas within the last few years spread itself over the entire civilized world.\nIt seems that at last a universal means of communication has sprung into\npopular use everywhere.\nThe still picture has in all times exerted great influence with cultiu'ed\nand literate humanity. The magic lantern and its modifications enlarged\nvery much the influence of the still picture, but language, written or spoken,\nwas required to give to it anything like complete meaning. The moving or\nliving pictm-e is imiversal. It carries much meaning without language.\nInterpretation of action is an instinctive tendency.\nThis paper is part of a general study of the moving-picture show.\nAltho the topic limits the discussion to the effect of these shows on education\nand morals, some of the facts concerning the development, financial aspects,\nand control of the business are given to point out the magnitude of the new\nproblem.\nIn their report for the year ending December 31, 191 1, the Bureau of\nMoving Pictiu-es of the City of Chicago gives the following figures:\nTotal number of films approved\n3,255\nTotal length of films approved\n2,604,000 ft.\nTotal number of 5c and loc theaters that exhibit moving pictures . . . 400\n\nHere are five himdred miles of original films released in one city in one\nyear. During the same period the censors of the bureau rejected thirteen\nmiles of films.\nAt present there are at least thirteen thousand moving-pictm-e theaters\nin the United States. The increase is about one thousand annually. Conservative authorities place the daily attendance at five million. The\nattendance at the foiu-teen himdred regular theaters is about seven himdred\nand fifty thousand a day.\nThe film-manufacturing business has grown to enormous proportions.\nThe great film companies employ studio \"stock\" players, and send groups\nof actors to all parts of the world to secure films with natiu^al and historical\nsettings. Films are made depicting life, industries, and scenery in many\nparts of the earth. The business has its trade journals, film bulletins,\nmagazines, and state and national exhibitors' associations. Within the last\nyear several schools have been opened for the purpose of teaching how to\nwrite scenarios or motion-picture plots.\nThese facts indicate that this new form of public entertainment is neither\na fleeting fad nor a mental epidemic, but is a sociological force that must\nbe reckoned with.\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMOVING-PICTURE\n\nSHOWS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n457\n\nThere is great truth in this assertion of Maeterlinck: \"It is the way in\nwhich our hours of freedom are spent that determines, as much as war or\nas labor, the moral worth of a nation.\" The American people spend about\none-fourth as much time in moving-picture shows as is spent in the public\nschools by children from fifteen to eighteen years of age. Authorities\nestimate that at least 25 per cent of those who attend are children. A\ncareful investigation of the attendance in thirty-six towns and cities of\nNebraska shows that 35 per cent of those attending are children imder\nfifteen years of age. Children and adults of all classes sit side by side in\nthe dim light of the motion-picture theater. The public school and the\nmoving-picture show seem to be the only truly democratic institutions in\nthe United States.\nThe control of the output of films is by far the greatest factor in the\nmotion-picture problem. The Board of Censorship of New York City\nwas formed in 1909, and was recognized by the film manufacturers as\nnational in 1910. The report of the National Board issued in May, 191 1,\nasserts that more than 99 per cent of all pictures publicly exhibited in the\nUnited States are censored by the board, and that the board's verdict is\ncarried out with approximate completeness in all parts of the coimtry.\nReports from various cities testify that the board has done much to place\ncleaner and better films on the market. The board has also aided in\ndeveloping the educational possibilities of the motion picture. However,\ncomparatively few educational films are produced. The 630 films released\nby the \"Licensed\" and \"Independent\" manufacturers during November\nand December, 191 1, are listed in \" Motography,\" a magazine whose\npurpose is exploiting the motion picture, as follows: dramas, 86 per cent;\nscenic, 6f per cent; current events, 2^ per cent; educational, 5 per cent.\n\"Motography\" for January, 1912, in reviewing the year 1911, says:\nThe year has been marked by a general increase in the output of films, most of the\nlicensed, and many of the independent, makers adding one or two reels to the weekly\nproduct. It is to be regretted, however, that a large portion of the new product has\nnot been devoted to scientific, educational, and travel subjects.\n\nSome of the film manufactiu^ers have educational departments. In\nreply to an inquiry one of the large companies answered as follows:\nWe have in course of preparation a Moving Picture Library of America, which will\nembrace trips treated in a comprehensive manner, covering all the states, and showing\nthe principal attractions; points of interest in cities, and along railroads; rural and city\ndevelopments; views of the largest industrial institutions with data pertaining thereto;\nhistorical scenes and topography of each state. It will be possible for a school to obtain\na single fibn of one state or films of all the states.\n\nIn his catalog which he calls \"An Educational System by Visualization,\"\nGeorge Kleine of Chicago lists over one thousand films. This he claims\nincludes all available films on educational topics. Many in this list,\nhowever, are very loosely called educational.\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nThe Edison company will soon put on the market a moving-picture\nmachine designed especially for school and home use. This machine,\nwhich is to sell for about fifty dollars, will use a special film costing about\ntwelve dollars. This is about one-tenth of the cost of the ordinary trade\nfilm. These special films will be rented to schools at a reasonable rate.\nA few schools, churches, and other organizations are now using the\nmotion picture as an educational and moral help. These uses, however,\nare comparatively rare. At present, it is the motion picture in the public\nshow that is yielding the influence.\nThe popiilar motion picture is essentially dramatic. In some respects\nit is a modem development of the pantomime. As a rule film manufacturers\nuse educational material only when it contains a dramatic story in some\nform. The drama in its various forms has always played an important\npart in civilization. The moving-picture show has done for the drama\nwhat printing did for literature. It has brought a form of dramatic art\ninto the daily life of the people. The photoplay holds and afifects an\naudience in very much the same manner and degree as the regular drama.\nIt may have fifty or one himdred scenes if needed; may follow a character\nfrom place to place, and may present scenes and circimistances that are\nnot possible on the stage. But it has its limitations. When action is\nsubordinated to an element of character the film is inadequate. What\npeople are may be suggested only by what they do. The appeal is thru\nthe eye, and is chiefly emotional. This omission of language and of the\ndirect intellectual appeal weakens the motion-picture drama, and renders\nit less moral, because it stirs primitive passions and does not arouse highest\nmental activity.\nAnyone who has observed moving-picture audiences when educational\nfiJms have been thrown on the screen must be convinced that people do\nnot go to these shows to be instructed. It is the dramatic short-story\nfilm that appeals to them. The films that give the thrills of the \"yellow\nback\" novel without effort or exertion are most popular. Indians, cowboys, domestic troubles, daring deeds, elopements, the love story, these are\nthe common popular themes. There is much display of the sentimental.\nMany of the situations and experiences of life that are more or less sacred or\nprivate are shown again and again to audiences of both sexes and of all ages.\nThe moving-picture show does not recognize the chUd and the adolescent.\nSpecial shows for children would remove many of the objectionable features.\nAt present the question is not, *' What shall my son or daughter read ? \" but,\n\"What moving pictures shall my son or daughter see?^' The sensational\nand emotional novel is seen these days, not read.\nThis constant playing upon the emotions of the child and adolescent\ntends to overexcite, and to dull the finer feelings, and to prevent the normal\ndevelopment of the emotional life. The overexcitement creates an everincreasing desire for something that stirs and thrills. Whatever holds\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMOVING-PICTURE\n\nSHOWS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n459\n\nattention determines action. This growing desire for emotional excitement is apt to lead children, and adolescents especially, away from right\nideals and morality. Here lies the greatest moral danger of the motionpicture drama. The possibilities for evil due to the dim light of most of\nthe moving-picture theaters add much to this danger.\nThe direct educational influence of the moving pictures in the public\ntheaters is very difl5cult to measure. No one doubts that under proper\nsupervision the motion picture can be made a valuable help in formal\ninstruction. Certain phases of many school branches, such as historical\nevents, industries, transportation, and customs of peoples, may be taught\nmore effectively with their aid. But it seems to me that the educational\nvalue and possibilities of the motion picture have been unduly emphasized.\nAttention to moving things is instinctive, and is not apt to be accompanied by real mental activity. If the moving objects are constantly\nchanging in form and position there is continuous change of ideas. The\nmind cannot rest on any object of thought. The \"stream of consciousness\"\nbecomes a torrent, in which things may be recognized, but not accounted\nfor nor reasoned about. The film of the moving-picture show moves very\nrapidly. There is very little given in the way of explanation. The mind\nis hurried from one thing to another until the picture becomes little more\nthan a fantasy or day-dream, imless it has a strong emotional appeal. If\nthere is impression, there is no chance for expression. Posed educational\nfilms often misrepresent, and some films advertised as taken on the spot are\nevidently posed. All frequenters of moving-picture shows are acquainted\nwith the New England buildings and background of the cowboy and western\nIndian films, and many have seen a lion hunt in Africa or a jungle scene\nposed in a film plant in Paris, New York, or Chicago. Travel and geographical films give about the same conception of a region as is obtained by\nviewing it from a railway train.\nThe headliners of the newspapers interpret the facts for the busy or\nmentally indolent readers. The cartoonists do much to mold public\nopinion. In London there are three daily papers which contain practically\nnothing but news pictures with short explanations. The Animated Gazette\nis a London film organization that furnishes a daily service of moving pictures of the news to a circuit of theaters having audiences of two million\ndaily. Weekly current-event films are now used by many of the movingpicture shows of this country.\nAll of these organizations and forces tend to weaken thought power by\nfurnishing to the people ready-made interpretations and conclusions. The\nsame influence is being exerted in the field of literature by the photoplays\nbased upon standard literary productions. The standardization of the\ninterpretation of a poem like \"Enoch Arden\" robs the poem of its chief\nvalue, and takes from those who have not read it the joy of the reading.\nSuch a poem cannot be seen except in the imagination of the reader. The\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "46o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(St. Louis\n\nusual crudeness of the acting and the inadequacy of expression make the\nphotoplay of such a poem a serious obstacle to real interpretation and\nappreciation.\nIt seems to me that under the most favorable circumstances the public\nmotion-picture theater has very little educational value, and that these\nshows as now managed are often detrimental to education.\nMy investigation has led me to believe that on the whole the motionpicture shows are less harmful to education and morals in the large cities\nthan in the small cities and towns.\nThis conclusion is based to a great extent upon an investigation carried\non in Nebraska, and also on my own observation of the shows themselves.\nI sent a questionnaire on the motion-picture show to the superintendent\nor principal of the public schools of every city or town in Nebraska having a\npopulation of seven hundred or more. Reports are tabulated from 68\ntowns. Of the towns reporting, 20 have a population of less than one\nthousand each; 27 between one and two thousand each; and 11 between\ntwo and three thousand. The list includes one city with a population of\nten thousand, and five between five and ten thousand each.\nThere are 95 moving-picture shows in operation in these 68 Nebraska\ntowns. The average attendance in the 36 towns reporting that item is\n40,000 per week. Thirty-five per cent of those attending are children\nunder fifteen years of age. The previous business of the managers of 54\nshows was reported. Among these, seventeen had been in the merchanc ise\nbusiness; six loafers or no business; six farmers; five showmen; three\nbilliards and pool; two barbers; two editors; two students. Eleven other\ncallings were represented. Few especially fitted men were in charge of\nshows. The business is strictly commercialized.\nOf the 64 towns answering the question : \" Are shows open on Sundays ? \"\n57 reported \"No\"; 7 \"Yes.\" Sixty-one out of 65 reported no local control\nof pictures shown.\n\"Are there any local restrictions or ordinances regarding the attendance\nof children ?\" was answered in the negative by each of the 64 towns reporting. One town reported a movement to pass an ordinance refusing admission to children, after the first evening show, imless accompanied by parent\nor guardian.\nForty-one towns reported no local opposition to the shows; 11 some or\nvery slight opposition; 12 organized opposition. The organized opposition\nwas by chiirches, good-government clubs, and public schools.\nIn 40 towns all classes of people patronize the shows; 10 report attendance chiefly yoimg people and laborers; 5 name the rowdy element as\nprominent.\nThirty-seven schools reported that the shows were harmful to school\nwork; 6 helpful or not detrimental. The commonest causes of harm given\nwere : ' ' neglect of home study\" ; \" diffused attention and dullness\" ; \" wrong\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMOVING-PICTURE\n\nSHOWS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n461\n\nideas of literature, geography, and history\"; \"frivolity and desire for cheap\nentertainment\"; \"general tendency toward the coarse and low, the rude\nand disrespectful.\" The only helpful influence named was, \"Creates\ninterest in geography and history.\"\nIn answer to the question, \"What is your opinion of the influence of\nthese shows upon school children as regards character formation?\" 38\nreplied \"bad, detrimental, harmful, or no good,\" 10, \"good, no bad effects,\"\nor \"very little influence.\" Some of the causes of evil influences were:\n\"Numerous love scenes foster too much familiarity among boys and girls\";\n\"desire for excitement\"; \"at shows children mingle with all classes, hear\nindecent jokes, etc.\"; \"take children away from home\"; \"the music\nnever elevates \" ; \" wrong impressions of life created \" ; \" lessens capacity for\nearnest, persistent work\"; \"cultivates habits of careless spending\";\n\"many pictiu-es suggest evil to boys and girls.\" The good influences\nwere not named.\nForty-seven reported the shows harmful to the physical welfare of school\nchildren; 8 no injurious physical effects noticed. \"Injury to eyes,\" \"bad\nventilation,\" and \"loss of sleep\" were most often given as physical harm.\nThirty-eight reported that they considered the shows more harmful\nthan beneficial to the community; 13 more beneficial. The chief harmful\ncauses given were: \"Deprave public taste\"; \"trivial waste of time\";\n\"appeals to sensational side of life, and ruins better class of public entertainment\"; \"causes children to want to be entertained\"; \"engenders\nidleness.\" Some of the benefits named were: \"wholesome amusement at\nlow cost\"; \"much better than ordinary cheap shows\"; \" keeps young men\nfrom pool halls\"; \"comparatively harmless for a class that would spend\nmoney for dance or drink\"; \"supply considerable information.\"\nIn a few cases superintendents showed very little interest in the subject,\nand their replies indicated very slight knowledge of social conditions in\ntheir communities.\nMy general study of the motion-picture problem and the special study\nof conditions in Nebraska seem to justify these conclusions:\n1. The moving-picture show has come to stay, and will increase in\nnumbers and influence.\n2. The character of the films shown and the general influence of the\nshows have improved much in the last three years.\n3. There are important possibilities in the educational film, but the\npubHc motion-picture theater has very little, if any, educational value.\nThe people want to be thrilled and amused, not instructed.\n4. The moving-picture show yields a tremendous moral influence, that\nis not generally xmderstood or considered. At present this influence is\ndecidedly detrimental.\n5. At present the public motion- picture theater is doing more harm than\ngood, especially in the smaller towns.\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE STANDARDIZATION\nG. M. WILSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF JANITOR\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\n[St. Louis\n\nSERVICE\n\nCONNERSVILLE,\n\nIND.\n\nThe physical basis of our school work is in charge of the janitor. We\nlook to him for proper temperature, proper ventilation, proper humidity,\nand proper cleanliness. These matters are related very directly, not only\nto the health and happiness of the child, but to his progress in school work\nas well.\nDr. Putnam says:\nMethods of precision are as practicable and as necessary for caretakers of a school as\nfor nurses in a hospital; their routine practice is entirely possible with reasonable\ninstructions.\n\nJanitor service being physical and manual would seem to lend itself\nreadily to standardization. But my investigations show a general absence\nof standards and a resulting inefl&ciency and neglect. This is wrong, for\ncompulsory education means compulsory contagion and disease unless\nphysical conditions are kept right. No good homemaker has the dirty\nfloors and foul air with which we shut up children and teachers.\nThe desire to improve the janitor service in my own system led me two\nyears ago, under the inspiration of ex-Commissioner Brown, to attempt a\nstudy of janitor service. It became evident early in the study that there\nwas little agreement as to definite standards. The facts gathered with\nreference to cleaning will illustrate the situation. Out of 40 manuals of\nrules and regulations examined, 24 made any reference to the duties of\njanitors. With a possible mention of and agreement on 288 points in connection with scrubbing, sweeping, dusting, and other simple points in cleaning, there was an actual mention of 58 points and a practical agreement on\n13. Two of the 40 manuals indicated how the scrubbing was to be done.\nTwo indicated how the woodwork was to be cleaned. Three indicated how\nthe walls were to be cleaned, but the practice even among the three varied\nfrom cleaning the walls once in two months to once a year. Six of the 40\nmanuals indicated how often the windows were to be washed, but even\namong the six mentioning the point the frequency varied from one month to\nthree months. Cities whose manuals of rules and regulations were examined\nwere scattered thruout the following states: New York, New Jersey,\nPennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska,\nIowa, Montana, California, Texas, Louisiana, Georgia, and Kentucky. The\ncities are fairly representative of the country, but even among cities in\nclose proximity there is no more likelihood of agreement than among these\nwidely scattered cities. The following illustrative table (p. 463) shows\nthe distribution on a few of the facts considered.\nThe study of rules and regulations was followed by sending out a question aire inJuly, 1910, in which the chief points covered were the following:\nHow are the floors dressed? How often in halls, in rooms?\nAre floors\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF JANITOR\n\n463\n\nSERVICE\n\nscrubbed or mopped, and how often in halls, in rooms, and in toilets?\nHow is the sweeping done — with broom, with brush, with dust-down?\nHow often is the sweeping done ? And in like manner details as to cleaning\nthe woodwork, dusting, washing windows, and caring for the blackboards\nwere called for. Not all of the returns from this questionnaire were summarized, but a number were selected at random, which from all appearances\nwere fairly representative. The cities selected were distributed thruout\nthe following states: New York, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Florida, and\nIllinois. In 17 cities selected at random, with the possible mention of and\nagreement on 476 points, there was an actual mention of 274 points and a\npractical agreement on 155 points, which is 56 per cent of the points mentioned or 32 per cent of the total points. The 32 per cent of agreement on\ntotal points is the significant figure, as omission in the questionnaire means\nthe absence of any definite standard. The word \"practical\" in this study\nwas inserted in order to get agreement where there was very little evidence\n\nFloorsHow\nDressed\n\nNumber mentioned out of 40\nLargest practical\nagreement\nRange of practice\n\nHow\nOften\n\nHow\nScrubbed\n\nHow\nOften\nRooms\n10\n\n0\n\n0\n\n2\n\n2\n\n\"Mop\"\n\n6\nMonthtwice\nly to\na year\n\nHow\nOften\nToilets\n\nHow\nSwept\nOften\n\nHow\nCleaned\nwork\n\nDusting\nHow\nOften\n\nWood-\n\n6\n\n9\n\n2\n\n9\n\n4\nDaily\n\nDaily\n\n8\n\n2\n\n3\n\nto\nyearly\n\nto twice \"Wash\" twice\nMontha week\nly to\na year\n\nCleaned\nOften\n\nCleaned\nWalls\n\ndows\nto 3\n\n3\n\nDaily\nII\n\n2\n\n9\n\nTwo\nmonths\n\nWin-\n\nI month\ntoa we\ntwice months\nek\n\nyearly\nto\n\nof agreement. For instance, woodwork cleaned from two to five times a\nyear was considered as agreement. The real agreement is in having no\ndefinite standard. This is further illustrated by some of the details.\nWoodwork was cleaned variously from daily to once a year. The baseboards were dusted in some places daily, in other places yearly. The windows were washed in a few places weekly and other places less frequently\nto twice a year. The illustrative table (p. 464) shows the distribution on\na few points studied in the questionnaire.\nIt seems reasonable to conclude from the study of rules and regulations\nand from the returns based upon the questionnaire that there are no wellestablished standards in the matter of schoolroom cleaning. The large\nnumber not reporting or reporting very indefinitely is stronger evidence\nof the absence of standards than the lack of agreement among those reporting. The two lines of investigation point to the same conclusion. Variations may be due to conditions, but under any conditions there should be a\nstandard. Some of the sources of error in the foregoing investigations are:\n(i) The difficulty of getting at actual practice thru a manual of rules and\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n464\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nregulations. (2) The desire of superintendents to make a good showing\nin a questionnaire, especially when in doubt asio facts. (3) The difficulty\nof comparing situations that may vary as to important factors.\nAbout two years ago Dr. Ayres studied a few of the facts with reference\nto schoolroom cleaning in 1,038 cities scattered thruout the United States.\nIn his fine optimistic way Dr. Ayres notes the tendency toward better\nsanitary conditions and methods as applied to cleaning. Yet the other side\nof the situation shows that there were 395, or nearly 40 per cent, of the\n1,038 cities where moist cloths were not used for dusting purposes. There\nwere 144 cities, or over 10 per cent, not using dust-absorbing compounds for\nsweeping. The median frequency of the washing of schoolroom floors was\n3I months, the variation being from one day to never (which doubtless\nmeans eternity). The median frequency of the washing of windows among\nthe 1,038 cities was four months, the variation being from 1 once 1a4 week to\n4\nI\nonce a year, seven again reporting never. In order toS test out to an extent\n\nFloors\nHow —\nDressed\n\nOften\nRooms\n\nNumber reporting out of 17\n\nHow\nCleaned\n\nOften\nToilets\n\nSwept\nOften\n\n14\nHow\nCleaned\n\nHow\nOften\n\nOften\nWalls\n\nDusting\nHow\n\n6\nI month\nto\n\nly)\nly)\nDaily to Daily to\nyearly\nyearly\n\nS years\n\n(month-\n\nMop\n\noa\n\nWinOften\nWashed\ndows\nto104\n\n10\n\nLargest practical\nagreement\nRange of difference (underscore\nprevalent)\n\nOften\nHalls\n\n14\n\n(month-\n\nMonthly\n\nDaily\nWash\n\na to s\n\n8\nDamp\n\nto\nyearly\ncloth\n\nWeeUy\n\ntimes a\n\n(3\ntimes\na year)\nyears\n\nthe statement made by Dr. Ayres that \"these most encouraging signs of year\nprogress with respect to the cleansing of schoolrooms mdicate that the day\nis not far distant when our schools shall be as clean as hospitals\"; in order\nto learn to what extent we were approximating these conditions, I secured\nfrom Dr. Ayres, under promise of strict secrecy, the names of 50 cities\nwhere dust-absorbing compounds were not used in sweeping, and the names\nof 50 cities where moist cloths were not used in dusting. To these 100 cities\nletters were sent including a self-addressed postal, ready for reply after inserting the word \"yes\" or \"no.\" This reduced the effort on the part of those\nresponding to a minimum and insured a large measure of accuracy in the\nreturns. The returns indicate that the optimism of Dr. Ayres is not without\nsome foundation. Twenty per cent of those responding have in the last\ntwo years adopted the plan of using dust-absorbing compoimds in sweeping,\n80 per cent are persisting in their former insanitary methods. Thirty-six\nper cent of those responding indicate that they are now using moist cloths\nin dusting, while only 64 per cent persist in the use of former methods.\nNot\n\n4\n\"^\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF JANITOR\n\nSERVICE\n\n465\n\nall responded. It is possible that those who could respond favorably\nresponded a little more promptly and therefore a little more surely. The\nreplies indicate that progress is being made slowly and that much remains\nto be done, for the smaller, less fortunate schools were not included in the\ninquiry.\nThe further study made recently thru the courtesy of the educational\njournals, in printing a questionnaire, does not add in any material way to the\ninformation as gathered in former studies. Window-washing, for instance,\ncontinues to vary from once a week to summer showers. Thruout it is\nnoticed that it is with rare exception that any definite standards exist with\nregard to cleaning. While I do not know with any definiteness that the\nsame conditions exist in other lines of janitor work, yet I wiU venture that\nmany of you are ready to agree that the same conditions do exist and that\nthere is a general absence of definite standards with regard to lighting,\nheating, ventilation, and practically all of the lines of janitorial service.\nNow for a few minutes I desire to defend the thesis that it- is possible\nto fix definite standards and thereby to increase greatly the eflaciency of\njanitorial service. As regards ventilation, we know that each pupU is\nentitled to 200 cubic feet of air space with an inflow and exit of 30 cubic\nfeet of air per minute. It is possible to measure and insist upon this standard of fresh air. We know that foul air is conducive to catarrhal and\npulmonary diseases, and that contagion spreads under such conditions. We\nknow, on the other hand, that fresh air is very closely related to a fresh\nmind, to progress and success.\nIn the matter of lighting we know that clear, clean glass should equal\none-fourth the floor space, that the hght should come from one side of the\nroom only, that no light should come from the side of the room opposite the\nteacher's desk, that the width of the room should not exceed 30 feet from\nthe left side, that chipped glass reduces the amount of light from 25\nto 50 per cent, that the upper one-fourth of the window furnishes onethird of the light, etc. We know also, that this is directly related to\ncleaning, that dirty windows mean a reduction in light varying from 10 to\n50 per cent. Knowing all of the foregoing, it seems possible to determine a\ndefinite standard for lighting and in any particular locality a definite standard for cleaning the windows. It is just as surely known that this will not\nbe secured by a direction to wash the windows \"when dirty\" or \"as often\nas needed.\"\nAs regards humidity, we know that enlarged tonsils, catarrhal diseases,\ngenerally nervous and anaemic conditions follow the failure to humidify the\nair properly. We have a definite standard fixing a lower limit as 60 per\ncent and the upper limit as a relative humidity of 70 per cent. We know\nthe methods by which to secure the proper standard of humidity. So here\nagain it would seem possible to fix and to carry out a definite standard.\nWith reference to the temperature of the schoolroom, we know that a\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nuniform temperature of 68 degrees means from 25 to 50 per cent less coughing and colds in the schoolroom than a tempera tiu*e of 72 degrees. We know\nthat excessive temperatures mean a weakened condition, rendering the child\nsusceptible to disease and impeding progress in school work. We were\ntold by the Science Department of this Association last year that the\ntemperature should never under any circumstances be permitted to pass\n70 degrees Fahrenheit, the lower limit being 66 degrees. In regard to\ntemperature there is certainly one standard which can be fixed with confidence. And yet we find a wide variation from this standard and a prevalence of high temperatures.\nThe foregoing brief discussion calls attention to the fact that in addition\nto cleaning there is a possibility of definite standards of janitorial service\nin connection with ventilation, Hght, humidity, and temperatm-e.\nNow permit me to return to my own situation and to report what we\nhave accomplished during the past two years in regard to schoolroom\ntemperatm^e and cleaning, and the means employed to secure the results.\nThe schoolroom temperature has been reduced from a variable ranging\nfrom 70 to 75 or 80 degrees to a close approximation to a constant at 68\ndegrees Fahrenheit, This has been accompHshed thru special attention\nto the matter and requiring a report on alternate weeks showing the temperature at five chosen times thruout the day. The record .'s made by pupils\nin upper grades.\nA janitor's schedule fixing standards and organizing the work at each\nbui ding has been most effective in securing residts in cleaning. The\nschedule varies sHghtly with different buildings. The janitor's schedule\nfor our central building is given herewith.\nJANITOR'S SCHEDULE\n1. Yard. — Papers picked up daily, walks swept daily, morning. Ropes for may poles\nand swings put up before 8 : 00 a.m.\n2. Scrubbing. — Scrub* all toilet floors and urinals twice per week. Wash seats with\nwarm water, gold dust, and coal oil — Wednesday and Saturday. Scrub gjTnnasium once\nper week — Monday a.m. Once every six weeks scrub halls and schoolroom floors —\nMonday.\n3. Woodwork. — Once a week wash door knobs, hand rails, banisters with warm water,\ngold dust, and coal oil — Saturday. Once every six weeks wash other woodwork —\nThursday.\n4. Walls. — Brushed down every six weeks. Downstairs third week, upstairs sixth\nweek.\n5. Sweeping. — All schoolroom, hall, toilet, and basement floors swept daily with dust\ndown and brush — evening.\n6. Dusting. — Done with cloth dampened with water or coal oil. Desks, doors,\nwindow sills, and baseboards dusted daily. Pictures, doors, and window casings once a\nweek — Friday evening.\n7. Blackboards cleaned each Saturday and troughs swept out daily.\n8. Windows washed inside and out twice per month with bon ami or alcohol.\n\nThis schedule secured decided improvement immediately. Any janitor\nwho took an interest and pride in his building welcomed it. It set a\nstandard and systematized his work.\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOST\n\nOF HIGH-\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n467\n\nIt is not efifective to require that the building be kept \"in sanitary condition.\" Whether it is original sin or an acquired tendency, janitors, when\nleft to do things \"as needed\" or \"as often as necessary to insure sanitary\nconditions,\" show a decided preference toward toasting their shins in front\nof a furnace rather than cleaning windows, walls, woodwork, and floors — ^in\nhalls, closets, and unoccupied rooms. They prefer to leave this work for\nthe annual cleaning period on extra pay during vacation. As janitors are\nusually paid there is no objection to the extra remuneration, but objection\nis made to the filthy, disease-breeding conditions resulting, in which children\nmust live.\nRecently the plan of requiring a regular report on the cleaning was\nbegun. The report is made at the close of each six-weeks period. It covers^\nwashing windows, scrubbing floors, cleaning woodwork, etc., and requires\nthe signature of the teacher in the room. This report keeps the work constantly before the janitor, teacher, and principal, and brings a summary\nregularly to the attention of the superintendent. It is safe to say, that in\nthe cleaning phase of our janitor work we get fully twice as much work from\nthe same force of janitors with no increase in cost of service.\nThese measures — definite schedule and regular report — have brought\nresults \"of which we do know.\" Dr. Dresslar of the Bureau of Education\nhas called my attention to a recent development in the way of further\nimprovement and standardization of janitor service. It is the selection of\na head janitor centrally located who shall instruct other janitors in details\nof the work with the notion of bringing the poorest up to the standards of\nthe best.\nMy investigations and experience justify the following conclusions:\nFirst, there is a surprising absence of standards in janitorial service. Second,\nbeing physical and manual, almost every phase of janitorial service lends\nitself readily to standardization. Third, increased eflficiency of janitor\nservice and more sanitary conditions for the child follow quickly upon\nstandardization. Fourth, a regular system of reporting aids in maintaining\nthe efficient service required by the established standards.\nTHE\nE.\n\nRELATIVE COST OF EDUCATION OF HIGH- AND\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL PUPILS\nO. HOLLAND,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nLOUISVILLE,\n\nKY.\n\nWhat proportion of the school revenue should be devoted to the care\nand instruction of the elementary pupils and what proportion to the education of secondary pupils? In glancing thru the annual publications\nissued during the past ten years, by the National Education Association\nfor its various departments concerned with public-school work, I was\nunable to find any detailed discussion of this important subject.\nAt one time, not many years ago, the traditional elementary- and\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louk\n\nsecondary-school work seemed to meet the demands, if not the needs, of\nthe general public. At that time, too, a more careful analysis of the relative\nexpenditures of public money devoted to the elementary and the secondary\ndivisions of a public-school system was not of great importance, since these\nexpenditures could be roughly estimated and a fair proportion maintained.\nEven with the introduction of kindergarten work in many of the school\nsystems, the danger of weakening the efficiency of one large department of\nthe school work was inconsiderable, especially where the superintendent\nwas given reasonable freedom of initiative. But today, with the establishment, for example, of continuation schools for the pupils who abandon\nthe traditional classroom work at an early age, and with the creation of\nspecial schools for the anaemic, the foreign-bom, the defectives, and the\nincorrigibles, the task of maintaining the proper equalization in expenditure\nis much more difficult and requires a more careful analysis.\nThis is obvious since most of the special types of schools, recently established, care for children that belong to the general elementary field. Consequently there is a decided tendency to maintain all these special schools\nfrom the fimds that have usually been set aside for the maintenance of the\nelementary schools alone. Another additional drain on the elementaryschool funds, which should be considered here, is due to the larger enrollment in the grades for which our more eflFective compulsory-education laws\nare directly responsible.\nSo far as I have been able to learn, there is no school system in this\ncountry that today is spending too much money on its graded schools, but\nit is not difficult to give the names of several large cities that are spending\nentirely too large amounts on their secondary schools.\nUnfortimately the more intelligent forces of a coramimity do not wait\nfor an analysis of school expenditmres to make known their washes; they\nare especially insistent in their demand that the high schools be properly\ncared for. Generally speaking, only a small group of these same individuals\nwill visit a ward or graded school and demand that more money and efifort\nbe expended upon the younger children. As a consequence, the greatest\ndisproportion in expenditure can be foimd among those cities where\nexpert educational leadership has been ignored and where disproportionate\nexpenditures follow the wishes of a small but powerful group of citizens\nwho do not understand that the granting of their demands by the school\nauthorities will entail hardship upon hundreds of teachers in the grades,\nlower the efficiency of the whole public-school system, and will be the\ndirect cause of increasing the school mortality at an alarming rate.\nThe expenditures in the city of Louisville for secondary education have\nbeen and are still out of all proportion to what has been spent on the elementary schools in that city. I shall give the details concerning this\nsituation, since I am familiar with them and they serve to emphasize the\nneed of establishing some general standard to determine expenditures.\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nCOST\n\nOF HIGH-\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY -SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n469\n\nLouisville is a city of slightly less than a quarter of a million inhabitants,\nand yet a year ago it was attempting to maintain seven separate high\nschools. Three of these schools were for girls, two for boys, one — the\ncommercial high school — for both boys and girls, and a colored high school\nfor both boys and girls. When we consider that the city of St. Louis, with\na population of 687,000 inhabitants — three times as large as Louisville —\nis today maintaining but five secondary schools, we can imderstand that,\nrelatively speaking, Louisville has been neglecting her elementary schools,\nin which 90 per cent of the entire school enrollment is to be found.\nVery recently the members of the Louisville Board of Education began\nto make an investigation to discover how much of a disparity there was in\nthese expenditures. In comparing Louisville and Indianapolis, cities of the\nsame size, they discovered that the enrollment in the two Indianapolis high\nschools was in excess of 3,600, while the seven Louisville high schools had\nan enrollment of 2,700 pupils, or 900 less. Furthermore, they found that,\nbased upon enrollment, it cost $58.77 to educate a high-school pupil in\nIndianapolis, while in Louisville the cost was $76.76 per pupil. It should\nbe stated here that the Louisville high-school buildings and the laboratory\nequipment are not superior to the buildings and general high-school equipment found in Indianapolis.\nBut the discouraging and unfair part of the high-school organization\nin Louisville was discovered when a further analysis was made, showing\nthat Indianapolis spent on its high schools but 17.7 per cent of its total\nrevenue, while Louisville spent 27.3 per cent. At the same time it was\nfound that Indianapolis expended $34 for every child enrolled in the\nelementary schools, while Louisville expended but $23.32. This difference between these two cities in expenditure for the elementary schools\nwould be more than $250,000 or approximately $450 for every graded\nschoolroom in the city of Louisville.\nAs soon as the above facts were discovered the Louisville Board of\nEducation began to take steps to reduce the abnormal cost of its high\nschools, and by the middle of this scholastic year, an addition had been\nerected at the Central Girls' High School building and the three girls'\nschools combined. At the same time, the Commercial High School was\nabolished, and the girls in that school were sent to the Central Girls' High\nSchool and the boys to the Male High School. As a result of this consolidation, the saving at the Central Girls' High School in salaries of teachers,\njanitors, matrons, and assistants will be this year in excess of $20,000, and\nthe saving at the Male High School will not be less than $8,000. Furthermore, the enrollment of girls due to this consolidation has not decreased\nas some predicted; in fact, there has been an increase in the enrollment of\nbetween one himdred and fifty and two hundred.\nBut even yet the expenditure of 23 or 24 per cent of the school revenue\non the high schools in the city of Louisville is abnormally high. If the two\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nhigh schools for boys could be consolidated and a new building erected to\naccommodate them, it is estimated that between $10,000 and $15,000 could\nbe saved each year. This saving in Louisville is essential to the development of a modem elementary-school system, such as can be found in many\nof the cities of the Middle West. If this were done additional money could\nbe devoted to the elementary schools, and thousands of boys and girls in\nthe intermediate grades of our public-school system would not then be\ntempted to abandon their educational opportunities at the end of the compulsory age period. Instead, hundreds of our children would be induced\nto continue imtil the seventh or eighth grade, and better still, many of them\nwould find it possible to complete the high-school course of study.\nThis disproportion in expenditure for elementary and secondary education in Louisville is probably no greater than it is in many other cities\nof this country, and therefore it will be of interest to boards of education\nin other places. This disparity in the expenditure of school revenue of\ncourse can in no sense of the word be considered typical but will serve to\nemphasize the need of a more careful estimate of our expenditures for the\nvarious school departments.\nCertainly we cannot assume that a child in the elementary school is not\njust as important to the welfare of a community, or to a state, as is a child\nenrolled in one of our high schools. It is true that the leadership of this\ncountry comes from the yoimg men and women who continue their education thru, if not beyond, the high-school course, but the foimdations of\nour social structure are dependent upon the education and guidance of the\nthousands upon thousands of boys and girls whose economic efficiency\nand whose social and civic ideals are based upon the work of elementary\nschools.\nFortimately it will not be long until we shall have some definite standards to set up in estimating the relative amoimt of money that should be\nspent for elementary and secondary education, and even on the newer phases\nof public-school work. Dr. Harlan Updegraff, specialist in school administration ofthe Bureau of Education, has just made a careful study of the\nexpenses of school systems in cities of 30,000 inhabitants and over. This\npublication will be ready for distribution within a few weeks. In it Dr.\nUpdegraff states that the object of issuing this publication is primarily \" to\nprovide those charged with the administration of public schools in the\nlargest cities of the United States the means of making exact comparisons\nof cost between any two or more cities.\" In my opinion this is a most\nvaluable contribution in the field of school administration.\nOf the 184 cities in the United States in igio with a population of 30,000 or over. Dr. Updegraff has made a minute study of the school expenses\nof 103 of these cities. In order to make more careful estimates, he has\ndivided these cities into four groups, according to size. Two of these tables\n\" show in detail for each city the annual cost per pupil, based on enrollment,\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\n471\n\nof each kind of expense for instruction, operation, and maintenance of\nelementary and secondary schools.\"\nAfter presenting his data, the author raises the question, \"What is the\nrange of a proper ratio between average costs of elementary and high\nschools?\" Taking the detailed facts concerning the school expenditures\nin the 103 cities he studied, Dr. Updegraff states that the best, or at least\nthe most representative school cities — those within the middle 50 per cent\nof the distribution — spend from $1.80 to $2.60 per high-school child as\nagainst $1.00 for every child enrolled in the elementary schools. The\nmedian city spent $2.16 upon its high school for every dollar spent on the\ngrades. If this standard could be enforced in many of our leading school\ncities, the question of elimination and retardation would not give us so\nmuch concern, for certainly more children would be saved to the schools\nand advance more rapidly in their work. Most of us will agree with the\nauthor of the bulletin when he asserts:\nIn some cities it would be a far better distribution of public funds to take away from\nhigh schools having high average cost and high percentage of funds devoted to them and\nadd the same to the broadening of courses in the elementary schools in order to meet the\nneeds of those who are backward or who are losing interest in the present curriculum.\n\nROUND\nROUND\n\nTABLES\n\nTABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY\nTOPIC:\nTHE\nEARL\n\nBARNES,\n\nAGRICULTURE\nEDUCATIONAL\nLECTURER\n\nON\n\nIN THE\nVALUE\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTOPICS,\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nEducation is ever)rwhere today turning from the predigested forms of knowledge\nfoimd in books to the real things found in life, from an exclusively intellectual training to\ndeveloping and disciplining all the powers of the individual. In this movement new\ngroups of activities are being selected and organized as educational instruments. Naturestudy, industrial or vocational education, plays and recreation centers, practical civics,\nand agriciilture are among these new lines of study now being urged upon the attention\nof educators. Of these subjects, nature work and the activities gathering aroimd recreation centers have been pushed forward primarily because of their supposed immediate\nvalue to the children. Industrial or vocational training, practical civics, and agriculture\nhave more commonly been urged because of community needs, tho they have also been\nsupposed to possess educational value for the children.\nThe aim of this paper is to ask what agriculture, as a subject of study, really does to\nthe children who pursue it. And by the study of agriculture we do not here mean the\nworking-over Of textbooks or lecture information about climate, soils, plants, and products\n— we mean, instead, lessons imder competent direction, mainly out of doors, in which the\nchildren work with real soil; prepare it for planting; select, test, and plant real seeds;\ncultivate, water, fertilize, and protect the plants that spring from their seeding; and\ngather and use the products of their labor. If pets and domesticated animals can be\nadded, the possibilities of training are greatly increased.\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nAs a subject of study for children, agriculture has an evil record which it must outgrow. Children all over the world are fleeing from the farms to the city. Isolation,\nmonotonous drudgery, lack of social and spiritual stimulus have made work on the land\na thing to be dreaded by all who long for life more abundantly. But we are not here\ndiscussing the evils associated with farming for profit, nor the desirability of farming as a\nbusiness, nor even the need of the community for intelligent and happy farmers. We are\ndiscussing the effect of lessons planned for educational restilts, not for farm profits,\nconducted in pleasant school gardens, and on neighboring farms, and stopping short of\nthe empty weariness that makes many of us remember our childhood with pain and\nregret.\nIn the first place, then, such a study of agriculture as we have indicated commands\nfrom the start a wide range of the interests most common to children. School children\nare active, concrete, and personal in all that they think and do, as compared with adults.\nPlanting and cultivating things appeal at once 'to all their native interests. There is\nsomething doing all the time; the children are studying concrete things that can be seen\nand handled; and each child has a steady personal relation to the things he plants and\nprotects or neglects. Even the child's native desire for struggle and contest is amply\nsatisfied thru rivalry with his fellows, and the incessant fight against sterility or overgrowth, drought or excessive moisture, pests or thieves. In most of our older school\nstudies, these interests have to be awakened by indirection and maintained by artificial\nexpedients. In agricultiu-e, they spring to the front at once and the teacher has only to\nuse them. In a word, the study is deeply attractive to normal children of all ages.\nProbably all thoughtful educators will agree today that sound education consists in\nreceiving impressions from the external world thru end organs of sense, passing them\nalong afferent nerves to ganglia of nerve cells, where they are registered as images, and\ngenerally also compared and associated with other memory images, and then the impulse\nis passed out along efferent nerves to muscles, producing activity in some way corresponding with the impression originally received. To put it differently, good education,\nespecially in the earlier years, should give the children a body of significant impressions,\nshould lead them to register these as memories and work them up in associated groups\nand reasoned sequences, and should then pass them over into appropriate expressions.\nIn the study of agriculture the child is compelled to repeat this cycle again and\nagain. When he walks into the school garden, he observes the soU of his plot, and probably feels it with his hands; he registers these impressions as memories, compares them\nwith impressions of adjoining plots, and then these registered and associated impressions\npass over naturally into expressive action with spade or hoe or rake. Again, when he\nexamines the seeds, he gains a body of agreeable impressions thru eyes and hands; these\nimpressions are mentally registered, compared^ and associated with memories of other\nseeds just used or about to be used, and then the impressions pass over into vital expression\nthru planting.\nThese cycles are rep>eated in endless variety across the period of growing a crop.\nThink of the varied experience from plowing, or spading, thru planting, thinning, transplanting, watering, fertilizing, fighting pests, to gathering and using the produce. When\nused only for educational purposes, each process can be maintained long enough to give\ndrill and discipline, and yet stop short of the physical weariness and monotony that would\ndestroy the best effects of the training. Meantime, each of these cycles grows out of\nthose that preceded it; and all form a deeply significant series.\nOrdinary school tasks give the fundamental cycle of impressing, registering, and\nexpressing only most imperfectly. Even natiu-e-study, so far as it is not agricultural\neducation, whether it is conducted in the museima or in the field, must fall short of actually\ngrowing things in which the child is so personally interested. And it is only by passing\nthru this cycle again and again that the child is prepared, when he becomes a man, to\nexamine, judge, and act.\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\n473\n\nTo approach the whole subject from a diflFerent point of view, while the work is new,\nand before any of the processes have become habitual, a very wide range of mental powers\nis called into use. As the child digs in the soil, he is forced to observe the hard and the\nsoft, the wet and the dry of loam, clay, sand, and gravel. He sees, feels with his hands,\nand works in impressions thru the play of his muscles. The inevitable slowness of the\nprocess gives time for the impressions to sink in and become permanent. Impressions\nreceived while spading up the garden bed are more liable to remain in the mind than those\ngained in most classroom recitations. So when he comes to plant the seeds, the child\nsees and handles attractive objects, having definite shapes, agreeable colors and lusters,\nstriking or agreeable tastes. He watches, that is, observes, the earth intently, waiting\nfor the first shoots to come forth. Increased growth and new leaves multiply the impressions. Pests call out intensive observation; he watches the sky for rain; and the final\ncrop rounds out a wonderful series of significant, graduated, related, repeated, and varied\nobservations.\nMeasures and comparisons are forced upon the child in the agricultural lessons at\nevery turn. In the world of nature, law is supreme, tho no two things are ever the same;\nand the differences in richness of soil, in rapidity of growth, and in size of products are\nbacked by desire to gain or fear of loss which quicken the processes of the mind. The\nsurface of the plot must be measured, the length of the rows and their distance apart, the\nrapidity of growth, the part that survives and bears fruit, the quantity of products, and\nthe amount of work, all call for exact statement.\nPassing judgment on these observations and comparisons is also forced upon the\nchild. Shall he grow beans or com ? If com, shall he plant it on this end of the plot or\nthe other? Near his neighbor's com or away from it? Has he watered it enough or\nwould more be better ? Will this plant bear transplanting ? How can he do better next\nyear ? In working with real and growing things, in which he has a personal relation, all\nof a child's mental powers are called into play to an extent hardly possible in the artificial\nexercises of the schoolroom.\nWith the older children, the problems of soil composition, proper fertilizers, development of useful varieties of plants and animals; fertilization; food values; geographical\ndistribution of plants and animals; working-up of agricultural products, and economic\nand social problems offer an endless field calling out all the powers of the mind.\nOn the moral side, lessons in agriculture can admirably train a child in all the humbler\nvirtues of life. He must be careful, exact, patient, and persistent if he would eat of the\nfruits of his labors. He must work beyond the point of pleasure; and he must wait\nbeyond the span of a child's vision. He must protect his own plot and respect his neighbors'. Above all, he must bow to eternal law. When he neglects to water his plot and\nhis plants fail, there is no chance to complain of unfair discrimination and shift responsibility to others' shoulders. Nature has marked his recitation with a zero and against\nthat decision there is no appeal. He is taught to worship at the shrine of Necessity, and\nhe thereby finds his place in the universe.\nSo on the artistic side, he may make his plot a perfect oblong or a square. He may\nhave the rows straight or roimd, the soil free from weeds, well worked, and evenly distributed. He may surround his plot with a good walk, well kept. He may arrange the\nplants in agreeable groups and he- may beautify it all with flowers. All the elementary\nproblems of form, color, and proportion may be realized in the individual gardens, and in\nthe groups of gardens; and so the foundations of a sense of beauty may be laid.\nOn the social side, too, there is abundant opportunity for emulation and co-operation.\nPlants will be started in a common hot-bed. The children will lend or borrow each other's\nseeds, plants, tools, and labor. It is a place where each for himself and each for all wins.\nThe older children will see, too, the relation of their crop to the life of man. They will\nsee that the earth is the mother of us all; that all we have comes from her bounty; that\nno child bom on the earth should be shut away from the use of the earth.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nAnd yet, as a training for life, agricultural education has very definite limits. It\ngives most superior training in elementary processes of mind, feeling, and character, but\nit needs wide supplementing. The farming population has always furnished strong basal\nenergy for higher civilization; but the arts and sciences, social sensibility, and power of\nco-operative action have been developed in the towns. The Roman Cato is the type of\nagricultural product in the past; hardy, imbending, persistent, frugal, and just, but\nlacking in imagination and sympathy, he and his kind lay the foundations of empire;\nbut such energy must be passed thru Athens to develop the higher life. Of course, the\napplication of science to farming will lift the level of agricultural life; but the elemental\nforces of natxure cannot yet be siifficiently brought under control by science to prevent\ntheir shaping those who deal with them to their own qualities.\nAgriculture teaches boys and girls to work, but they also need to learn how to play.\nSchool gardens are laboratories of conduct, but the playground is a more advanced class.\nIn the school garden Nature rules with an iron rod, but in the playgroxmd the child's spirit\nfinds the op>en. Soil will be just; but the leader in the games may be generous. Hence\nevery school garden should have as a neighbor a recreation field.\nAgricultural education trains observation, comparison, and good judgment; but it\ndiscourages pure reasoning. Whatsoever a man soweth that shall he reap, if he does.\nStorms, drought, or blight may determine the conclusion as well as a major premise of\nintelligent care. Any farmer who thinks must be a pragmatist, with strong tendencies\ntoward determinism. But meantime the children have minds that are rational and that\nmove indei>endently of storms or drought. Hence they should have piure mathematics,\nlogic, and languages.\nAnd on the moral side. Nature is carelessly fecimd, shamelessly prodigal, or niggardly.\nOf man's higher justice she knows little; and of his mercy, nothing. From his lesson in\nagriculture, the child should tiurn to the Sermon on the Mount if he would see the whole\ncircle of man's possibilities.\nIn fact, for all the larger and freer vision of life the child must leave his garden and\ngo to the mountains and the sea, into man's heart thru history, biography, and literature,\ninto his dreams thru philosophy, music, and the arts.\nOur trouble in the past has been that we have tried to take our school children\ndirectly into this abstract world of exact thinking and exalted feeling without passing\nthem thru the preliminary stages of concrete experience, elemental virtues, and active\nself-expressions. Lessons in agriciilture will give this fimdamental training on which all\nthe higher development of the faculties must rest.\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEP\n\nE. C. BISHOP,\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIOWA\n\nSECTION,\n\nSTATE\n\nIN RURAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAMES,\n\nSCHOOLS\nIOWA\n\nThere is no common next step in the teaching of agriculture. There is no common\nnext step in teaching any subject.\nDr. Gulick says that there is no common normal condition which may be applied to\nall children. Associations, hereditary influences, temperament, environment, previous\nconditions, past experiences — these combine in the determination of what constitutes a\nnormal degree of development which might be called a measurement of human development at any particular period in the case of each individual.\nThe \"next step\" implies a step already taken. The next step has direction, speed,\nform, and objective point. These are determined largely by the previous steps taken,\nby the condition of the pathway, and by the existing weather and other environmental\ninfluences.\nThe teaching of agriculture has experienced a wonderful development in the short\ntime in which it has been given general recognition. But that development has not been\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendence]\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEP\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n475\n\nuniform in kind, quality, or rapidity. The development has been sporadic. It has been\nby individual teachers and other leaders, by school districts, by coimties, by states, and\nby sections of the coimtry.\nAgriculture teaching so far has been largely a commimity affair, depending for\nadvancement upon the number of local or community supporters, their enthusiasm, their\npowers of persuasion, and the disciples and help they have been able to gather about them\nand put to work.\nEach succeeding commimity can and sometimes does profit by the experiences of\nother communities in the development of agricultural education. But up to this time,\neach community has had to pass thru much of the evolutionary stages of the work to be\nat the point where the best things in agricultural education might be applied. The\nordinary stages of development are somewhat as follows:\n1. Recognition that there are some facts, experiences, processes, and applications\nin agriculture practice which are worth knowing by all engaged directly or indirectly in\nagriculture as a business, and by those who have an associated interest.\n2. Recognition of such knowledge and skill as real education.\n3. That such education has economic value and cultural value.\n4. That education in agriculture can be given in the public school.\n5. That it has a defined body of knowledge and that it has a relation to other branches\nof learning.\n6. That a place can be found for it in the public school without detriment to the\nteaching of the time-honored required subjects in their old theoretical forms.\n7. That the subject merits the support it needs in order that it may be effectively\npresented.\n8. That even tho it upsets some of the time-worn applications of pedagogy, it must\nhave a place and a hearing in schools which train for citizenship, service, and happiness.\nFor the purpose of securing information which would help me to define the steps\nalready taken in teaching agriculture and the direction and form of the next step which\nwill help the teaching of agricultixre to proceed in a direction and with a force that will\nreach some desired point, I sought opinions from some of those persons who are especially\ninterested and acquainted with the subject by reason of personal experience or official\nposition. I asked opinions of all state superintendents, a large number of progressive\ncoimty superintendents, some directors of high-school agriculture, and from deans of\ncolleges of agricultiure. The replies were prompt, generous, and varied. I had thought\nof the next step as somewhat plainly defined. But the replies caused me to experience\na somewhat dizzy sensation.\nTaking thru imagination the next steps suggested, I foimd myself endeavoring to\nelect between forty-six different directions, kinds of steps, and styles of stepping, I found\nmyself first stepping evenly from one position to the next, then leaping over a nimiber of\npaces or turning backward somersaults; sometimes alighting in a dignified position on a\nfooting at first seeming solid, then wabbling or falling off my mushroom support. Sometimes Iwas stretching for a forward reach or a backward extension or a side step both\nways. However, it was very good exercise. I have some new pace measurements and\nknow some new stepping values.\nRecollecting my experiences with horses, of which I am more fond even than of\nteaching, I was caused to reflect that the short-legged Shetland, the prairie broncho, the\nwell-rounded coach, the solid Percheron, the massive shire, the Hambletonian horse, and\nthe Indian pony each have their ways of stepping — first, next, and afterward; that in the\nevolution of his kind, the horse yet furnishes us varieties — ^graduated in a more or less\nirregular scale from the wild horse who goes it alone to the groomed, trained beauty which\nrequires the constant attention of a man who draws a salary as large as a house full of us\npedagogs who do nothing more important than train boys and girls.\nReturning to the evolution of agricultural education, I am led to reflect that, strange\nas it may seem to those who have been in the midst of the struggle for two decades, some\ncommxmities in the, so to speak, unexplored parts, are yet enjoying the freedom of the\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louii\n\ny wild, free horse which neither supports nor is fed by man. Some commimities are in the\nbreaking-broncho stage and the tenderfoot riders are having trouble to keep their seats\nwithout \"pulling leather\" — sometimes not then.\nI saw three women riders out at the Custer County fair in Nebraska last year. They\nwere in a three-mile relay race. Two stayed on; one tumbled when the horse fell. An\nimkind man on the side-lines said that women should not try to ride horses. Only men\ncan know how to keep going aroimd a race track, which might be injured by French heels.\nPerhaps he was a school officer who yet thinks that only a man can teach agriculture.\nSome communities are in the race-horse stage, some in the big draft-horse stage, some\nthe family horse, and some no horse at all. Some ride in autos and some go thru the air.\nThe step differs according to the speedway, the furrow, the drive, or the pavement;\naccording to the load, the driver, and the stage of evolution thru which roads, horses,\nloads, and drivers have passed, before the present combination arrived.\nAgricultural education is just now growing surely but in patches, as the cocklebur\nand thistle of the field. It is in some places in the quack-grass condition, where a solid\ngrowth of healthy quack grass is disturbed by the plow and its seedling pieces scattered\nover the whole field, where it develops according to immediate relationships of nourishment and care — sometimes into healthy quack grass, sometimes just quack.\nThe replies received from more than a hundred school administrators indicate to some\nextent the stage of development of the respective communities represented. They include\nthe first step, the beginning stages where the work is the arousing of an interest among the\npeople thru farmers' institutes, extension work, contests for yoimg people, county fair\nexhibits, and state and national aid as an inducement.\nThe next steps described are those leading to demonstration and experimental work,\nworking with things, not books; providing better-prepared teachers, better-equipped\nschools, and workable courses of study with state, county, and township supervisors of\npublic-school agricultural education. Some steps lead to the establishment of strong\ndepartments of agricultural education in state colleges of agriculture and in state normal\nschools, and to normal-training departments in high school with elementary courses in\nagriculture directed and taught by well-prepared men and women.\nThe replies so generously made to my inquiry are very interesting reading. They\nindicate conditions or degrees of advancement as well as opinions of procedure. Analysis\nof the opinions reveal two striking p>eculiarities: first, the diversity or variety of different\nnext steps suggested — there were forty-six of these; second, the imiformity of opinions\ncoming from communities which are enjoying the same comparative degree of development in agricultural education. I regret that I cannot read to you many of these wellworded, carefully thought-out opinions, offered by men and women who have great\ninterest in this subject.\nThe next steps suggested include everything in agricultural education from a boys'\ncom contest to a college d)urse in agriculture. They include method in all its stages from\nstory-teUing to well-equipf>ed laboratories and field experiments. They include activities from the dainty teacher who must put 'her hands into the soil, to the township,\ncounty, and state special directors of agricultural education work.\nThey include equipment from an empty crayon box to fiilly correlated and equipped,\nspecialized courses of study from the kindergarten to the coUege-graduate work. They\ninclude reorganization work all the way from timidly asking for a hearing imder an assumed\nname in the nature-study, geography, physiology, botany, physics, chemistry, zoology,\nspelling, language, reading, and arithmetic classes to the urgent demand for a complete\nreorganization of the entire courses of study so as to give agriculture its proper place in\nthe great scheme of education.\nThese opinions ask for assistance all the way from a rural-school officer's friendly\nattitude to state and national aid and drastic legislation which would force the teaching\nof the subject all at once everywhere whether teachers are prepared or not and without\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEP\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n477\n\nthe consent or the interest of the parents. They include desired literature all the way\nfrom picture cards and ready-made charts to impeachable textbooks and encyclopajdias\nwhich never become out of date.\nBut I have already given you the summary which indicates as great a diversity of\nsteps as there are conditions of advancement in the work of communities.\nEach community is ready for the next succeeding step as previously indicated. Some\ncommunities take two or three of these steps at once, then proceed forward with a backward form of step for a distance in order to slacken their pace with dignity and prevent\nretreat until the foes in front grow weary (and wiser) and the good folks in the rear catch\nup.\nBut the general onward march is with about the same formation and speed except\nin those places where an especially strong leader breaks away with his followers and enters\nthe newer field on his own initiative and responsibility.\nBut I was to point out the next step. This next step is the one for which the most\nadvanced communities are now ready. The other \"next steps\" demanded have already\nbeen taken somewhere. The step called for by far the greatest number of educators\nwhose opinions I sought is the important step which must now be taken if the teaching of\nagriculture in rural schools or in high schools is to be given properly. It is that of the\nbetter preparation of teachers for the work. Better teachers with better training in\nagriculture is the crying need just now which must be met if the work is to be advanced,\nor even saved from disastrous affliction.\nThe demand for the teaching of agriculture in the communities where the preliminary work has been done is already much greater than the present number of properly\nprepared teachers can supply. We cannot, and would not if we could, stifle the demand\nfor agriculture teaching. It is a healthful cry for hygienic educational nourishment.\nWe must provide the required teachers. These teachers must come from strong departments ofagricultural education in. colleges of agriculture to supply high-school and normalschool teachers of agriculture. They must come from normal schools to supply grade\nteachers in towns and cities and village high-school teachers. They must come from\nnormal-training high schools to supply teachers for the rural schools. The rural schools'\ngreatest hope just now is the courses of normal training provided in high schools for the\nelementary training of those persons who are to become rural-school teachers. New York\nstate, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, and Iowa are some of the states already doing this\nand the good work is spreading and growing within.\nWhile we are preparing these needed teachers, we may well be working out better\ncourses of study in agriculture not only for rural schools but for all public schools. Agriculture as a subjet:t has not yet settled down into its proper place in the public-school\ncurriculum. A shifting of the entire science course and a better correlation with other\nbranches are the movements under way which will require the second next step after we\ntake the one now needed in the better preparation of better teachers for the rural schools.\nDISCUSSION\nReed B. Teitrick, deputy superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. —\nThe growth of agriculture has modified the civilization of the world. It has been a\nfactor in abolishing cannibalism, producing slavery, and modifying governments. The\n\"nest places\" of civilization and the homes of the classic nations have been the garden\nspots of nature. This morning more than ninety-two million people in the United\nStates awoke and turned their faces to agriculture for their breakfasts. How many\ndomestic animals — ^mute partners of toil — were fed from the same source cannot be\naccurately stated. Can such a subject be without some educational value ? Comenius\nsaid that as far as possible men are to be taught to become wise not by books but by the\nheavens, the earth,. oaks, and beeches; that is, they must learn and examine the things\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nthemselves and not the testimony and observations of others about things. Children\nare raw material waiting to be developed. Agriculture is one of the chief subjects which\nlinks man to mother earth. It employs the hand as well as the head.\nNatiu-e has been man's teacher. Nature-study is the starting-point in teaching\nagriculture. I do not mean a weak sentimentalism about nature-study. I mean that\npower which comes from seeing, handling, and making things and drawing proper conclusions from the impressions gained in these ways. Whether agriculture shall have an\neducational value or be mere speculative theory depends wholly upon the way it is taught.\nThere must be a sharp distinction between teaching city children the most elementary\nfundamentals which they need, and the classification and application of scientific principles\nbased upon facts which rural children already possess.\nThere are two basal laws of teaching and they are equally applicable to theoretical\nand to applied education. They are, first: that the learner must be taught on the basis\nof what he knows, and second: on the basis of what he does. Teachers of today are not\nsatisfied to fire blank cartridges; they want to hit the bull's-eye. We must look to those\nforms of education, then, which end in something and express themselves in some form of\nhxmian activity. Agricultiure does this. It relates the student vitally to natiure and to\nlife. It is active and constructive. It is rich in hiunan interest. It is only by appealing\nto a child's knowledge and interest that mental growth can be accomplished. The old\nspeculative problems of metaphysics are gradually being supplanted by the tangible\nmethods of the laboratory. The study of agriculture not only affords opportimity to\nmake use of the principle that interest in life-forms precedes that of interest in inanimate\nnature and abstractions; but it also accomplishes another important object of modem\npedagogic endeavor — that of increasing the imity and joint interest of the nural school\nand of the home. Agriculture employs the time and claims the attention of more than\none-third of our population. It feeds us all; and as we have already observed, the future\nof a people dep)ends upon the productions of their soil.\nIf the teaching of any subject is to be effective it must bring about a close adjustment\nto life. If it is real it will be educative. If it is educative it must have to do with real\nthings. The student soon learns that cause and consequence are inseparable and certain;\nthat the forces of nature are allied with him in his struggle for mastery and that results\ncannot be doctored. I believe the study of agriculture will bring about a changed attitude\ntoward life. It will broaden and deepen the channels of thought and instead of walking\nas heretofore, blindly amid the great forces of nature, we shall see order and beauty and\nlaw in the origin of the soil, in the simuner shower, in the plant, in the flower, and in the\nfruit. Can a mind be brought into close touch with nature day after day, feeling the\ninfluences of its beauty and grandeur and blessings, without being lifted to a higher\nplane of thinking and living ? Improvement of mind comes from the exercise and expansion of the power to perceive and reflect, from habits of attention and application, from\nself-control and self-respect. How shall we have a harvest of thought unless we have a\nsowing of sense impressions ?\nCulture stands for the ability to appreciate the beautiful in art, in literature, and in\nnature; and the dignity of labor and true nobility of hiunan conduct. Agriculture\ntaught by competent instructors with suitable equipment, combining thinking with\ndoing, is therefore one of the best means for mind-training, especially to those who have\nfaith in the farm and rural life. To them in this subject the arts of the school are related\nto the arts of life, and aside from its economic value which certainly is not least, there are\nalso the greatest possible educational and disciplinary opportimities. It not only awakens\ninterest and gives purpose but it teaches industry and self-reliance. These are virtues\nthat imderlie all culture, character, position, and power.\nDean Davenport, of the CoUege of Agriculture of the University of Illinois, gives\nseven reasons for teaching agriculture in the public schools. As they have an educational\nvalue I quote the following from them:\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nNEXT\n\nSTEP\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n479\n\nFirst: To cultivate the active and creative instinct, as distinct from reflective and\nreceptive, that are otherwise abnost exclusively exercised in our schools.\nSecond: To give practice in failure and success, thus putting to the test early in\nlife the ability to do a definite thing.\nThird: To train the student in ways and methods of acquiring information for himself, and incidentally to acquaint him with the manner in which information is originally\nacquired and the world's stock of knowledge has been accimiulated.\nAgriculture is well adapted to bmld up true American citizenship. It blends literary,\nethical, scientific, and industrial training into a strong, sensible, inspirational scheme of\neducation. It is social as well as scientific. It is unquestionably as stimulating to manly\nendeavor and moral civic excellence as ethics and kindred subjects which deal exclusively\nwith the formal studies of education,\nM. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of free schools, Charleston, W.Va. — ^The\nassumption is fair. Important beginnings have been made. Experiments have been\nconducted and reports printed and distributed. Books have been published. Laws have\nbeen passed requiring the science to be taught. Still the results have not been as big as\nwe desired.\nThe great trouble with our teaching thus far seems to be that its effects have been\nconfined to the towns and cities and to the colleges instead of its taking root in the country\nwhere it must operate if it is going to produce crops.\nTo reach the country we are now turning to the rural schools. We find, however,\nthat to reform the agriculture of the centuries is a big job for so small an institution as\nthe single-room country school. That school does not seem to get hold of the problem in\nsuch a way as to do the work. Yet no other school can do the work if it is to be done\nin the coimtry.\nWhat then is lacking in the country school ? Evidently something, and we need not\ngo far in an investigation to discover one cause of the trouble, and to my mind the chief\ncause of it.\nSo long as a majority of the teachers in the rural schools are girls merely graduated\nfrom short dresses, spending a few months in the schoolroom in waiting for their wedding\ngowns, we need not expect any very serious instruction in farming in those schools. Such\nconditions must be changed. We are laying a good deal of stress on the importance of\ntraining teachers to love their environment. We want them to appreciate coimtry life.\nBut we must never expect them to prize country school teaching more than life in their\nown home. If we teach them to prefer the veil to the wedding gown, we shall commit a\ngrievous mistake. Great as is the need of these girls in the schools, greater is the need of\nthem in the homes. Moreover, they are moved by a higher impulse and one which we\ncould not change if we would.\nThe thing which we can and must change is the condition. Managing a school plant,\nwhether it be an institution of a hundred rooms or one of a single room, is a man's job\nor a woman's job — not a girl's. We should not exf>ect a young girl or boy, single handed\nand alone, to handle such a problem. When we equip the country school on a scale\ncommensurate with the work we expect it to do and pay a salary that will justify a man\nor a woman in making a life-job of teaching, then we may hope to revolutionize the\ncountry; but we cannot reasonably hope to do so imtil a radical change is effected in the\nprovisions made for the country school.\nThe average salary of teachers in the rural schools and grades thruout the United\nStates is $50 . 00 per month for a year of less than eight months. Such standards are too\nlow. We should provide a minimmn salary of $75 . 00 per month for a minimum term of\neight months. When that is done the country school will show more solidity, more\nvitality, and more influence in the community. It will be able to teach agriculture or\nliterature or anything else for which the public exhibits a great need.\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nSo long as we pay the chaviffQurs, the janitors, the saleswomen and ofl&ce girls, the\nmill hand and the miner, the policeman and the hotel clerk, more salary than we do the\nteacher, it will be necessary for us to continue asking. What shall we do to be saved ? So\nlong as we continue to pay the barber and the hairdresser more to shape up the outside\nof our heads than we do the teacher to mold the inside, just so long will the outside work\nbe done better than the inside. We must not expect more of our schools than we put\ninto them. As a nation we felt rather proud of ourselves that we spent $400,000,000 on\nour schools last year. But we forget that we spent a fourth of that amount for candy and\nchewing gum, three-fourths that amoimt for tobacco and cigars, and one and one-fourth\nthat amount for alcoholic liquors. That is, we are proud that om schools are worth four\ntimes as much as our candy and chewing giun, one and one-third times as much as our\ntobacco, and 80 per cent as much as oiu: Tom and Jerry.\nWhile we have done well, yet I want to assert that there isn't a state in the imion\nthat has invested in its schools up to the maximum of profitable investment. But if you\nget down close to the taxation district you will hear a complaint about taxes and the\npeople will ask, Where are we to get the money? It might be to the point to answer,\ngive up a little of your candy and chewing gum, your tobacco and yoiu- gin and toddy, but\npossibly that would be asking an imreasonable ( ?) sacrifice, so let us say, give up a battleship or some of your extravagance in federal buildings. Perhaps we might acfcon Professor\nBagley's suggestion and reverse the process by supporting our schools for awhile on tariff\nrevenues and rvm the government by direct taxation. Soon after we do that there will be\na volcanic eruption, but the schools will come out of the turmoil bigger and stronger than\nthey have ever been before.\nAs a step in the right direction, let us have a federal appropriation of at least one\ndollar per capita for every child of school age in the nation. Make it contingent upon\neach state, raising a fixed simi per capita also, if you please, but at all events let us have\nthe money and invest it in our schools. Then we may justly ask those schools to do the\ngreater work for the nation for which economists declare there is so great need at present.\nAs a second step let the taxes on railroads and other public-service corporations be\ncollected by the state and distributed thruout the state on the per-capita basis instead of\nbeing bunched in the districts where such corporations happen to operate, as is the case\nnow. These two plans would fill up the country treasuries and enable the rural districts\nto pay such salaries as would attract and hold strong, experienced teachers. They would\nbe enabled to provide proper equipment and proper supervision with the result that the\nschools would take a potent part in teaching agriculture, in promoting the good roads\ncrusade, and in fighting the battle for public health.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nTYPES\n\nOP SPECIAL\n\nANDREW\n\nW. EDSON,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nASSOCIATE\n\nIN THE\n\nOF LARGER\n\nLARGER\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOP\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nCITIES\nCITIES\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nYour chairman invited me to make a summary of the movement in the large cities\nof this coimtry during the past ten years toward the establishment of schools for the\neducation and training of special groups of children.\nIn complying with this request I confine myself largely to a consideration of the\nso-called exceptional children, partly because of the time allowance — twenty minutes —\nand partly because of the magnitude of the problem.\nAt the meeting of the National Council in 1907, the president appointed a committee\nof five, Messrs. Van Sickle, Edson, Pearse, Wolfe, and Fitzpatrick, to make a report on\nthe provision for exceptional children in the public schools of this country. At the\nCleveland meeting of the Council in 1908 a preliminary report was presented with the\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTYPES\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n481\n\nrecommendation that a committee be appointed and an appropriation made to continue\nthis tentative study, but owing to a real or imaginary scarcity of funds the appropriation\nwas not made and the work of the committee ceased. ' The work, howevei;, was taken\nup two years later by Messrs. Van Sickle, Witmer, and Ayres under the auspices of the\nUnited States Bureau of Education, the result of whose efforts is embodied in Bulletin\nNo. 14, 191 1, recently issued.\nIn order to secure the latest information on the progress made in this line during the\npast few years, I addressed a circular letter of inquiry a month ago to the superintendents\nof one hundred of the leading cities in the United States. The following is a copy:\n1. Does your city make provision for the education and training of (i) truants,\n(2) incorrigibles, (3) mental defectives, (4) the backward, (5) rapid advance, (6) blind or\nsight defective, (7) deaf or hard of hearing, (8) crippled, (9) tuberculous, (10) anaemic,\n(11) stammerers, (12) epileptics, as a part of its public-school system ? In what year was\nprovision made for each ?\n2. Which of these classes are cared for in buildings apart from so-called normal\nchildren ? Which in school buildings with regular grade work ?\n3. What special equipment is provided?\n4. What special course of study is provided ?\n5. What special preparation is required of the teachers? Is any additional compensation offered ?\n6. What success has been attained in this work so far as you have observed ?\n7. Is the sentiment in your city favorable to an expansion of this work ?\nFrom the 75 answers received I find that 32 cities are making special provision for\ntruants, 31 for incorrigibles, 31 for mental defectives, 32 for the backward, 19 for the\nrapid advance, 9 for the blind or sight defective, 15 for the deaf or hard of hearing, 7 for\nthe crippled, 14 for the tuberculous, 14 for the anaemic, 6 for stammerers, 2 for epileptics,\nas a part of their public-school system.\nThe point of special interest in these returns, however, is the surprising fact that in\n25 of these cities no provision whatever is made for the education and training of any\nof these exceptional children, while 12 cities confine their attention specifically to but\na single class, as follows: 5 to truants and incorrigibles (classifying them together), 5 to\nbackward pupils, i to advanced pupils, and i to tuberculous. This confession is a sad\nreflection on the superintendents of the cities where the exceptional children are so\nneglected.\nIn a few cases truants and incorrigibles are committed to country truant schools (as\nin Massachusetts) and in most cities, as yet, mental defectives, the blind, and deaf are\ncommitted to state or private institutions.\nSome of the replies to the question, \"Does your city make provision for the education\nand training of exceptional children as a part of its public-school system ? \" were as follows:\n\"This city has no schools of any of the classes named in the circular — wish it had.\" \"The\nmatter has not yet received much consideration.\" \"This city should probably be classed\nas 'backward,' I regret very much to say.\" \"There are no indications of any sentiment\nin favor of the expenditure of money for the education of these exceptional children — it\nsurely would be favorable if aroused.\" \"There are hardly enough of these exceptional\nchildren to warrant the organization of special classes.\" \"Our board of education has\nrecently adopted a system of medical inspection which will probably lead up to some\nspecial instruction of defectives.\"\n\"We expect to make a beginning soon.''\nThe problem, therefore, is not yet fully solved. A good beginning has been made — ■\nonly a beginning, however. In cities where any provision has been made for the education of these children, it is clearly evident that but comparatively few as yet are cared\nfor in our public schools. The children are with us, and public sentiment can be aroused\neasily if the superintendent is at all interested.\nFrom the answers to the question, \"Which of these classes are cared for in buildings\napart from so-called normal children, and which in buildings with regular grade work?\"\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n[St. Louis\n482\nI find that where provision is made by the school authorities for the education and training\nof these exceptional children, there is a wide difference in the plan of housing them. Some\nare in regular school buildings and some in separate buildings24 apart from normal children\nas follows:\nIn Regular\nSchool Buildings\n\nTruants\nIncorrigibles\nMental defectives\nBackward\nRapid advance. . .\nBlind\nDeaf\nCrippled\nTuberculous\nAnaemic\nStammerers\nEpileptics\n\nApart\n\n10\n12\n\n22\n20\nID\n\n16\n\n7\n278\n4\n5\n9\n6\nI\n\nIn Buildings\n\nS\n'\n\nI\n2\n\n8\n4\n10\n\n6\n0\nI\n\nIn a few cities both courses are followed, some of the exceptional children being cared\nfor in school buildings where the ordinary grade work is carried on and others cared for\nin separate buildings.\nIt is clearly evident here that in many cases the ideal is obliged to yield to the feasible.\nIn many places the regular school buildings are crowded, children by the hundreds, even\nthousands, obliged to be content with part-time instruction. In such cases it is a grave\nquestion whether rooms in the present school buildings should be taken for any of these\nexceptional children and thus increase the congestion. On the other hand, if some rooms\nor buildings under the control of the board of education caimot be secured where a beginning may be made at once, that beginning possibly may be deferred for years. The part\nof wisdom, therefore, seems to be to utilize for these exceptional classes vacant rooms in\nregular school buildings wherever found, or to take rooms already occupied, even if it\nnecessitates part time in the first and second years. The first step to be taken is to find\na room for the purp>ose.\n\" Where there's a will, there's a way.\"\nThe argument for the segregation of truants, incorrigibles, and tuberculous children\nis based upon the protection and good of the other children. This argument will not\nhold in the case of other special classes.\nIn the case of mental defectives — and by this term is meant those children who are\nsomewhat subnormal and yet capable of mental improvement (all imbeciles and idiots\nbeing institutional cases) — the advantages of providing for their instruction and training\nin regular public-school buildings are many. In the first place, these defectives are of\nall grades. Some of them are but a little off from normal, cases of slow development it\nmay be, some of them are behind in only'one subject, so that with individual attention\nin their studies and with much attention given to physical and manual training, they may\nsoon gain enough to be allowed to go to regular classes at certain periods each day for\ninstruction in the subject in which they show the most interest and greatest aptitude.\nAgain, the opportunity to associate with normal children on their journeys to and from\nschool, on the playgrounds, and in some of the general exercises of the school must be of\nthe highest value to the handicapped. The fact that they are with normal children for\na portion of the time must have a much more tonic influence on their mentality than would\nthe realization that they are set apart as dullards. And, again, the education of these\nclasses in regular school buildings provides accommodations for the children near their\nhomes and is also an economical arrangement for the city.\nThe great argimient in favor of having the blind and deaf instructed in the regular\nschool buildings is that parents may not be obliged to make a choice for their children\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "Stperintendencel\n\nTYPES\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n483\n\nbetveen ignorance and institutional life. The training that they get in their intercourse\nwith normal children is of the highest value. When parents understand the matter, they\ninvariably choose the public school to an institution for the education and training of\ntheir handicapped children.\nIt takes but a short time for a blind child to learn to read and write by a system of\nraised dots and to use the Braille slate and typewriters. He is then assigned to a regular\ngrade class with sighted children and does all the work except in writing and drawing. His\nwritten work is interlined by the special teacher and returned to the teacher of the sighted\nclass for correction. Add tional lessons in handwork and special exercises in corrective\ngymnastics are given by the special teacher. These children often skip grades and lead\ntheir classes. Their progress is marvelous. In the case of the deaf and blind the classes\nmust be small — not exceeding ten — 'if the best results are to be obtained. The expense in\ncarfare for these exceptional children, if the distance from home to school is great, is\nusually borne by the city. In the case of the blind the carfare of a guide must also be\nincluded.\nIn several cities the school buildings are used during the summer months for giving\nthe boys and girls who remain at home during the long vacation an opportunity to engage\nin some form of vocational or industrial work, or of making up back work, gaining promotion to an advanced grade, or of strengthening themselves in their regular grade work.\nThe plan of utilizing the school plant during the months of July and August is growing\nin favor from year to year.\nThe replies as to special equipment provided were varied, some of them being, \"Such\nas necessity dictates\"; \"Material for handwork and constructive work\"; \"Largely\nmanual and physical\"; \"Whatever the expert asks for\"; \"That is still one of our problems.\"\nIn nearly all of these special classes emphasis is and should be placed upon manual\nand construction work. The special equipment usually provided for a class of fifteen\nmental defectives, as large a class as can well be handled, is fifteen movable and adjustable\nseats and desks, four or six work benches and equipment, physical training equipment, a\npiano, and running water and porcelain sink if possible.\nFor classes of the blind there are usually ten adjustable seats and desks, type slates,\ndrawing cushions, grooved rulers, a typewriter, textbooks with embossed Braille.\nFor classes of the deaf there are usually found ten or twelve movable and adjustable\nseats and desks, hand mirrors, a large mirror, vibratory tube, a guitar, tuning fork, Northampton charts, or some equally good for the classification of elementary soimds and for\nword drill, and many objects to aid in developing the sense of touch.\nFor the crippled there should be provided adjustable chairs of a special pattern, foot\nand leg rests, reclining chairs, and a couch.\nFor the open-air classes there are needed adjustable and movable seats and desks,\nreclining chairs, a scale for weighing and measuring, chair bags, leg blankets, soapstone\nfoot warmers, worsted toques, woolen gloves, outside coats, and equipment for a simple\nkitchen.\nFor the crippled, tuberculous, and anaemic children, provision should be made by the\nschool authorities or by outside organizations for medical treatment and nourishing food,\nand for a nurse to assist the school physician and to visit the homes. By this visitation\nthe home condition can often be greatly improved.\nThe replies to my inquiry as to the coiu-se of study provided seem to indicate that\nin practically every city the greatest liberty of interpretation is allowed. Some of the\nreplies were, \"No special course of study is provided, but liberal modifications of the\nregular course are allowed\"; \"The work is adapted to meet the needs of each individual\";\n\"The course is largely discretionary with the teachers of the classes, the health and mental\nability of each child being the guide\"; \"Freedom of interpretation\"; \"Special attention\ngiven to the fundamentals\"; \"Manual training and industrial work predominates.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nFrom these replies it would seem that in these classes the child rather than the subject\nis the center of interest, and rightly so. What a fine thing it would be to have this idea\nprevail in grades with normal children !\nMore flexibility, more liberty of interpretation, greater study of the needs of the\nindividual, are the demands of today in schools where intelligence is at the helm.\nThe answers to the inquiry as to the special preparation required of teachers and the\nadditional compensation granted indicate that skillful teachers from the regular corps\nare usually\nfor the'of teaching\nand training\nof exceptional\nchildren.\nIn this even\nparticular workselected\nthe measure\nsuccess attained\ndepends\nup>on the teacher\nin charge,\nmore than with normal children who will make fairly good progress even when handicapped\nby merely passable teachers. In many cities the teachers of mental defectives are required\nto take smnmer school or extension courses at institutions for the feeble-minded, or to\nspend a few months in a careful study of the work of these institutions. The fact remains,\nhowever, that a large majority of these teachers have had little special preparation for\nthe work.\nTeachers of the blind and deaf must of necessity have had a special preparation, or\nat least must have studied for some months with teachers at work in such schools. Teachers\nof the open-air classes can readily be found from among those who have a slight inclination\ntoward pulmonary complaints and need open-air work. Teachers of truants and incorrigibles must have in a marked degree firmness and a strong personality. In fact all\nteachers of these special classes should have a natural aptitude for the work — ^infinite\npatience, tact, resourcefulness, intense human sympathy, an appreciation of effort, and\nunbounded faith in the young people intrusted to them. Such teachers should also be\nstudents of the latest literature on the subject — which is abimdant — and should make\nfrequent visits to other schools where spocial instruction is given. As Dr. Johnstone well\nputs it, \"We need above all else forward teachers for backward pupils.\"\nIn most cities additional compensation ranging from $50 to $150 per year is allowed\nteachers of special classes. This extra comf>ensation, the small classes, and an interest\nin a special line of activity serve to bring volunteers to the front whenever teachers are\nneeded.\nThe inquiry as to the success attained in the work undertaken met with the following\nresponses: \"The success is twofold — better indivadual progress and the rooms freed\" from\nthe hampering influence of pupils who cannot be reached in the ordinary way\"; \"Marked\ngain physically, mentally, and morally to all pupils, and especially to normal pupils\nbecause of the segregation of the submerged tenth\"; \"Coaching of backward pupils\ncaused 50 per cent to be promoted\"; \"Results with mental defectives have more than\nmet our expectations\"; \"Some surprising results noted with pupils in every special class\norganized\"; \"Discipline thruout the system improved\"; \"Success has warranted a\nslow but steady expansion of special work, as the needs have been more clearly seen.\"\nA few responses showed a little hesitation in claiming much success in training truants,\nincorrigibles, and mental defectives, but the answers as a whole indicated a deep interest\nin the problem and satisfactory results.\nAnd to the last inquir>', 'T^s the sentiment in your city favorable to an expansion of\nthis work?\" the following replies were received: \"Favorable to making provision for\nall classes named above\"; \"I have heard no adverse comment; newspapers are generally\nvery much interested and give more space to our special schools than to any other\";\n\"Sentiment growing gradually\"; \"Practically all of the parents are eager to have their\nchildren take advantage of the special schools, while practically all of the pupils do more\nthan normal work in these grades\"; \"Some of the women's clubs and improvement clubs\nare quite enthusiastic over the care of these special classes of children\"; \"Strongly favor\nopen-air classes, doubtful about truant schools\"; \"Yes, consistent with the tax rate\";\n\"The only objection advanced is the expensiveness of the work\"; \"Finances and lack of\nroom have retarded the movement\"; \"Conservatism has dominated here\"; \"The only\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTYPES\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN LARGER\n\nCITIES\n\n485\n\nobstruction is an antiquated charter which does not give the Board of Education authority\nto include these activities\"; \"A few people are very much in earnest, the large majority\nare indifferent.\"\nThese replies state fairly well the efforts that have been made and the success attained\nin most of our large cities to provide an education for exceptional children. It is a fundamental proposition, tho not yet fully recognized in many communities, that every child\nis entitled to all the education he is capable of receiving. This proposition implies that\nit is the duty of the state to educate the subnormal, physically handicapped truant, and\nincorrigible child as well as the normal child, irrespective of cost. The birthright of every\nchild is a place in the world and a training that will fit him to fill that place as successfully\nas possible — to be happy, self-respecting, self-supporting.\nTime will not permit me to summarize the development of trade schools, commercial\nschools, manual-training and technical schools as a part of the public-school system.\nI wish, however, to dwell for the few remainmg minutes on a line of work that is being\ncarried on by the Board of Education of New York City in an earnest attempt to solve\nthe problem of industrial and vocational training for boys and girls who will drop out of\nschool as soon as the law allows. These vocational schools admit graduates of the elemen-'\ntary schools on presentation of their graduation cards, and under certain conditions other\npupils who have not graduated, provided they are fourteen years of age. As a matter\nof fact, only about 60 per cent of the attendance in each school are graduates of the\nelementary schools.\nThe school for boys is designed for boys who desire a preparation for industrial work\nas distinguished from office work. The particular vocational subjects offered to boys are\nwood work, including house carpentry and construction, cabinet making, and bench work,\nwood-turning, pattern-making in wood, and the use of wood-milling machinery; metal\nwork, including general machine-shop practice, sheet metal work, forging, plumbing,\nmolding, and pouring patterns; electric wiring and installation; printing, including\nestimating costs, imposition, composition, and presswork; and bookbinding.\nIn addition to learning the elements of a trade, the boys are given a thoro course in\nfree hand and mechanical drawing, industrial design, and the making and reading of blue\nprints.\nThe non-vocational subjects taken by all are trade mathematics, including arithmetic,\nthe use of symbols as found in elementary algebra, and plane geometry and trigonometry\nas used in the trades; English, including business letters, reading, drawing of contracts,\nand written specifications; industrial history, civics, industrial and commercial geography,\napplied physics, industrial chemistry, simple bookkeeping, and the elements of commercial\nlaw. In connection with their regular work the boys are taken to visit museums, lumber\nand supply yards, industrial plants, factories, and construction jobs; and representatives\nof various activities are invited to address the boys from time to time on the topics in\nwhich they specialize. Thus the work of the school is made eminently practical.\nIt is probable that the activities in this school will be increased in the near future by\nthe addition of auto-repairing, sign-painting, electric power machinery, photo-lithography,\nmonot)rpe and linotype operating in the printing department.\nThe course of instruction in this school is designed to increase a boy's earning capacity\nby giving him a training which he could not hope to secure if he started to work as an\nunskilled apprentice. It gives him an introduction to all types of machines and so enables\nhim to avoid being a one-machine man.\nThe length of the course is two years, tho only one year for the printing course. The\nschool is open every month in the year except August. The school day is from 9 a.m.\nuntil s P.M., lengthened to accustom the boys to the realities of the business world. Trade\ndrawing and the non-vocational subjects occupy about one-fourth of a school day.\nEvening sessions in this school were opened this month for the first time and over\n750 boys registered.\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nThe Manhattan Trade School for Girls offers an opportunity for girls to leam to be\nskilled workmen in a short time and in a larger and more intelligent way than thru trade\ntraining alone.\nThe vocational courses offered to girls are (i) electric power operating, including\ngeneral operating, shirtwaist-making, children's dressmaking and underclothing, women's\nvmderwear, kimonos, and dressing sacques; special machines for hemstitching, buttonhole\nmaking, and embroidery; dressmaking, operating in lingerie, fancy waists, and suits, and\nstraw sewing in women's and men's hats. (2) Dressmaking, including imiforms, aprons,\nwhite work, simple white embroidery; gymnasiimi and swimming suits, and dresses.\n(3) Millinery, including elementary work for assistants, improvers, frame-makers, and\npreparers. (4) Novelty work, by use of paste and glue, in sample mounting, and sample\nbook covers, labeling, jewelry and silverware cases, lamp and candle shades. \"\nIn addition to the vocational courses named above, all pupils take a course in elementary and advanced art, adapted to the work of the trade departments, and pursue\nsuch non- vocational subjects as business arithmetic, business English, industries, and\ntextiles, civics, ethics of the trade, and the cost of living, and receive physical examinations\nand treatment, invigorating, corrective, and recreative exercises, and talks on hygiene and\nhealth.\nA placement secretary advises the girls as to the kind of work they are to take up,\nkeeps a close watch upon the trades in order to know the kind of work for which there is\n.a demand, recommends girls to places, and keeps a record of them after they enter a line\nof work.\nThe length of the course is one year. The school is open every month except August,\nfrom 9 A.M. imtil 5 p.m. each day. The school is crowded to its fullest capacity, the\nmaximiun attendance being 400.\nThe main expense connected with these schools is in the equipment. In the school\nfor boys much practical work is done for the Board of Education in printing, bookbinding,\nwood-working, repairing, electric wiring, and plimibing, which materially reduces the\nper-capita cost. In the school for girls the sale of articles amoimts to more than $1,000\nper month which is turned in toward the support of the school in the purchase of raw\nmaterial and supplies. In fact it is expected that the school wUl be nearly self-supporting\nthis year.\nIn view of the progress that has been made of late in organizing special schools, and\nof the light that has been thrown on the efforts put forth, I beg leave to offer the following\nsuggestions for the consideration of the superintendents of our larger cities:\n1. We have but just entered upon a great movement. As yet we have not grasped\nthe problem, merely touched it with our finger tips. On one plea or another — lack of\nfunds, lack of rooms, lack of trained teachers, or lack of public interest — we superintendents neglect our opportunity and content ourselves with providing for the education of\nnormal children only, or at least of a comparatively few of those who need special courses\nand* special training.\nIn any city of ten thousand or more inhabitants there are pupils enough for classes\nin all the groups named, save possibly epileptics, pupils that should be segregated and be\ngiven attention and instruction that will best meet their needs.\n2. With the exception of truant, incorrigible, and tuberculous children, the classes\ncan best be organized in regular school buildings. In this way the rooms can be secured\nquickly, the expense will be greatly lightened, and the children will be favored in the distance to be traveled and in their association for a portion of the day with normal children.\n3. A beginning may be made thru the department of health. Medical school inspectors and school nurses should open the way thru their investigations and reports to the\nneed of special care and instruction of exceptional children.\n4. The superintendent should insist upon small classes and skilled teachers for\nexceptional children, even if the cost is large. In some cases, as in the education of the\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sui^erintendencc]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPROPAGANDA\n\nBY WORK\n\nAND\n\nPLAY\n\n487\n\nblind, the per-capita cost will be increased four or five times, but it will be money well\ninvested. The people will not begrudge the expense when they \\mderstand the work\ncarried on.\n5. School buildings should be open thruout the simmier for the accommodation of\nthose children who remain in the city and desire to make up back work, to strengthen\nthemselves in regular class work, or to take up some line of industrial work. It is surprising how many children will take advantage of the opportunity to attend vacation\nschools when the opportunity is offered.\n6. For those boys and girls who must leave school at an early age to engage in some\nline of industry, the city should establish vocational schools that will offer practical\ncourses in various lines of industrial activity to all who are fourteen years of age without\nregard to their academic training or to the fact of graduation from any school.\n7. If the board of education cannot secure the necessary funds for the support of any\nof these special activities, there are, thank God, people of means and warm hearts in any\ncommunity who will respond to any reasonable appeal for financial support of the schools\nnamed above. All that is needed is a superintendent of positive ideas, warm heart, good\nsense.\n8. And in undertaking work along any of these lines, we superintendents should do\nmore than be satisfied to care for the few exceptional children on our hands at the time.\nWe should study causes, methods, treatment, progress, results, and inform the public of\nthe same as well as pass along our experiences to our neighboring fellow-workers for their\nguidance and direction.\nA DEFINITE PROPAGANDA TO IMPRESS UPON THE AMERICAN MIND\nTHE NECESSITY OF AN EXPANSION OF THE FIELD OF EDUCATION\nTO PROVIDE AS AMPLE FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION BY WORK AND\nEDUCATION BY PLAY AS ARE NOW PROVIDED FOR EDUCATION BY\nSTUDY\nM. G. BRUMBAUGH,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOP SCHOOLS,\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\n(Abstraci)\nI am constrained to present to you as an introductory thought a general statement of\nthe educational outlook today.\nThe educational mind never sleeps. Year by year it works over its formerly accepted\nguidance and recasts it. Year by year it reaches out and up for new activities and wider\nfunctions. The entire educational world is in constant flux. No traditional processes\nescape the challenge of honest inquiry. No school law or procedure is so sacred that it is\nnot subjected to new tests and forced to justify itself in the light of changing social,\neconomic, and ethical order. This is a sign of life, and not of decay; of hope, and not ot\ndespair; of progress, and not of stagnation. The thing we call education today is a vastly\ndifferent thing from the concept of a generation ago.\nNew influences of moment are likely to arise at any time and among any people.\nThere is no zone of exclusive educational propaganda. The world of civilized men is the\nschoolmaster's workshop. The reporter of educational activities must sit with clear\nvision and open mind within the educational watch-tower and view impartially the passing\npageant. He will see much that is ordinary and commonplace, traditional and unworthy;\nbut he will see here and there the unmistakable signs of activities that hold in their compass\nrich promise of hope and help to childhood. These he seizes upon, analyzes them, relates\nthem to accepted practice, squares them against great guiding laws, and indicates but\ndoes not seek to vindicate their right to be. He wisely submits his evidence to the great\njury of thoughtful educators and the still greater jury of himian adjustment.\nThis seems to be the present status of oixr educational polity. We are asked by the\ntheme under discussion to broaden the day's activities to include not only study but also\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nwork and play. This concept of the school's function greatly broadens the activities of\nour present-day schools, but it likewise demands a new understanding of the place of\neducation in the life of the individual. This is especially true in great urban centers\nwhere, by the refinements of industry and the restriction of free activity, such a type of\ntraining is essential to the welfare of the individual.\nIn one city with which I am familiar, I foimd that the wise propaganda is the direct\nappeal to the people. Some years ago the sup)erintendent called to his assistance a group\nof unselfish and capable citizens to consider the importance of providing play and recreation for the children of the city. In four years this propaganda seciu-ed above twenty\nplaygrounds, maintained smnmer camps, secured from councils funds for a commission\nto study and report upon needed play provisions for the city, had an act passed by the\nassembly creating a board of recreation, and influenced the city govermnent to make\nprovision in its loan items, to the amoimt of a quarter of a million of dollars, for play\nactivities. Today this city is well on the way to as ample provision for play as it has for\nstudy. AH this was done by appealing directly to the people, and the people demanded\nand secured the splendid results indicated.\nI take it that some such propaganda for industrial training in the schools will produce\nequally desired results. In Philadelphia we now have such provision for about 70 per\ncent of our pupils thruout the elementary grades. That the trend of educational thought is\nin this direction seems obvious to anyone conversant with world-activities in education.\nIf one were to indicate a movement more radically different and yet more largely\npromising than another, it is the general movement that in one form or another endeavors\nto make the school an opportunity not only to study but also to work and to play. The\npurpose of this movement is to provide by study the essential tools of thought and of\nexpression, and by work and by play to relate the individual definitely with the recreational\nactivities of maturity. The vocational propaganda has achieved substantial recognition.\nThe recreational activity, deep fraught with pioral purpose, is steadily sweeping forward.\nIt is just as essential to a stable social order that the individual should know how to spend\nhis recreational hours as it is to spend his vocational hours. The worker is a supporter in\nmost desirable ways of the social order. The idler is a consimier of the social good and a\nmenace, if not a grievous burden, to the social order. In viewing these movements the\nthoughtful mind will pause long and consider well.\nIt may be that these activities will speedily bring to pass such cordial imderstanding\nof the newer functions of the school as to contribute in no small way to the solution of the\nmightiest problem of man — the problem of imparting to his followers in the procession of\nmen all that has been bound up and labeled as race culture and knowledge; and at the\nsame time so interrelating this individual to his entire environment and to his inevitable\ndestiny as to make him a worker for his country, a lover of his kind, a reverent believer\nin his God.\n\nROUND\nTHE\n\nTABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nWORK\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nMAKION,\n\nIND.\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF ARITHMETIC\n\nJ. T. GILES, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nCITIES\n\nThe subject of arithmetic work in school has for many years been a battle-groimd of\nopinions. Both the content and the current methods of teaching have been assailed and\ndefended by layman and professional alike. Traditional and authoritative methods and\ncourses of study have been supported by the stand-patters, while faddists and progressives\nhave sought to modify the old or to replace it with new methods and revised curricula.\n\"What shall be taught in arithmetic?\" and \"How?\" are the questions over which the\nopposing forces have contended.\nRecently, however, another question has presented\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF ARITHMETIC\n\nWORK\n\n489\n\nitself and has somewhat superseded the others in importance. This question is, \" How well\nare we doing what we profess to do in our printed courses of study ? \" It is in the solution\nof these problems that we are now invoking the aid of scientific study as opposed to the\nrule of authority and opinion.\nThe final answer to the first of these questions, that of the content of the curriculum,\nmust be sought in the light of the f ocial demand on the school. Society, in whose interest\nthe school is established, is concerned only with the product and not with the processes\nof education. In arithmetic this demand is mainly a fourfold one. The first thing asked\nof the school is that every pupil leaving it shall have a certain fund of knowledge — a\nstore of mathematical facts at his command for use in the ordinary affairs of life. Second\nis desired a moderate degree of skill in the manipulation of these facts — certain habits\ninvolving speed and accuracy in a few processes regarded as essential in the life of every\nhelpful member of the community. The third factor of tlais product is the ability to\nreason in mathematical terms — to solve the simple problems of ordinary business and\nprofessional life involving numerical relations. The fourth factor is more inclusive and\nmore indefinite. It may be expressed as attitude or interest. It has to do with the\nfunctioning in life of the habits and tastes supposed to be inculcated by the study of\narithmetic.\nIt is the business of the school first to ascertain the nature and extent of this fourfold\nsocial demand and then to produce it as definitely and with as little waste as possible.\nAs stated above, the content of school arithmetic cannot be determined by the school\ntself on a-priori grounds, but it must respond to the demands of other social institutions —\nof the home and of business in particular. This is a slow, self-regulating process, depending much on the locality and the character of the society. Efficiency, however, is wholly\nwithin the control of the school, and since the test of method rests in its efficiency, it is\nwith the latter that we are chiefly concerned. The real problem of the school^ far as\narithmetic work is concerned is to produce with as little waste as possible the changes in\nthe child mind demanded by society.\nThe factors in this process may also be regarded as four in number, involving (i) the\npupil, (2) the teacher, (3) school administration, and (4) outside influences. Each of\nthese is a variable made up in turn of other variable factors. Pupils may differ as to age,\nsex, native capacity, and previous training. Teachers vary in training and inherited\nqualities. Administration embraces course of study, supervision, classroom conditions,\ntime allotment, imposed methods, textbooks, etc. The influence of the home and the\nplayground, or the lack of one, is also unknown. Since each of these factors in the process\nexerts more or less influence on the final product, it is desirable to know as far as possible\nthe effect of varying each of them that is within the control of the school.\nIt is here that opinion has held sway with the effect that no two schools exhibit the\nsame combination of factors. Until we have a standardized product, however, by which\nwe may measure the efficiency of each system, we must still remain at the mercy of opinion,\ntradition, and authority.\nIt is the work of science to create such a standard measure that any teacher or supervisor, by the observance of certain necessary conditions, may easily compare one school\nwith any other school, or with an average attainment in many schools.\nA long start has already been made in this direction. Promotion from grade to grade\nis usually based on the first of the product factors named above, i.e., a knowledge of arithmetical facts. The other three factors have been largely neglected by the teacher. The\nproposed scientific standard involves two other factors, skill and reasoning power. Attitude, interest, and social functioning cannot be scientifically measured.\nThe pioneer investigation in this field was made by Rice. His test included the\nscoring of papers from about six thousand children from seventeen schools of seven cities.\nFrom this investigation, he attempted to evaluate twelve possible factors as to their\ninfluence in producing arithmetical abilities. Altho his methods have since been improved\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "490\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nupon and altho some of his conclusions were not warranted by the facts presented, Dr.\nRice deserves great credit for devising and carrying out with much labor and expense this\nnow famous investigation.\nIn 1908 Stone tested twenty-six school systems in the 6A grade. He attempted to\nmeasure (i) the abilities of the children of this grade by two sets of exercises, one involving the fundamental operations, the other composed of reasoning problems, (2) the time\ncost, and (3) the comparative excellence of the courses of study used in producing these\nabilities.\nSince this test applies only to pupils of the upper half of the sixth grade, it is\nof limited usefulness. Its value to teachers lies largely in the refinements of method in\ngiving the test and the precautions against erroneous conclusions in the interpretation\nof results.\nCourtis has more recently devised a series of tests to measure abilities in fundamental\noperations and reasoning thruout the school from the third grade up. The conditions\nunder which these tests are given insure a very accurate result, when the directions are\ncarefully followed. The objections to this test are (i) that it is too expensive to be used\noften and (2) that it requires considerable expert knowledge for the manipulation and\ninterpretation of results.\nAs a further modification of the three tests just mentioned, using what has seemed\nmost valuable in their methods, I desire to propose briefly a formula by which any teacher\nmay at any time measure, within reasonable limits, the ability of any school or pupil in\nthe fundamentals of arithmetic and in reasoning power with abstract niunbers. The\nco-operation of a number of superintendents would be necessary to make such a formula\nvaluable for comparison of different schools of the same grade. The object of the formula\nis to determine the average rate per minute of attempts and the average percentage of\naccuracy together with a measure of the variation in the various fundamental operations\nand in reasoning.\nThe conditions under which the proposed tests are to be given are as follows:\n1. Time for each test, from foiu: to eight minutes.\n2. The tests are to be previously written on the blackboard, plainly, in a good light,\nand covered by a screen or cturtain until the tests begin.\n3. The tests are to be arranged in rows and colimins, each row containing ten\nproblems and a sufficient number of rows given to supply more problems than can\nbe worked by any pupil in the time allowed.\n4. Pupils write on papers previously prepared in cross-sections ten wide to correspond\nwith the arrangement of problems on the board.\n5. All pupUs to begin writing, giving answers only, as soon as the curtain is drawn and\ncontinue imtil curtain falls.\n6. The numbers composing the test to be drawn by the teacher by lot in the following\nmanner: Fifty strips of paper are prepared of imiform size, on each of which is written\nat regular intervals the natural series of digits omitting o and i. These strips are then\ncut into pieces of imiform size, each piece containing a digit of the series 2-9. These\ndigits are then placed in a bag and drawn out one by one, as needed in formulating the\ntest. This arrangement insures an equal number of each of the digits to draw from.\nZero and i are omitted to avoid the possibility of chance combinations of exceptional ease\nof solution. Tests four minutes long and over, formed in this way, would vary but slightly\nin the degree of difficulty.\n7. Where a chance drawing would result in an absurdity, as in the subtraction of a\nlarger from a smaller nimiber, the order of the last two digits drawn should be reversed.\n8. The operation to be tested in each exercise is to be explained to the class by the\nteacher before drawing the curtain. It should also be written above the test as well as\nindicated by placing the digits in the positions usually adopted for performing the various\noperations, i.e., one above the other, with a line below in addition, subtraction, and\nmultiplicarion and the usual arrangement for short division, omitting all the operation\nsigns -f, — , X, -J-.\n9. Pupils may grade and mark their own papers, which should be checked later by\nthe teacher. From these marks the average or median accomplishment of the school can\nbe quickly obtained and a measure of the variation easily derived.\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF ARITHMETIC\n\nWORK\n\n491\n\nThe subject-matter of the proposed tests is as follows:\n(i) Addition in single combinations, also double column with two figures in coliumi.\n(2) The same arrangement for subtraction.\n(3) Multiplication in which both factors are single digits, also when the multiplicand\nis composed of two digits.\n(4) Short division in which the divisor is a single digit and the dividend two, also\nwith three digits in the dividend.\nThe reasoning tests include (i) .three-quantity one-step abstract problems and\n(2) four-quantity two-step problems.\nThe formulae may be expressed by letters efwhich are to be replaced with the digits\ndrawn from the bag. Two letters written together mean a number of two digits, not\nmultiplication as in algebra.\nFor addition we have:\nFind the sum:\na\n\nA\n\nAlso,\n\nc\n\ne\nef\nkl\nV\n\nc\nd\n\ne\n\nA\n\n1\n\nab\ncd\nFor subtraction:\nFind the difference:\na\nb\n\netc.\n\n, etc.\n\nab\ncd\n\ng\nh\n\nL\ngk\n\netc.\n\nV\nkl\n\nMiiltiplication:\nWrite products:\n\n, etc.\na\nb\nab\nc\n\nDivision:\n\ng\n\nA\n\nc\n\nA\nde\n\n1 d^ef gh\n\ne\n\ng\nh\n\nf\n\netc.\n\ni\n, etc.\ni)jkl_\n\na)bc\ne)fgh\na)bcd\n, etc.\nOne-step reasoning formulae:\ni , etc\na-\\-b=c aXb = c g)ha-i-b\n= c\ngh\nfrom which are derived the following problems:\nIndicate by the abbreviation add, sub., mul., or div. the operation to be performed in\nthe two given numbers to get the required one.\n(i) The sum of two numbers is a, one is b, what is the other ?\n(2) The difference of two nimibers is a, one is b, what is the other ?\n(3) The product of two numbers is a, one is b, what is the other ?\n(4) The quotient of two numbers is a, one is b, what is the other?\n. (s) What number added to b gives c?\n(6) What number subtracted from b gives c?\n(7) What number multiplied by b gives c?\n(8) What number divided by b gives c?\n(9) a added to what number gives c?\n(10) a subtracted from what number gives c?\n, (11) a multiplied by what number gives c?\n(12) a divided by what number gives ci\n(13) a is i more than what nimiber?\n(14) a is b less than what number ?\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[St. Louis\n\n(15) o is J times what number ?\n(16) a is 6 divided by what number?\nThe problems in the two-step reasoning test are derived from the formulae:\n'ab=cd\na-\\-b = c-\\-d\n\n(a+b) = cd\n\n(i) What mmaber added to a is equal to the%um of c and d ?\n(2) What niunber subtracted from a is equal to the siun of c and d?\n(3) What nimiber added to a is equal to the difference of c and d?\n(4) What number subtracted from a is equal to the difference of c and df\n(5) What number multiplied by a is equal to the product of c and d ?\n(6) What nmnber multiplied by a is. equal to the siun of c and d ?\n(7) What number multiplied by a is equal to the difference of c and d?\n(8) What number added to a is equal to the product of c and d ?\n(9) What niunber subtracted from a is equal to the product of c and d ?\n(10) What niunber multiplied by the sum of a and b equals c ?\n(11) What nimiber multiplied by the difference of a and b equals c?\n(12) What niunber divided into the simi of a and b equals c?\n. (13) What number divided into the difference of a and b equals c ?\nThe order in which the reasoning problems are given is also to be determined by lot,\ntwo or more sets being used if necessary to provide sufficient problems for the time allowed.\nProblems formed from these formiilae by chance drawing and given to classes under\nthe uniform conditions named above are open to the criticism that the results obtained\nfrom them are only approximate. It is the belief of the author of this paper that they\nwould be sufficiently accurate for the purpose in hand and that they would have the\ntremendous advantage of easy availability and of universal application. The schools\nas well as other business institutions must submit to the test for efficiency.\nIn the hope that such formulae as these proposed will enable us to determine in larger\ndegree what is useful and what is waste in the process of teaching arithmetic, they are here\noffered for your consideration and for your criticism. Opinions no longer carry authority.\nScientific methods of study alone command respect and the time for exact experimental\ninvestigation of our educational problems is at hand.\nUTILIZATION\nWILLIAM\n\nA.\n\nWIRT,\n\nOF THE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPLANT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nGARY,\n\nIND.\n\nThe school idea which I present is not unique and it is not revolutionary. We are\ntrying to put into practice only those things urged for a generation by our recognized\neducational leaders. In fact, we are extremely conservative and do not wish to take any\nchances with imdigested educational philosophy. The idea that we need an enlarged\nschool to meet the educational needs of the twentieth century is not new. We are agreed\nthat the twentieth-century school must educate for citizenship and character, must\ndevelop individuality and efficiency, must develop the power of reflective thinking,\nform habits of application, and somehow get the child to find pleasure and joy in constructive effort. We are also agreed, I think, that such an education is possible only by\ngiving the child the freedom of self-activity. We are also agreed that the civic care of\nthe child in the twentieth century must include satisfactory public facilities for amusement, play, and work, as well as study.\nPersonally, I am certain of one thing. We have not realized in Gary the ideal school\nof the twentieth century. But we are indeed glad to be in a position where we can help\nin the solution of this problem.\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUTILIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPLANT\n\n493\n\nLimited financial resources and a tremendous annual increase in the school population have forced us to attempt an enlarged school activity and at the same time consider\nthe taxpayer. We do not wish to increase our school expenditures, but we do try to\nget more for our money.\nThe twentieth-century public school saves the taxpayers money by providing, first,\nclassrooms and libraries where the child can study books and recite from books; second,\nplaygrounds, gymnasimns, and swimming-pools where the child can play and secure a\ngeneral physical training; third, shops, gardens, drawing-rooms, and laboratories where\nthe child can work and learn to do eflaciently many things by doing them; fourth, an\nauditorium where by lectures, recitals, dramatization, phonograph, player-piano, stereopticon lantern, and motion pictures the visual and auditory education of the child may be\ndone efiiciently. Four separate and distinct places are provided for each child, but the\ntotal per-capita cost is not increased foiu-fold. The per-capita cost for classroom study\nunder good conditions is from $ioo to $200, for play and physical training from $10 to\n$25, for work from $20 to $125, for an auditorium from $10 to $25. The total per-capita\ncost for the four departments is from $140 to $400, or from 40 per cent to 100 per cent\ngreater than the per-capita cost for the study and recitation room alone.\nBut each child can be in only one of the four places at the same time. The new\nschool so arranges the classes that different sets of children are in the four separate departments all of the time. By this plan the new school accommodates four times as many\nchildren, and at a per-capita cost of $35 to $100. By providing facilities for the child's\nplay, work, and recreation as well as facilities for study the per-capita cost of the school\nplant is only 35 per cent to 50 per cent that of the traditional study classroom school.\nThere is a corresponding saving in annual maintenance cost. Extra teachers and special\nsupervisors are also eliminated, and the per-capita cost for instruction is less than in the\nexclusive study school.\nA much more important feature of the new school is that the children want to go to\nsuch a school every day in the year and eight to ten hours each day. The universal\nproblem of keeping the children in school has been solved. The school provides a real\nlife so that the child wants to educate himself at the very moment that he has the opportunity. The play impulse is transformed into a work impulse so that real pleasure is\nexperienced in work. The school life creates a need and desire for the academic and\ncultural work of the school. There is no attempt to remove the difficulties. The supposed distasteful work of the school is not sugar coated with sentimentalism. The\nwasted tinie and the misdirected energy of the street and alley are utilized to awaken\nambition, develop initiative, and create power in the child, so that he can find real joy in\nthe mastery of difficulties. The child is busily and actively engaged the year round\neducating himself.\nThe worst possible form of an educational plant is a massive brick and stone building\nwith every device perfected for keeping children quiet in a straight-jacket school seat all\nday long. Children are annihilated in such a school, not educated. The traditional\nclassroom study-school building may answer very well for the mechanical study of textbooks. But real education demands much more than the formal study of textbooks.\nThe new school gives the child one-fourth of his time for the formal study of textbooks\nand for the formal organization of what he has learned during the remaining three-fourths\nof his time in real activities. The addition of facilities for real activities in a combined\nworkshop, playground, and school makes real, genuine education possible. The new\nschool does not dispense with books or culture. It provides for a more efficient use of\nbooks and a more genuine and thoro acquisition of culture.\nWhen the child is interested in the work and activities of the school, when the child\nhas developed the power of application and concentration, when the child is in a condition\nwhere he is capable and anxious to put forth tremendous effort to master the difficulties\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[St. Louis\n\nof the school, then it is easy and natural for the time and energy of both teacher and\npupil to be used efficiently.\nEliminate the plan of teachers trying to teach things that they do not know by means\nof special supervisors. Permit teachers to teach only the things that they do know and\nknow how to teach. Arrange the size of the classes so that with classes niunbering four\nstudents or four hundred they are the best possible groups for the work in hand.\nBreak up the rigid grouping of children in fixed classes. Any child should secxu-e as\nmuch time as he needs in any subject or department. If the child is weak physically\nand cannot imdertake for the present formal textbook work, he should use the other\nfacilities of the school as a sanitariiun for the recovery of his physical strength. If the\nchild is deficient in percentage because of lack of preparation in common fractions and\ndecimals, he should not be flunked and kept repeating work in percentage. He should\ngo on with his work in the class in percentage and in place of some of the recreation\nfeatures of the school take extra work in a class several grades below where he can get\ndirectly the needed drill in common fractions and decimals. The same principle can be\napplied in all subjects and for pupils who wish to advance more rapidly as well as for\nthose who wish to make up deficiencies. The retarded, subnormal, and abnormal child\ncan be accommodated without extra teachers or facilities.\nUse the great outdoors. Use classrooms, laboratories, shops, auditoriimis, gardens,\nplaygrounds, gymnasiiuns, textbooks, library books, real objects, real activities and\noccupations; but use each only for that educational purpose for which it is best adapted.\nEvery part of the school plant can be made an educational opportunity. There is no\nreason why the school furniture and much of the equipment cannot be made in school\ncabinet shops under the direction of a cabinet-maker selected for his teaching ability\nas well as his mechanical skill. There is no reason why the school painting, stage scenery,\npliunbing, electrical work, carpentry, printing and bookbinding, forging, foundry and\nmachine work cannot be done in the same way. There is no reason why the school\nengineer should not be selected because of his teaching ability as well as his mechanical\nskill. The boys can work with this engineer as apprentices during certain hours in the\nday and learn to fire boilers, operate piunps, engines, generators, motors, heating and\nventilating machinery. There is no reason why some of the nature-study teachers should\nnot be selected because of their practical knowledge and skill as well as for their college\ndegrees. A practical landscape gardener can take complete charge of the school garden,\nlawns, shrubbery, and trees, and the children will be delighted to assist him. Even the\nstairways and school corridors provide the highest possible educational opportimity,\nif we will but use them.\nThe twentieth-century school does the work of the public library and public playgrovmd much more efficiently and much more economically.\nThe school employs specially trained teachers to direct the outside reading of children\nand cultivate an appreciation for good literature. These teachers meet every child for a\nthirty-minute period on alternate days. By means of stories and reading from sets of\nbooks furnished by the public library, the children are interested in the best literature.\nThis literature teacher's classroom is in reality a library of literature for children, and\nthe teacher is in the truest sense a children's Ubrarian. Many of the books furnished by\nthe public library are supplied in sets of thirty or forty volumes o. the same book so that\nclasswork is possible in this directed reading.\nSimilarly the nature-study teachers have a nature-study library in their laboratory,\nthe music teachers have a music library, the drawing teachers have an art library, etc.\nThe library work is supplemented by pictures, victrolas, piano-players, stereopticon and\nmotion-picture machines in the school auditorium; and by the museiun specimens in\nschool corridors. Every child is reached regularly in an organized way. The library\nmaintenance and salary cost per book circulated and read is about one-fourth of one cent,\nonly s per cent of said cost in public libraries. The life of a book circulated in sets under\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "495\nSuperintendence]\n\nUTILIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPLANT\n\nthe direct control of the special teachers is ten times that of the usual library circulating\nbook.\nIn Gary it is hoped to have a branch of the public library in every school, with an\nassistant librarian from the public library in charge, and with the special teachers in the\nschool co-operating in cultivating and directing the reading of the children.\nThe unit school plant will accommodate about 2,700 children. The buildings are\nop)en evenings, Saturdays, and vacations. Adults use the school buildings as freely as\nchildren. The branch Ubrary is so placed that it can be entered directly from the outside and without climbing steps. The location of the branch library in the same building\nwith the social, recreation, and study facilities brings to the library many readers who\nwould not otherwise form the library habit. In turn the library helps to promote the\nother social, recreation, and study features of the school.\nThe opinion is becoming fixed that we have not utilized the school plants completely\nunless they are used for recreation and social centers by adults. Fortunately a school\nplant that provides for the constructive play and recreation activities of children is also\nmost admirably adapted for similar activities with adults. The playgrounds, gjonnasiums,\nswimming-pools, auditorium, club and social rooms, library, shops, laboratories, etc.,\nmake a complete social and recreation center for adults. Experience has demonstrated\nthat the facilities for academic instruction add to the attractiveness of the plant as a\nsocial and recreation center.\nCompared with the cost of such facilities and their use when separated from the\nschool plant, the economy in favor of the combined playground, workshop, and school\nis indeed surprising. The city of Chicago has a most elaborate system of recreation\nparks and field houses. Selecting the eleven most successful parks of the South Park\nCommission, we may compare the total cost and use of the eleven parks with the cost\nand use of one Gary school plant. Note that the attendance of the parks is the total,\nnot the average for the eleven parks. Also note that the cost of the school includes\nthe furnishing of complete school facilities for 2,700 children, in addition to the social\nand recreation features.\nTotal for\nEleven Parks\n\nPopulation\nFirst cost, less land\nAnnual maintenance\nAnnual attendance —\nIndoor gymnasimn . . .\nShower baths\nOutdoor gymnasimn . .\nSwimming-pool\nAssembly halls\nClubrooms\nReading-rooms\nLimch-rooms\n\n800,000\n\nOne School\n20,000\n\n$2,000,000\n$300,000\n$100,000\n$440,000\n1,000,000\n310,000\n1,385,000\n2,000,000\n725,000\n270,000\n600,000\n70,000\n520,000\n\n2,000,000\n500,000\n1,000,000\n300,000\n1,000,000\n20,000\n50,000\n\nThe twentieth-century school is planned to secure the highest possible efficiency\nfrom buildings, grounds, and equipment, and the time and energy of teachers and pupils.\nIt gives the child not a shop, not a playgroimd, but a life.\nDISCUSSION\nHarlan Updegratf, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. — Educational administration inmany of our cities has these three characteristics: (i) the scope of the public\nschools is gradually extending; (2) increased expenses have accompanied this expansion;\n(3) the tax rates and the bonded indebtedness are approaching their legal maximum.\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[St. Louis\n\nUnder such conditions any system of school organization that gives increased school\nfacilities without increasing the tax rate is bound to receive careful consideration. The\npublic schools of Gary, Ind., seem to meet this condition. By the utilization of all parts\nof its buildings and by lengthening the school day to six and six and one-half hours, two\nsets of pupils are accommodated in the same school plant in which under the ordinary\nsystem but one set of pupils could be housed. At the same time the course of study\nhas been extended to cover manual training, domestic science, and laboratory work in the\nsciences. The entire subject-matter of the course of study has been considerably enriched.\nMore important than this, thru the use of the school building and the playgroxmd as a\nsocial center, the leisure time of the pupils is spent upon the school premises in wholesome\nwork and play. In this latter phase of the work gymnasiums and swimming-pools, which,\ntogether with the pla^'grounds, are placed imder skilled directors, have been exceedingly\nhelpful. Another important feature is the use of the school building before and after\nhours of the day school for evening schools, for Saturday classes, and for vacation schools.\nPractically all parts of the building are in use most of the time.\nThe success with which the plan has met in Gary is sufficient to warrant its trial in\nother cities where conditions are favorable. It should be observed, however, that it is\nnecessary, in the first place, that the hours of the school day be lengthened, and, secondly,\nthat the buildings now in use be so constructed that the basement, hall, and attic space\nmay be transformed into workshops, laboratories, and gjinnasiums.\nJames G. Riggs, State Normal School, Oswego, N.Y. — ^Less than a half-century ago\nthe schoolhouse at the cross-roads or in the small village in a farming section answered\nmany more purposes than our present buildings. Besides the six or seven months' school\nthere was the winter singing-school, the occasional writing-school, the spelling-bee with\nits excitement, possibly a debate with neighboring champions, a temperance lecture, a\nplay on a rural subject in native setting, preaching on alternate Sundays, rarely a fxmeral\nbut always a meeting-place for young and old, and always a chance for the begiimings of\ncourting and mating for all the coimtryside. The building paid for by public tax was used\nfor commimity purposes. It was the educational and social center for the locality. The\nresult was a general acquaintance thruout the whole region among a homogeneous people,\ntogether with an exchange of friendship, of views, of goods, and of intellectual stimulus\nThe social results were large. No bad feeling could long endure among people who met\nso often in so many interests. They were interdependent and self-respecting.\nFrom scenes like these thruout the eastern and middle states went young men with\ntheir wives to the westward to help develop this great land and show the East how to do\nthings, as at Gary. Commimities are few now which hold the same traditions, religion,\nand ideals. Various foreign types, tongues, and ways have come in almost in a night, and\nno provision has been made for them aside from the common school. Even the churches\nhave not gone forward to greet them, to make them feel at home in a new land. Of all\npeople we need to preserve the original democratic social ideals of the communities\ndescribed and to provide for the interests of those who have so many common needs as\nstrangers — chief among them the need of \\mderstanding one another and the ideals\ninherent in their adopted coimtry.\nThere can be no return to the spontaneous gatherings at the cross-roads. The telephone, the rural delivery, and the automobile have put an end to those conditions, but\nhave not filled the place of those face-to-face meetings of one friend with another. Nor\nwill our cosmopolitan population take the lead themselves in setting a common meetingplace for common purposes.\nIt is therefore the duty of the authorities to take the natural means at hand and make\nthem available for community purposes. Some cities and larger towns have already\nseen their opportunity and have established the school as a center for various activities\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUTILIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPLANT\n\n497\n\nwhich appeal to the newcomer, as the following: school grounds fitted for sports for all,\nevening instruction in sewing, dressmaking, cooking, English in its spoken and written\nforms, manual training, music, folk-dancing and ordinary dancing, and gymnasium work.\nRooms are provided for a library, quiet games, song recitals and lectures, clubs, moving\npictures, and, in some cases, bathing facilities. No better service can be given than to\nspend a series of evenings during the winter on such a program as this:\nThe Mayor of the city on \"My Office and Its Duties.\"\nThe City Chamberlain on \"City Funds, How Obtained and How Disbursed.\"\nThe City Assessor on \"How Values Are Set, with Examples.\"\nThe Superintendent of Public Works on \" Public Property and Its Care.\"\nThe City Judge on \"Our City Court and Its Work.\"\nThe Police and the Fire Departnients.\nThe Child in the City, and His Education.\nSuch a program or a modification of it is good not only for the adults who are new to\nour land, but for natives and for the officials themselves who are in office. It is the best\nkind of a report to the people, and may well be likened to the initiative and the referendum.\nThe program should be directed by public officials and provided for in the regiilar budget\nwhere expense is incurred. The programs find their justification in the fact that they are\neducational; even the games and sports, inasmuch as they are orderly and directed.\nThey are the only foil to the saloon and the dance hall with their unwholesome surroundings. They furnish a meeting-place and recreation for those whose rooms or houses are\nnot homes in the proper sense, and they afford an extension of the fimction of the school\nto those adults who otherwise would be shut out of many advantages of this new world.\nHere they may talk over community interests, local improvements, needed reforms, and\nthus become responsible citizens. When they meet regularly they are likely to think\nalike and when occasion arises they are likely to act alike and for the common good.\nUnder cordial and sympathetic treatment from native stock the foreigner becomes happily\nadjusted to the new conditions, and his children may easily become masters in the next\ngeneration. Democracy has its best training here among those of foreign birth, and they\nare wise officials who see the opportunity and embrace it. Ideals are being formed and\nfutures shaped under such conditions where the more favored are, in Browning's phrase,\nwilling \"to lend themselves out.\"\nThe school authorities should be the active parties in initiating and controlling such\nuse of the school plant, as here dangers may creep in. Matters controversial in politics,\nreligion, or social conditions must be avoided. The object is to harmonize and unify\ninterests, hot to set passions astir nor engender strife. Whatever has not the approval\nof the whole community will be short lived and will react. On the other hand, whatever\nbenefit and upHft come from the use of the school building will so justify the expense that\nonce begun the custom will be permanent.\nSuch a plan will react on the scholastic work of the school by putting a new and\nreal interest into the work of the day. The building should be so planned, seated, and\nequipped that it will serve not only the purposes of the five-hour school, but of all the\nevening activities. Instead of all education centering about the child, his parents are\nincluded too, and the authorities will find the added element making the solution of the\nproblem easier because they are helping to solve it.\nIn a word, the increased use of the school plant for community activities is the\nrecognition of a human need and the effort to supply that need.\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nCONSTITUTION*\nPREAMBLE\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\nformulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational\nquestions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its\ndiscussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and\nreasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion,\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever\ngrounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the\nfreest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions. Any\nmember making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the groimds\ntherefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council. It shall\nprepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Education Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing\nbefore the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this\nreport a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part\nof the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of\nopinion among its members on such special topics as demanded the attention of the profession or of the public.\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty\nmembers, selected from the membership of the National Education Association. Sixty\nof the members shall be elected by the National Council of Education, and sixty by\nthe Board of Directors of the National Education Association.\nEach body shall select ten members annually, who shalLserve for six years.\n2. The Council shall elect its quota of members at its regular annual meeting.\nThe Board of Directors of the National Education Association shall elect its quota\nof members at the second meeting held during the annual meeting of the National Education Association.\n3. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership. All persons who have\nbelonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership from any cause\nwhatever, except expulsion, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending\nits regular sessions and participating in its discussions. No state shall be represented\nin the Council by more than twelve members.\n*As amended at San Francisco session, July 12, igii.\n\n499\n\n*\"\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nARTICLE n— QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducation Association.\nARTICLE\n\nin— MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Coimcil held in connection with the\nDepartment of Superintendence of the National Education Association, or at such other\ntime and place as the Executive Committee of the Council may designate. There may\nbe special meetings of the Coimcil, subject to the call of the Executive Committee, but\nthe attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority of the Coimcil\nshall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular\nor called; but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum for\nthe transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this article.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Education Association, or any\nof its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL\nAND EXPERTS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— OFFICERS\n\nThe oflScers of the Council shall be a president, vice-president, and secretary, each of\nwhom shail serve for three years, with terms so arranged that one ofl&cer is elected annually.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Coimcil to prepare, with the assistance\nand approval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as\nshall realize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized\nand exists.\nARTICLE Vn— STANDING COMMITTEES\n1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nthree other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report of any investigation which may be ordered by the National Education Association orits departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies\nmay be filled every year.\n5. There shaU be appointed annually a committee of one to submit at the next meeting a report on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey of the\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councai\n\nOFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n501\n\nimportant movements and events in education during the preceding year is given. This\ncommittee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled\neach year. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the Association\nfor an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal has been\nreferred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Education Association, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\"\ncharacter.\nARTICLE IX— AMENDMENTS\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council,\nby a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provisions may be waived at any\nregular meetings by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the Council.\n\nOFFICERS, STANDING\nOFFICERS\nCHARLES H. KEYES\nJAMES Y. JOYNER\nROBERT J. ALEY\n\nFOR\n\nSaratoga Springs, N.Y\nRaleigh, N.C\nOrono, Me\nEXECUTIVE\n\nJoseph Swain\nJames M. Greenwood\nEllen C. Sabin\n\nCOMMITTEES,\n\nMEMBERS\n\n19 12-13\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1915\nTerm expires in 1914\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe President, ex officio, chairman\nSwarthmore, Pa\nKansas City, Mo\nMilwaukee, Wis\n\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1915\n\nCOMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP\nThe President, ex officio\nA. C. Nelson\nRobert J. Aley\nJames Y. Joyner\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\nAugustus S. Downing\nCarroll G. Pearse\nCOMMITTEE\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nJohn H. Phillips\nEdward T. Fairchild\nElla Flagg Young\nZ. X. Snyder\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nPayson Smith\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nOrono, Me\nRaleigh, N.C\nKansas City, Mo\nAlbany, N.Y\nMilwaukee, Wis\nON INVESTIGATIONS\nAlbany, N.Y\nMenomonie, Wis\nBirmingham, Ala\nDurham, N.H\nChicago, 111\nGreeley, Colo\nKansas City, Mo\nBoston, Mass\nAugusta, Me\n\nAND\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1913\nexpires in 1913\nexpires in 1914\nexpires in 1914\nexpires in 1915\nexpires in 1915\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1915\nTerm expires in 1915\nTerm expires in 1915\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\n502\n\nMEMBERS\nElected by the Council\n\nElected by the Association\n\nexpire in 1913\n\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N.J.\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y.\nGeorge B. Cook, Little Rock, Ark.\nStratton D. Brooks, Norman, Okla.\nHenry B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\nWilliam O. Riddell, Des Moines, Iowa\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Uuh\nReed B. Teitrick, Harrisburg, Pa.\nA. J. KiNNAMAN, Bowling Green, Ky.\nJ. L. Snyder, Agricultural College P.O., Mich.\n\nFannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass.\nBettie a. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio\nCharles H. Keyes, Saratoga Springs, N.Y.\nJ. F. Sims, Stevens Point, Wis.\nChasles H. Judd, Chicago, 111.\nBird T. Baldwin, Swarthmore, Pa.\nA. Duncan Yocum, Philadelphia, Pa.\nClem Hampton, Tallahassee, Fla.\nThomas C. Miller, Shepherdstown, W.Va.\nFrank B. Dyer, Boston, Mass.\n\nTERMS EXPIRE IN I9I4\nW. E. Harmon, Helena, Mont.\nDavid Felmley, Normal, HI.\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C.\nWales C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich.\n♦Edna A. Rich, Santa Barbara, Cal.\n♦Arthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\n♦M. Bates Stephens, Annapolis, Md.\nJacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio\nJames W. Crabtree, Lincoln, Nebr.\n\n•Wm. M. Davidson, Washington, D.C.\nM. G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa.\nP. P. Claxton, Washington, D.C.\nHarlan Updegrapp, Evanston, 111.\nOliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111.\nKatherine D. Blake, New York, N.Y.\nMrs. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nFrank Strong, Lawrence, Kans.\nC. P. Gary, Madison, Wis.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\n\nterms expire in 1915\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kans.\nH. B. Wilson, Decatur, 111.\nC. O. Merica, Redwing, Minn.\nS. L. Heeter, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n♦Laura D. Gill, Boston, Mass.\nDavid Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal.\nWalter R. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho\nEdward L. Thorndyke, New York, N.Y.\nEdwin G. Cooley, La Grange, lU.\nFrederick E. Bolton, Seattle, Wash.\n\nMiss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\n♦Lewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nLloyd E. Wolfe, Memphis, Tenn.\nWilliam H. Black, Marshall, Mo.\n♦Henry Suzzallo, New York, N.Y.\nLuther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich.\nGeorge M. Philips, West Chester, Pa.\nEdmund A. Jones, Westerville, Ohio\nErnest E. Balcomb, Greensboro, N.C.\nJ. £. Burke, Boston, Mass.\n\nterms expire in 191 6\n\nJohn W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.\nW. A. Brandenburg, Oklahoma Oty, Okla.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.\nThomas H. Harris, Baton Rouge, La.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\nCalvin N. Kendall, Trenton, N.J.\nElla C. Sullivan, Chicago, 111.\nRandall Spaulding, Montclair, N.J.\nGeorge B. Strayer, New York, N.Y.\nEsTELLE Carpenter, San Francisco, Cal.\n\nD. H. Christensen, Salt Lake City, Utah\nPayson Smith, Augusta, Me.\nJames H. Van Sickle, Springfield, Mass.\nJames A. Barr, Stockton, Cal.\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Me.\nCharles E. Chadsey, Detroit, Mich.\nDavid Snedden, Boston, Mass.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\nAlbert E. Winship, Boston, Mass.\n\nterms expire in 1917\n\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam B. Owen, Chicago, 111.\n*E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nA. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz.\nW. T. Carrington, Springfield, Mo.\nWilliam P. Burris, Cincinnati, Ohio\nJ. G. Crabbe, Richmond, Ky.\nMargaret E. Schallenberger, San Jos£, Cal.\nWilliam E. Wilson, Ellensberg, Wash.\n\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore.\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nN. C. ScHAEPFER, Harrisburg, Pa.\nBen Blewett, St. Louis, Mo.\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nE. E. Bass, Greenville, Miss.\n*E. C. Moore, New Haven, Conn.\nG. W. A. LucKEY, Lincoln, Nebr.\nJohn A. Wood, South Bend, Ind.\nD. B. Parkinson, Carbondale, 111.\n\n♦Not present at either meeting of the Council in 191 3.\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHONORARY\n\nMEMBERS\nReeled by the Council\n\nElected by the Association\n\nTERUS EXPIRE IN I918\n\nThomas A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.\nJohn H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nFrancis G. Blair, Springfield, 111.\nJaices H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\nCharles S. Meek, Boise, Idaho\nEdward T. Fairchild, Durham, N.H.\nE. E. SCRIBNER, Ishpeming, Mich.\nAlbert A. Murphree, Gainesville, Fla.\nHelen C. Pdtnam, Providence, R.I.\n\nHONORARY\nJohn W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.\nJane Addams, Chicago, III.\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va.\nSarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass.\nJames B. Aswell, Natchitoches, La.\nBrown Ayres, Knoxville, Tenn.\nThomas M. Balliet, New York, N.Y.\nClifford W. Barnes, Lake Forest, 111.\nEarl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa.\nW. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.\nAlfred Bayliss, Macomb, 111.\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D.C.\nD. Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\nIda C. Bender, BufiEalo, N.Y.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R.I.\nAlma L. Binzel, Winona, Minn.\nRichard G. Boone, Los Angeles, Cal.\nDavid R. Boyd, Norman, Okla.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N.Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nElmer E. Brown, New York, N.Y.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Me.\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio\nO. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont.\nEdwin B. Craighead, New Orleans, La.\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N.Y.\nRobert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn.\nJohn Dewey, New York, N.Y.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S.C.\nKatharine E. Dopp, Chicago, 111.\nJohn J. Doyne, Little Rock, Ark.\nAndrew S. Draper, Albany, N.Y.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJulius I. Foust, Greensboro, N.C.\nWilliam K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr.\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.\nR. B. Fulton, Miller School P.O., Va.\nCharles B. Gilbert, Englewood, N.J.\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo.\n\nElla Flagg Yotmc, Chicago, 111.\nEdwin S. Monroe, Muskogee, Okla.\nW. H. Elson, Cleveland, Ohio\nJohn W. Carr, Bayonne, N.J.\nEdward C. Elliott, Madison, Wis.\nGrace C. Strachan, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind.\nCarleton B. Gibson, Rochester, N.Y.\nC. G. Schulz, St. Paul, Minn.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio\n\nMEMBERS\nLewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nMrs. Edwin C. Grice, Philadelphia, Pa.\nW. N. Hailmann, Cleveland, Ohio\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass.\nCheeseman a. Herrick, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N.Y.\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nW. M. HOLLOWAY, Tallahassee, Fla.\nJames H. Hoose, Los Angeles, Cal.\nGeorge H. Howison, Berkeley, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N.Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Champaign, 111.\nR. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn.\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\nE. S. Joynes, Columbia, S.C\nDavid L. Kiehle, Portland, Ore.\nWilliam F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa\nHenry M. Leifziger, New York, N.Y.\nLivingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111.\nJames MacAoster, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJames A. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho\nCharles McKeniw, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nCharles A. McMurray, De Kalb, HI.\nI. C. McNeill, Harrisburg, Pa.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nEdgar H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N.Y.\nEsTELLE Reel Meyer, Toppenish, Wash.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nHenry C. Morrison, Concord, N.H.\nWnxiAM A. MowRY, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn W. Olsen, St. Paul, Minn.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nWarren D. Parker, Pasadena, Cal.\nFrank E. Parlin, Cambridge, Mass.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio\nJosiAH L. PiCKARD, Cupertino, Cal.\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Danville, Ky.\n\n503\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nS04\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nWilliam S. Sutton, Austin, Tex.\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nA. R. Taylor, Decatur, III.\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nJohn G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N.J.\nWnxiAM O. Thompson, Columbus, Ohio\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio\nB. W. Torreyson, Little Rock, Ark.\nJuiXA. S. TuTwiLER, Livingstone, Ala.\nCharles C. Van Liew, Moscow, Idaho\nJasper N. Wilkinson, Muskogee, Okla.\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio\nJohn W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo.\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nHarry K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Nebr.\nL. E. Wolfe, Memphis, Tenn.\nCalvin M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nMrs. Ellor C. Ripley, Boston, Mass.\nH. J. Rogers, Albany, N.Y.\nWilliam D. Roffner, Lexington, Va.\nJames E. Russell, New York, N.Y.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa\nJ. G. ScHCRMAN, Ithaca, N.Y.\nH. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nCharles R. Skinner, New York, N.Y.\nAnna Tolman Smith, Washington, D.C.\nEuLER B. Smith, LaGrange, Ga.\nJames A. Smith, Deland, Fla.\nHenry Snyder, Jersey City, N.J.\nJ. Lancaster Spalding, Peoria, 111.\nEdwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa.\nHomer D. Spragite, Newton, Mass.\nLucia Stickney, Cleveland, Ohio\nGrace Bibb Sudboeough, Omaha, Nebr.\n\nDECEASED\nRobert Allen\nIsrael W. Andrews\nJoseph Baldwin\nHenry Barnard\nWilliam N. Barringer\nNewton Bateman\nWilliam C. Bates\nReuben S. Bingham\nGeorge P. Brown\nJohn T. Buchanan\nJ. E. Burke\nNorman A. Calkins\nJames H. Canfield\nAaron L. Chapin\nClara Conway\nJ. L. M. Curry\nN. R. H. Dawson\nJohn W. Dickinson\nLarkin Dunton\nJohn Eaton\nW. R. Garrett\nDaniel C. Oilman\nSamuel S . Greene\nJohn M. Gregory\nGeorge T. Fairchild\nDaniel B. Hagar\nR. H. Halsey\nJohn Hancock\n\n1894\n1888\n1899\n1900\n. . . 1907\n1897\n1909\n1902\n1910\n1908\n1910\n1895\n1909\n1892\n1904\n1902\n1895\n1901\n1890\n1906\n1903\n1909\n1 883\n1898\n1901\n1896\n1907\n1891\n\nMEMBERS\n\nWilliam R. Harper\nWilliam T. Harris\nWilliam D. Henkle\nEdwin C. Hewitt\nElnathan E. Higbee\nFrank A. Hill\nBurke A. Hinsdale\nIra C. Hoitt\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N. James\nH. S. Jones\nThomas Kirkland\nAlbert G. Lane\nMerrick Lyon\nJames McCosh\nCharles D. McIver\nAlbert P. Marble\nThomas J. Morgan\nLemuel Moss\nM. A. Newell\nBiRDSEY G. NORTHRUP.\nTheodore B. Noss\nEdward Olney\nGusTAVus J. Orr\nFrancis W. Parker\nS. S. Parr\nW. H. Payne\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n1906\n1909\n1882\n1905\n1889\n1903\n1900\n1905\n1892\n1901\n1901\n1900\n1898\n1906\n1888\n1894\n1906\n1906\n1902\n1905\n1893\n. . .1898\n1909\n1886\n1888\n1902\n1900\n1907\n\nSelim H. Peabody\nWilliam F. Phelps\nJohn D. Philbrick\nM. S. Cooper Poucher.\nWilliam B. Powell\nEllen H. Richards\nZalmon Richards\nJin,iA Richman\nAndrew J. Rickoff\n\n190a\n1907\n1885\n. .1900\n1904\n1911\n1890\n1912\n1899\n\nCharles C. Rounds. . .'. . .1901\nAlbert Salisbury\n1911\nEdward R. Shaw\n1903\nWilliam E. Sheldon\n1900\nEdgar A. Singer\n1909\nJames A. Smart\nF. Louis Soldan\nJ. W. Stearns\nR. W. Stevenson\nThomas B. Stockwell\nEli T. Tappan\nHorace S. Tarbell\nCharles O. Thompson\nH. S. Thompson\nArnold Tompkins\nEmerson E. White\nJames P. Wickersham.\nS. G. Williams\n■J.Ormond\n\n1900\n1908\n1909\n1893\n1906\n1908\n1904\n1885\n1904\n1906\n1902\n. . .1891\n1900\n\nWilson\n\n1911\n\nMINUTES\n\nST. LOUIS MEETING\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Charles H. Keyes, president of Skidmore School of Arts. . .Saratoga Springs, N.Y.\nVice-President — William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools\nWashington, D.C.\nSecretary — Robert J. Aley, president of the University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\n\nFIRST SESSION — Monday Forenoon, February 26, 191 2\nCharles H. Keyes, president of Skidmore School of Arts, Saratoga Springs, N.Y.,\ncalled the meeting to order at 9:40 A.M. in the Banquet HaU of the Southern Hotel,\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n505\n\nThis session of the Council was devoted to a conference and discussion on \"Economy\nof Time in Education.\"\nThe presentation on behalf of the Committee of the Council was made by James H.\nBaker, president of the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., and James H. Van Sickle,\nsuperintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.\nNo presentation on behalf of the Committee of the National Association of State\nUniversities was made because of the unavoidable absence from the session of Albert\nRoss Hill, president of the University of Missouri, Coliunbia, Mo., and Frank Strong,\nchancellor of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans., who had been selected to\nmake the report.\nThe presentation on behalf of the Committee of the Department of Superintendence\nwas made by Harry B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111., Frank E.\nThompson, professor of education. University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., and John H.\nFrancis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe general discussion was participated in by the following: Joseph Swain, president\nof Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.; Robert J. Aley, president of the University of\nMaine, Orono, Me.; E. Mackey, superintendent of city schools, Trenton, N.J.; J. M.\nGreen, president of the State Normal School, Trenton, N.J.; Francis G. Blair, state\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.; John W. Cook, president of the\nState Normal School, DeKalb, III.; and L. D, Harvey, president of Stout Institute,\nMenomonie, Wis.\nPresident Baker, of Boulder, Colo., closed the discussion.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — Monday\n\nAfternoon, February 26, 191 2\n\nThe session was called to order at 2 : 00 p.m.\nThe topic under discussion was \"The Preliminary Report of the Committee on\nSpecial High-School Preparation of Candidates for Normal Training-School.\"\nDavid Felmley, president of the State Normal University, Normal, 111., made a\ngeneral statement of the case.\nThe situation from the viewpoint of superintendents of schools was given by John\nH. PhiUips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala., and Jacob A, Shawan, superintendent ofschools, Columbus, Ohio.\nJohn R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo., and Homer H.\nSeerley, president of Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, la., gave the normal-school\nexecutive viewpoint.\nThe view of the high-school principals was presented by J. Stanley Brown, principal\nof Township High School, Joliet, III.\nThe following people took part in the discussion: Charles H. Chapin, principal of\nthe State Normal School, Montclair, N.J.; D. B. Parkinson, president of the State Normal\nSchool, Carbondale, 111.; and John W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J.\nA brief summary of the case was made by President Felmley.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Monday\n\nEvening, February 26, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 8:40 p.m.\nAt this session, \"The Preliminary Report of the Committee on Health Problems in\nEducation\" was the subject of discussion.\nThe scope of the committee's work was presented by the chairman of the committee, Thomas D. Wood, M.D., under the title \"Health Problems in Education.\"\nUnited States commissioner of education. Philander P. Claxton, Washington, D.C.,\nread a paper on \"The Need for the Health Ideal in Public Education.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n\"The School's Responsibility for Providing Healthful Environment and Program\"\nwas presented by R. W. Corwin, M.D., Pueblo, Colo.\nJohn F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo., and Albert E. Winship,\neditor. New England Journal of Education, Boston, Mass., spoke in the general discussion.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nFOURTH SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, February 28, 191 2\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:50 a.m. in the Banquet Hall of the Planters\nHotel.\nThe time of the session was devoted to \"The Preliminary Report of the Committee\non Rural School Education.\"\nJames Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C., stated\nthat the committee had arranged for E. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Topeka, Kans., to present the general problem. In accordance with this\nplan. Superintendent Fairchild spoke at length upon this topic.\nThe general discussion was participated in by Adelaide Steele Baylor, State Deparrment of Education, Indianapolis, Ind.; David Snedden, commissioner of education\nfor Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.; E. C. Elliott, professor of education. University\nof Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; E. E. Balcomb, Department of Agricultural Education,\nState Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N.C.; John R. Kirk, president, State\nNormal School, Kirksville, Mo.; and D. T. Davis, of Decatur, HI.\nThe following resolution was introduced and approved:\nResolved, That the National Council of Education recommend to the Committee on\nInvestigations and Appropriations the setting apart of $250 to meet the necessary expenses\nof the committee from the Department of Superintendence on \"Economy of Time in\nElementary and Secondary Education.\"\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nFIFTH SESSION— Thtjusday Forenoon, February 29, 191 2\nThe Council met in joint session with the Department of Superintendence in the\nBanquet Hall, Southern Hotel, St. Louis, Mo.\nThe meeting was called to order by President Keyes at 9:44 a.m.\nPayson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me., presented \"The\nReport of the Committee on Uniform Records and Reports,\" which is printed as a\nseparate pamphlet.\nA special discussion of this report was engaged in by Harlan Updegraff, chief of the\nDivision of School Administration, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.; E, C.\nWarriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich.; and W. H. Elson, superintendent\nof schools, Cleveland, Ohio.\nWalter E. Ranger, state commissioner of public schools, Providence, R.I., spoke in\nthe general discussion.\nUpon motion of Payson Smith, the report was adopted and the committee discharged.\nDr. Robert Brooks, of Cincinnati, Ohio, who has been chosen as expert by the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Teachers, was introduced and made a general\nstatement concerning the plans inaugurated by the committee to secure statistics. He\nrequested the co-operation of all superintendents and school officials in securing the\nmaterial needed by the committee.\nThe last topic of the session was \"By What Standards or Tests Shall the Efficiency\nof a School or System of Schools Be Measured?\" George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., chairman of the committee\nto investigate this topic, presented the scope and plan of the proposed work.\nThe rural school phases of the problem were presented by E. C. Elliott, professo\nof education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n507\n\nThe general discussion was opened by Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools,\nMilwaukee, Wis. He was followed by Charles H. Judd, director of the School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.; Z. X. Snyder, president, Colorado State\nTeachers College, Greeley, Colo.; and Lotus D. Co£fman, State Normal School, Charleston, 111. President Snyder's paper was read by C. A. Hollingshead, of Gunnison, Colo.\nBy a unanimous vote of the Council, a recommendation was made to the Committee\non Appropriations and Investigations that the Council committee appointed to investigate\nstandards and tests by which schools or school systems may be measured be given an\nappropriation of $500 to defray necessary expenses incurred.\nThe Council also recommended to the Committee on Appropriations and Investigations that the request of the Committee on Health Needs of School Children to have an\nappropriation of $1,600 be favorably considered.\nThe Council adjourned at 12:10.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nTOPIC: ECONOMY\nJAMES H. BAKER,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF TIME\nA\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY\nBOULDER, COLO.\n\nOF\n\nCOLORADO,\n\n[Introductory]\nMr. President and Members of the Council:\nAt the request of the president an informal discussion of \"Economy\nof Time in Education\" has been arranged for this meeting. There are now\nthree committees at work on this problem: the Council committee and\ntwo co-operating committees, that of the National Association of State\nUniversities, and that of the National Department of Superintendence.\nThe Council committee is not ready for a final report, and, altho the delay\nis already long, I believe the final report should not be hastened, especially\nsince we may now expect vigorous work from the committee of the Department of Superintendence, and, I believe, also from the committee of imiversities. However, it was believed that an informal conference of the\nthree committees at this time and an open discussion would be an advantage.\nIt was announced that my San Francisco paper on \"Reorganization of\nAmerican Education\" should be taken as a kind of report of progress\nand made the basis of our discussion this morning. I need not read it\nor repeat its arguments, for copies have been sent to each member of the\nCouncil and it appears on p. 94 of the 191 1 volume of Proceedings. However, itis important to remember that this is not a question of \"shortening\nthe college course\"; that phrase does not give the significance of the\ninquiry, which is upon the length of the whole period of general education.\nThe committee does not advocate lowering the standard of American\neducation, or cramming and hurry, or lessening the period for those who\nearly turn to vocations. It aims rather to strengthen scholarship, to edu-\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncate without worry or waste, to keep a class of pupils in school longer than\nis done under present conditions. We believe that by a more economical\nuse of material and methods two years at least can be saved in the whole\nperiod of education, including the college, and better results secured than\nnow.\n[Final Summing Up]\nThis discussion seems hopeful because on this occasion it has remained\nwithin shouting-distance of the subject. I will take time to touch only\na few points of the discussion. I agree that we need to study educational\naims and educational principles, but we shall be studying them a thousand\nyears from now, and the question of economy of time is somewhat independent of educational aims, and involves principles in method and use\nof material that would apply in any case. The committee has proposed\ntentatively a time scheme, based on a rational view of the remedies suggested, inthe preliminary investigation, by all classes of educators. Would\nit not be well for the three committees to center their further investigations\nupon this scheme and so work with a common understanding and purpose ?\nThe time has come to make this question concrete and seek examples\nand experiments. Remember that economy of time is proposed for those\nwho go thru the whole period of education. It is not intended to shorten\nthe period for those who turn earlier to vocations, but rather to lengthen\nit by giving them the tools of education at the age of twelve and then\noffering prevocational courses that wUl tend to keep them in school longer\nthan they remain imder present conditions. The principle of \"prolonging\ninfancy\" used by one member in this discussion has its merits, but may\nbe applied harmfully. In our whole period of preparatory and imiversity\neducation we prolong the infancy of the pupil imtil he is approaching his\nsecond childhood and in this we differ from every other civilized country.\nElsewhere in general the student completes his preparation for the imiversity nominally at eighteen; in this country we prolong imiversity.\npreparation to twenty-two or twenty-three. We must answer the claim\nthat we are at least two years behind other countries at every stage of our\neducation. Reference was made to an illustration of the testimony of\nthe \"old fellows\" used in my paper on reorganization. This was not\nharking back to the past, but was used as evidence that there is such a\nthing as general education, a fact which some inconsequent experimenters\nand business men turned educational philosophers would attempt to deny.\nThere is danger that our education today may become a thing of shreds\nand patches. Moreover, anyone studying such a question as is before\nus must look not only to the present but to the past and the future or he\nwill have no perspective for his judgment. You know what the poets say:\nWith large discourse, looking before and after,\nand\nWe look before and after,\nAnd pine for what is not.\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n509\n\nB\nJAMES H.\n\nVAN\n\nSICKLE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\n[Abstract]\n\nIt is generally admitted that there is waste in education. It is not\ndenied by a single person among more than one hundred who have been\nconsulted in the course of this inquiry that some of this waste is chargeable\nto elementary education. There are those who would revolutionize the\ncourse of study from beginning to end for all pupils. There are others\nwho would change the course materially for two groups of pupils: the\nhighly gifted and the slow. But a majority of those consulted seem in the\nmain to accept the course of study as it has developed, and to hope for\nimproved conditions thru elimination of nonessentials, substitutions, better\nteaching, and improved administrative adjustments.\nIt is clearly impossible to move children thru the course in definite\nchronological age groups. The differences in mental power are too great\nfor this and we do not yet know enough about psychical age to use this\nterm in speaking of groups of pupils in the various stages of education.\nOne of the conspicuous causes of waste in elementary education is the\nattempt to give the same preparation to all, regardless of wide diflferences\nin aptitude and the character of the life to be led. Classifying the grades\nabove the sixth as secondary would facilitate differentiation in the upper\ngrades, thus permitting all pupils to make more direct preparation for\nbusiness or the industries or professional life than is now possible.\nWe are assuming in this committee that it is possible and desirable to\nend the college and begin the university at twenty instead of twenty-two,\nthus saving two years during the whole period of education, and we readily\nadmit the responsibility of the elementary school for a share of this saving,\nbut in accepting twenty as the age at which the college course should be\ncompleted, we have in mind the abler students, not all students.\nWe cannot go far until we can agree upon the essentials of a course of\nstudy, and common standards of measurement, for economy of time in\neducation must be relative to the results which we wish to secure.\nIn determining the essentials of a course of study and adopting measures\nof accomplishment, there is danger that too narrow a definition of\n\"essentials\" will be adopted. Fixed knowledge of fundamental processes\nis no more and no less essential than mental attitude, habits of thought\nand emotion, and working ideals. Something more than drill is needed to\nget these ingrained. The selection of suitable subject-matter for work and\nstudy in the grades, the organization of this material with reference to the\nperiods when important instincts, interests, powers, and capacities become\nprominent, the development of desirable ideals, motives, and habits in the\npupils — these things must be considered when we undertake to say what\nare the \"essentials.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[NaUonal\n\nRecent studies in retardation have involved the fallacy that the proper\nplace of a child in school can be determined by age alone. What is needed\nto put education on a scientific basis is an examination of each child's\nphysical state and mental power at the beginning of school life, on the\nresults of which all the work should be based.\nWe have been accustomed to say, \"The teacher is the school,\" and this\nis still true, but in our cities with their large biiildings and many teachers,\nindividuality is in danger of being submerged and progressiveness of lacking\nstimulation. Superintendents and supervisors suggest and encourage, but\ntheir contacts with teachers are relatively infrequent. Instead of being\nwhat they would like to have it, the school will be just about what the\nprincipal makes it. In a certain sense, therefore, we are justified in saying,\n\"The principal is the school.\" The right kind of a principal will weed out\npoor teachers, will make teachers of imcertain value into good teachers, and\ngood teachers into better teachers. He will know what progress every\npupil in the school is making, and, having a view of the whole school as the\nteachers have not, will be on the lookout for opportunities to advance\npupils either individually or in classes without waiting for fixed promotion\ndates.\nIn considering waste in education, no problem looms larger than the\npreliminary and after-training of suitable principals. Given a salary that\nwill enable the superintendent to select persons of tested strength and\ncharacter for these positions, no efifort is expended to better advantage in\nchecking waste than that which the superintendent devotes to conferences\nwith his principals. The principal can either make or mar the most carefully planned scheme and in his hands rests the success or failure of any\nplans that may be formulated for economizing time in elementary education.\n\nH. B. WILSON,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, DECATUR,\n\nILL.\n\nWhat I shall present this morning is neither a report, a preliminary\nreport, nor a report preliminary to a report. I merely wish to bring to\nyour attention, by means of the outline just distributed, the fact that the\ncommittee from the Department of Superintendence has developed this\nbrief logical outline of the whole problem of economy of time in elementary\neducation in an effort to discover where it should begin its work and in\nwhat direction it should proceed in an effort to define for itself the phases\nof the problem which should bring largest returns in the shortest time.\nYou will recall that this committee was created in response to a resolution presented by Professor Henry Suzzallo at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Mobile upon the conclusion of his address\nbefore the department, presenting, in the absence of President Baker,\nchairman of the committee, a preliminary report of the committee from\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nthe Council on \"Economy of Time in Education.\"\naddress Professor Suzzallo said:\n\n511\n\nNear the close of his\n\nThe main requirement at this point in our progress is to investigate the waste in\nelementary schools and to make definite proposals for eliminating the archaic and least\nuseful matter of the course of study and to propose more ecomomic methods of teaching.\nTo this end I move that the Department of Superintendence appoint a committee\nof five on Economy of Time in Elementary Education, this committee of practical superintendents to co-operate with the general committee on Economy of Time in Education.\n\nThis committee as originally constituted consisted of Superintendent\nCalvin N. Kendall, then of Indianapolis, chairman; Superintendent J. H.\nFrancis, Los Angeles; Superintendent E. O. Holland, Louisville; Superintendent Charles S. Meek, Boise, Idaho; and Superintendent Frank E.\nSpaulding, Newton, Mass. Upon assuming his new duties in New Jersey,\nMr. Kendall asked to be relieved from his duty on the committee. After\nconsiderable correspondence the present chairman accepted appointment\nto this vacancy on the committee. Later Superintendent Meek foimd it\nnecessary to be relieved from duty on the committee, owing to the pressure\nof other work, and I now announce the resignation of Superintendent\nHolland for the same reason for which Mr. Meek resigned. Superintendent\nMeek's position on the committee was filled by the appointment of Professor Frank E. Thompson of the University of Colorado, Boulder, and\nSuperintendent Chadsey, president of the Department of Superintendence,\nhas indicated that he will appoint President O. I. Woodley of the Farmington, W.Va., Normal School to succeed Superintendent Holland on the\ncommittee. As now constituted the committee consists of three superintendents, anormal-school president, and a college professor working in the\nDepartment of Education. The committee, therefore, represents more lines\nof interest in reference to this problem than it did as first organized.\nAt this time we merely present the following outline for yovur attention\nand criticism:\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nI. Definition (logically first but must be answered last).\n1. Is economy of time to be sought thru lessening the time devoted to elementaryschool work ? If so, should total time devoted to elementary and high school be\nlessened ?\n2. Or is economy of time to be sought thru securing larger results in the time now\nconsumed ?\n3. Or is economy of time to be sought thru a combination of i and 2 ?\nII. Lines of investigation in seeking solution.\nI. Course of study problems :\nA. Modifications needed as to content.\na) Eliminations needed to remove archaic and least useful materials.\nb) Significant additions necessary.\nB. Modifications needed to secure economic amalgamation and wise correlation of\nsubjects. What separate subjects or lines of work shovdd the program of\nstudies provide for ?\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nC. Modifications needed to secure that sequence of work which is essential in\nsocializing and psychologizing the materials of instruction.\nD. Modifications needed to secure such differentiations in work as are advisable in\nupper grades.\nE. Modifications needed to secure flexibility in adapting to varjdng abilities and\nto different communities.\n2. Problems relating to teachers:\nA. Giving them an adequate vision as to the fimction and possibilities of public\neducation in our democracy.\nB. Securing efl&cient, artistic (appreciative, sympathetic) teachers.\nC. Perpetuating their academic and professional growth.\nD. Preventing wastes resulting from short professional life of teachers.\n3. Problems relating to teaching:\nA. Securing adequate motivation of children's work (importance of texts in use).\nB. Eliminating useless, meaningless, ineffective procedures.\nC. Varying the technique of teaching to suit the outcomes or resiilts sought.\n4. Problems of organization:\nA. What systems of grading and promotion are most advantageous in securing\neconomy of time ? (Effects of attendance, preventing failures, avoiding retardation.)\nB. Advantages of special schools or classes in securing economy of time.\nC. Relation of differentiated courses with reference to vocational ends to problem\nof economy of time. See D under i.\nD. Relation of vocational guidance to securing economy of time.\nE. How may the schools be directed and used in the interest of modifying the\npublic attitude toward educational effort ?\n5. Development of standards which shall:\nA. Set ends for attainment.\nB. Enable the measurement of results secured.\nC. Need of standards in estimating economy of time.\n\nWe hope you will not only react upon this outline here as time may\npermit, but that you may carry it with you from this meeting and write\nthe committee any suggestions you may have as to the problems of importance for their study and investigation with a view to a future report.\nThis morning I wish to call attention to the following articles in the\noutline: II, i, A> B; II, 3, A, B; II, 4, E; II, 5, A, C. In the light of what I\nhave said in calling your attention to these articles in the outline you will\nsee that it is my belief that the first thing to do is to tabulate rather carefully what is being done at this time in the country which may have suggestive value in indicating ways to economize time. Our first attack should\nbe from the empirical standpoint. The articles imder I, while standing\nlogically first in the outline, must be the last ones to be answered from oiu:\nstudy. II, 5, standing last in the outline, is probably the first problem which\nshould be solved that we may have a basis for knowing oiur progress and\nattainments from the standpoint of economy.\nIn conclusion I wish to urge you most earnestly to give us your help,\nrefer us to schools that are doing work which may throw light on our problem, refer us to bibUographies which may be of service, use your influence\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n513\n\nto promote the discussion of this topic upon educational programs. If all\nof the educational public which should be interested in this problem will\ngive it the attention due it, after three or four years of careful study your\ncommittee should be able to make a report of significant value.\n\nFEANK\n\nE. THOMPSON,\n\nPROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nCOLORADO, BOULDER, COLO.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nWe cannot proceed far with the discussion of this subject until we have\ndecided upon certain essentials, and we cannot say what is essential in\nelementary education until we come to some understanding as to what is\nessential in any education. What is essential will depend upon whether\nwe want to select a few or to train all. If we are selecting it makes little\ndifference what the course of study or the method so long as these are such\nas to permit the survival of but a few of the best. If we are training, it is\nincumbent upon us to give the better rather than the worse training. If\nwe are training all — and no less than that is demanded of us — all our educational endeavor must be estimated to a nicety with respect to its effect.\nIf we are selecting a few, the chief consideration is that the work shall be\ndiflEicult, or require peculiar gifts. Linguistic refinements, tight-rope\nwalking, singing, doing the chores on the farm are all good for the selection\nof certain types. Our present educational procedure seems to be dominated in a measure by both of these conceptions. Our defense of the traditional cultural education sometimes leads us to emphasize selection; our\nbelief in \"practical\" education sometimes leads us to \"practical\" extremes.\nIt would seem that education must hold to a middle course. We must\ntrain all in some sort of way but we may make our regime peculiar and difficult enough to select a variety of capacity and genius. Our boast that we\n\"kill off\" and frighten away is anomalous if not gruesome. The social\norder can utilize the peculiar and special contribution of everyone. If we\nare to educate all, and in the most economical way, we must consider carefully essentials in respect of (i) aim, (2) material, and (3) method.\nI.\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nOF AIM\n\nEach human being should be, to some extent at least, a participant in\neach and all of the human occupations. As a child, he should be introduced to each and all of them and should be given opportunity to become\nat least moderately proficient before the conclusion of elementary education. The educated man is proficient in several of the occupations and,\nto some extent, at home in all of them. Experience in any occupation\nshould put the learner in touch with the particular truth, beauty, and\nrighteousness which is the perfection of that occupation. To put it another\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nway, training in the occupations should result in proficiency in them on the\nhigher h\\inian levels.\nOccupations, as the term is used here, are outgrowths of instinctive\nactivities; they are long-circuited instincts. The instincts are limited in\nnumber; they are limited, too, as independent mechanisms, hence much\nof the confusion as to their number. There are fairly distinct occupations,\nhowever, for example, fighting, dodging, mating, protecting, educating,\nprying, constructing, collecting, strutting. The activities of the instincts\nin these occupations, and their complications and overlappings, give us the\ncommon, human: habits, for example, customs, manners, ways in dress,\nin address, eating, sleeping, exercise, neatness, poUteness; dexterities, for\nexample, of the body, of speaking, reading, writing, vocation, language,\nnimiber, drawing; attitudes, for example, interests, tastes, enthusiasms, preferences, prejudices, interest in learning, enthusiasm for efficiency, prejudice\nagainst dirt-meanness, preference for effort — truth — ^beauty — ^justice;\ninformation, for example, of nature, self, geography (poHtical, social,\neconomic), history, vocations; ideals, for example, vocational, moral, civic,\nscientific, aesthetic, of \"paying one's board,\" being a factor in one's community, knowing and adding to what is known, making things more beautiful. The product of the elementary school should be well advanced toward\nthe attainment of these things. He should be so far advanced that he cannot\nlose grovmd; no greater economy could be effected than by this means.\n2.\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nOF\n\nMATERIAL:\n\nCHILD AITO\n\nCtTRRICULUM\n\na) The child, for the purposes of education, is a composite of instinctemotion processes. These processes are the psycho-physical mechanisms\nbuilt up by the selection of the ages to react effectively to their appropriate\nstimuU. Primeval man had certain great situations in which to act, certain emergencies to meet. There was no time for deUberation. The man\nthat evolved from primitive man differs from him as an organism in no\nessential particular except, perhaps, in greater imitativeness — educabUity.\nThe modem man is made up of instinct-emotion processes, but he Uves\nunder conditions which should train, long-circuit these processes. Man\nis the descendant of a creature much like man, just like him save that the\nancestor hved in a time and environment in which there was no culture.\nPrimitive man plus culture equals civilized man. Civilized man minus\nculture equals primitive man. A child is, mentally speaking, a primitive\nman with this difference, however, from the primitive man: that the latter\ncould not get at a culture while the child usually can — if the schools and\nhis parents will keep out of the way! The thing common between the\nchild and the primitive man is this: they are possessed of the same instincts\nand of the same number of instincts, if not of the same instinct-capacities.\nb) The curriculum is usually an abstract and condensation of civilization, logically arranged. Abstraction has been made of the symbol.\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n515\n\nCondensation has squeezed out all romance. Logical arrangement has as\noften as not reversed the psychological order. The present-day curriculum\nexists, in the main, in textbooks which are condensations of the lore of\noccupations or divisions of occupations. Condensation has, as intimated\nabove, as a rule, squeezed out all of the things of action — usually of feeling\nand volition also. Textbooks are, as a rule, highly schematic and, in\ngeneral, are addressed to the intelligence only. They should be outlines of\nexercises, actual things for the child to do with his big and little muscles —\nor suggestions for such — in, and of, the various occupations, arranged as\nto difficulty in an ascending scale. The earlier exercises should be of\nfundamental operations; the later, of accessory operations.\n3.\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nOF METHOD\n\nThe child can be educated thru the employment of his activities in the\noccupations of the race, with care that all his instincts and emotions are\ninvolved — none too much, none too little — and that all are involved in right\nrelations to each other and to the \"culture\" of the group of which he is a\nmember. His incentive to the development of concepts will be his needs.\nDetermine his environment and, by indirection, direct — ability is his natural culmination. We should remember that at first culture was passed\nalong by imitation of action, and that it is still so passed on when we permit.\nThe educand learns thru participation. He later associates symbols\n(words) with his experience. This helps in communication and it helps\nin thinking. The crowning mistake in education is made when it is falsely\nimagined that any considerable part of culture can be passed from one to\nanother, or from one generation to another, solely by means of symbols —\nwords, diagrams, maps. Culture can be passed along in real experience\nonly — ^by imitation, and by trial and correction. Of course, symbols should\nbe passed over with the experience, for their value in association and thinking. Without the experience, they are practically useless — in time, they\nare harmful. We learn, by and large, mainly thru imitations of motions.\nThe motions imitated may be the superficial ones — of words and grimace\nin general — or they may be those peculiar to, or associated with, the instincts\nand the more fundamental human occupations. Education is the process\nwhich gives appropriate activity to each and all of the instinct-emotion\nprocesses — always to such extent as really to arouse the emotion. Coincident with this, there will be association of the right symbols, nicely distinguished and graded.\nEducational emphasis is wrong: in the schools it is too much on the\nsymbol; in the homes it is weak both on right experience and symbol. The\nschool should attempt to even things up — to correlate all of the child's\nexperience. The teacher must have and keep his perspective. The school\nshould insist upon the whole experience — ^its duty is greater now than ever\nbefore. In the good old days, there was a fair division of labor between\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sl6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nhome and school. The former gave experience, the latter fitted the symbol\nthereto. Now we must devise exercises that will provide both experience\nand symbol, all the way along. These exercises must get down into the\nchild. If the home, the industries, and the school can co-operate, the thing\ncan be done adequately. Probably education will remain but a sorry expedient until this compact is formed, but the right teachers, even under\nmodern conditions, can do a great deal by really calling up such experiences\nas the child has had. In the coimtry, things are not bad. In the city, they\nwould be better with sane labor laws. School gardens, manual training,\ncooking, laundering, sewing — any sort of thing rightly used — would help.\nTextbooks give little more than symbols and the logical organization of\nthem.\nThe earlier man was in touch with all of this culture and, as this had\nbeen produced by his and his immediate neighbor's and ancestor's efforts,\nhe could readily participate in it; with participation, he achieved for himself an education. The present situation as contrasted with the earlier one\nis obvious. The but-little-sorted accumulation of unnumbered ages and\nraces is all about the one who has still to learn and there are few cues as to\nwhat to do next. We have tried to get out of the dilemma by educating\nthat part of the child which has to do with symbols only. Such ideas as\nhe gets, he gets in the old manner, by his experience, and when we teach\nhim symbols he does his best to attach them to some part of this experience;\nhe attaches too much, too little, or the wrong things. We assiune that\nback of the symbols — words, schemes, etc. — taught children, there is the\nappropriate experience. As a rule, this is not the case. We even, at times,\nforce words and special arrangements of words upon children that they may\nlater have them as receptacles for meaning. We are still crazy on this\nmatter of verbal memory. Adjusting words to experience is instinctive\nwith children; facility is partly a matter of growth, partly a matter of\nhabit. Crowding is fatal — it causes short-circuiting. We are apt to be\nin a hurry for facility in talking; our most serious mistake is made here.\nTalking easily becomes a substitute for, an evasion of, action — a \"sidestepping.\" Talking gives a pleasant sense of proximity to reality; it has\nin it something of imminence; it is prophetic — ^but it cheats its devotees\nof experience. Our schools encourage talking, insist on talking, perfect\ntalking imtil impotence is attained — then we insist that we are not teaching\nenough grammar.\nWe will get out of the present dilemma only by bringing education to\nbear upon the things, the processes, in the educand which endure; and\nverbal memory processes, alone, do not endure. Taken alone, they are\nof little use when they do. The things which do endure are the attitudes,\nthe capacities, and the abilities of the fimdamental processes — the instincts.\nThese can produce new verbal forms and arrangements. They are doing\nso when we give them a chance. We niight do a great deal for the language\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n517\n\nand for literature if we would encourage expression instead of always cramming itinto the antique molds. Of course, it is essential that the educand\nshould come to an appreciation of language in respect to all of its functions\nand especially of its great function, in thinking. There is no more wonderful achievement of man than this speech which permits him to combine his\nexperience in well-nigh unlimited ways; it is important, infinitely important,\nbut its mastery is not attained by our clumsy methods of direct and too\nearly attack.\nE\nJ. H, FRANCIS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nIn the interests of economy I am convinced that best results may be\nobtained by a brief and direct description of what we are attempting to do\nin Los Angeles in the way of reorganizing our school system.\nIt is to be understood that the plan is not to be dubbed the Los Angeles\nplan. I do not know how many other cities are attempting the same things,\nand with what results. Recently someone mailed me a copy of an address\nby Edward Van Dyke Robinson, University of Minnesota, on the \"Reorganization ofthe Graded and High Schools.\" I did not learn who this\nkindly disposed, but unkind, friend was. Since reading it I am certain\nthat I shall practice plagiarism in this paper and upon future occasions.\nIn fact, I discover that either he or I have been at it in the past, for I\nmight well content myself with calling your attention to his address, which\nhas been published in pamphlet form and which fully covers the points\ninvolved in this discussion.\nOUR PLAN\n\nThe plan toward which we are working in our city, broadly speaking,\nfollows:\n1. Oiie or two years in the kindergarten. Our state law compels the\nadmittance of children to the kindergarten at a tender age, a prophecy of\nthe days when the nursery shall become an integral part of the publicschool system. This ofttimes results in a child spending more than one\nyear in the kindergarten, and in turn raises serious questions concerning\nkindergarten methods and content of work.\n2. Six years in the elementary schools, assuming responsibility for the\nphysical, mental, and spiritual development of the child between the ages\nof six and twelve. Because of economic and social conditions, and principally because, of the wicked folly of educators hiding behind the gray old\nfallacy of conservatism, this age limit too frequently reaches thirteen,\nfourteen, and even fifteen, thereby robbing the individual of the most\nsacred thing in all the worlds that be — his hidden pride and confidence\nin the efficiency and power of his own personality. Fortimately the boy,\nfor it is usually a boy, finds some sort of deviltry in which to give expression\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sl8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto this personality, and thereby retains a portion of it which his good sense\nmay later lead him to tiim into legitimate channels.\n3. Three years in the intermediate or jimior high school, which, if\nthe child has been fortunate, submissive, and not too individualistic,\nmay be completed at the age of fifteen, covering nine years of school work.\n4. Five years in the high school, which brings the student to the age\nof twenty; a good average age to begin the business of life, despite the\nphilosophy of my friend, President Benton, who holds we should remain\ninfants until twenty-one years old.\nThis general outline of work designed to meet the needs of the largest\nnumber of American boys and girls is supplemented by:\n1. The trade school admitting pupils according to physical development,\nirrespective of academic attainments.\n2. Continuation schools open before and after school hours, . offering\nwork in manual subjects and optional with the pupil. This work we hope\nsoon to enlarge and include in it music, art, mechanical drawing, and public\nspeaking.\n3. Vacation schools during the summer months, open in the forenoons\nand designed to conserve two purposes: (a) To occupy the time of the\nyounger children, who would otherwise be on the street, in music, folk\ndances, play, gardening, natiiral language work, drawing, and manual\narts. Since this is developmental work no effort has as yet been made\nto fit it into the great regular system, (b) To furnish regular academic\nwork for those who wish to make up subjects in which they have failed,\nor secure the coveted official certificate in subjects yet to be taken before\nthey can be vouched for as educated young men or women. Since this\nwork is both imeducational and undevelopmental, it adjusts itself excellently to the regular scheme and has great advantages as a time-saver\nand hope-preserver. Many a pupil returns to work in the fall with new\nhope and courage because he is up with his class and can see the end ahead.\nIt also keeps him out of more unprofitable occupations and saves the city\nmoney in carrying him an unwarranted length of time in the school system.\n4. Night schools of all grades and for all classes of people. But few\nphases of our school work have greater significance than this one. Plan\nand purpose upon the part of the individual, so lamentably lacking in the\nregular school system, are prominent characteristics here. If this nation\nhas one paramount danger it lies in the number of her school children who\nare passing thru her schools just to be passing thru, wholly lacking in\nintelligent or worthy purpose.\n5. Special schools for the unsocialized individual who refuses to adjust\nhimself to the regulations, formalities, and conventionalities of the schoolroom. These are the eddies with which the driftwood of the school system\nmay be gathered and treated until sufficiently seasoned to again risk in the\ngreat educational current. They are necessary and strikingly convenient.\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nSig\n\n6. A liberal use of the ungraded room, which indicates a tardy recognition of the fact that, since children will differ in some essential points,\nit is folly to subject them all to the same educational treatment and expect\nthem to assimilate all the ingredients with equal facility and profit.\n7. The social center, not yet a year old, but a most promising educational youngster. Similarity of this to the German plan is to be frankly\nconceded, which leaves a beautiful opening for the American patriot to\norate on the virtues of the American and defects of the German systems.\nThe German system, however, is not to be adopted for our needs, but\nadapted to them. There must remain one fundamental, vital difference\nbetween the present German system and the future American plan: the\nlatter must have no blind alleys, and her educational cross-roads joining\nthe main highways must be kept in as good condition as the highways\nthemselves. This becomes quite possible with the assumption that the\ncoming generation of American educators will cease to be frightened at\nthe imaginary chasms between these highways, and discover that a good\ntraveler who has moved on his own steam upon one will need fear no great\nhardships or difficulty in traveling on any other. This also suggests another\nsignificant difference: American vocational schools can no more afford to\nsacrifice liberalizing studies than can academic schools afford to eliminate\nconstructive and applied work.\nFrom the topic printed on the program for today, this paper should\nconcern itself principally with that part of the school system including\ngrades seven, eight, nine, and the organization known as the intermediate\nor junior high school. At present we have five such, enrolling approximately 3,000 pupils. Four of these are five months old and one can boast\na year of experience. Three uniform courses are offered in each of them:\na general course, a commercial course, and an elementary industrial course.\nThese courses are planned with two classes of pupils in mind: (a) those\nintending to enter high school, and (b) those electing to leave school at the\nend of their ninth year. Both are given full tenth-year standing in the\nhigh school.\nIn attempting to plan the work for these two classes we also try to\nkeep in mind the individual, independent of what he intends to do, or\nwhere to go. This, of course, is the age-old problem and the fimdamentally\nimportant one, likewise the one most poorly solved.\nIn the seventh year one option, and in the eighth and ninth years two\noptions, are allowed out of a group of six or seven studies.\nFor the pupil going thru the intermediate school we expect to accomplish\nthe following:\nI. An ability upon his part to do some thinking that may be more or\nless his own, probably less. We concede that this is ambitious, and we\nmay have to be content with limited results. A very little, however,\nwould be refreshing and give hope. Doubtless American boys surpass\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nthose of all other civilized countries in their willingness and ability to do\nthings, and in their unwillingness and incapacity to think logically, consecutively, and deeply. In this latter the American boy is surpassed only,\nif at all, by the American girl, with honors close. The cause is easily\ndiscovered. The system, not the children, is at fault. We have been asking the pupil to recite what he has just read from the pages of a textbook\nthat should never have been published, and never would have been, save\nfor the money there was in it. The lesson begins on page lo and ends on\npage 12, and except for these pages it begins nowhere and ends at the same\nplace. Since the pupil's passing thru the grade, rather than passing the\ngrade thru the pupil, is the thing to be desired by him, and too often by\nthe teacher, principal, and superintendent, and since this is accomplished\nthru satisfactory recitations, the recitation in turn becomes the important\nactivity of the average schoolroom. Thinking is of minor consideration.\nThe time, energy, and life wasted in recitations in the American schoolroom would serve as the comedy of the ages were it not the tragedy. It\nmight be legitimately asked how the intermediate school could improve\nupon the grade school in leading pupils to think. The reply must be\nqualified, but a specialist, or semi-specialist, who is supposed to think\nmore deeply on his specialty, must be conceded to be better prepared to\nlead his pupils to do the same.\n2. It accustoms the pupil to departmental work, and hence prepares\nhim for high-school methods. The death-rate in our ninth year, or first\nyear of high school, is alarming. This again is easily accounted for. The\npupil who has enjoyed the maternal care of a conscientious teacher, who\nknows his strong and weak points, and is in turn equally well known by\nhim, finds himself lost in a great high school with no one to look after him,\ntell him when to get his lessons, and how to conduct himself. The change\nis too violent and too sudden. He fails, becomes discouraged, and drops\nout. Our experiment so far has resulted in i8 per cent in the ninth year\nof the intermediate schools failing in one or more subjects, as against\n42 per cent in the same grade in our high schools.\nNot only does the pupil become accustomed to departmental work,\nbut he has the advantages of it. These are incomparably great, compared\nwith the old plan of one teacher for the entire curriculum. The idea of a\nmother-teacher belongs to preadolescence and is suited to children. Adolescent boys and girls are entitled to learn from those who are masters of what\nthey teach. This is impossible when one person is required to teach\narithmetic, geography, history, literature, language, science, penmanship,\nmusic, art, ethics, hygiene, agriculture, needlework, etc., the etc. to include\nthose subjects which may have escaped my memory. Specialists and\nspecialization ofifer serious problems in education, but they are not hopeless ones, as are those presented by the unprepared teacher. Teachers\nare not at fault. They are the victims of a system that demands the\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n$21\n\nimpossible of them. Nor can departmental work be brought to its highest\nefficiency under regular grade-school conditions. On account of lack of\nnumbers of equal grade, diversity of interests rimning thru so many grades,\nintricacies of programs, and ideals of principals and teachers, departmental\nwork in the grade schools meets with unnecessary difficulties.\n3. It conserves his time and interest. Six years is sufficiently long\nto give to the mastery of the arts. The last two years of grade schools\nnaturally occupy themselves with repetition and dead matter. An attempt\nhas been made to enrich these years by the introduction of new material.\nThe result has been an educational hash that has in it too many of the\nelements of failure. The number of young souls lost thru lack of interest\nin work that is a repetition, or work superficially done, is a startling commentary on the wisdom of school men and women. The adolescent youth\nbegins to inquire, reason, and judge, and he must have material upon which\nthese qualities of mind may work.\nOf all the inexcusable follies to be chalked against us as teachers,\npossibly that of compelling the child to repeat the work of an entire grade,\nbecause of failure in one or more subjects, is the most glaring. It is possible\nto avoid this in the grade schools, but inconvenient. This inconvenience,\nwhile not conceded, is yet the dominant cause for the practice. In the\nintermediate school it disappears naturally and necessarily.\nI do not hesitate in the belief that under a well-organized system of\nintermediate schools the child will leave the school one year ahead, in\ndevelopment, possession of knowledge, and the power to acquire it, of\nthe pupil of the same grade under the present plan. This is an extremely\nconservative statement of my hope and belief.\n4. It offers to him organization and equipment not possible under the\ngrade plan.\n5. It should develop in him social- and self-responsibility at an age\nwhen responsibility to society and to himself becomes most important.\nThe theory that the older and stronger pupils of the school are to look\nafter the interests of the younger and weaker ones is beautiful. It has\none serious defect: it does not work. Facts are, the farther our school\nchildren progress in the system the less are they disposed to concern themselves with the interests of anyone other than themselves, or their friends,\nand we are sending out armies of boys and girls, men and women, possessed\nof the spirit of getting what they can and giving as little as possible in\nreturn — the spirit that in social, political, and economic life is a menace\nto the nation.\nThese schools should develop student government and other student\nactivities offering opportunities and encouragement for giving of self to a\nlegitimate and worthy cause.\nToo much is being attempted for the child, too little by him. Too\nmany safeguards, restraints, too much protection, advice, and guidance\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwill not produce a race of men and women with the mettle of our fathers\nand mothers. They developed the real stuff within them thru early sharing the responsibilities of life and playing their part in the game. Somewhere below the imiversity and below the high school we must lead the\nindividual to recognition of the fact that the world owes him just what he\nis worth to the world, and he owes himself just what he is worth to himself.\nThis belongs to the period of adolescence, and is very difficult effectually\nto develop in a school where the preadolescent child so far outnumbers\nthe adolescent. Our grade schools are usually dominated by either the\natmosphere of the child world or the world of men and women. It is a\nrare corps of teachers with a rare principal at the head of a school who\nsucceed in harmoniously blending the two worlds. Much of the lack of\ninterest in and dissatisfaction with his school, and most of the bluff, bluster,\nand blow of the average eighth-grade boy is due to his environment, which\nis not in harmony with his natiu-e, and the average eighth-grade girl is\nequally affected, but in somewhat different form.\n6. The intermediate school offers opportunity to secure men teachers\nfor seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. As this convention is composed\nlargely of the male contingent I leave it to you to pass upon the merits\nof the proposition. It should be noted also that the plan does not exclude\nwomen teachers, and while teaching is not a sex problem it will be conceded\nthat as long as men and women differ widely in their experiences, the adolescent mind should come in contact with both the masculine and feminine\nattitude of mind and viewpoint of life, if the child is to keep his mental\nbalance.\n7. The intermediate school concerns itself with the child not going\nto high school. The American high school has grown within the last\ndecade to become the greatest educational institution in the world, largely\nbecause it was compelled to concern itself with the interests of the pupil\nnot going to college. He was the more important because there were\nmore of him.\nThe intermediate school in the coming decade will be doing for the\nboy and girl not going to high school what the high school is now doing\nfor the boy and girl not going to college, when it will surpass the high\nschool in importance for the same reason. The base of society always has\nbeen, and always will be, more important than the apex, for the simple\nreason that it acts as a support to the apex. This, be it understood, however, isnot its only or main function.\nThe high schools, in their efforts to care for the boy and girl not going\nto college, have increased the number of college students manyfold. So\nwill the intermediate schools increase high-school enrollments. The\ncolleges are coming to recognize that the high-school pupil who has prepared well to leave school at the end of his course is well prepared to continue work in college; so will the high schools discover that the intermediate\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n523\n\npupil who has taken greatest interest in, and given most thought to, his work\nin the intermediate school is best prepared to do work in the high school.\nThe kind of work is of minor importance, compared with the quality.\nBut someone will raise the inquiry here of what can be done for the\nchild in the seventh, eighth, and ninth years to prepare him to leave school.\nThe reply is, anything the teacher and system are prepared to do. The\nlimitations are not in the pupil, but in the system and teachers anticipating\nthe opposition of the psychologist, who with all his wisdom has failed to\ndiscover the psychological, physiological, and sociological necessity for\nreorganizing a school system that violated the laws of each of these sciences.\nI call attention to the growth of education during the last quarter\nof a century, in which time we have witnessed the high schools advancing\nfar beyond what the colleges were then doing, and the colleges occupying\nfields then unthought of. The grade schools in music and art have outrun\nthe dreams of university enthusiasts of a quarter of a century ago, if there\nwere any at that time. To say that we have reached the limit of the\nchild's capacity is to indulge in academic twaddle. We may be reaching\nthe end, but which end ?\n8. The intermediate school should help the child to find himself.\nPossibly no greater service can be rendered him by the public schools.\nCertain it is that too few do find themselves in their school days and too\nmany who do, do so too late to take advantage of all or much the schools\nhave to offer them. The belief that a young person is not prepared to\ndecide upon a vocation imtil he has finished college is dangerous and\nwasteful. The young people of this country must know earlier what\nthey are to do in life; whether they do it or not is of minor importance\ncompared with what they become in preparing to do it.\nA system of education that is worthy the time, effort, and money spent\non the American schools should be one of widest possible opportimities\nand offer greatest temptations to young people to discover their best qualities and powers. It should also enforce the necessity of using these qualities\nand powers in serving mankind. Vocational advisers may be necessary\nand helpful, but vocational subjects properly presented offer a safer guide\nto young people in making a choice. This can be offered with only limited\nsuccess in the grade schools; the intermediate schools furnish excellent\nopportunities for their introduction.\nThe intermediate school has distinct advantages over the six-year\nhigh school, which begins with the seventh grade. This is especially\ntrue in the larger cities. In some of the smaller districts where, as in\nsouthern California, they are erecting expensive high-school buildmgs to\naccommodate a small nimiber of pupils, it would seem best to admit the\nseventh and eighth grades to the high school.\nIn the cities, however, the high schools are usually crowded and almost\nimiformly too large in numbers.\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe transition from grade to departmental work should be gradual;\nto make it so is one of the distinct problems of the intermediate school,\nwhere it can be better worked out than in a large high school with its own\nand different problems. The high schools have not solved the transition\nproblem between the eighth and ninth years. • To make the break as\nviolent between the sixth and seventh as it now is in the ninth would add\nto our difficulties.\nSeventh- and eighth-grade pujiils are too old to associate in school\nwith first- and second-year children, but too yoimg and inexperienced to\nwork on an equal footing with eleventh- and twelfth-year pupils.\nIn most states children are compelled by law to remain in school\nbetween the ages of six and fifteen, inclusive. A school, therefore, that\nnaturally completes its work with the child at this age is logical. Its\nbusiness will be to solve the problems raised by pupils of these grades and\nto meet their needs. Thus it can and will do better than the present high\nschool.\nThe item of transportation to high-school centers is an important one\nand the imnecessary dangers to which young people are subjected in our\nlarge cities argue strongly for the organization of intermediate schools\nwithin walking-distance of practically all pupils.\nTo include the ninth year in the intermediate insures an additional\nyear's schooling for a very large percentage of pupils, who will remain to\nfinish with their class but who would drop out of a six-year high school\nupon reaching the legal age.\nThe three divisions of the school system are psychological, sociological,\nand logical. The intermediate school, however, assumes its true significance\nonly when considered in cormection with the extended high school.\nSix years in the elementary schools, three years in the intermediate,\nand five years in the high schools offer opportunities that will work a\nrevolution in our educational history. Six years will be given to the\nmastery of the arts, the remaining eight to the development of men and\nwomen and their preparation for Junior work in college or for definite\nactivities in Hfe. Then will conservation in school work lose much of its\nsignificance and the American system of education be truly for neither\nthe rich nor the poor but for the American boy and girl.\nThe cost of education under this plan will be increased, but the true\neducator concerns himself much less with the cost than with the returns\nof education, and these will be greatly multiplied over present returns.\nDISCUSSION\nJoseph Swain, president of Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa., spoke from the\nstandpoint of one who believes that economy of time in education will necessarily be\nworked out chiefly thru the experiences of teachers in the different fields of education.\nThe teachers in the grades will have largely to determine what can be done in the grades,\nthe high-school teachers what can be done in the high schools, and the college teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n525\n\nwhat can be done in college. He expressed his willingness to accept as entrance subjects\nto college the subjects which the high-school teachers find best for each individual student.\nIf each pupil pursues in each grade what is best for him there, and if the work is done\nin such a thoro manner as to enable the teacher in the grade above to build his instruction\non the work done in the grade below, then the teacher in one grade should determine the\nfitness of the pupil for promotion to the grade above, whether it be within the school or\nfrom school to college.\nDr. Swain commended, in the main, the paper of President Baker, read at San\nFrancisco, on the economy of time. He was satisfied with the provisional time scheme\npresented as an ideal toward which to work, namely, elementary education from six to\ntwelve years; secondary, from twelve to sixteen years, and college, from sixteen to\ntwenty. The reduction of the number of grades from eight to six may take many\nyears. There are many schools, however, where the reduction from eight to seven\ngrades has been very successfully tried. If time and experience can justify six grades\ninstead of seven, the two years' saving of time would be secured.\nDr. Swain pointed out that the often-reiterated statement of the German schools\nsaving two years in time as compared with the American schools is not strictly true, and\nwould be irrelevant if true. We would not bring to America the German Gymnasium if\nwe could. It is military in character and admirably suited to German civilization, but its\nspirit is not suited to American ideals. Besides, the German students do not finish their\ncourses in the Gymnasium at eighteen years of age, as it is usually understood, but at the\nage of about nineteen and a half years. Dr. Swain visited a number of such schools\nin Berlin last winter and found the average age of the graduates in these schools to be\nabout nineteen and a half years. He quoted Dr. Russell of Teachers College, New York,\nwho found that the average age of the graduates of these schools in Germany was between\nnineteen and twenty years. As a graduate of the German Gymnasium has about the\nequivalent in training of an American student who has completed the Sophomore year,\nthe American student at a corresponding stage of advancement is not two years older but\none, and where the eighth grade is eliminated, he is no older. The graduate of the German\nGymnasium is far inferior in physical development to the boy who has had two years in\ncollege. Dr. Swain was not prepared to indorse the idea that on the whole the German\nGymnasium graduate is better fitted for his subsequent studies and career than the\nAmerican boy is for his. He was inclined to the opinion that the German boy in his\nsystem of studies at nineteen and a half years of age is not better fitted for his subsequent\nwork than the American boy is at the same age for his subsequent work. The German\nboy has lost in physical development as much as he has gained in intellectual development.\nDr. Swain believes that the independent college must maintain a four-year course.\nIf its work is based on six years of secondary training, then the last two years must be\nconducted on the university plan, as pointed out by President Baker. The stronger\ncolleges can well do this. Our best colleges can adjust themselves to either four years of\nsecondary courses or six years of secondary courses. Evolution in education must determine what is best. Certainly the college must never lose sight of the fact that the first\nduty of the college is to make men and women of high ideals and not make them slaves\nof the civilization in which they live.\nJames M. Green, principal of the New Jersey State Normal School, Trenton, N.J. —\nPresident Patton of Princeton University in an address at the installation of Dr. Butler\nas president of Columbia University said that Dr. Butler was fortunate in that he began\nwith a philosophy of education. We are uncertain in this discussion because we have no\nphilosophy, no definite plan of education before us. \"We don't know where we're going,\nbut we're on our way.\"\nHow can we discuss intelligently economy of time unless we define a specific thing\nto be accomplished and the length of time it takes to accomplish it under given\ncircumstances ?\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe term education is too general, it means too much. It seems to me that we\nshould do better to discuss economy in the terms of the curriculimi; for instance, what of\ngeometry or physics, general and special, should we teach in the schook, and how long\nwill each require ?\nThe Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools for the Middle States and\nMaryland in their meeting of 19 lo set for discussion two phases of each of several subjects, the practical and the cultural; for instance, what of algebra is essential to engineering and astronomical problems and what is simply taught for disciplinary purposes ? It\nappeared that there was a wide difference between the amount of algebra used for one of\nthese purposes and the amount used for the other. The technical school men were entirely\nsatisfied with so much of the subject as would solve their problems, while the general\nschool or college men wanted a larger amount purely for discipline.\nEvery principal knows how large are the claims of each specialist for his department.\nThe teacher of penmanship wants to secure not only good letter forms but the relation of\ngood penmanship to the development of good English; the teacher of English not only\nwants to secure good forms of expression, but wants to review all causes of expression.\nHe is unwilling to recognize the fact that the correct expression of a problem in physics is\nan exercise in English. Indeed each specialist is disposed to charge himself with the\nwhole of education rather than to confine himself to that which is peculiar to his subject.\nIn this way we merge and overlap very much in our efforts. Whether we do our Latin\nin the college or imiversity does not seem so important as how much Latin should we do\nand how best do it. We need to distinguish between essentials and incidentals.\n\nPRELIMINARY\nREPORT\nOF COMMITTEE\nON SPECIAL\nHIGH-SCHOOL PREPARATION OF CANDIDATES\nFOR NORMAL-SCHOOL TRAINING\nDAVID FELMLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL\nNORMAL, ILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIn preparing this report your committee sent letters of inquiry to 120\nstate normal schools. Some of the questions asked could not be answered\naccurately without considerable investigation. Others could hardly admit of precise answers in any case. Possibly for these reasons replies\nwere received from only thirty-eight normal schools. Yet these replies\ncame from twenty-five states representing every section of the coimtry and\npresent a body of fact and opinion sufficiently uniform to justify, I believe,\nthe main conclusions presented in this report.\nIt appears that thruout the country normal-school faculties are generally\nnot satisfied with the quaUty of the high-school preparation received by\nnormal-school students. The work of some high schools is entirely satisfactory; many individual students from other schools show excellent\npreparation. Our conclusions are necessarily based upon the average\nproduct. There is no disposition to indulge in wholesale condenmation of\nthe high schools. Their principals and teachers must often bow to conditions that they cannot control. We propose merely to analyze the\nhigh-school situation from the standpoint of the normal school, and to\nsuggest such changes as seem desirable and practicable.\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SPECIAL\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n527\n\nThe character of the instruction is almost everywhere dominated by\ncollege traditions and ideals. The high-school teachers are nearly always\ncollege graduates, usually young college graduates with no professional\neducation, no adequate comprehension of the meaning of education, of the\npurpose of the school, or of the physical and psychological laws that must\ngovern all learning and teaching. To such teachers \"to get an education\"\nis to complete a college course, and the function of the high school to fit\nboys and girls for college. Naturally they imitate their own teachers and\nbring the methods of college and university into the high-school classrooms,\ndiluting them to suit young students and lecturing much. Hence the\ninstruction is scholastic, bookish, abstract, with little articulation with the\nenvironment or reference to the needs of modern life.\nTHE\n\nCAUSE\n\nHence it appears that the fundamental cause of the defective preparation of our students is in the conscious aim of the high school. So long as\nthis aim is to stay on the accredited list of the imiversity, the best teachers\nwill be secured for the subjects that find grace in the sight of the university\nvisitor. In many high schools this dominating ideal determines the subjects in the curriculum and controls the work done in every one of them.\nThis control is in the direction of further work in these branches in higher\ninstitutions of learning rather than in the clear comprehension of them as\nrelated to the students' life and social environment. Hence it follows\nthat\nthe best energies of thousands of our young people are devoted to studying the language,\nthe literature, the wars, the politics, the religion, the customs, and the superstitions of\npeoples for fifteen centuries dead, while the knowledge that is needed to earn a living, to\ndischarge the duties of citizenship, and even to appreciate the world in which we live must\nbe picked up largely outside of school and by methods more or less irregular and ineffective.\n\nThis conscious aim of the high school determines the choice of teachers.\nIf the one function of the high school is to fit for college, what more sensible\nthan to secure as teachers men and women who have been thru college and\nknow what preparation will be needed ? In this way the circle is closed and\nthe intrusion of foreign elements effectually prevented. Organizations of\ncolleges and secondary schools have been formed in which the conditions\nof membership require the college to accept the high-school graduates as\nstudents, the high school to accept the college output exclusively as teachers.\nIt is notorious that the significant advances in science and the arts have not\nbeen made by men within college walls. The greatest teachers of men\nhave often owed little to the schools. May it not be well to make some sort\nof provision by which the Franklins, the Faradays, and the Edisons of the\neducational world may bring their ministry to the high school ?\nA third evil result of this ideal is a tendency in the organization of\nthe high school to depreciate all student activities that do not directly fit\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(NaUonal\n\nfor college. The high-school program provides for each student four solid\nstudies that count as units in college entrance. Music, drawing, the arts\nand crafts, domestic science and domestic art, commercial branches, and\nother subjects of high practical value are behttled as unworthy the attention\nof capable, high-minded, and ambitious young people who have the capacity\nand spirit to undertake arduous things. While debating societies, literary\nclubs, musical organizations, and other voluntary student activities may\nbe tolerated or even encouraged as a means of holding the students in school\nthat they may pursue the real studies, the high educational value of these\norganizations is disparaged or ignored. Every teacher can recall yoimg\npeople who while in the grammar school made a good start in a musical\neducation, but after entering the high school foimd it necessary to abandon\ntheir music in order to keep pace with their classes. To choose otherwise\nwas to fail of graduation. So frequent is it for persons of eminent musical\nability and accomplishments to drop out of the high school that it is frequently assumed that conspicuous talent for music is evidence of deficient\nintellectual power.\nTHE REMEDY\n\nThe first need of the high school is a change of aim. It must front the\nactual needs of life as found in shop and store, in farm and home. This\ndoes not mean that all instruction shall be vocational; the physical, social,\nand cviltural needs of men and women are facts of life. But it does mean\nthat we must assess the actual educational value of every study in the\ncurriculum, of every detail of organization and method, and conduct our\nschools in such a way as to secure the maximum of useful knowledge, skill,\npower, appreciation, and character. To make such an assessment of values\nis no easy matter. We lack a universally accepted standard. We are likely\nto be misled by prejudice, by habit, by traditional doctrines of formal\ndiscipline, intangible and unprovable.\nThen our organization must be in close articulation with the total\nenvironment of the student. Thus if the high school does not offer instruction in instrumental music, it must find a way to supervise and credit private\ninstruction and count it for graduation. If the student of domestic science\nhas regular home duties in this field for which the school instruction affords\ndirection, some means should be found for rating the excellence of the performance and crediting the same in the high school. The school must not\nset itself up as the one institution that shall bend everything else to its\ncalendar and needs.\nSuch a change of conscious aim is not easy to bring to pass. The\nimiversity looms large above the horizon of the country town. If the rival\nvillage ten miles away has had its high school accredited, we cannot afford\nto live in manifest inferiority. Our school board scurries about, telegraphs\nfor the university high-school visitor, and begs him to name the terms on\nwhich the coveted relation may be secured.\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SPECIAL\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n529\n\nIn every country town there are a few influential citizens of the well-todo or professional classes who wish to prepare their children for college.\nDisliking to send their boys and girls away to boarding-schools, they\nbring all possible pressure upon the school board to place their high school\non the accredited list.\nIt is not easy for a school board to resist this pressure even tho itself\nholding a rational view of the function of the high school. For these and\nother reasons, the smaller high school (and it is from the smaller high schools\nthat most normal-school students come) is obliged to shape its program and\norganize its work with reference to college standards.\nThe second need of the high school is a change in the curriculum —\nnot merely in the interests of future teachers but of all the students. In\nthe small high school where but one course is taught it should not be the\ncourse prevailing at present. If the best single course is arrived at, it\nwill not be a poor course for future teachers. In the large high school\nwhere many courses are provided for varying tastes and vocational needs,\ncertain studies may properly be recommended to all who look forward to\nthe vocation of teaching. It is by no mfans necessary or even desirable that\nall elementary teachers should have had the same high-school course — no\nmore than that all the sixth-grade teachers in a city should be of the same\nrelative ability in the various branches taught. The school system is all\nthe richer because of the individual talents of each. Nevertheless, as\nappears below, there are certain arts and knowledges of high importance to\nall elementary teachers for which an adequate foundation shoidd be laid in\nthe high school. All intending to become elementary teachers should\ninclude them in their high-school course.\nThe question arises: Do high-school students decide to become teachers\nearly enough to affect their choice of studies ? The general opinion is that\nthey do not, but I am not sure that thi^ opinion is in many cases based on\nactual investigation. In one large normal school twenty- three of the twentysix women of the faculty had decided to become teachers before they were\nsixteen. A majority of the students in the same institution had decided\nat that age. In another state normal school all the high-school graduates\nwere polled with this result:\n37 per cent decided to become teachers before entering the high school.\n4 per cent during their first year.\n4 per cent during their second year.\n14 per cent during their third year.\n22 per cent during their Senior year.\n19 per cent after graduation.\n\nOf twenty-seven women in the faculty of this school, eight had decided to\nbecome teachers before they were ten, nine others before they were sixteen.\nOf the twenty-three men in the same faculty, ten had decided before they\nwere sixteen.\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "53©\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\nFrom this it appears that by the middle of the high-school course enough\nstudents have chosen to become teachers to make it worth while to offer any\nneeded courses. This number may be largely increased if high-school\nteachers take a lively interest in the future of their students. An observant\nteacher cannot fail to note among his pupils those who have a marked fitness\nfor teaching, A word of suggestion or encouragement at the right time will\noften decide the matter. It ought to be somebody's business to advise\nyoung people as to what they shall do after leaving school — somebody's\nwho knows the young people and knows the world. A wise teacher often\ncan do this better than the parents themselves.\nFrom the reports received it appears that the high-school curriculum\nthruout the country contains substantially the same elements, but varies\nsomewhat in the relative time devoted to the different branches of study.\nThe standard graduation requirements are usually sixteen imits, each unit\nbeing a year's work in a subject with daily recitations. An approximate\ncomposite of the various programs actually completed by the high-school\ngraduates in the normal schools reporting is as follows:\nEnglish including grammar, rhetoric an# composition, English literature,\nreading and public speaking\nForeign languages — ^Latin, Greek, German, French, and Spanish\nSocial science — history, economics, civil govemme\nMathematics — algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and arithmetic\nPhysical science — physics and chemistry\nBiological science — zoology, botany, and himian physiology\nEarth science — geography, physiography, geology, astronomy\nMusic — vocal or instrmnental\nDrawing — design, manual training\nAgriculture and household science\n\n3.8 units\n3.4 units\n2.6 units\n2.0 units\n1.2 units\n8 unit\n6 unit\n2 unit\n3 unit\ni unit\n\nIn the East foreign language has a larger place, often constituting a\nfull third of the curriculum. In the South the ancient languages and mathematics receive largest relative attention. In the Middle West and also in\nthe Mountain and Pacific states larger attention is paid to the biological\nsciences. Drawing and design seem best developed in New England; agriculture and the household arts are just beginning to appear in ratable\namount in the high-school curriculum of a few students.\nThe normal-school faculties reporting are pretty well agreed that for\nfuttire elementary teachers there should be less foreign language, less\nalgebra and geometry, more arithmetic, more biological science, more\ngeography, more of drawing and the other manual arts, more music, reading, and public speaking than we ordinarily find in the high-school course.\nOur students before completing the normal-school program are usually of\nthe same opinion.\nIn an Illinois normal school 162 students, all high-school graduates,\nwere recently asked how many would change their high-school courses if\nthe course was to be begun with their present estimate of educational values.\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SPECIAL\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n53 1\n\nFifty-six per cent (mostly Seniors) would change the course. Forty-four\nper cent (mostly Jimiors) would not. Forty-five per cent would take less\nLatin, 11 per cent less German, 18 per cent less mathematics; while 39 per\ncent would take more natural science.\nThe following course is suggested:\nThree years' work in English,\nFour years' work in science.\nTwo years' work in mathematics.\nTwo years' work in history and civics.\nTwo years' work in German or French.\nTwo years' work in industrial lines.\nOne year's work in music and drawing.\n\nThe third need of the high school from the standpoint of the normal\nschool is that the instruction in the various branches be more thoro and more\nvital. There is a general complaint that high-school students are poorly\ntaught, that they cover too much ground with little drill and real assimilation; that they have low ideals as to what thoroness and accuracy mean in\nthe preparation of lessons; that their work is largely memorizing things\nthey do not understand and soon forget; that they do not know how to\nstudy; that they are poor in vocabularies and seem to lack words to express\nideas with which they must be perfectly familiar. The fundamental difficulty seems to be, as pointed out before, that their high-school study is\nlargely a thing apart from their daily life experience. They do not properly\ncomprehend, appreciate, or assimilate the material they deal with. Thus\nEnglish is the medium of instruction. Habits in the use of English are\nforming in|every classroom. Hence if students are to use the English language effectively with correct idiom and pronunciation, it will be brought\nto pass most economically, not by adding more courses in English, but by\npaying due attention to these points in all classes. Every effort made to\nsecure precise and orderly thinking not only aids in the knowledge of the\nparticular branch, but makes for better English as well. The inverse statement is equally true. Every teacher should be consciously a teacher of\nEnglish.\nTeachers especially need to be good readers, they must speak with ease\nand effectiveness, and in pleasing tones. They should have read widely\nin literature, largely in children's literature, and have committed thousands\nof lines to memory. The normal course is altogether too short for this\naccomplishment. It should have begun in the lower grades, and have continued aU thru the years of the high school.\nThe sciences should be so taught that the student will feel every day\nthat his health, his happiness, and his success in life depend upon the\ntruths they contain. They should explain natural phenomena, and industrial processes, fuels, foods, sanitation, and the rules of right living. Altho\nthe sciences came into our high-school and college programs largely as a\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nprotest against the old classical education with its emphasis upon formal\ndiscipline, its dependence on authority, we have gradually come to teach\nthem as if their chief value lay in their method, in experiments to rediscover\nwhat the student knows in advance, in the verification of physical constants,\nand in the solution of endless problems in energy and motion. Biology\nshould deal more with the visible forms that sinrround the student and which\nshould appeal to him every day, rather than with the microscopic world.\nThe mathematics of the high school needs thoro revision. No other\nbranch is so universally studied as algebra and with so little profit. The\ntime devoted to it should be reduced to one year, its topics limited to those\nthat generalize and extend arithmetical processes. For the ordinary elementary teacher imaginary roots are as incomprehensible and useless as\nthe fourth dimension. The work should abound in concrete problems.\nInvestigations that do not begin in concrete problems and end in concrete\nappHcations should be omitted. A year of plane geometry, with many\npractical arithmetical problems involving geometrical elements, should\nsuffice in this branch.\nHistory should undertake to answer this question: How did ovir present\ninstitutions come to be as they are? Only in so far as they answer this\nare events or the lives of men worth knowing. Civics is a study of rights\nand duties in society. It deals with the co-operative efforts of men in the\nstate to secure justice, protection, healthful conditions, education, and\nsundry other things of everyday value. It should emphasize fimction\nrather than structure and machinery. No study in the curriculiun is of\nhigher value than economics. Without it the organization of modem\nindustry cannot be imderstood or rightly adjusted. But to be|pf value it\nmust be taught in terms of the student's environment.\nWhere the normal-school course is only two years in length, it is best\nin the high school to omit foreign language altogether and include in the\nlast two years a study of the common branches — not a review in the sense\nof going over grammar-school textbooks, but a fresh study of these subjects\nfrom a higher standpoint, a study that will enlist the best energies of\nadvanced students. A year of physical and commercial geography will\nset forth the conditions and purpose of hmnan industry. Grammar is rarely\nappreciated by the fourteen-year-old. It really belongs in the Senior\nyear of the high school.\nThe fourth need of the high school is a different standard of preparation\nfor its teachers. Our students usually come from the smaller high schools\nwhere salaries are low. Most of the teachers there are yoimg women\nrecently graduated from college. Few of them have had any professional\ntraining of any sort. Those who are successful remain but a short time.\nConsequently our high schools are taught by a shifting corps of young, inexperienced, and untrained teachers.\nThirty years ago mature and scholarly teachers who had served an\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SPECIAL\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n533\n\napprenticeship in the grades were frequently promoted to the high school.\nThey brought with them a knowledge of children, thoro familiarity with the\ncommon branches even in their higher reaches, skill in teaching. To teach\nthe younger classes in the high school such teachers are needed today.\nInstead of this we find college-bred young women usually quite inexperienced and with little definite knowledge of what goes on in the grammar\nschool. The break between the grammar school and the high school is\ntoo pronounced. The pupil finds a new organization, new branches of\nstudy, new teachers with new methods of instruction. Teachers and pupils\nshare in a mutual misunderstanding. There is a good deal of superstition\nin the reverence paid to degrees. A degree is not a sacrament. It is not\nthe outward and visible sign of an invisible and inward spiritual grace.\nMany teachers of slender school advantages have, thru private study,\nreached a finer and truer scholarship than is attained by the great majority\nof graduates of our colleges and imiversities.\nAll high-school teachers need as thoro professional preparation as\nelementary-school teachers. They need the same knowledge of the laws\nof the developing life of children and youth, of the psychological processes\ninvolved in all learning, of the principles and methods of teaching and\nschool management, of educational aims, of the relation of the school to\nother social institutions. Many superintendents testify to the fact that\nwhereas elementary teachers usually enter heartily into the work of reading\ncircles, teachers' meetings, and other means of professional growth, highschool teachers stand aloof. They will co-operate in literary clubs and\nscientific societies, but they do not seem to realize the existence of a great\nbody of doctrine that informs and illumines the teaching art. They are\nthoroly committed to the dogma, so widely prevalent in university circles,\nthat anyone who knows a subject can teach it.\nWe therefore hold that, in selecting high-school teachers, school authorities should give due weight to professional education and training as well\nas to character and scholarship, and that teachers of extended experience,\nacknowledged skill, and ample scholarship gained thru private study should\nnot be excluded from the high school because of the lack of a degree.\nAltho this report has set forth what your committee believes to be certain shortcomings of many high schools, it must not be inferred that we hold\nthe high school chiefly responsible for poor work done by graduates of normal\nschools. These institutions need to examine their own organization, curricula, faculty, and methods. They are not wholly emancipated from\nscholastic ideals and bookish methods. Their teachers are often chosen\nbecause of their degrees rather than because of their personal power and skill\nin the classroom. Often these teachers have had no real professional training; their experience as teachers before obtaining their Doctor's degree\nis sometimes a record of failure. The actual classroom work in some\nnormal schools is, outside of their training schools, but little better than that\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof high schools or colleges. The teacher recites most of the time. Pupils\nare nagged and growled at in pretty much the same old way. In many\nclasses pupils are passive recipients rather than active participants. The\nscience and art of questioning is wholly disregarded. May not the high\nschools retort to our strictures that they are greatly handicapped by the\npoor instruction given by normal-school graduates in the elementary school ?\nA further inquiry into the question: How may normal-school faculties'\nimprove the quaUty of their teaching? may properly supplement this\nreport.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn H. Phtllips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala. — The chief function\nof the high school in ovu: educational system is to provide such facilities as shall enable\nthe pupil to discover himself. When the pupU enters the high school, he is unknown\nto himself, his teachers, and his parents. His tastes and aptitudes, his purposes and\naspirations are to be developed by the instruction and environment of the school. At\nwhat stage in the course a pupil is expected to determine his futiure work, or when the\nprocess of differentiation in the interest of those desiring normal-school training should\nbegin, is not quite clear. In some of our smaller high schools, it may be seriously questioned whether there is not already more differentiation, resulting in diversity, than\neconomy and efficiency will justify. What is chiefly needed in the teacher is a solid\nacademic foundation for professional work, coupled with the power of translating thought\ninto action.\nThe graduates of normal schools who become teachers in oiu: elementary schools\nmay be readily divided into two groups: First, those who have graduated from a good\nhigh school prior to their entrance upon a professional course in a normal school, and\nsecond, those who have received both their academic and professional training in the\nnormal schools. It seems to me that a comparison of these two groups in practical\nschool work may be helpful; it will enable us by observation and experiment to ascertain\nthe results of high-school training when that training is controlled by the normal-school\nideal, and to compare these results with those of the regular high-school course conducted\nwithout specific regard for the normal school. In such a comparison, however, we must\nnot overlook the diversity of conditions in different sections of the country. There are\nnormal schools that do not require for admission or graduation the equivalent of a standard high-school coiurse, while there are others whose curricula place them upon the level\nof the college or university.\nIn the first place, we should compare the two groups as to breadth and acctu-acy of\nscholarship. The academic work of some of our normal schools is apt to be narrowed to\nthe requirements of the state examination, and the demand for the immediately practical\nis apt to forestall the necessary breadth of scholarship. We still have too many normal\nschools of this class, where an attenuated professional structure is attempted upon an\ninadequate academic foundation. In the next place, it is pertinent to inquire which of\nthese two groups, upon the whole, is found to be more flexible and adjustable to the varying conditions of the schoolroom. The former group has the advantage, in the majority of\ninstances, of having passed thru the grades, and their abUity to cope with questions of\nclass management is apt to be superior. The so-called model school of the average\nnormal school is an entirely different thing from an actual public school, and fails to\nprovide the conditions necessary for the development of initiative and executive power,\nwhich will be reqviired in the average rural or urban school.\nThe danger incurred by the special preparation for the normal school in the high\nschool is twofold: it necessitates the selection of a vocation and consequent differentiation\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SPECIAL\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n535\n\nin work at too early a stage, before the pupil has had adequate opportunity for selfdiscovery; it further tends to narrow the academic work of the pupil to those studies\ndeemed of practical use in the vocation selected. These objections apply equally to\nspecial preparation for the law school, the medical school, or any other school requiring\nscholarship and culture as a basis for technical and professional training.\nThe work of the high school in its preparation of the pupil, whether for the normal\nschool or for any other professional school, should unquestionably emphasize the topics\noutlined in the paper. In addition to these, our high schools, as well as our normal\nschools, should provide more specific ethical training than that now afforded. Perhaps\nthe chief weakness in the average teacher is inability to utilize the lessons and incidents\nof the school for the purpose of ethical instruction, and for the development of sound\nmoraUty in school and community life.\nJ. A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio. — There are three elements\nof supreme importance in the qualifications of a good teacher: personality, scholarship,\nand capacity for growth. The normal school should take knowledge of the first and aim\nto develop the other two. It has been said here today that many a child decides to become\na teacher while in the lowest grades because of the strong personality of the teacher and a\ndesire to imitate her in life-work. No doubt this is true, and if that desire remains, it is\nproof that fair teaching has been done in the upper grades as well as in the lower ones. As\nyoung people are ready to choose their life-work, how important it is that a thoroly sympathetic and wise teacher act as a vocational adviser. This is the high-school teacher's\nopportunity. In the absence of personality and an indication of right ideals, industrious\nhabits, and capacity for growth, no one should be advised to enter a normal school as a\npreparation for the teaching profession. The right spirit and a deep interest in the welfare of others is vital. To illustrate:\nSome time ago I attended an entertainment given to parents by the pupils of a certain\nschool. As a part of the program, a young lady, a member of the school, played a solo on\nthe piano with rare skill and musical feeling. During the exercise two teachers of the\nschool were engaged in conversation, much to the annoyance of those about them. Their\nexcuse was that they could not understand the music and so were not interested. They\nfailed to realize what should be the attitude of the true teacher: first, an appreciation of an\nability on the part of one of the pupils of the school to do a piece of work which they\ncould not do; and, second, really a spirit of prayer for the success of that work.\nWhile signing the report of the committee and believing in its point as a whole, I wish\nto express my own preference for a full four years' course in Latin rather than a division\nof time between that and some other language. Say what you will, the classics give the\nmost dependable foundation for culture and literary taste and enjoyment. Besides that,\nLatin affords a good training-ground for mental discipline. Such work cannot be well\ndone without giving a splendid basis for sound scholarship, one of the very important\nelements of a strong teacher.\nThe normal school itself should mainly inspire. It should give a new vision as well\nas professional training. It should in no sense attempt to complete one's education, but\nshould give a broader view and create an abiding appetite for more knowledge. Under\nsuch conditions, the capacity for growth should manifest itself. A student — a graduate,\nrather — who goes out believing that his education is complete is certainly a ripe scholar\nand ready to be plucked. There is little chance of further growth in such cases. If\nthe normal school enlarges the vision of its students and inspires in them a love for\nstudy and investigation, it does well. Such a result is more to be desired than the selfcomplacency that often comes with the accumulation of knowledge merely.\nHomer H. Seerley, president of Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. —\nIf a special preparation were able to be assured for such high-school graduates as decided\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\nto enter normal schools, their training to be efficient teachers could be accomplished in\na shorter time.\nThis proposition has the hearty indorsement of all those who are students and\nteachers in normal schools. To them it looks not only desirable but essential. Perhaps\na little investigation of what the transfer from high school to normal school must bring\nto the student is not a waste of the time of this Council.\nOne of the losses that most students are compelled to experience is due to the very\nunsatisfactory union that commonly exists between the Senior year of the high-school\ncourse and the Freshman year of the college coiurse. Time is a large factor in making an\neducation thoro and serviceable, but time spent in the struggle to make a successful\nconnection between the secondary school and the higher schools is just so much time\nwasted. For some years there have been teachers' associations, made up of college and\nhigh-school representatives, which have held annual meetings endeavoring to bring about\na more satisfactory relationship of these classes of schools for the benefit of high-school\npupils who intend to become college students. Despite these efforts, this relationship\nstill remains unsettled, being one of name rather than one of fact.\nThe high schools properly say that the preparation of pupils for college is not their\nsole function and that in addition they cannot be sure to satisfy the variable college\ndemands even if they make fitting for college their sole function. Many colleges prove\nby their annual reports that their academies are the secondary schools from which the\ngreater nimiber of their satisfactory college Freshmen come. They assert that it is necessary for them to maintain these academies in order to prepare the larger number of those\nwho take the full college course if their time is to be properly conserved.\nSince this statement is no doubt true to a certain extent as regards general education,\nit would be doubly difficvdt for the high schools to comply with the limitations and the\nstandards that normal schools might endeavor to establish as regards special education.\nAs a matter of course, normal schools woidd be obliged to require extraordinary preparation in the scholarship of the elementary branches of the course of study, a degree of\nexcellence and of thoroness in this respect that is not necessarily required by those who\nleave the high school for college or for vocational undertakings. The experience of the\nnormal school in preparing its own lower-grade students for Freshman studies is therefore\nmore satisfactory as a whole than is the plan of depending upon the high schools for such\nmaterial. The students in the normal preparatory courses may be lacking in social culture and acquaintance with the world, but they are commonly more mature in age and\nmore willing to conform to demands, they are more ambitious to attain accuracy and full\nmastery, and they are influenced more by the occupational spirit, than are the young\nstudents from the high schools who have been making school-going their occupation and\nhave become inured to the tedium and the fatigue that continuous school work produces.\nHence lack of responsiveness and resistance to demands is frequently a decided disappointment to the normal-school professors who deal with high-school graduates.\nIt therefore seems probable that this notion of a system of schools so organized as\nto lead the pupils from one grade to another by imperceptible stages from the kindergarten to the college is more theoretical than pragtical, as its very continuity wears out\nthe persistence, dulls the interest, and eliminates the spirit of application and energy.\nThe pupil can get too much of even a good thing, and the dissatisfaction that is constantly\nheard with the preparation and the efficiency of the Freshman is largely a consequence\nof his being overtrained and overtaught, overinstructed and oversupervised. He is\nlacking in spirit, he is deprived of his enthusiasm, he is depleted in his independence, and\nhe is exhausted in his resources by the demands and the requirements of the system.\nNow the normal school could demand the impossible of the high-school graduate.\nIt could expect from him what he may never have had, enthusiasm; it can urge him to\ndisplay what his training has eradicated, confidence in the wisdom of the professor; it\ncan insist upon what his tastes reject, decided thoroness in everything; it can imply that\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SPECIAL\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n537\n\nhe is possessed of capabilities that were never developed, the power to study alone and\nreflect upon his information — the capabilities that only mature men can show. Hence\nnormal schools find shortcomings ever3nyhere; they are able to ascertain deficiencies in\nmuch that he does that they think he has had; they are amazed at his inability to do all\nthe things that their own academic students can easily demonstrate.\nIt is enough to say that it is not so much a different teaching and training that is\nwanted in the high school as it is a different measurement of accomplishment and a different treatment and management upon the part of the normal-school professors. There is\nmuch room for readjustment, for review of principles, for reconsideration of things that\nare fundamental, for sympathy with incompleteness and imperfection, as all these conditions will be found in the average high-school graduate. In fact, the wonder is that, in\nthe change of environment which comes from the new standpoint and from the modification ofobject and purpose, the high-school graduate succeeds as well as he does when\nundertaking the class work and the organized plans of the average normal school.\nThen there is another supreme difficulty when viewed from a nation-wide standpoint.\nNormal schools cannot be standardized as educational institutions, because they are\nprovincial and statutory in their status and in their scope of endeavor. There are at\nleast four classes of state normal schools, when their courses and plans of training are\ninvestigated. This diversity of standard complicates the situation and prevents definite\nconclusions. From the Upper Mississippi Valley standpoint the preliminary report is\nquite generally approved. From other standpoints there will be much chance for difference of opinion.\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111. — It is my judgment\nthat it is both unfair and unwise for either the normal school or the college to dictate to\nthe high school what subjects shall appear in the course of study, what place they shall\nhave in the course of study, or in what quantity they shall appear. I believe the high\nschool ought to be as largely autonomous as the elementary school or as any other school,\nand that its supreme purpose ought to be, and in a large measure is, the interpretation of\nlife in terms of the community's highest need. I do not believe that the higher institutions\nof learning are today in any considerable degree dictating either the course of study or the\nsupply of the teachers to the high school. What is true in this respect today was not\ntrue ten years ago.\nThe growth of the modern high school, its place in the community, and its importance\nas an institution in itself have given it such a unique place in education that it ill becomes\nany other educational institution to interfere with it, to hedge it round-about, or to make\ninroads upon its especial field of activity. It is supported entirely by taxation; in ipany\nplaces by local taxation, and therefore the decision of the questions, \" What shall it teach ? \"\n\"How much shall it teach?\" and, \"To whom shall it be taught?\" resides in the community whose institution it is, and not in any external organization that might wish to\nuse it for some ambitious purpose.\nI see no good reason why we should not have the same relation existing between the\nelementary school and the high school, the high school and any other institution doing\nwork beyond it. It is by no means demonstrable that one subject will produce the same\neffect as another subject, or that one subject will produce the same effect when taught to\ntwo or more different students. It is therefore clear that while we may have academic\nnotions supporting the view that English, mathematics, science, history, and foreign\nlanguage constitute the best preparation for one looking forward to normal-school training,\nwe have also large numbers of examples of teachers who are doing excellent work and are\nenthusiastic over that work, but have not followed this specific group of studies. For this\nreason we recur to our former statement that it is better that the elementary school work\nout its own problems in its own way, with no specific notion of fitting for high school, and\nthat in like manner the high school should work out its own problems peculiar to the\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nconimunity in which it happens to be situated and with no specific intention of fitting for\nan institution beyond the high school.\nThe function of any public high school is to interpret life in terms of the needs of the\nlocal community whose it is, by whom it came into being, and for whose supreme service it\nexists. It cannot, therefore, change its aim in order to satisfy the wishes of any other\ninstitution.\nThe normal school must not set itself up as the one institution to which the high school\nmust bend its every energy in an effort to supply the kind and type of individual that the\nnormal school thinks best for its own development.\nIt has been asserted that the high-school teacher lacks vital teaching power because\nof the desiccated atmosphere supplied willingly or unwillingly by the colleges or universities. That this is true in very rare cases, we must admit. That it is also true among\nnormal-school teachers in larger nvmibers, we as willingly assert.\nThe conditions in a high school which make for vitalizing teaching are naturally\nbetter than they are in a normal school with a single piupose, because in the former\ninstitution there must always be a great effort to reach out into a dozen lines of possible\nactivity rather than into a single line. Hence, the stimidation must come from a dozen\ndifferent sources rather than from a single source.\nIt has been charged that the high school has a tendency to depreciate student activities\nnot directly fitting for college. Our observation and experience is that a large measure of\nsympathetic encouragement is given to all kinds of legitimate student activities, including\nmusic organizations, athletic organizations, debating clubs, dramatic clubs, etc., and that\nsuch subjects as domestic science, commercial branches, manual training, arts and crafts,\netc., are as carefully supervised as any other subjects in school, and that the high school\nis anxious to serve the community in whose behalf these newer courses have been established. Itis not difficult to find high schools that are so closely related to the community\nthat credit has been legitimately given in instnunental music work largely or entirely taken\noutside of school, and for certain other courses taken independently of the school itself.\nThese courses, so taken, are checked up according to the school's unit of measurement\nand are credited toward graduation in the same way as any other subject.\nIn conclusion, let me say, the supreme purpose of the high school is to serve, not\nprimarily the normal school or the college or the university or the professional school, but\nthe community in which it is located and by whom it is supported, and therefore we think\nthat it is the business of any other institution beyond the high school to accept the product\nof the high school recommended by the high school, and to treat that product in the same\nsympathetic way in which the high school treats the boys and girls coming to it from the\nschools below.\nChasles S. Chapin, principal of State Normal School, Montclair, N.J. — I disagree\nwith Dr. Felmley's report in toto. He has two main propositions, neither of which\napplies to normal-school conditions in the East.\nI. He seems to me to disparage scholarship, or, at least, to draw too sharp a distinction between the scholar and the teacher. I do not share his sneer at college degrees,\nnor his strictures on high-school teachers and teaching, nor his implied contempt for\ncollege and vmiversity men. Of course, a scholar who cannot teach is as much out of\nplace in a normal school or in any other school as a born teacher who has no background\nof advanced study. No such alternative need be considered. It is quite possible to\nsecure Ph.D.'s who can teach, and, other things being equal, they should be preferred\nover men of too slender academic preparation. The standing reproach on normal schools\nhas been and is the lack of scholarly attainments of the members of their faculties. For\nmy part, I shall always demand a degree or the full equivalent, combined with proved\nteaching power, as a prerequisite to appointment on the faculty of the Montclair State\nNormal School. The conflict between scholarship and teaching ability is largely fictitious\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SPECIAL\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n539\n\nand artificial, and it does not become us of the normal schools to allow this report to place\nus in a false position on so vital a matter as scholarship.\n2. The committee's report calls for special high-school preparation for admission to\nthe normal schools. One of the features of this special preparation is, if I heard the\nchairman correctly, the elimination of the present culture studies from the last two years\nof the high-school course, and the substitution of a review of the common-school subjects.\nI dissent from this proposition even more emphatically than from the first.\nThis report discloses conditions with which we in New Jersey are not familiar. Dr.\nFelmley says that the great majority of his students come from small covmtry high schools.\nEighty per cent of our students come from city or good suburban high schools. Our\ncourses are standardized by the State Board of Education. We need no such special\ncourse as this report calls for. Such a course will give our pupils poorer preparation than\nthey are getting now. We don't want the Latin, literature, science, history, and the rest\ncut from the last two years of the high school in favor of arithmetic, United States history,\nand geography. I might make an exception in the matter of geography, if it were of the\nright sort, but Dr. Felmley's proposition would give us a distinctly narrower class of\npupils than now.\nA candidate for the normal school should bring to its doors at least the following\nminimum of preparation:\n9\n(i) The habit of speaking and writing good English.\n(2) Some knowledge and appreciation of good literature.\n(3) An elementary acquaintance with the history of England and modern history.\n(4) The abihty to read at least one foreign language.\n(s) Such a knowledge of natural phenomena as may be gained from laboratory courses\nin two sciences.\n(6) The ability to draw from the object.\n(7) The ability to read music.\n(8) A knowledge of the elements of plane geometry.\nMy point is that this schedule of subjects corresponds exactly to the general or\nEnglish or scientific courses of our New Jersey high schools, and we are entirely satisfied\nwhen our candidates have completed such a general course satisfactorily. My chief\ncriticism on some of our high schools is directed, not at the course of study, but at the\napparently low standards of grading, promotion, and graduation. The only special\nfeature I would ask in preparation is that the candidates for the normal school review the\ncommon-school branches in the last half of their Senior year in the high school. My\nposition disposes of all the difficulties that seem to inhere in the postponement of one's\nintention to enter the normal school. The candidate prepared in our high schools, not\nspecially, as this report suggests, but without reference to her destination in life, may\nenter our normal schools on opening day without examination. I am detailing the actual\npractice of admission to the New Jersey normal schools.\n3. I dissent also from the idea expressed in the report, that the normal schools shall\ndictate the course of study in the high school. We of the normal schools are self-governing,\ntaking our orders from no higher institution. It is not only just, but it is very good\npolicy, to respect the autonomy of the high schools. I shall be entirely satisfied if they\nwill teach well any of the courses they are now offering, and shall be glad to take any of\ntheir graduates thus prepared, provided they have the personality of the born teacher.\nIf the high-school people wiU discourage the temperamentally xmfit from coming to the\nnormal school and wiU send only those who are hkely to become good teachers, they may\nprepare them in any course of study that includes all or most of the subjects I have\nenumerated.\nD. B. Parkinson, president of Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, 111. — I. Exhaustive report of committee of great value to the cause of education.\n2. Of great value to the normal school. Enables us to see the place of the normal\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nschool in the scheme of education. The normal schools are not rated as they deserve. As\nprofessional schools they deserve to be placed in the class of colleges, or by themselves,\nat least not with the secondary schools.\n3. But a small percentage of high-school graduates enter college. A larger percentage would enter the normal if all the states were as liberal toward her graduates from the\nstate normal schools as the state in which this meeting is held. When this is done there\nwill be a larger attendance upon our normal schools from the high schools. And then the\nprospective teacher will appreciate a course in his high school that will at once articulate\nwith his normal-school work.\n4. I suggest a thoro review in the common branches in the last year of the highschool course which shall prepare them for the special methods in these branches.\n5. I suggest further that the same plan would apply with equal force to the subjects\nof drawing, vocal music, and perhaps some other studies, depending more or less on local\nconditions and demands.\n6. I do not suggest at this time what subjects now in the high-school course should\nbe displaced by those mentioned. This would be a matter of detail and could easily be\nworked out after determining that something of this kind should be done.\n7. I recommend further that the high school find some magic wand by which her\nproducts grow into a i|iore rational and serious attitude of mind toward the higher ideals\nof life. While many are ambitious as to the possession of ideas, too many are^ndifferent\nas to the higher ideals. If this change of heart could be experienced before entering the\nnormal school a large amount of energy exerted there could be diverted into a much more\ndesirable channel.\n\nHEALTH\nTHOMAS\n\nD.\n\nWOOD,\n\nPROBLEMS\nM.D.,\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nIN EDUCATION\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y,\n\nThe most important of all our national resources is the health of the\npeople. The most valuable asset in this capital of national vitaHty is the\nhealth of the children.\nPublic education is the logical, the strategic, and the responsible agency\nof the nation, of each state and each commimity, for the conservation and\nenhancement of the health of the children.\nTo become an effective instrument for the protection and promotion of\nchild health, it is essential not only that the school should be a sanitary\nand healthful place for children, but that various agencies in public education should be so organized that each pupil may be given the best possible\nopportunity to escape disease, and far more, to attain in each individual the\nreasonable best in growth; in development of biologic, intellectual, moral,\nsocial, and economic power.\nWhat may the child be allowed to accept in exchange for any actual or\nvital part of his health? How shall public education accoimt for its\nstewardship if thru ignorance, neglect, or unwisdom any child fails of any\nessential health value, directly or indirectly necessary to insure the future\nwell-being which the school might have secured for the individual ?\nIt cannot be taken for granted that school children are healthy. The\nmajority of them are not so healthy as they should or may be.\nThere are in the schools of the United States today approximately\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHEALTH\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n541\n\n20,000,000 pupils. Careful study of statistics and estimation of all conditions lead to the following personal conclusions:\nFrom (ii-2 per cent) 300,000-400,000 of these have organic heart disease.\nProbably (5 per cent) 1,000,000 at least have now, or have had, tuberculous disease\nof the lungs.\nAbout (5 per cent) 1,000,000 have spinal curvature, flat-foot, or some other moderate\ndeformity serious enough to interfere to some degree with health.\nOver (5 per cent) i ,000,000 have defective hearing.\nAbout (25 per cent) 5,000,000 have defective vision.\nAbout (25 per cent) 5,000,000 are suffering from malnutrition, in many cases due in\npart, at least, to one or more of the other defects enumerated.\nOver (30 per cent) 6,000,000 have enlarged tonsils, adenoids, or enlarged cervical\nglands which need attention.\nOver (50 per cent) 10,000,000 (in some schools as high as 98 per cent) have defective\nteeth which are potentially if not actually detrimental to health.\nSeveral millions of the children possess each two or more of the handicapping defects.\nAbout (75 per cent) 15,000,000 of the school children in this country need attention\ntoday for physical defects which are partially or completely remediable.\n\nPupils need, and are unconsciously calling for, adequate care. Parents\nare demanding with rapidly increasing conviction and emphasis the service\nwhich public education can alone or most advantageously give in relation\nto child health. Teachers are consciously inadequate to this task of health\ncare but are awakening to their responsibility in relation to it.\nPhysicians are, as a rule, too much occupied with the study and treatment of disease; they have too little time for, and too little inclination\ntoward, the field of preventive medicine; toward the field of child hygiene;\ntoward the field where medicine and education, with a constructive program\nof educational hygiene, or better, hygienic education, may insure to the\ngrowing child the realization of the best of his heritage, the correction of all\nremediable weaknesses and defects, and the attainment of a quality and fullness of life which shall put the human being on a par with the choicest\nflowers and fruits, the best of the valuable creatures so carefully and skillfully cultivated by man.\nFor while the human creature has, in part, a different destiny from and\nhigher capacities than* those of other animals and all other living things,\nstill many conditions of his life are precisely or closely like those of the lower\nand higher forms of animate beings. Yet the human plant, the human\nflower and fruit, receives less adequate care relatively of the fundamental,\nbiological life and health conditions than any other life species of particular\nvalue to mankind.\nOf the values and attainments dependent upon physical and health\ncare, the human being realizes less relatively than any other organic species\ncultivated by man.\n- Quite apart from the benefits of eugenics, we have little idea as yet of\nthe possibilities of humanity conditioned upon a rational, complete, and\nconstructive hygiene.\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIf it were possible to estimate accurately the gain to the race and to the\nnation in one generation by practicable care of child health — in preventable\nmortality and morbidity, in escape from helplessness and hopelessness, in\nimprovement of physical, intellectual, and moral worth; in economic and\nindustrial efficiency; in social and civic power; in human satisfaction and\nhappiness,- our coimtry would be startled by one of the most stupendous\nfacts in himian history, and energized into one of the most telling educational\nreforms that the world has ever seen. In fact, it seems altogether probable\nthat we are today in the beginning of this constructive health epoch. The\ncountry is coming rapidly to recognition of the importance of this broader\nhumanistic responsibility of education.\nSpasmodic, nobly intentioned efforts are being made all over this country\nto improve foundations of education, to correct physical weakness of child\nlife. We have a variety of laws in a number of states providing for elements\nof supervision and care of child health. Some of these laws are permissive.\nSome are mandatory. Some are largely aimed at the correction of disease\nand defects. One or two are wisely and progressively constructive in plan,\nproviding for a care of child health and development which will, if realized,\ndo much to make human education a genuinely successfid process.\nThere are about one hundred cities in our country, having about one\nhimdred types of organization for medical inspection and health care of\nschool pupils. None of the city systems which has been described in print\nseems satisfactory as a model for the country to follow imless it is that type\nin the city which entertains this convention. At least, St. Louis presents\na department admirably planned and balanced in many essential elements.\nThe Wiesbaden system of medical inspection in Germany stands out as\na pioneer model, which perhaps is still unsiurpassed in the admirable composition ofelements and in the remarkable spirit which has made that city\norganization so worthily influential as an example in Germany as well as in\nother countries, including our own.\nNoteworthy features in the Wiesbaden system are:\n1. The means for securing the co-operation and sympathy of parents and teachers.\n2. The completeness of the examination of- each pupil.\n»\n3. The frequency and regularity of the examination, coming at vital stages of the\nchild's school life.\n4. The filing of the health report, a school record, used for reference in connection with\nthe school work of the child.\n5. The scientific and educational interest of the doctors which insures thoro examinations and wins co-operation of teacher and parent.\n6. The popular nature of the movement as it has developed among the people and\nhas not been imposed by a control government.\n7. The movement is an integral part of the school system and is treated primarily\nas an educational problem.\n\nSome of the practical direct and indirect residts of the Wiesbaden\nsystem may be stated thus:\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councai\n\nHEALTH\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n543\n\n1. Children of subnormal type are profitably delayed in entering school.\n2. Individual children are made happier and more efficient.\n3. Teachers are relieved by special individual adjustment of the weaker children.\nTo the movement can be traced:\nc) The forming of special classes for defectives requiring modified treatment.\nb) Installation of school baths,\nc) Providing free meals for school children.\nd) Establishment of free clinics and dispensaries for treatment of child ailments.\ne) Founding of outdoor schools for weaker children.\n\nThe system is defended on economic grounds as an effective means of\npreserving and improving social and national efl&ciency. The spirit in\nwhich the personal supervision of the child's health in school should be\nconducted is well expressed in the following statement, written in characterization of the Wiesbaden organization:\nThe new education is indeed more personal but it is more reverent and gentle than\nthe old. Rudeness will wreck all. The human body is not vile. It is the instrument of\ninstruments. The first condition of success is not that the doctor has degrees, it is that\nhe should not offend one of these little ones. The behavior of children — that is not a\nthing to judge in the first place. To judge is easy, it has been done for ages; to understand is the new task begun very late. Hasty judgment precludes the possibility of\ncomplete understanding. To classify according to health is comparatively easy, it may be\ndone by the three-card system. To classify ability and weakness is not so easy. Each\nchild presents his own problems.\n\nWe lack today clearly established principles and ideals relating to the\nhealth responsibility and health problems of education. We lack reasonable\nuniformity of standards with reference to scope of work to be done; with\nreference to relative importance of different aspects of the health field;\nwith reference to division of practical service in the health field between\nteachers, principals, schools, nurses, school doctors, teachers of hygiene\nand physical education, and other special teachers and school officers. We\nlack desirable imiformity of standards regarding localization of responsibility and authority for health supervision of school children; of forms of\nco-operation of educational and health boards; of details of co-operation\nbetween school and social or philanthropic organizations. We lack clear\ndefinition and realization of possible co-operation between school and home\naffecting the health and general welfare of the child. This last is most\nimportant, inasmuch as this educational supervision of child health, if\ncarried out as it may be without weakening or impoverishing the home in\nany way, promises to be, and in some actual practice proves to be, the most\nnatural and effective introductory bond between home and school, providing abasis for vital elements of sympathetic co-operative effort, affecting as\nwell the mental and moral well-being of the child. We lack in this coimtry\nthe inspiration and guidance of a national pronoimcement on this subject\nwhich shall give assistance somewhat commensurate with certain very\ntelling statements contained in the English Education Act, passed by Parliament in 1907. In this we find the following:\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThis new legislation aims .... at the physical improvement and, as a natural\ncorollary, the mental and moral improvement of coming generations. It is founded\non a recognition of the close connection which exists between the physical and mental\nconditions of the children and the whole process of education. It recognizes the importance of,a satisfactory environment, physical and educational, and, by bringing into greater\nprominence the effect of environment upon the personality of the individual child, seeks to\nsecure ultimately for every child, normal or defective, conditions of life compatible with\nthat full and effective development of its organic fimctions, its special senses, and its\nmental powers which constitute a true education.\n\nThis memorandum also states that the work of medical inspection cannot be properly accomplished unless\nthe teacher, the school nurse (where such exists), and the parents or guardians of the child\nco-operate heartily with the school medical officer.\n\nWhat may the National Education Association do thru the National\nCouncil of Education to further the interests of this health cause ?\nIt seems desirable that after careful study of the field cogent recommendations should be formiilated which may furnish definite guidance to\nstates, cities, and rural districts concerning the best practical measures,\nmethods, and forms of organization for accomplishment of work under aU\nthe varying conditions in the health field.\nWe need new types of educators, physicians, nurses, and parents with\nmore comprehensive and thoro training to provide the requisite care and\nsupervision of childhood with full regard to the preservation and enhancement of health in relation to the even more important faculties and values\nto be developed in the Uves of the young.\nFathers and mothers need to become wise in knowledge of child nature\nand more skilled in the art of parentcraft which may help the child to\nrealize the best of his possibihties on a soimd and cultivated biologic basis.\nSuperintendents and principals of schools must see clearly thru and\naround this health field if they are to have true estimation of relative values\nand are able to meet their varied obHgations in relation to parents, teachers,\npupils, as well as to boards of education, and other official bodies who determine the sanction and financial support which are necessary for the practical\nconduct of the work.\nPhysicians require for this field of educationah hygiene, not only medical\ntraining and skill, but understanding of educational principles and methods,\nwith keen insight and soutid judgment which will enable the school doctor\nto acqtiire thoro imderstanding of the child and to help make the school a\nhealthful place for the pupil, and at the same time to help adjust the individual most successfully to the educational process.\nWe need more convincing demonstration of the value of various\nmeasures and methods employed for the promotion of child health, so that\nsufficient money may be appropriated for school hygiene by those who\ncontrol the public funds.\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTBE\n\nSCBOOVS\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n545\n\nEducational hygiene includes much more than health examinations for\ncontagious disease and chronic physical defects, altho such examinations\nmake the basis for all effective care and adjustment.\nOther factors of essential importance in the health field are the following:\na) Maintenance of sanitary, healthful school environment with clean schoolhouses;\nabundant light, good air, etc.\nh) Hygienic instruction and school management, with particular attention to influence of teacher upon nervous health of pupils.\nc) Effective teaching of health and hygiene to all pupils in the schools.\nd) Rational supervision and direction of play, games, athletics, and all healthful\nand satisfying forms of physical education.\n\nSpecial features in the schools, or closely related to the schools, which\nhave direct bearing on health include the following:\nc) Homes of the pupils.\nb) Playgrounds and gymnasiums.\nc) Dental clinics and other medical clinics for children.\nd) Classes for defectives and cripples.\ne) Open-air schools.\n\nImprovement in school hygiene involves prominently these factors:\n1. Recognition of extraordinary value of work of school nurses, and emplo3Tnent of\nnurses in the schools.\n2. More comprehensive and thoro training in school hygiene in all normal schools and\nother institutions for professional education of teachers.\n3. Better technical training for school physicians, school nurses, teachers of hygiene\nand physical education, and other special officers in this field.\n4. Requirements of tests of knowledge and skill in various phases of school hygiene\nfor teachers in general, and certification of health specialists of different t)^es.\n\nTHE SCHOOL'S\nHEALTHFUL\n\nRESPONSIBILITY FOR PROVIDING\nENVIRONMENT AND PROGRAM\n\nR, W. COR WIN, M.D,, CHAIRMAN\nOF COMMITTEE\nOF AMERICAN MEDICAL\nASSOCIATION ON HEALTH AND PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, PUEBLO, COLO.\n\nI have nearly worn out a copy of Dr. Wood's Ninth Yearbook, in preparing this talk, yet I shall not hold him responsible for what I say. You\nhave all read this book. He has told my story, and better than it is possible\nfor me to do. In fact there is no reason to call your attention to these matters. But some of your teachers are not so fortunate as yourselves, they\nhave not had time or opportunity to investigate or to give health sciences\nmuch thought. For this reason we ask permission to offer our assistance.\nThe responsibility of the school falls not alone upon the superintendent,\nbut as well upon all the teachers, the school board, and the laity. Without\ntaking further time to explain why I am here, I beg to say: The object of\nthe public school is to improve the human race physically, develop it\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmentally, and strengthen it socially and morally. The public school fails\nin proportion to its inability to meet these obligations. Health occupies\nthe first attention of the school's responsibility. Killing education is waste\nof time, money, and human tissue. Healthful environment is the foundation of education, and program the superstructiire.\nThe school's responsibility for providing for the health of the schoolyoung is of paramount importance, both to the child and to the public.\nLet us review some of the more important features:\nThere is the responsibility of selecting the site for a building in a large\ncity, where the ground is expensive, where there is smoke, dirt, noise, little\nsunlight and pure air; limited playgroimd; no trees, flowers, or grass;\nwhere the building must be of many rooms and floors, and where a large\nnumber of children congregate in a small area; or in the country, where\nswamp and malaria, wind, cold, snow, rain, dust, hot sun, and bad roads\ndemand attention.\nThere is also the responsibility of selecting teachers; of the health of\nchildren from five to twenty years of age; of detecting and correcting\nmental and physical defects; of overcoming bad heredity, and evil home\nand social environment; of providing for the underfed and poorly clad,\nand suggesting to the overfed and richly clothed; of physical examination\nand physical training; of school nursing and quarantining; of sanitation\nin the building and about the grounds; of educating the yoimg in health\nsciences; of — and not least — educating the parents and friends, overcoming\nprejudices, and obtaining their co-operation.\nTo review just a little more in detail:\nThe principles of ventilation, heating, lighting, and plimibing are too\nwell imderstood to need reviewing, but there are many minor points of\nimportance that are often overlooked and may not he out of place to mention at this time. For instance: the height of rooms — too great to be well\nor easily ventilated, heated, or lighted, to say nothing of increased cost of\nconstruction; dust-catching projections above doors, windows, blackboards, wainscoting, and picture molding — all imsanitary, and difficult and\nexpensive to clean; square comers hard to clean; wainscoting and floor\ncracks impossible to clean; ornate capitals never cleaned; balustrades with\nall sorts of ridiculous projections that hold dust and germs; curtains and\nwindow-shades always dusty and dirty; doors that slam and annoy; wall\ncolorings that psychologically irritate; halls that reverberate sotmds, and\ndisturb; machinery that is noisy; domestic science departments which\nemit offensive odors; and chemical laboratories, dangerous on accoimt of\nfire, which generate disagreeable gases. These three departments should\nnot be in the building with the rest of the school.\nMay I take the liberty of here presenting a plan of school buildings,\ntried and found worthy ? [Here was introduced plan of model schoolhouse\nand incline.]\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL'S\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\n547\n\nWhile the exterior of the building should be architecturally attractive,\nand educational, it is the interior that should be given the deepest study.\nToo many think much of the looks and not enough of the use of the school\nbtiilding. The superintendent is not to be criticized, but the school board,\nreal estate men, and patrons, full of civic pride. My attention was called\nto a massive stone building in a hot climate. The person said, \"All you\nneed here is a floor and a roof.\" It is the size of the pile of brick and stone\nthat too often is given first attention.\nI know how you gentlemen have to fight us members of the board and\nthoughtless outsiders. I am sure if you could have your way, many would\nhave every girl and boy study out of doors and use the schoolhouse only\nwhen it rains. The laity forgets the lesson of the Black Hole of Calcutta;\nthey do not stop to think why sleeping out of doors is being so universally\nadvocated; they have not learned that it is not only the presence of CO,\nand the absence of oxygen that poisons, but as well organic matter brought\ninto the room by forty to fifty pupils. They have no idea that one catches\ncold in a badly ventilated, dry, and close room more easily than in a cold\nroom, or out of doors; they have never heard the statement that somebody\nhas made, \"that a person may go three weeks without food, three days without water, but only three minutes without air\"; that bad air kills 40 per\ncent of the people, and perhaps is largely responsible for the illness of the\nother 60 per cent; that 20 per cent more teachers die of tuberculosis than\nworkers in other occupations. They have not studied the lessons given us\nby the Japanese and Panama sanitarians. We shut out the cheapest thing\non earth — fresh air — and what little we permit to enter our rooms we cook\nto death, if possible.\nJust a word about the drinking-cup which has gone, we hope, forever.\nA saturated solution of boric acid with ^ to i per cent formalin was placed in\na jar; a glass with Staphylococcus albus upon it, immersed in the solution\neighteen minutes; the viability of the germs was then tested — they grew\nand thrived. The drinking-cup may be used by the teacher for illustration.\nHygiene of instruction or program covers a broad field. It deals with\nknowledge and care of the pupils at all ages and under all conditions; how\nto instruct and what instructions should be given that pupils may know how\nto protect themselves and care for others. But first the teacher must be\nconsidered as to health, preparation, and duties. No sick or half-sick\nteacher can do good work. Every teacher should have a pretty thoro\ncourse in all the principal branches of health sciences. No teacher in any\ndepartment should be employed who has not had a course in health sciences.\nEvery teachers' school should give a course in health sciences. The duties\nof a teacher extend outside of the school; to the parents it pays to devote\nthis time.\nNew discoveries are being made every day. To keep up, teachers must\nstudy all the time. There are four ways in which one may keep up in this\nwork:\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n1. Postgraduate work, which many teachers take at a sacrifice of time, money, and\nvacation.\n2. To take bulletins prepared by specialists. This is feasible. •»\n3. By attending lectures of specialists sent out from a central bureau.\n4. By lantern slides and moving pictures prepared by a central bureau.\n\nIn every school there should be someone prepared to teach health sciences. The object of the school is to teach. The most important thing to\nteach is the principles of health, or a course in health sciences. The health\nof the pupil must always be considered and protected. Today it is very\nfashionable, and justly so, to criticize child labor. How often do we see\nchildren who enter school in the fall with rosy cheeks and full of energy\ndepart in the spring pale and languid. What is the matter? Something\nis wrong. Is it poor ventilation ? Is it too much work ? Too long hours ?\n(The faithful student works from ten to twelve hours a day — more than is\ndemanded of a laborer.) Is thinking too hard work ? (A servant girl said\nshe wanted $15 per month if she did not have to think, but $25 if she had\nto think.) Is our method of teaching wrong ?\nIn teaching health sciences, the following are of vital importance to\nconsider:\n1. Prophylaxis or prevention.\n2. Resistance — the strength of the individual — ^his ability to throw off disease.\n3. That ignorance is the most common cause of disease.\n4. That someone is to blame for ill-health.\n5. That \"1,600 people die in the United States every day who should live.\"\nThat \"1,000,000 people in the United States are sick every day who should be\nwell.\"\nThat \"sickness costs the United States annually one and a half million dollars.\"\nThat \"within the next year, 600,000 people in the United States will die, all of which\ndeaths might be prevented,\" and which is not the case in other countries where better\nsanitation is observed.\n\nThen, is not the duty of the school evident ? Is it not our duty to teach\nstudents how they may protect themselves against disease?\nTo learn how to protect ourselves against disease is more important\nthan many things that are learned in school. There is much that the student learns which he soon forgets, but he cannot forget health, which is with\nhim all the time, especially if it be bad health. Are we not our brother's\nkeeper? That question was answered centuries ago. The question is the\nsame today and we know the answer. Is not the responsibility of the\nschool plain ?\nDISCUSSION\nAlbert E. Winship, editor New England Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. — One\nstate department in Cahfomia sent to the Imperial Valley at one time 30,000,000 ladybugs to deal with the pest scale that is attacking the apricot trees. This was only one\ninstallment for one pest, for one variety of trees in one section of one state.\nThe cry for help comes from every nook and corner of the land for state governments,\nstate agricultural colleges, state universities, and the United States Department of Agri-\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n549\n\nculture to find relief from the pests and diseases affecting plants and animals of various\nkinds. The appeal seems universal, but the minute that the remedy affects any person\nor any community adversely commercially, even transiently, the opposition is much\nmore noisy than the friends. This has been specially noticeable in the case of milk\nlegislation and inspection.\nThe health of children is the last to receive attention. We now know how to save\nthe lives of half the infants who would otherwise die in the first year, how to eliminate\nmuch of the absence from school caused by illness, how to prevent much of the retardation in school, and how to increase greatly the efl&ciency of many pupils in school.\nFew things in all modern life have equaled the benefit to humanity of public attention\nto the health of children until after the time of epidemic children's diseases is largely\npassed.\nIt would seem as tho at this men and angels would rejoice.\nContrariwise all this seems simply to have stirred up the depths of the wrong class\nof men and the anti-angelic host.\nTuberculous cattle seem to have more ardent friends than children, and even the\nold-fashioned, vile milk-can dishwater has more vociferous champions than sweet babyhood. It sometimes seems as tho coffin-makers, funeral undertakers, and makers of\nfuneral wreaths were liable to join the crusade against the self-sacrificing and devoted\nlaborers for the health and life of children.\nIt is sufficiently difficult to combat the ravages of disease and the ignorance that\nbreeds and spreads and promotes disease, but when one has to struggle also against commercial interests that thrive on disease-producing conditions it makes the problems\ninfinitely more difficult of solution.\nWherever there is to be found a man or woman who really loves children more than\nany of the many commercial interests involved, we should endeavor to inspire the patriotism that leads to heroic crusading for the further solution of health problems.\nJ. F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo. — You seem to be skeptical\nas to the practicability of the cottage plan for grade schools just presented by Dr. Corwin.\nLet me say to you this is no mere theory, for the plan is in practical operation in Colorado\nand were there time I should like to discuss the plan at greater length. Come to Pueblo\nand we'U show you.\nJust a word in regard to this whole health program. No other question before this\neducational meeting is of such vital importance as is this matter of the health of the school\nchildren and of the sanitary conditions of both home and school. We seem fully appreciative ofthis fact here tonight but this will avail little unless the agitation be kept up.\nTo this end I suggest that either this committee be continued or another permanent\ncommittee be appointed to urge in season and out of season the necessity of caring for\nthe health of the school children of the nation.\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\nEDUCATION\n\nON RURAL-SCHOOL\n\nE. T. FATRCHILD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS,\nTOPEKA, KANS.\n\nThe rural school is the one laggard in the educational procession. Not\nonly has it failed to keep step in the march of educational progress, but\nthere are those who declare that, taken as a whole, it is less efficient than it\nwas twenty-five years ago. Many reasons may be advanced for this lack\nof development.\nHowever, no study of the situation will be complete that\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "550\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ndoes not recognize as a definite factor the great change that has taken place\nin community and social conditions. The ever-increasing trend of rural\npopulation toward the cities, and the growing percentage of tenant farmers\nhave had a distinct and deterrent effect upon our country schools.\nThe educational thought of our age has been directed toward the\nimprovement of the city-school system, the high school, the efficiency of\ncollege, normal school, and university. The best efforts of many of the\nwisest and most influential people of our country have constantly been\ndevoted to the betterment of these means of higher education. And the\nemphasis of our thought has been placed long and devotedly on these educational agencies at the expense of our rural schools. Not only has the\neducational press rendered notable assistance, but the general press has contributed much to the public understanding and appreciation of educational\nactivities as they relate to city systems and to higher education in general.\nThe people as a whole have a very fair grasp of the importance, value, and\ncharacter of the work done in this type of schools, and demonstrate their\nappreciation and approval by making most liberal appropriations and levies\nfor their support.\nWe rejoice in the great things that have been done for higher education,\nbut submit that the time has now come when the same generous support and\nthe same ardent labor should be devoted to the improvement of the rural\nschools. Altho they serve directly the interests of the greatest percentage\nof our population, and tho they are admittedly the most inefficient part of\nour educational system, yet they are utterly lacking in that generous and\nunselfish support so freely given for the advancement of the high school\nand college.\nTHE RURAL SCHOOL OF TODAY\n\nThe following is a true tho not full indictment. Of the 12,000,000 ruralschool children, constituting a clear majority of the whole number of the\nyouth of school age, less than 25 per cent is completing the work of the\ngrades. The teaching body is immature and lacks proper training. Terms\nare too short. School buildings are poor, unsanitary, and ill-equipped.\nThe school enrollment is constantly decreasing. The supervision is wholly\ninadequate. Cost of instruction is higher than in the grades. High-school\nprivileges are denied to the great majority of these boys and girls. The\nstrong, virile riural school of a generation ago has gone and in its place is a\nprimary school weak in numbers and lacking in efficiency. The country\nboy and girl of this strenuous and complex twentieth century are not\nafforded equal educational opportunities.\nWith this known body of fact the Committee on Rural Schools has not\nthought it necessary or desirable to employ its energies in seeking further\ndetails as to the weakness and insufficiency of the rural schools of today.\nOn the contrary, it has decided wisely, it is hoped, to address itself to a study\nof how best to promote and to strengthen the rural-school system, and will\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n55 1\n\nattempt to propose such remedial plans and legislation as will make for the\nmost effective and the most immediate betterment of these schools. With\nthis in view it has not undertaken to idealize, or to discuss measures that,\nhowever desirable, are not in the nature of things capable of somewhat\nearly reaUzation. At the first meeting of the committee held in November\nlast in Chicago, the following list of subjects was chosen for consideration:\nOkganization:\n1. The Unit of School Organization.\n2. Consolidation.\n3. Classification (Standardization).\n4. Minimum Term.\nAdministration, as to:\n5. Funds — Their Sources and Distribution.\n6. Compulsory Attendance.\n7. The School Plant.\n8. Libraries.\n9. Supervision.\n10. Records and Statistics.\nInstruction:\n11. Uniform Courses of Study, including gradation and a minimum\nclasses.\n12. Textbooks.\n\nnvunber of\n\n13. (a) Preliminary Preparation of Teachers.\nQ})' Teacher-training Courses in High Schools.\n14. Appointment and Tenure of Teachers.\nSocial Elements:\n15. (a) Co-operation.\n{b) The School as a Social Center.\n16. The Home and the School.\n17. Organized Games and Plays.\nRural Secondary Education:\n18. (fl) Free Tuition.\n(6) Consolidated, Township, and County High Schools.\n\nA more detailed statement of subjects chosen for investigation and\nrecommendation by the Committee on Rural Schools is given below:\nOrganization:\n1. The Unit of School Organization. — A consideration of the several units, district,\ntownship, and county, with a view to urging the general adoption of that one\nwhich affords the best results.\n2. Consolidation. — ^A presentation of the advantages and of the imperative need of\nconsolidation or centralization of schools from considerations of economy and\nefficiency,\n3. Classification. — The adoption of a plan of systematic classification, or standardization, of rural schools with official recognition by the state of those schools\nwhich fulfill prescribed conditions, in the form of a moderate amount of state aid.\n4. Minimum Term. — The enactment in every state of a law fixing the minimum\nlength of the school year, with provision for state aid to those districts which\nwithout such aid would not be able to maintain school for the prescribed period.\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nAdministration, as to:\n5. Fiinds — Their Sources and Distribution. — ^A study of means of increasing school\nrevenues, and a rational basis for the distribution of state and county school\nfunds.\n6. Compulsory Attendance. — A thoro study of the compulsory school laws of the\nseveral states, and a general investigation of means of increasing the attendance\nin rural schools.\n7. The School Plant. — Model school groimds and buildings, and a standard equipment for rural schools.\n8. Libraries. — ^The providing of a minimimi niunber of suitable general and reference\nbooks in the form of permanent or traveling libraries.\n9. Supervision. —\nc) Closer Supervision. — The development of a plan for closer and more effective\nsupervision, e.g., the Oregon plan, which provides for every twenty schools a\nsupervisor under the direction of the coimty superintendent.\nb) Coimty Superintendents. — The system of county supervision including the\nqualifications, manner of selection, duties, tenure of office, and compensation\nof coimty superintendents.\nc) State Rural-School Supervisors. — The need in each state of one or more ruralschool supervisors, or visitors, under the direction of the state department of\neducation.\n10. Records and Statistics. — Systematic records that shall reveal real facts as to:\n(a) rural-school population; (6) enrollment; (c) average attendance; (d) length\nof term; (e) number of rural-school pupils completing the work of the grades;\n(/) comparative per capita cost of town and coimtry system; (g) comparison per\npupil of valuation of taxable property, town and country; (A) comparison of\naverage mill levy in town and country; (i) comparison of value of school property\nbuildmgs, etc., per pupil, town and country; (J) comparison of enrollment per\nteacher, town and coimtry; (k) comparison of average niunber of school days\nattended in town and in coimtry.\nInstruction:\n11. Uniform Courses of Study. — A provision in the several states for the preparation\nand compulsory use of a course of study for rural schools and suggestions as to\ngradation and a minimum number of classes; and in view of the general recognition of the need of a reorganization and redirection of the work of these schools,\nthe feasibility of introducing additional vocational work, particularly in agriculture, and of providing at state or coimty expense special instructors therein.\n12. Textbooks. — The adoption of textbooks that recognize more intimately country\nlife and country environment.\n13. (a) Preliminary Preparation of Teachers. — The enactment of laws providing\nfor\na more adequate preliminary training on the part of applicants for teacher's\ncertificates.\n(b) Teacher-training Courses in High Schools. — A system of teacher-training\ncourses in high schools for the purpose of securing a better trained class of\nteachers in the rural schools.\n14. Appointment and Tenure of Teachers. — ^The appointment, or nomination, of\nteachers by an educational expert, as the county superintendent, with greater\npermanence of tenure.\nSocial Elements:\n15. (a) Co-operation. — Co-operation of social forces — the home, church, grange,\nfarmers' institutes, extension work of colleges, papers, and magazines.\n(i) The School as a Social Center. — ^The use of school buildings as centers for\nthe various social activities of the community.\n16. The Home and the School. — ^A close inquiry based upon the theory that the\nprogress, discipline, qualifications, and development of the youth depend more\nlargely upon the right kind of parental influence than ujwn all others\ncombined. This may well include the question, To what extent approximately\ndoes the influence of incompetent parental supervision affect the capabilities,\nadaptation, discipline, and efficiency of the average pupils in our pubUc\nschools ? The state may provide for its boys and girls great opportunities, the\nacceptance of which the parent may easily prevent.\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncQ]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n553\n\n17. Organized Games and Plays. — The appropriation of play as an educational\nagency and the utilization of the child's instinctive interests as a means of\npromoting his intellectual and moral growth.\nRural Secondary Education:\n18. (a) Free Tuition. — ^The value of high-school training for country youth and the\nnecessity and means of providing free high-school privileges for every eligible\nboy and girl.\n(jb) Consolidated, Township, and County High Schools. — The plan of instituting\nand maintaining consolidated, township, and county high schools; and the\nintroduction of vocational training for preparation for country life and pursuits.\n\nA careful study of the subjects above listed seems to justify the conclusion that we have here not only a series of vital and essential elements\ni;i the problem before us, but also a group of factors that are both practical\nand practicable. The various topics have been assigned to subcommittees\nfor investigation, elaboration, and recommendation.\nThe subjects assigned to myself are: \"Preliminary Preparation of\nTeachers\" and \"Teacher- training Courses in High Schools.\"\nA vital weakness in our rural-school system is the lack of a genuine\ndemand for properly trained teachers. I have knowledge of one state that\nbears an excellent reputation educationally where out of 8,000 riu*al-school\nteachers in 19 10, 4,400 were found to have had no training beyond the eighth\ngrade. The most constant and most imperative requisite of any plan of\nschool instruction is an adequate supply of competent teachers. No other\nprovisions, however ample, can be substituted successfully for capacity in\nthis respect, nor compensate for the want of it. Not liberal appropriations,\nnor costly buildings, nor well-framed theories, but instruction that executes the purpose of all these, touches the mind of the scholar, and imprints\nthereon its own character and qualities, is the demand that must be met;\nand yet it is just at this point that our common schools, particularly our\ncountry schools, exhibit their greatest weakness.\nFirst of all, then, is the need of legislation in every state providing that\nno one may apply for a certificate to teach in any public school who is not\nat least a graduate of a four-year accredited high school or its equivalent.\nIt is a pleasure to know that this requirement obtains in several states of\nthe Union today.\nAs to a teacher-training course in high schools, it is a well-known fact\nthat a large majority of the rural teachers go into the work with little or\nno special preparation. Notwithstanding the multiplication of normal\nschools, it is rarely that a graduate of these institutions is to be fotmd\nengaged in teaching in the country. It is a striking anomaly that the\nlawyer who looks after our material interests, or the physician who cares for\nour bodily health, even the veterinary who doctors our horses and dogs,\nthe carpenter who builds our houses, or the machinist who repairs our\nautomobiles, must go thru a long professional training or practical apprenticeship before he is regarded as fit to ply his trade. Yet every year\nthousands of inexperienced and imtrained boys and girls are allowed —\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "5S4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\neven encouraged — to step out of the ranks of the common schools and to\ntake their places as the coimsellors and guides of the plastic minds and\nimmortal souls of our dearest possession — our children. And this condition falls with greatest severity upon our rural population, for the school\nboards in all our cities and in most of our smaller towns have firmly\nestablished the rule not to employ a teacher who has not had practical\nteaching experience or special professional training. So the only place where\nthe imtrained tyro, with no education beyond that fumi3hed by the eighth\ngrade, may begin is in some country school. But the beginners must\nteach and the school must have teachers. As a consequence our rural\nschools become the only training school that the vast body of our teachei;s\never know; and here these teachers learn — by experience and experiment,\nby practicing upon the tender intellects of the most hopeful and virile youth\nof the land — those pedagogical principles and educational truths which\nthey should have learned as a part of their preliminary professional training\nbefore ever entering the schoolroom \"as one having authority.\" And even\nthis does not tell the whole story. No sooner has one of these joume)niien,\nor rather journeywomen, teachers by virtue of quick insight and ready\nacquisition — by reason of the bom teacher's birthright — ^grasped the fundamentals ofher great problem and proved herself capable in the application\nof them, than the superior inducements of the graded school and the everalert city school board allure her from the country to the town. And the\nrural school must begin over again the training of another teacher to go the\nsame way; or, it may be, this time to experiment with one who was intended\nto have been a hewer of wood and a drawer of water instead of a teacher of\nmen.\nThe only relief lies in requiring better preparation and some professional\ntraining for all our teachers. It seems clear that it will be many years before\nthe normal schools, if ever, will address themselves to the problem of preparing teachers for the rural schools. The plan, therefore, of devoting the\nlast year of a high-school course to special professional preparation for the\nwork of teaching seems to be most desirable. In the states in which this\nsystem is in operation excellent results have followed.\nBut however well this committee may perform the important duties\nassigned to it, however wisely it may recommend, much more must be done.\nThe country school needs assistance, it needs the help of the philanthropist\nand the business man, it needs the assistance of all institutions of higher\nlearning, and the union of all social forces for its betterment.\nAuthority and money must be given the National Bureau of Education\nthat it may undertake a campaign for the reorganization of the rural school.\nOther agencies now devoting time and money to social uplift should be\ninvited and \\irged to join in an effort to investigate thoroly rural-school\nconditions, to propose remedies, to direct public attention, to suggest\nremedial legislation.\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n555\n\nAnd in addition to all this it greatly needs every possible help and assistance that can be given it by the Council of Education of the National\nEducation Association. In short, it needs organized help if these schools\nare to perform their proper function.\nWithal, there must be a nation-wide campaign of publicity. Public\nattention must be challenged and the rural communities must be aroused\nto the necessity of better school privileges for the children. A great trouble\nis the low state of pubHc opinion, and a lack of knowledge as to actual conditions. Our efforts will be futile until we contrive ways and means to\nawaken the people to the magnitude and importance of this question.\nOf the importance, the necessity of publicity we find examples on every\nhand. No great enterprise is undertaken today, nor is success anticipated\nexcept thru the assistance of the press. Just as other great reforms of a\nsocial, political, or religious nature are brought about thru the widest possible discussion, so only can this great problem of assisting that vast army\nof country boys and girls be solved. The story is replete with human\ninterest and involves the whole social fabric of our country's future. It is\none that may well engage the earnest attention and the enthusiastic support\nof our best writers and speakers. What an opportunity is here offered our\ngreat magazines to champion a cause of such national and vital import!\nA series of articles prepared by those who write commandingly and interestingly, and printed in those publications whose readers are numbered by\nmillions, would accomplish more in a campaign of one year than could be\nbrought about thru ordinary means in ten years. And this alliance of the\ngreat papers and magazines can be secured thru the influence of this Council.\nThe editors and owners are eager to undertake such a mission. Shall we\nnot help them to find the facts and, if necessary, the writer ?\nAgain, these schools need organized help. Recently a so-called commission of higher education met in the office of the governor of a great\nstate to discuss ways and means by which its three state educational institutions might be rendered still more efficient. This commission was\ncomposed of the most representative men of that commonwealth. Among\nthem were men skilled in letters, men who are experts in education, and\nbusiness men who had made a brilliant success in the commercial world.\nHere were men, thirty in number, who for months had been devoting their\nenergies and contributing the fruit of their experience to a consideration of\nmeans whereby these great schools might become yet more effective. The\nstate superintendent of public instruction sat there, the only one present\ncharged with the responsibility of daily considering the needs of that great\nmajority of the youth who are never to have the advantage of college or\nvmiversity training. Is this not the situation everywhere? Where in\nall this broad land is there an organized body of men of the type above\ndescribed devoting themselves to the task of improving the rural school?\nIf such commissions could be formed in every state how swift, how certain\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwould improvement follow! The committee miderstands and appreciates\nthe great progress that has been made in certain states in bettering ruralschool conditions. It is aware that important surveys are being made\nand it rejoices. But the fact remains that there is no nation-wide movement in behalf of the country school.\nUnder the wise and capable administration of Commissioner Claxton\nthe rural schools are to be helped as never before. We are earnestly hoping\nthat some of the great foundations will add to their other activities the\npromotion of education in rural schools. These boards with their corps\nof skilled workers and their great financial resources could accomplish more\nthan any other agency.\nThe problem before us is perhaps the greatest in America today.\nCertainly it is the greatest educational problem. It is nothing short of\nattempting to secure to 12,000,000 children their natural birthright — equal\neducational opportunity.\nIf we want to get more out of the rural schools we must put more into\nthem. We can never have the best nu-al schools imtil we have aroused\npublic interest in them. The national life and character of tomorrow is\nbeing set and directed by the schools of today. The country is the nation's\ngreat recruiting-ground. To it the city has always looked for its supply of\nmen who do the great things: command armies, build industries, take the\ninitiative. It is true that the cities are the centers of organization, but they\nare not self-sustaining. The rural population must always be the bone and\nsinew of any coimtry. More than one-half of our school population is\ntrained in the rural schools. These schools are inadequate. From every\nconsideration, both economic and social, more careful attention should be\ngiven to our rural schools.\nDISCUSSION\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, State Department of Education, Indianapolis, Ind. —\nAltho the matter of consolidating rural schools in the United States has been under\nconsideration since 1869, yet rapid strides have been made only in recent years. Today\nalmost every state has taken some steps toward consolidation, and in many states the\none-room district school wiU soon be a thing of the past.\nUp to September i, 1907, in the entire state of Indiana only 1,261 schools had been\nabandoned, whUe between September i, 1907, and September i, 1908, 350 schools were\nabandoned, a nimiber equal to more than 25 per cent of aU abandoned in the state before\nthat time. Prior to September, 1909, out of 1,017 townships, consolidation had been\nattempted in less than hjilf, while complete consoUdation now prevails in a large nimiber.\nA little over three years ago, in the state of Washington no effort had been made to push\nconsolidation, and now there are 120 consolidated districts scattered thru 31 counties,\nand over 20,000 children attended school in consolidated districts last year. A very\ncomplete and most excellent report on consolidation, prepared by the supervisor of\nrural schools in North Carolina, has just been issued from the Department of Public\nInstruction in that state.\nThe advantages promised by consolidation are nimaerous and where the transition\nhas been carefully made they are all in evidence.\nThey include larger school plants;\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n557\n\nsanitary buildings with modem conveniences; laboratory facilities; industrial education,\nincluding practical agriculture by means of farms in connection with the centralized\nplant; closer supervision; a new community spirit aroused by the new conditions, and\nthe utilization of the plant as a social center where parents and teachers come together\nto discuss matters of common interest. Thru consolidation the high school is brought\nto the rural community with the same completeness that characterizes it in the city.\nThe country boy and girl are not compelled to adapt themselves — many, many times to\ntheir detriment — to the city life, in order to obtain a secondary education.\nThe peaceful establishment and progress of the consolidated school have been aided\ngreatly by railroads, both steam and electric, motor cars, and other improved methods\nof transportation.\nNo step in education has been more vital than this of consolidating schools, since\nit must mean, in a short time, the entire abolition of what has been and still is the idol of\nmany hearts — the little red schoolhouse. It is a serious matter to displace a time-honored\ninstitution and its successor must look well to satisfy the causes for its existence, if it\nwould continue. From the one-room building have st^epped forth the founders and preservers ofour nation. These men have pointed with pride to the rude one-room school\nin which they received their early education. They have dwelt upon the hardships of\nthat early life and the lack of all such conveniences and facilities as we claim are necessary\nfor a complete modern school. The consolidated schools must produce men of as staunch\nprinciples, as powerful intellects, as patriotic purposes, as did the schools they have\nsupplanted. They must produce men and women who will point with the same pride\nto the consolidated school and recall their obligation to that institution for their education.\nOur thoughts and energies must center, not upon the annihilation of the old, but\nupon the building of the new. The consolidated school is not an experiment, but a\nnecessary step in the evolution of school machinery, and that it may fulfill its purpose\nin the social scheme, it must be established with care and consideration.\nI do not take it that the work of this committee will be so much that of attempting\nto prove by statistical matter or otherwise that consolidation is necessary as to ascertain\nwhy it has not always been a pronounced success, what conditions have led to its ever\nbeing contrasted unfavorably with the little one-room school, and how these objections\nhave been overcome.\nIt will be the business of the committee to investigate the classes of consolidated\nschools and attempt to determine the best tj^pe and the best method for securing this\ntype. It will need to discover whether the typical consolidated school has been most\nsatisfactorily organized by a gradual evolution from the one-room school thru the union\nschool, the consolidated rural school, and other intermediate types, or by a more direct\nplan of passing from the one-room school to the complete consolidated school.\nIn this work of consolidation we are taking a step forward that will never be retraced,\nand the question for this committee to emphasize is how we shall create and perfect\nthese consolidated schools that we may build surely for the future.\nDavid Snedden, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass. — It\nseems to me that the problem of rural education has been greatly complicated by certain\ntraditional forms of organization which are peculiar to America. The elementary school\nwas evolved before the high school and, as a consequence, the former is now customarily\norganized on the basis of eight or nine grades, the high school or secondary school beginning\non the top of this. Many of the problems of the rural school would be simplified if the\nrural-school teacher had to deal only with children twelve years of age or under, older\nchildren being transported to centers for the purpose of receiving more advanced education. Ibelieve it is easy to train a young woman to be a successful teacher of children\nfor the first six grades, whereas I believe it to be exceedingly difiicult to give a satisfactory\neducation in the normal school for a person who must also teach grades seven and eight.\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "558\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe weakest part of our American education is that which concerns young people over\nthe age of twelve and under the age of sixteen.\nIf conditions remain as they are at present, it will be a long time before we shall\nhave teachers who are qualified to handle in rural schools the upper-grade work. It is\nprobable, indeed, that successful upper-grade teaching can be carried on only by means\nof departmental teaching.\nEenest E. Balcomb, Department of Agricultural Education, State Normal and\nIndustrial College, Greensboro, N.C. — The greatest need of the rural schools is teachers\nwho are properly trained, who have the ability to become leaders in rural communities,\nwho at the same time have such a love for this work that they are willing to devote themselves to it in preference to positions in the city schools.\nOne of the chief reasons why we do not have more teachers who are adapted to this\nwork and willing to follow it is that oiu: normal schools take the yoimg teachers who come\nto them from the rural districts where they are in touch with rural affairs and full of\nenthusiasm and desire to do something worth while for these commimities, and make\nthem into better prepared teachers from a scholastic point of view, but also give them a\ndesire for work in the city schools. They give them such a point of view that they look\nwith ill-concealed contempt upon work in a rural commimity.\nI do not mean to say that the normal schools are entirely to blame in this matter,\nbut I do mean to say that much of the training which normal schools insist on, such as\nLatin and the higher mathematics, not only does not help the rural-school teacher, but\nactually puts her in touch with a civilization which takes her interest away from that of\nthe rural schools.\nThere is ako much to be said of the duty of the patrons of the rural community\nschools. They must learn to appreciate the work of the teacher who is actually in\nsympathy with their mode of life, and they must be willing to compensate the teacher\naccordingly. They should be willing to say to any teacher who has the right interest\nat heart, \"If you will go and get better preparation, we will give you additional compensation.\" They should be willing to see to it that the teacher has a comfortable and\npleasant place to board. This must be either in reasonable distance of the schoolhouse,\nor there must be means provided for transporting the teacher.\nWhen these conditions are fulfilled, and the normal schools make a practice of searching out teachers who have this natural talent and training them especially for the rural\nschools, some of the problems of the rural school will be solved.\nI most fully indorse all that my predecessor. Commissioner Snedden, has said. It is\ngenerally a question of the teacher.\nEdwabd\n\nWis.—\n\nC. Eluott, professor of education, University of Wisconsin, Madison,\n\n[Abstract]\nI. The major issue. — The general ineflScacy of the American r\\u:al school has been,\nas we well know, widely exploited during the past two decades; so much so that evidences\nand arguments have come to assume an unfortunate familiarity of phrase and conventionality ofform. The public has, to a regrettable extent, become insensible to the\noft-repeated appeals of educational workers, very many of whom have, in spite of themselves, become reconciled to what has appeared to be an inevitably tragic situation in\nthat section of our educational organization occupied by the rural school. The chiefest\nof the responsibilities of this newly created rural-school comnaittee will be, I take it, to\nre-establish the rural school in the public conscience, and to chart for the workers in and\nfor rural education one or more new paths by which the rural school may be brought to\na higher level of social resultfulness. For who among us would gainsay him who declared\nthat the coimtry school no longer, save in a few isolated and conspicuous instances,\neither receives or is entitled to that quality of intelligent public confidence that must\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n559\n\nunderlie its life ? The people of our states must be aroused to the point of derilanding\na new bill of rights for the public schools of the countryside.\nII. The pathology of the rural school. — It may be safely asserted that a diagnosis of\nthe present conditions of the rural school, divested of all that is of merely incidental,\npersonal, or local significance, will show conclusively that the various ills and weaknesses\nof the school are due primarily to lack of proper and sufficient nutrition. The rural school\nis ancBtnic. Instead of supplying the food for the development and vitality of this allimportant institution, we have endeavored to cure it by telepathic remedy and to stimulate itinto effective activity by preaching a sort of sentimental idealism. The rural\nschool, notwithstanding the momentous changes that have come into our twentiethcentury social life, is still one of the major organs of our social body. To keep it healthy,\nto cause it to perform its functions economically and effectively, it must have the proper\nnourishment. No amount of public chorusing or of rhetorical phrasing as to the past\nand present glory of the country school will take the place of the sufficient food of dollars.\nIII. The financial remkdy. — The rural school of tomorrow and the next day will\nbe no better than the rural school of today unless our country communities and our\nstates set themselves consciously and intently to the task of bettering the financial foundation of the rural school. This means much more money than has hitherto been considered\nnecessary for the production of effective educational results. It means the tapping of\nnew springs of support. It means more ultimate economy. The index of reform is\nnot to be found in the reconstruction of administrative machinery or in the establishment\nof new schemes of supervisory control, or in the revamping of courses of study, or in the\nformulation of pro forma requirements for pupils or teachers.\nThe financial problem of the country school is not now one of the equitable distribution of available state funds. We know the methods by which the existing resources\nmay be best and most justly distributed. The thorogoing study of Cubberley' has shown\nus the way of utilizing to the best advantage the revenues now derived from various\nsources. The fact that an insignificant few of our states make the most out of their\npresent school incomes is of minor consideration. From the scientific and statistical\nside the solution of the problem of distribution has been presented. The new problem\nis to cause the people to realize that rural-school reform means more than the juggling\nof funds.\nIV. The financial campaign. — If I have rightly interpreted this portion of the task\nbefore the Committee on Rural Schools, it is to discover ways and means that will\nguarantee to every rural school a constant sufficiency of support. Just what this sufficiency should be is fairly well established today in the standards of educational\neconomists and engineers. We know within the reasonable limits of variability what\nsum should be expended on a rural school, whether it be a one-room, two-room, or\nten-room school, in order that there may be a fair chance of producing those results that\napproximate the needs of our civilization and typify the idealism of our education.\nOne aspect of this extraordinarily complicated problem seems clear, and that is,\nthat the country school must become far more than it is today a state school. Organization, support, control, and supervision of the school on the basis of minor territorial\njurisdictions have been proved the country over to be serious hindrances. Local selfgovernment in rural education, that deceptive platitude of the politicians on and off\nthe platform, has meant an insidious growth of local self-complacency, itself the greatest\nobstacle to the logical and necessary development of the school. The problem of ruralschool improvement is one of rural-school funds; the problem of rural-school funds\ninvolves a widespread campaign among the people of our different states so that it will\nbe realized that the interests of each rural school are of the deepest concern to each\ncommunity and to each inhabitant of the state. Unity of educational purpose is bound\nup with unity of fiscal support.\n1 E. P. Cubberley, School Funds and Their Apportionment,\n\nNew York, 1905.\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "56o\n\n■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nTOPIC: BY WHAT STANDARDS OR TESTS SHALL THE\nEFFICIENCY OF A SCHOOL OR SYSTEM OF\nSCHOOLS BE MEASURED ?\nx\n\nGEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION,\nTEACHERS\nCOLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nIn discussing the problem of standards or tests for measuring the\nefficiency of schools or school systems, I come before this group not to\nmake a report of the Council committee appointed to consider this problem, but rather to call your attention to the possible line of work which\nthe committee believes may result in the production of a significant report\nat a later meeting. I shall be guided in what I have to say by the discussions which have already taken place in a meeting of the committee, but\nI must accept entire responsibility for all statements which are made which\nmay be called in question by anyone in this audience, or by any member\nof the committee.\nThe demand that we measure the product of our schools, or that we\nevaluate methods which are employed in the organization, administration,\nand supervision of education, is not new, nor is the practice of measurement in this field a matter of recent development growing out of the demand\nfor efficiency. There has never been a time that the schools have not been\nsubject to criticism and to the demand that they measure the results\nachieved in order to discover how little was accomplished. Ever since\nthere have been teachers, there has been some system of measurement\nof the result of the training given in the schools. The possibiHty of accurate measurement in the field of education has, of course, increased greatly\nwith the development of scientific work in this field and with the growth\nof the teaching profession.\nWe are not satisfied today with the rough approximation which sufficed\na generation ago. We are beginning to define more accurately the ends\nwhich we seek. From the study of psychology and from the development of the method employed in social sciences, we are able to evaluate,\nmore accurately than was formerly possible the achievement either of\nindividuals or of large groups. Indeed it may be claimed that the possibility of error decreases in proportion as the nimiber of individuals in the\ngroup to be studied is increased. Even in the field of business administration we are making certain advance. One hears continually of scientific management, and in the school field, no less than in other situations\ndemanding organizing and administrative genius, the result of investments\nis being accurately measured.\nIt is worth noting in this connection that the advance which has come\nin scientific work in education is due primarily to those who have devoted\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOR\n\nTESTS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n561\n\nthemselves to the study of education as such. It is true indeed that those\nwho have made the most notable contributions have been trained in the\nfimdamental sciences of psychology, sociology, and economics, but the\ncontribution has come primarily from the educational psychologists,\nfrom the educational administrator, from the educational sociologist, and\nnot from those who deal with the fundamental sciences without relation\nto the special problems of education.\nYour committee appointed to study the problem \" By What Standards\nor Tests Shall the Efficiency of a School or System of Schools be Measured ?\"\nhad no difficulty in deciding at its first meeting that its peculiar function\nwas to be found in bringing together the methods employed by students\nof education, whether serving as administrators or in any other capacity,\nin order that the practice of evaluation as found at present thruout the United\nStates be made available for all who are interested in educational measure^\nment. To this end the committee plans to invite the co-operation of\nschool superintendents and of all other students of education who have\nattempted to measure the results of our educational practice. It has been\nthought well to have prepared an annotated bibliography of all the studies\nin the field of investigation with which we are concerned, to be submitted\nas a part of our first report. It is hoped that in this way it will be possible\nto make available for any student of education the methods which have\nbeen successfully applied and the results which have been secured by those\nwho have done significant work in the field of educational measurement.\nIn inviting your co-operation the committee plans to call your attention to at least three distinct fields in which measurement may be expected:\nfirst, with respect to business administration of schools; second, in the\nfield of organization and administration of the more strictly educational\nactivities; and third, in the measurement of the achievement of individual\npupils, classes, or schools, in the subjects commonly taught. Under the\nhead of business administration, the type of building erected in relation\nto its cost, the rating of buildings at present in use, the standardization\nof equipment and of supplies are among the more important subjects to\nbe considered. In the field of organization and administration of the\neducational activity of a school system, investigations concerning the\nattendance of children, involving a measure of the efficiency of the enforcement of the compulsory education and child labor laws, the amount of\nattendance in relation to the proficiency of children, the effect of parttime classes, the results secured from vacation schools and from a longer\nschool day, are to be considered. Another important inquiry in the field\nof organization and administration is found in a study of the classification\nand progress of children thru schools, involving the effect of size of classes,\nthe amount of retardation, acceleration, and elimination, the results of\nindividual instruction, or of special methods of classification and promotion,\nthe value of classes organized to take account of individual differences,\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhether of intellect or physical condition. The results achieved by medical\nand dental inspection, the evaluation of the product secured from special\ntypes of schools, from differentiated courses, or from other special educational activity, such as lecture courses, recreation centers, playgrounds,\ncivic centers, and the like, are topics receiving the consideration of progressive administrators thruout om: country. The attempt to measure\nthe success of the teacher's work, analyzing the qualities which make for\nsuccessful teaching, the rating of teachers, and the evaluation of the\nagencies employed in training teachers in service may also be considered\nin the discussion of tests of organization and administration.\nIn measuring the achievement of individual pupils, of classes, or of\nschools, in the subjects commonly taught, it is to be remembered that a\nbeginning has already been made in the direction of deriving scales or\nunits of measurement. The work of Rice and of Cornman in spelling;\nof Stone and of Courtis in arithmetic; and of Thomdike and Ayres in the\nderivation of a scale of handwriting is familiar to all. It is to be expected\nthat scales or units of measurement in other fields will be added in the\nnear future. Of course no one claims that these methods of measurement\ninclude everything that is demanded by way of a measuring stick of our\neducational activity. It will not be denied, however, that this beginning\nis no less significant than were the beginnings of measurement in other\nfields. There was a time when the units employed to measure time,\ndistance, volume, and the like were clumsy tools as compared with our\nmodem, more accurate measures. Of course the imperfection of these\nunits was never a valid argument against their use, but rather an incentive\nto those who worked to perfect them. Likewise in the field of education,\nthe beginnings which have been made enable us roughly to evaluate\ncertain educational products and they suggest the necessity for further\nwork in this field. However adequate or inadequate the measures commonly applied are, it is nevertheless true that every administrative or\nsupervisory officer is constantly passing judgment with regard to the success of the work done in his system of schools in each of the subjects or\ngroups of subjects taught therein. Your committee will endeavor to\nbring together and to make available for students of education the methods\nwhich have been most successfully employed in measuring the ability of\nchildren in school subjects.\nIn submitting to students of education a classification which suggests\nfields in which the evaluation or measurement of educational activity is\ndesired, it is the expectation of your committee that each superintendent\nor student of education will submit for our consideration the methods\nwhich he has employed in his situation in measuring some actual educational\nproduct. We believe that investigations which are not commonly known,\nand methods of measurement which have been successfully employed, can in\nthis way be made available for all who are interested in this field of inquiry.\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOR\n\nTESTS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n563\n\nIn calling attention to the fact that there are three main fields of\ninvestigation, namely, business organisation, educational administration,\nand scientific measurement of the achievement of pupils, classes, or schools,\nyour committee is not imaware of the fact that these three types of inquiry\nare mutually interdependent. Any complete survey of a school or system\nof schools will of necessity involve inquiry with respect to each of these\ntypes of educational activity. No greater mistake can be made than\nto think it possible to investigate a school system with regard to a\nsingle element or type of activity while disregarding other related factors\nupon which the special fimction investigated may depend. For example,\none might discuss at length the progress of children thru school and be\nabsolutely imfair to the system imder investigation. The question of\nprogress involves, of course, the provision in the way of buildings which\npermits of classes of reasonable size on full time, as over against inadequate\nprovision for housing children which may require a large percentage to\nspend only half-time in school. The percentage of promotion in any\nschool system cannot be disassociated from the standard of achievement\nwhich is required of children who pass from grade to grade. Any adequate study of retardation must take account as well of the qualifications\ndemanded of teachers, the salaries paid to them, the provision which is\nmade for textbooks, apparatus, and supplies, the organization of special\nclasses for the backward, the defective, and the delinquent, without any\none of which elements the school may not hope to achieve thoroly satisfactory work. In any other field, whether of business administration, of\neducational organization and administration, or concerning the achievement of pupils, it will always be necessary to consider each problem,\nhowever distinct it may seem, in its relation to the whole school situation.\nYour committee will be interested in whatever attempts have been made,\nor whatever methods have been employed to measure any activity or\nphase of school work. It cannot fail at the same time to call attention\nto the fact that the investigation of a small part of the management or\nof the product of a school system will of necessity lead to a false view of\nthe school situation, and may result in overemphasis upon some one phase\nof school activity which may in the long run prove injurious rather than\nhelpful. For example, the testing of the product achieved in certain phases\nof work in arithmetic may result in overemphasis upon this work in the\nschools. It will be necessary in order to safeguard against such mistakes\nto derive standards which shall take accoimt not only of the product\nsecured, but also of the amoimt of time required to secure these results.\nIndeed, wherever investigation is undertaken with respect to a single\nsubject, or a part of the whole group of subjects taught, there will be a\ntendency to slight the subjects concerning which investigation has not\nbeen made in favor of those subjects in which results have been measured.\nIn the field of organization and administration, the investigation of the\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nproblem of retardation may conceivably result in an emphasis upon promotion which will be harmful to the best interests of children. The problem of slow progress is not solved simply by promoting 95 per^cent of all\nof the children at each term's end, even tho such promotions may result\nin a good showing when this particular system is compared with some other\nwith respect to retardation. Partial investigations must at present characterize much of the attempt to measure educational products, and the fact\nthat these investigations do not and cannot tell the whole truth, that they\nfrequently raise the problem rather than answer it, must be kept constantly\nin mind, ^e hope, and we believe, that it will eventually be possible to\ntake into consideration, in evaluating the work done by any system of\nschools, all of those elements which enter into and determine the success\nor failure of the work done. We hope, thru the co-operation of those who\nare actually engaged in educational work, to bring together the experience\nof all, and to organize this experience in such form as to aid in the development of a system or scheme of measurement which will take account of\nthe complexity of the situation with which we deal.\nB\nEDWARD\n\nC. ELLIOTT, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nMADISON, WIS.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n[Abstract]\n\nOF WISCONSIN,\n\n\\\n\nI. The rural school and the efficiency movement. — ^That potent stimulant\nfor the reform of our industrial activities and our social institutions to which\nthe name \"eflSiciency\" has lately been given has not yet to any appreciable\nextent influenced the rural school. This delay is only natural. The public\nschools of the city have just begun to subject themselves to scientific valuemeasuring processes; and the rural schools always lag far behind their\nurban cousins in the adoption of new methods and standards of progress.\nWithal, the emphatic need of making a truthful balance sheet of the\nbusiness of the rural school has been demonstrated in numerous ways. A\nnaive pride and faith in our educational institutions cannot much longer\nkeep us from confessing that the coimtry school is in grave danger of becoming, if this is not already the case, the shame of the coimtryside. The\ngraft of the city, that baffing obstacle to all civic reform and stabihty, may\nbe said to be paralleled by the craft of the country in concealing the weaknesses ofits most fimdamental institution — the school.\nOne-half of the children of the country, notwithstanding the rapid\nurbanization of our population, still receive their formal education in the\nrural school — the one-room, isolated school. If our modern notions of social\nand institutional economy have led us to attempt a scientific evaluation\nof the processes and results of public education in the city, such evaluation isall the more necessary in the country, with its distinctive problems,\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOR\n\nTESTS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n565\n\nits inborn conservatism and complacency. Our rural industries are, imder\nthe pressure of an evolutionary economic necessity, being reorganized and\nrevitalized thru the application of the principles of the economic and natural\nsciences. The schools of our ruraldom demand for their reorganization and\nrevitalization, even more than do the schools of the urbandom, the employment of our entire stock of scientific procedure in education. This problem\nis, for obvious reasons, a complicated and difficult one, one that may not,\nhowever, be longer neglected; for neglected it is.\nII. The method of rural-school betterment. — Four years ago, at Washington, during a discussion of the problem of vocational education before\nthe Department of Superintendence, it was suggested that all rational\neducational reform passes thru four stages — the stage of stress, the stage of\ninvestigation and experimentation, the stage of propagandum, and the stage\nof reorganization.^ It was further suggested, concerning these several\nstages, that the stage of investigation and experimentation was, by far,\nthe most difficult of passage; and that we needed tO'be in possession of the\nfacts pertaining to industry and children before we could carry on a sane\npropagandum for a vocational reorganization of our public educational\nscheme. This generalization as to the mode of our educational progress\nappears to be thoroly valid when tested by recent events in the industrial\nadaptation of the public school. Moreover, its application to the rapidly\npressing problems of rural educational reform seems to be equally valid.\nThe coimtry-wide campaign for the betterment of the rural school now\nbeing carried on will not be productive of any widespread improvement\nor intensification of the education of the children of the country regions\nimtil there is such careful investigation of existing conditions as will reveal\nin conclusive and indisputable form the naked facts that are directly\nresponsible for the enervation of the rural school. Today these facts are\nfelt rather than known, and imtil they are exhibited without bias or higher\ncriticism, there will be no arousing of city and country dwellers to what\nappears to be a democratic nation's shame. This investigation must be\naccompanied or immediately followed by experimentation and effective\ndemonstration of what the country school should be to realize our American\nideal of a public-school education and to fulfill the human ambition of\ncountry boys and girls to live that life of usefulness and contentment which\nis rightly theirs by heritage.\nIII. Rural-school standards of worth. — While it cannot be denied that\nwe are in possession of mountains of general facts relative to the present\nworth of the typical rural school, these facts are in general of a character\nthat makes an appeal to the sentimentalist rather than the scientist;\nmore usable for oratory than for convincing argument. Whatever other\nvalue these general facts may have, they are in their present uncorrelated\n• See Edward C. Elliott, \"Equality of Opportunity ....,\" Proceedings of the National Education Asso\nciation, 1908, pp. 159-61.\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand undigested form, useless as foundation material for the establishment\nof new standards of accomplishment. The numerous bulky reports of our\nvarious state departments of public instruction represent, with a very few\nexceptions, waste rather than conservation of scientific eflFort. In so far\nas its work becomes concerned with the question of determining the accomplishments ofthe rural school this National Coimcil Committee on\nSchool EflSciency will be able to perform a distinctive service if it succeeds\nin planning a co-operative scheme for gathering from the entire coimtry\nthe essential facts that vmderlie a constructive program. There is need of\nconcentration upon specific issues. The existing administrative machinery\nof public education will not permit the gathering of all the facts, all the\ntime, for all the country, but it is possible by co-operation to secure, one\nat a time, a few essential facts for the entire country. These facts we do\nnot now have.\nThere is a generally recognized standard for lurban elementary and\nsecondary schools. We need to know the constitution of a standard rural\nschool, and by this standard to develop among our country teachers, school\nofficials, and people a consciousness of the comparative worth of their own\nschools. This standard rural school needs to exist in reality, not merely\nin theory. It has seemed to some of us that the recent movements to\nsecure federal aid for agricultural and other vocational education in the\nseveral states might better have recognized the principle of indirect,\nrather than direct, aid in so far as these movements were calculated to\nbetter rural schools. The establishment and maintenance by the federal\ngovernment of one or more demonstration nural schools, both one-room\nand centralized, in each of our states would render incalculable service for\nthe elevation of the standards of efficiency for rm-al schools, far more perhaps\nthan direct appropriations in aid. A standard of value in education,\nwhether it be in finance, organization, or instruction, must exist as a Uving\nobjective value before it will serve to stimulate our people and our educational workers into an active desire to reconstruct the rural school. The\nlayman is as sensitive as the expert to the demonstration of real values.\nThe ordering of these values yet lies before us as one of our great tasks.\nDISCUSSION\nCarroll G. Peaese, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — Knowing the\nexpected trend of the remarks o*^ most of those who are to speak in the discussion this\nmorning, I have cast about for a few methods of testing our work which are not quantitative and which perhaps will not be discussed by others.\nI recognize, as we all do, the great value to come from these splendid detailed studies\nwhich are being made for the purpose of showing us how to test the effectiveness of our\nwork. But there are also certain different signs in which we may read our success or\nfailure as teachers or as administrators of schools.\nOne of these tests, which any of us can apply, is to note whether or not the teachers\nand pupUs in our schools are experiencing the \"joy of life.\"\n\nEvery child, also every\n\n/\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOR\n\nTESTS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n567\n\nteacher, has a right to be happy; if he does not enjoy his life and his work, something\nis wrong somewhere. The school ought to be so conducted that the children in it can be\ncomfortable and happy. Their work should not be unpleasant nor should the conditions\nunder which it is done be such as to make them feel that school life is merely a grind.\nThe schoolroom should be characterized by sunshine, material and temperamental. The\nwork of the teacher also should be comfortable. Such a definite setting-forth of the things\nwhich are expected of the teacher should be made that he will be able to know when he is\naccomplishing, with reasonable success, those things which are expected. Such an atmosphere should surround the teacher's work that he may be sure of wise leadership, sympathetic counsel, and firm backing in those things which are right. If the teacher's work\nwere so arranged and directed that he might have more of the joy of life, we should have\nfewer worn-out or broken-down instructors of youth.\nWe may test the effects of our teaching also by noting the bearing of our pupils upon\nthe streets and in their common intercourse with each other and with their elders, and their\nbearing toward strangers. Any observing person knows that the attitude of children\ntoward the inquiring stranger differs greatly in different cities; that it differs also in\ndifferent parts of the same city. And this difference in bearing toward persons with\nwhom the pupils come in contact is different where home conditions, general intelligence,\nand other contributing causes outside the school appear to be the same. Who that has\nhad years of experience in supervising schools has not seen the attitude of the pupils in\nsome school change from the rude and boisterous and inconsiderate to a manner of courtesy\nand consideration, and back again to carelessness and rudeness, as the management of\nthe school in that neighborhood has changed? A very good test of our success, in at\nleast one direction, may thus be read in the street manners and bearing of our pupils.\nIt is possible for us to judge, without quantitative measurements, whether the pupils\nand the teachers are doing their best — working up to their capacity; getting out of themselves the best that is in them. A popular writer tells of his experience on the first day of\na trip into the woods. In starting, his guide took a load of camp supplies and equipage\nweighing one hundred pounds upon his shoulders; the writer was given fifty pounds to\ncarry as his share. They tramped until well along in the afternoon when the town man\nbecame so tired he thought he could not go farther, and demanded of the guide that they\ncamp where they were. The guide explained that a few miles farther on was a splendid\ncamping-ground which he had selected for the night. The man on vacation summoned\nup his courage and tramped on two or three miles farther, then sat down on a log and\ndeclared he could not and would not go another step but camp must be made where they\nwere. The guide said nothing but picked up the fifty-pound pack his employer had been\ncarrjdng, set it on top of his own load of one hundred pounds, and started out for the\npoint he had selected for the evening's camp. The man who had thought himself completely exhausted was so ashamed by this turn of affairs that he seized his fifty-pound\npack from the guide, put it on his shoulders, set his teeth together, and tramped along without another word until the camping-place was reached.\nThis lesson may be taken to heart by many a teacher and many a pupil. We think\nwe are doing all we can many times when the fact is we might do 50 per cent or 100 per\ncent more. It is an important part of education for each person to learn to do his best.\nSome attention to this point will show whether or not we ourselves, as teachers, are doing\nour best, and whether or not our pupils are doing all that they ought to do.\nWe may judge our success also by noticing whether or not our pupils remain in the\nschool and show some interest to receive all its benefits; or whether, at the earliest possible moment when the law or the parental authority will permit, they leave our instruction\nto enter upon some other occupation. That school system out of which the children are\ndropping in too great numbers after they reach the upper granamar grades, that system\nin which too small a number of them continue their studies into the high school, is not\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "S68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmeasuring up to the proper standard of success. It may be that the parents need to be\neducated as to the value of the education given in school; it may be that the boys and\ngirls themselves need to have shown to them what they are losing if they leave school at an\nunnecessarily early age; it may be that the school itself needs attention; that its methods\nare not such as to attract and hold the pupils, or that the subjects taught and the manner\nof their presentation are not such as to appeal to the interest of pupils or to cause the boys\nand girls to feel that school studies are of value. Whenever in any school the tendency\namong pupils is to drop out, to leave the school before receiving all of its benefits which\nthey might remain to get, the attitude of the parents toward the school, the estimation\nin which the children hold the school and its exercises, the methods of conducting the\nschool and presenting the subject-matter, and the subject-matter of study and the exercises of the school, all should be carefully scrutinized to see where the trouble lies.\nThe school may also measure its effectiveness by the attitude toward life which its\npupils have after leaving the school. If they are found to be selfish, content with low\nstandards of life and low aims; if they are indifferent toward their neighbors and lack\nthe kindly interest and readiness for kindly service which all members of the community\nought to manifest toward each other; if they are indifferent toward the civic welfare of\nthe city or state in which they live, and think of the government only as a possible means\nof exploitation or of advantage to themselves, instead of feeling that they are citizens,\ncharged with responsibility for the welfare of the other dwellers in the municipality\nor state; if they are indifferent when movements for the public weal are forward: then\nthe school has failed in its highest opportunity. We, as teachers, are advertised by our\nproduct; unless the school implants in the majority of its pupils good ideals of conduct\nand of life, a good disposition toward fellow-men, and a high standard of duty to, and\nresponsibiHty for the welfare of the state, we may know that something, a very important\npart of our opportunity as teachers and school administrators, has been lost sight of or\nthat we have failed in its reaUzation.\nCharles H. Judd, director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago,\n111. — One very common method of judging the efficiency of a school is to observe the work\nwhich the students do in the advanced school to which they pass after leaving the lower\nschool. Teachers in the fourth grade are constantly judging the efficiency of the third\ngrade by students who come from the lower into the higher class. The same method of\njudgment is applied by colleges to the high schools and by high schools to the upper grades\nof the elementary schools. The business of educational science is to refine this method\nof judging efficiency and make it more exact and explicit.\nSince the college is judging the high school by the character of the students who come\nfrom the high school, an effort should be made to gather as complete a record as possible\nof the work which is done by students in both of the institutions involved in this judgment.\nThe importance of a complete record is illustrated by the fact that many colleges judge\nhigh schools adversely when students fail in their college courses. Sometimes the failure\nof a student could have been anticipated by a recognition of the grade which he took\nin the lower schools. When the high school sends a low-grade student to the college with\na definite statement of the fact that the student took low rank in his high-school courses,\nit is not to be expected that he will excel in his college work. Recent elaborate investigations have made it perfectly clear that a low-grade student in the high school is likely to\ncontinue to do poor work after he goes into the higher institution. The question which\nshould be asked in all these cases can be formulated as follows : Does a student maintain\nin the school to which he is promoted the same relative rank that he held in the lower\nschool? That is, does the student who stands in the highest third of the high-school\nclass succeed in maintaining himself in the highest third of the college classes, or does he\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOR\n\nTESTS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n569\n\nfall to a lower position ? If he falls to a lower position, an adverse judgment of the school\nis so far justified. If in a number of cases the experience is repeated, all of the students\nfrom a given high school failing to carry on in college the standard tjrpe of work, the\njustification for an adverse judgment is complete. On the other hand, if a college finds\nthat students are able to rank higher in college classes than they did in the high school,\nit is time for the college to consider whether its standards are as high as those of the high\nschool from which the students came.\nInformation necessary to answer questions of this tj^ie cannot be collected by a single\ninstitution. Students from a given high school scatter to a number of different colleges.\nThere should be co-operation between the colleges and the high schools, and information\nof this sort shoiild be collected on a large scale by some central committee or bureau.\nIf such centralized information were at hand, it would be possible to judge accurately\nthe standard of both the colleges and the high schools. The North Central Association\nof Colleges and Secondary Schools is collecting information of this type. If the National\nCouncil or the Department of Superintendence could be interested in the same kind of\ninformation, it would be possible'to develop the plan so as to include elementary schools\nas well as secondary schools and colleges. Several progressive high-school principals\nhave shown by studies of this t3T)e that it is possible to judge the efficiency of the elementary schools of a city with great accuracy. Mr. Miller of the Kansas City High School was\nable to select the elementary schools in his city which were doing the most efficient work\nin different departments by a study of the students who came from these schools into the\nKansas City High School. In the same way, Mr. Carter was able by a careful study of\nthe Milwaukee records in elementary and high schools to show the relative efficiency of\nthe different elementary schools in that city.\nA comparison of institutions thru information of this sort is much safer than a comparison ofinstitutions thru the opinion and judgment of individual supervisors. Furthermore, the people who are judged by this kind of information are very much better satisfied\nthat they have been treated with fairness. There is no conflict between the ordinary\nmethods of school supervision and this suggestion for a more accurate and scientific study\nof the same problem.\nZ. X. Snyder, president of the State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. —\nI. RESULTS\n\nOF AN\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nSYSTEM\n\n1. A school system to be efficient must so train and develop the individual that he\nshall enter into his various stages of life normally at the proper time and be selfsupporting when he enters life at his majority, be able to earn a living, to accumulate\nsome property, and to own a home.\nIn short, the system must individualize him.\n2. An educational system to be efficient must train the individual thoughtfully,\nfeelingly, and actively to support our institutional life, as the home, the school, the state,\nwith its manifold activities in its development; and to help and enrich the mass — the\nsocial group. Again, the system must socialize him.\n3. A system of schools to be efficient must train the individual to have a stable attitude in all hiunan endeavor — to have an intellectual balance, to be sympathetic in his\nlife, and to be a person of action.\n4. An educational system to be efficient must provide for all conditions of the himian\nfamily, the weak, the strong; the young, the old; the fortunate, the unfortunate — indeed\nall states and conditions.\n5. An educational system to be efficient must rest on the fimdamental eugenic\nprinciple that after an individual is in existence, he must be protected, helped, and the\nbest made of him for life's sake.\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nn. SOURCES\n\nOF IMPULSES\n\nEDUCATION\nAPPEALED\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTO IN ATTAINING\n\n[National\n\nTHE RESULTS\n\n»\"i. The first is the biological impulse of self-preservation. Out of this impulse come\nall the elements of individuation — self-supf>ort, accumulation, opinion, self-determination,\nself-assertion, self-perfection, self-realization, etc.\n2. The great and fvmdamental impulse, also biological, to which the former impulse\nleads is that for preservation of the species. Out of this come all the elements of communication, mutual aid, socialization, helpfulness, the larger civilization which enfolds all\nhiunanity, etc.\nm.\n\nELEMENTS\n\nFOR\n\nSECURING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nThe evaluation of experiences: as idea, fact, belief, truth, motive, ideal, action, etc.,\nis foimd in the following:\n1. The potential value of an experience is its expectancy. Out of this come anxiety,\nthought, hope, impulse, passion, heart, and life for the realization of the experience. The\nschool system in its organization, management, and in its teaching — indeed in its life\nshould aim to develop a high potential.\n2. The actual value of an experience is the realization of the expectancy, to attain\nwhich the individual acts — in which he works up the experience into a richer and more\ncomplex experience by thinking and doing.\n3. The efficient value of the experience is measured by the amount of service rendered\nto self and to others and to the institutional life. It is measured by how much aid, by\nhow much kindness, by how much sympathy, by how much thought, by how much action\nhas entered into the realization — ^has entered into the real and living situation.\nIV.\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nELEMENTS\n\n1. The stage of development in which the child or the person is living must always\nbe taken into consideration in order to attain the results in testing the standards of\nefficiency.\n2. There must always be an arousing, stimulating, and organizing of the experiences\nof the person or persons at the particular stage of development that there may be the\nhighest potential, highest actual value, and the highest efficient value for service.\n3. The individual's life must be taken into consideration in the presentation of the\norganized experiences.\n4. Indeed the curriculimi, or material or stuff that is used, must therefore grow out\nof the Hfe of the individual at his particular stage of development and back into it to\nenrich it in the complex individual and social situation.\nv.\n\nSOURCES\n\nOF STIMULATION\n\nOF EXPERIENCES,\n\nETC.\n\n1. The organism itself affords the foundation or basis for stimulation as indicated\nabove, both in self-preservation and in the preservation of species. The individual is\norganically selfish and should be. The fibers of the roots of our civilizarion find its\nnourishment in these impulses.\n2. The environment, the complex of things roimd about the person, aU serve in the\norganizarion of the experiences or life of the individual. It is a process of nature and\nnurture.\n3. Again, I would say that the source of material should grow out of the hfe within\nand the life without the individual — his organic, subjective life and the environmental\nlife.\nVI.\n\nSUMMATION\n\nOF STANDARDS\n\nOF TESTS, ETC.\n\nI. The individual must live in every stage so as to enter fully, readily, and righteously into;the life about him. The standard of the test of a system is such as must bring\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOR\n\nTESTS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n571\n\nabout this sort of living. The little child of six has just as real and important life as the\nadult has in his stage.\n2. The system must be such as to enable the individual to realize on his experiences\nshould he have to drop out of the school at any time. He should be able to do something\nto preserve himself and others in accordance with the stage of development in which he\nwas and is now living. He should be able to earn a living and to add to the sum-total of\nhuman happiness in civilization. He should be co-operative. The test of efficiency of a\nsystem must be such as to bring this result.\n3. The test is not to prepare for complete living which seems to contain an element\nof futurity, but to have complete living now at the particular stage of development in\nwhich the individual is living. Life is a series in which each preceding term is in each\nsucceeding term.\n4. The test of a system is not in examinations, not in recitations, not in deportment\ncards, not in the number sent to higher educational institutions, not in the ability to think,\neven. While all these aid, the final and crucial test is the reaction in adult life in character,\nin pure living, in thought, sentiment, and deed, summing up into the statement of the\npoet, he lives most who thinks most, feels most, and does most.\nLotus D. Coffman, supervisor of Training School, Eastern Illinois State Normal\nSchool, Charleston, 111. — Advancements in education are made by varying the emphasis\nupon the problems of education. Philosophers seldom see the entire field of education in\nits wholeness or the movements within it in their reciprocal relations. Advancement\nrather is made by throwing the emphasis at one time upon one problem and at another\ntime upon another. Each new problem tends to be raised in our class-consciousness to a\nplace of importance all out of proportion to its real worth. This leads many an enthusiastic reformer astray and in its reaction causes the conservative and judicious administrator to cling more tenaciously to those things that have been sanctioned by a long\nexperience. Nevertheless, child-study, correlation, recapitulation are but the catchwords\nof movements that have at one time or another dominated our thinking.\nJust now we are being urged and spurred on by a widespread movement to reduce\nevery type of productive activity to scientific management. Educational leaders here\nand there, following in the wake of social sentiment and social pressure, have caught up\nthe movement and are now fairly engaged in the attempt to rationalize old standards and\nto discover new ones. This movement or emphasis, like all the others, will leave us a\nmodicum of useful information. More than that, it is likely to leave as its distinctive\ncontribution a method of work for refining the standards now being secured and for\ndiscovering new ones. We believe that the laws of education and the central tendencies\nof the facts of administration are discoverable in nature. That they will shift with time,\nplace, race, age, and the like, every student of sociology knows, but that these variations\nare in accordance with law, every student of science believes.\nIt must not be understood that we have had and have now no standards in education.\nIt is nevertheless true that such standards as exist have been secured thru the laborious\nprocesses of trial and error. Many of them have been arrived at and have been practiced\nso unconsciously that they have become a part of the mores of the teaching population.\nMany a young superintendent who has not become inoculated with these rather habitual\nmodes of practice has spent much of his comparatively brief career wool-gathering,\ngrasping at straws as he groped bUndly about in his efforts to get hold of something that\nwould enable him to rate his teachers and to judge the work of his schools. On the other\nhand, some superintendents of long experience who are thoroly saturated with our class\ntraditions, have looked upon the liberalistic views of recent reformers as unnecessary, if\nnot anarchistic. Their attitude has been almost that of \"Let well enough alone\"; with\na field fairly teeming with problems to be solved, they see none. They act toward a\nmultitude of situations as schoolmasters have always acted.\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nAnother type of standard is that which is created by definition. Such standards are\nusually registered in laws. Many of them grow not so much out of a breakdown of\npractice as out of an effort to make conditions more ideal. Both of these factors are, to\nsome extent, always present when we seek to create by law standards for controlling,\nmanaging, and rating schools: There is some dissatisfaction with existing conditions, a\nsense of maladjustment, a failure of the old practices to work; this in itself is cause enough\nto warrant the establishment of new standards. But more frequently our dissatisfaction\ncauses us to project our experience into the future and we set up idealized standards.\nStandards by definition have already covered a multitude of subjects. They have to\ndo with the collection and distribution of school funds, the certification and salaries of\nteachers, the accrediting of high schools, the kinds of discipline permitted, the number of\nyears children must attend school, the number and kinds of subjects that must or must\nnot be taught. Most of these topics have been legislated upon.\nIn addition to those standards which have been established by legislative enactment,\nthere are still others that have been formulated by organizations, operating xmder private\ninitiative, or by educational institutions acting under a co-operative agreement. Such\ninstitutions and agreements as the Sage Foimdation, Carnegie Foundadon, the Bureau\nof Education, the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools are\nexamples of what I mean.\nAgain, we speak of one school as excellent and another as good, of one as superior and\nanother as inferior; we know that such terms refer only to common-sense judgments as to\nwhat is true of the schools as a whole. It is quite impossible that a given school is excellent\nin everything, good in everything, or bad in everything. Any attempt to define such\ngeneral expressions as these or such other expressions as \"third-grade ability,\" \"fourthgrade facility in numbers,\" \"more than average skill in the drill subjects,\" and the like,\nhave certainly been moves in the right direction. However, much of this work, valuable\nand indicative as it is, has had the misfortime of being based upon ratings given by\nobservation. It is true that these observations in many instances have been made by\npeople of reputed expert training. Nevertheless, mere observation has certain fundamental weaknesses and faults as a method of arriving at the truth. That observation and\nindividual opinion have been great factors in securing progress, in education as well as\nelsewhere, no one can deny; but just now, in the physical and social science fields they are\nbeing superseded by more refined methods. Once we were satisfied with a statement if\nwe knew who said it, now we want to know what the evidence is; the ipse dixit of the\nleader was once sufficient, now he must give us the facts if he wants a hearing. I know\nvery well that desire for facts and evidence is looked upon by some as educational heresy.\nIt is not heresy; it is a more rational attempt at getting at the truth. It is not heresy;\nit is an attempt to define some of the lump judgments of current thought. It is not\nheresy; it is an attempt to render more scientific educational procedure. Those of us\nwho believe in standards and scales arrived at thru experiments and tests that can easily\nbe duplicated, do not criticize those who sought truth thru observation and opinion. We\nonly ask them to sympathize with the work of a comparatively small group of seriousminded students of education who are studying its problems quantitatively. What\ncould be more improfessional than an attitude that sneers at any attempt to arrive at\nthe truth!\nThe difficulty in handling problems that lie within the field of teaching method is\nfound in the fact that they deal directly with human nature. This makes them far more\nsubtle, complex, and variable than those that pertain to school finance. It was but\nnatural that we should give attention to the nimiber of children per teacher, the niunber\nof recitations per teacher, the wage scale, the heating and ventilation of buildings, and\nthe like, before we focussed our attention upon the more intimate and vital problems of\nactual instruction. We know more about the material conditions for teaching than we do\nabout the act of teaching. The evolution of standards has always been from the obvious\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOR\n\nTESTS\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\n573\n\nto the less obvious. Quantitative measurement took hold of those things first that were\nmost concrete; the apparently more intangible things were regarded as qualitative.\nBut that which was qualitative at one time, as our methods were improved became\nquantitative at a later time. The fact that we have no proper units and scales with\nwhich to measure some things is no evidence that we may not have later on. The fact\nthat we haven't shows the field which will yield the most fertile results. The number and\namount of things which we still speak of as being purely qualitative is to some extent a\nmeasure of our present state of ignorance with reference to them.\nVariable quantities can be measured by employing the statistical technique. Many\nspecial studies will be required to secure units and scales that will be accurate and serviceable in practice. In no other way can we advance so rationally from our present rather\nunsatisfactory position. The difiiculties involved in making such special studies will not\ndeter the serious student from attempting them. Such studies as those of Erdmann and\nDodge, Huey, Dearborn, Ruediger and Judd of reading; of Rice, Cornman, Pearson,\nand Wallin of spelling; of Rice, Stone, Brown, Courtis, and Bonser of arithmetic; of\nThorndike of handwriting; of Hillegas of composition; of Cubberley, Strayer, and\nElliott of school finance; of Thorndike, Ayres, Greenwood, and Blan of retardation and\nelimination; of Keyes on the progress of children thru the grades; these and many others\nhave put us far on the road both to the establishment of certain facts and to the establishment of a method of work.\nThese subjects have tentatively established a number of important standards.\nBefore these, however, can be accepted as being of ultimate worth, many of the studies\nmust be duplicated. In no other way can norms be finally established. What we need\nis a scientific spirit that will induce us to accept the work already done and to try it out.\nAny enterprising superintendent could compare his school with those described in the\nstudies referred to by using the same methods that were employed there. This would be\nfar better for education than for him to be constantly trying to do something unique.\nA mastery of such studies as those to which I have just referred will famiharize one\nwith the different ways of measuring variable quantities. Perhaps a few words explaining\nit may not be entirely amiss here. It is obvious that people vary as to stature, weight,\nlength of fingers, cephalic index, blood pressure, pulse rates, power of discrimination,\nability to add, to spell, to memorize, to write compositions. Variation is not a phenom' enon that is restricted to any single individual nor to any group of individuals. It is\none of the two facts needed to compare one individual with another or with himself at a\nprevious time, or one group with another group, or with itself at some previous time.\nThe very presence of variability presupposes the other fact needed in making comparisons. Differences mean difference from something — and that something is the type,\nwhich is statistically expressed by the average, the median, or the mode, as the case\nmay be.\nThese two facts may be made more concrete by borrowing and adapting an illustration\nfrom Galton. Suppose we have a funnel-shaped receptacle filled with wheat. Below it\nis a regular series of vessels of the same shape and base, s5Tumetrically arranged in a row.\nIf the wheat is allowed to escape, an equal quantity of it does not fall into each of these\ncontainers. Rather it is distributed according to the law of chance. This law has such\nmathematical accuracy that we can predict with reasonable certainty the character of\nthe distribution. Those vessels immediately beneath the funnel-shaped receptacle will\nbe filled fuller than those next to them, the amount contained in the vessels grows less\nand less, as we pass from the center vessels outward until at either end there are vessels\ncontaining only a few grains. If the top of each column of wheat is connected by a curved\nline, we have exactly the same kind of curve as that secured by stature measurement, i.e.,\nthe normal frequency-curve. A curve of this character would be secured by plotting\nthe length of men's feet, the batting averages of a baseball team, the deviation from\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[NaUonal\n\na bull's eye at target shooting, the number of spots turned up in twenty throws of the\ndice, the ability of a class to multiply mentally one three-place mmaber by another, the\nspeed of a class in reading, the eflSciency of a class in handwriting, the imagery of a class\nin studjong a poem, the location of a school among a system of schools with reference to\nany quahty considered.\nNow we cannot predict where any single grain of wheat would fall. We can only\npredict as to what will be true of the distribution of the wheat in general. But the chances\nare high that any single grain of wheat will fall nearer the middle and they are exactly\neven that it will fall above or below the middle position. Individuals tend to cluster\nabout the average, or the median, or the mode, i.e., about the central tendency. No\ndescription of any group is complete imless the whole extent of the deviation in each\ndirection from the group average is shown.\nAny school or system of schools that falls above the group average for any particular\ncharacteristic is in the better one-half of the schools, and any school or system that falls\nbelow the group average is in the poorer one-half of the schools. The total range or\ndistribution can be broken up into fourths or quartiles, so that one can tell whether his\nschool as to the ability or item measured falls within the best fourth, the second best,\nthe next to poorest, or the poorest.\nThere are certain other facts pertaining to the measurements of relationship which\nI shall not take the time to discuss. They have been amply treated in several very good\nbooks, dealing with the statistical procedure. I refer to Thomdike's Mental and Social\nMeasurements, to Elderton's Primer of Statistics, to Yule's Elementary Theory of Statistics.\nSuch a plan as that which I have but briefly described, does not supply us with a\nscale which measures differences in merit as multiples of some unit. So far, we have\nonly one such scale. I refer to Thomdike's scale for handwriting, an account of which\nwill be found in Teachers College Record, March, 191 1. This scale is based upon more\nthan twenty thousand ratings of specimens of handwritings. The samples finally selected\nwere progressively arranged on the basis of these ratings in equal steps. For example,\nsample 4 is as much better than sample 3, as sample 3 is better than sample 2. By using\nthis scale the ratings that a classroom teacher gives a pupil's writing have a definite\nmeaning. She can compare one pupil's writing with another or with his own performance\nat some earlier time. The scale may be used to show the actual rate of improvement of\nthe individual, of the room, of the school. The values of different methods used in teaching handwriting may be effectively determined by this scale. A superintendent will use\nit to measure samples of handwriting from individuals, classes, cities, groups chosen for\ngrade, age, sex, method of teaching, or length of time devoted to writing, or to measure any\nother variable involved in instruction in handwriting. Even business men will find it a\nconvenient instnmient to determine the rating of the quality that they want.\nOther such scales are being constructed now. Words in spelling could be rated in\nthe same way as to their diflSculty. So also could there be a standard series of problems\nin arithmetic for each age or each grade. The important dates or facts in history or in\ngeography might be put to scale in the same way. Selections in reading could be rated\nin the order of their value or of their difficulty. There is no end to the scales that might\nbe determined were there but enough men interested in the scientific aspects of education\nto prepare them.\nThe time when we shall have standards for testing schools determined by thoroiy\nscientific methods is approaching. In the meantime, we must continue to trust for many\nthings to the judgments of our wisest leaders; we must continue to create standards by\ndefinition; and we must continue to reduce those things thoroiy agreed upon to the plane\nof customary action. I feel, however, that we shall grow most progressively and sanely\nby the application of the laboratory and statistical method. Introspection can never in\nany true sense give us an applied science. The real advance must come from an acquaintance with the experimental technique.\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nSECRETARY'S\nCHICAGO\n\n575\n\nMINUTES\n\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Charles H. Keyes, president of Skidmore School of Arts. .Saratoga Springs, N.Y.\nVice-President — William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools\nWashington, D.C.\nSecretary — Robert J. Aley, president of the University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Saturday Forenoon, July 6, 191 2\nThe National Council of Education met in the Gold Room of the Congress Hotel,\nChicago, 111., and was called to order at 10 a.m. by President Charles H. Keyes.\nThe president appointed a committee, consisting of Robert J. Aley, president of the\nUniversity of Maine, Orono, Me.; J. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School,\nJoliet, 111.; and Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis., to report\nthe revised constitution of the Council to the Board of Directors of the National Education Association.\nThe president appointed John R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo., to take the place of E. E. Brown, chancellor of New York University, New\nYork, N.Y., and J. Stanley Brown, principal of the Township High School, Joliet, 111.,\nto take the place of Augustus S. Downing, first assistant commissioner of education,\nAlbany, N.Y., upon the Committee on Membership. The appointments were for this\nmeeting only.\n\"The Final Report on High-School Preparation of Students for Normal Schools\"\nwas then presented by David Felmley, president of the State Normal University, Normal,\nlU.\nThe report was discussed by John H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.; J. Stanley Brown,\nJoliet, 111.; E. A. Jones, Waterville, Ohio.; Thomas A. \"Mott, Richmond, Ind.; Homer\nH. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa; John W. Cook, DeKalb, 111.; W. A. Brandenburg,\nOklahoma City, Okla.; John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.; and C. P. Gary, Madison, Wis.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Saturday Afternoon, July 6, 191 2\n\nE. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of pubhc instruction, Topeka, Kans., presented\nthe \"Report of Progress of the Committee on Rural Schools.\" (See papers of St. Louis\nmeeting.) Those engaging in the general discussion were: H. B. Brown, Valparaiso,\nInd.; Adelaide S. Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind.; A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz.; J. Y.\nJoyner, Raleigh, N.C.; and John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nUpon motion of Robert J. Aley, Orono, Me., the president was asked to appoint\na committee to formulate a proper tribute to the memory of Julia Richman, New York,\nN.Y.\nThis matter was referred to the following committee:\nA. E. Winship, Boston, Mass.\nJ. Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\nNebraska Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kans.\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore,\n\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Saturday Evening, July 6, 191 2\n\nIn the absence of President Keyes, Joseph Swain, president of Swarthmore College,\nSwarthmore, Pa., presided at this session.\nThe following report of the Committee on Membership was tmanimously adopted:\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C., Vice-President\nTerm\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis., Executive Committee\nTerm\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., Committee on Membership. . .Term\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis., Committee on Membership. .Term\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah, Committee on Membership. . . .Term\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., Committee on Investigations and Appropriations\nTerm\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass., Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations\nTerm\nPayson Smith, Augusta, Me., Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations\n.Term\n\n(National\n\nexpires 1915\nexpires 1915\nexpires 1915\nexpires 1915\nexpires 1913\nexpires 1915\nexpires 1915\nexpires 1915\n\nMEMBERS\nterms to expire in 1918\nElla Flagg Young, Chicago, 111., to succeed herself.\nEdwin S. Monroe, Muskogee, Okla., to succeed himself.\nW. H. Elson, Cleveland, Ohio, to succeed himself.\nJohn W. Carr, Bayonne, N.J., to succeed himself.\nEdward C. Elliott, Madison, Wis., to succeed himself.\nGrace C. Strachan, New York, N.Y., to succeed herself.\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind., to succeed herself.\nCarleton B. Gibson, Rochester, N.Y., to succeed himself.\nC. G. Schulz, St. Paul, Minn., to succeed himself.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio, to succeed himself.\nterms\n\nto expire in 1 9 13\n\nFannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass., to succeed Wm. E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass,\nJohn F. Sims, Stevens Point, Wis,, to succeed A. S. Draper, Albany, N.Y,\nBird T, Baldwin, Swarthmore, Pa., to succeed Frank E, Parlin, Cambridge, Mass.\nA. D. Yocum, Philadelphia, Pa., to succeed C. A. Herrick, Philadelphia, Pa.\nClem Hampton, Tallahassee, Fla., to succeed W. M. Holloway, Tallahassee, Fla.\nTERM\n\nto expire IN\n\n1914\n\nKatherine D. Blake, New York, N.Y., to succeed Julia Richman, New York, N.Y.,\ndeceased.\nTERM\n\nto EXPniE IN 1915\n\nL. E. Wolfe, Memphis, Tenn., to succeed E. E. Brown, New York, N.Y.\nTERM\n\nTO EXPIRE IN\n\n1916\n\nD. H. Christensen, Salt Lake City, Utah, to succeed Anna T. Smith, Washington, D.C.\nTERM\n\nTO EXPIRE IN\n\n1917\n\nE. E. Bass, Greenville, Miss., to succeed John W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.\nBy unanimous vote the Council adopted the following resolutions on the death of\nJulia Richman:\nOn June 24, Miss Julia Richman of New York City, a distinguished member of the\nNational Council of Education-, died in Paris, after ten days of heroic effort to rally from\nan operation for appendicitis.\nMiss Richman was for many years an eminent leader in educational advance. She\nfitted herself for this leadership as a grade teacher and principal in New York City before\nher promotion to the district superintendency.\nWith superb courage she was the first to successfully defy all political bosses and\nforce them to keep their hands off educational affairs.\nWith noble consecration she inspired children from the humblest homes so that in a\ndistrict where no child had ever gone above the sixth grade she saw more than 2,500 in the\nseventh and eighth grades, with many in the high school.\nWith deepest human sympathy, she led to the establishment of the first school hospital\nfor crippled children in connection with the public schools of a great city.\nWith keen patriotic insight she insisted that public schools could do and should do\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBIGB-SCBOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nSTJ\n\nfor all children everything that was best for them by way of physical, intellectual, industrial, social, and moral training.\nTherefore, in view of all that Miss Richman was as a noble woman and brilliant\nleader, be it\nResolved, That we learn of her death with sincere regret; that we remember her life\nand work with genuine satisfaction; that we appreciate the privilege and honor of having\nhad her as one of our number, and that we here highly resolve to take renewed devotion\nto that cause for which she gave the last full measure of devotion.\n\"Educational Progress of the Year\" was presented by J. A. Shawan, superintendent\nof schools, Columbus, Ohio. Those engaging in the general discussion were: Grace\nStrachan, New York, N.Y.; A. E, Winship, Boston, Mass.; Amelia Fruchte, St. Louis,\nMo.; E, G. Cooley, La Grange, 111.; Walter R. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho.\nThe Council adjourned at 9:50 p.m.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nFINAL\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON HIGH-SCHOOL\nPREPARATION OF STUDENTS FOR\nNORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nIn preparing this report your committee sent letters of inquiry to\n120 state normal schools. Some of the questions asked could not be\nanswered accurately without considerable investigation. Others could\nhardly admit of precise answers in any case. Possibly for these reasons\nreplies were received from only 41 institutions, yet these replies were from\n25 states representing every section of the coimtry and present a body of\nfact and opinion sufficiently uniform to justify, we believe, the main\nconclusions presented in this report. It should be clearly understood that\nthis report deals only with conditions affecting those state normal schools\nwhose students are largely or entirely high-school graduates.\nIt appears that thruout the country normal-school faculties are generally\nnot satisfied with the quality of the high-school preparation received by\nmost normal-school students. The organization and work of some high\nschools is entirely satisfactory; many individual students from other\nschools show excellent preparation. Our conclusions are necessarily\nbased upon the average product. There is no disposition to indulge in\nwholesale condemnation of the high schools. Their principals and teachers\nmust often bow to conditions that they cannot control. We propose\nmerely to analyze the high-school situation from the standpoint of the\nnormal school, and to suggest such changes as seem desirable and practicable.\nTHE FUNDAMENTAL\n\nDEFECT\n\nThe chief defect of the high schools from the standpoint of this inquiry\nis that in their aim, their curriculum, and their methods of instruction,\nand in their spirit and life they are too largely dominated by so-called\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncollege traditions and ideals. It is true that our state universities and a\nfew under private administration have recently broadened their entrance\nrequirements so as to leave the tributary high schools more free to shape\ntheir programs of study with reference to the needs of the whole community, rather than of a particular class. Yet the inner life of these\nuniversities, their spirit, their atmosphere, their ideals, their rating of the\nrelative respectabiUty of studies, have as yet undergone little change.\nThe smaller institutions and especially the women's colleges of the East,\nwhich draw students from the entire country and exert an influence quite\nout of proportion to the number of students affected, tenaciously adhere\nto the standards of thirty years ago. It is also true that many highschool principals, courageous, dominant, and progressive, have developed\nhigh schools whose instruction and life are quite in harmony with the\nmodem spirit. Yet the fact remains that in many of our larger cities the\nolder high schools have accepted fitting young people for college as their\nchief function. Commercial high schools and manual training high schools\nare established to care for those who want a secondary education not\ndetermined by the prejudices or ideals of the professional or literary class.\nThis separation of our young people of high-school age into two classes,\nthe one dominated unduly by leisure-class ideals, the other by utilitarian\nconsiderations, is most regrettable in a country whose public-school system\nis maintained to nourish the ideals of democracy.\nIn the smaller cities and towns the practical aim of the high school\ntoo often is to keep on the accredited list of the imiversity. In many\nhigh schools this dominating idea determines the subjects in the narrow\ncurriculiun and controls the work done in every one of them. This control\nlooks in the direction of further work in the branches in higher institutions\nof learning and to indorsements of the standards set by them rather than\nto the clear comprehension of the subjects as related to the student's\nlife and environment. Hence it follows, as stated by the Massachusetts\nCommission on Industrial Education, that the best energies of thovisands\nof our young people are devoted to studying the language, the literature,\nthe wars, the politics, the rehgion, the customs, and superstitions of peoples\nfor fifteen centuries dead, while the knowledge that is needed to earn a\nliving, to discharge the duties of citizenship, and even to appreciate the\nworld in which we live must be picked up largely outside of school and by\nmethods more or less irregular and ineffective.\nTHE\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe conscious aim of the high school determines the choice of teachers.\nIf the one fimction of the high school is to fit for college, what more sensible\nthan to secure as teachers men and women who have been thru college\nand know what preparation will be needed? The insistence upon a high\nstandard of scholarship is altogether praiseworthy.\nThe error Lies in not\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nS-jg\n\nrecognizing the equal need of professional preparation, and in the particular\nsort of scholarship prized in high-sghool teachers. It is the knowledge\nof the classroom rather than the knowledge that flows from the arts and\naffairs of the practical world.\nFrom this cause it results that the high-school teachers are nearly\nalways college graduates, usually yoimg college graduates with little or\nno professional education or ideals, no adequate comprehension of the\nmeaning of education, of the purpose of the school, or of the physical or\npsychological laws that must govern all learning and should govern all\nteaching. To such teachers, \"to get an education\" is to complete a college course, and the fimction of the high school is to fit boys and girls for\ncollege. Naturally they imitate their own teachers and bring the methods\nof college and university into the high-school classrooms, diluting them to\nsuit young students and lecturing much. Hence the instruction is scholastic, bookish, abstract, with little articulation with the environment or\nreference to the needs of modern life.\nTHE\n\nREMEDY\n\nThe first need of the high school is a change of aim. It must confront\nthe actual needs of life as found in shop and store, in farm and home.\nThis does not mean that all instruction shall be vocational; the physical,\nsocial, and cultural needs of men and women are facts of life. But it\ndoes mean that we must assess with greater care the actual educational\nvalue of every study in the curriculum, of every detail of organization\nand method, and conduct our schools in such a way as to secure the maximum of useful knowledge, skill, power, appreciation, and character. To\nmake such assessment of values is no easy matter. We lack a universally\naccepted standard. We are likely to be misled by prejudice, by habit,\nby traditional doctrines of formal discipline intangible and unprovable.\nSubjects are of unequal value for different individuals and for different\nlocalities. No weighing of educational values can be universal or final.\nThen our organization and instruction must be in close articulation\nwith the local environment; partly because the natural objects, industrial\nprocesses, and social organization there must provide the concrete basis\nfor vital instruction in many subjects; partly because the mastery of that\nenvironment is the proper sort of education for most of the students.\nIn spite of the numerous exceptions in our restless American life, it is still\ntrue that most of our students will live in the locality where they were\nreared or in a similar environment elsewhere. The high school must not\nassume that it is the sole educational agency, its curriculum the sum of\nall worthy knowledge, and adopt a policy that prevents young people\nfrom acquiring arts and knowledges that must be learned in youth if\nlearned at all. Thus if the high school does not offer instruction in instrumental music, it must find a way to supervise and credit good private\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "58o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ninstruction and count it for graduation. If the student of domestic science\nhas regular home duties in this field for which the school instruction affords\ndirection, some means shoiild be found for accepting such laboratory work,\nrating the excellence of the performance, and crediting the same on the\nhigh-school record. The school must not set itself up as the one institution that shall bend everything else to its calendar and needs.\nSuch a change of aim is not easy to bring to pass. The university\nlooms large above the horizon of our country town. If the rival village\nten miles away has had its high school accredited, we cannot afford to\nlive in manifest inferiority. Our school board scurries about, telegraphs\nfor the university high-school visitor, and begs him to name the -terms on\nwhich the coveted relation may be secured.\nIn every country town there are a few influential citizens of the wellto-do, or professional classes who wish to prepare their children for college.\nDisliking to send their boys and girls away to boarding-school, they bring\nall possible pressure upon the school board to place their high school on\nthe accredited list. It is not easy for a school board to resist this pressure\neven tho itself holding a more rational view of the function of the high\nschool. For these and other reasons, the smaller high school (and it is\nfrom the smaller high schools that most normal-school students come)\nfeels obliged to shape its program and organize its work with reference\nto college preparation.\nA SPECIAL PROGRAM\n\nOF\n\nSTUDIES\n\nThe. second need of the high school is the change in the curriculiun —\nin the interest not merely of future teachers but of all the students. In\nthe small high school where but one program of studies is taught, it should\nnot be the program prevailing at present. If the best single curriculima\nis arrived at, it will not be a poor curriculum for futiu-e teachers, for it\nwill be a curriculum providing a large place for vocational studies and\nadapted to the cultural needs and resources of the commimity.\nThe high school holds in our educational system a place that is all its\nown. Its justification is that it is adapted to the immediate needs of the\ncommvmity. It does well when it does the best it can under the limitations\nimposed by the financial resources at its command. It is not a fittingschool as its chief function, as it is an end in itself rather than a station\nwhence transportation is taken elsewhere. The imiversities, the colleges,\nthe normal schools, and the technical schools must adapt themselves to\nthese conditions, rather than expect perfect preparation for their specific\nfield.\nOur strictures upon the dominant ideal of the older type of high school\nmust not be taken as evidence that we are seeking to substitute the dominance of the normal school for the dominance of the university. The\nnormal school as such has no \"needs\" of its own. Its sole function is to\nmake the public schools more efficient. Their ideals must be its ideals.\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n581\n\nIn the large high schools where various courses are now provided to\nmeet varying tastes and vocational needs certain studies may properly\nbe recommended to all who look forward to the vocation of teaching.\nIn every state in the Union there are more teachers than there are physicians, lawyers, or engineers, and the professional life of the individual\nteacher is much briefer. More high-school graduates enter teaching than\nany other calling with a recognized demand for special preparation. The\nlarger high schools provide special courses for future lawyers, bankers,\nand engineers; why not for future teachers ? It is by no means necessary\nor even desirable that all elementary teachers should have followed the\nsame high-school program — any more than that all the sixth-grade teachers\nin a city should be of the same relative ability in the various branches\ntaught. The school system is all the richer because of the individual\ntalents of each. Nevertheless, as appears below, there are certain arts\nand knowledges of high importance to all elementary teachers for which\nan adequate foundation should be laid in the high school. All intending\nto become elementary teachers should include these studies in their highschool curriculum, for a two-year normal-school course cannot afford time\nenough to master them.\nThe question arises. Do high-school students decide to become teachers\nearly enough to affect their choice of studies? The general opinion is\nthat they do not, but I am not sure that this opinion is in many cases based\non actual investigation. In one large normal school 23 of the 26 women\nof the faculty had decided to become teachers before they were 16. A\nmajority of the students in the same institution had decided at that age.\nIn another state normal school all the high-school graduates were polled\nwith this result:\n37 per cent had decided to become teachers before entering the high school.\n4 per cent during their first year.\n4 per cent during their second year.\n14 per cent during their third year.\n22 per cent during their Senior year.\n19 per cent after graduation.\n\nOf 27 women in the faculty of this school 8 had decided to become teachers\nbefore they were 10 years old; 9 others before they were 16. Of the 23\nmen in the same faculty 10 had decided before they were ,16.\nFrom this it appears that by the middle of the high-school course\nenough students have chosen to become teachers to make it worth while\nto offer any needed courses. This ntmaber may be largely increased if\nhigh-school teachers take a lively interest in the future of their students.\nAn observant teacher cannot fail to note among his pupils those who have\na marked fitness for teaching. A word of suggestion or encouragement at\nthe right time will often decide the matter. It ought to be somebody's\nbusiness to advise young people as to what they shall do after leaving\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nschool — somebody's who knows the young people and knows the world.\nA wise teacher often can do this better than the parents themselves.\nFrom the reports received it appears that the high-school curriculum\nthruout the coimtry contains substantially the same elements but varies\nsomewhat in the relative time devoted to the different branches of study.\nThe standard graduation requirements are usually i6 units, each imit\nbeing a year's work in a subject with daUy recitations. An approximate\ncomposite of the various programs actually completed by the high-school\ngraduates in the normal schools reporting is as follows:\nEnglish, including grammar, rhetoric and composition, English literature,\nreading and public speaking\nForeign languages — Latin, Greek, German, French, and Spanish\nSocial science — history, economics, civil government\nMathematics — algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and arithmetic\nPhysical science — physics, and chemistry\nBiological science — ^zoology, botany, and himian physiology\nEarth science — geography, physiography, geology; astronomy\nMusic — vocal or instrumental\nDrawing, design, manual training\nAgriculture and household science\n\n3.8 units\n3.4 units\n2.6 units\n3\nunits\n1.2 imits\n8 imit\n6 unit\n2 unit\n3 unit\ni unit\n\nIn the East foreign language has a larger place, often constituting a\nfull third of the curriculum. In the South the ancient languages and mathematics receive larger relative attention. In the Middle West and also in\nthe Mountain and Pacific states larger attention is paid to the biological\nsciences. Drawing and design seem best developed in New England.\nAgriculture and the household arts are just beginning to appear in ratable\namount ua the high-school curriculum of a few students.\nThe normal-school faculties reporting are pretty well agreed that for\nfuture elementary teachers there should be less foreign language, less\nalgebra and geometry, more arithmetic, more biological science, more\ngeography, more of drawing and the other manuaharts, more music, reading,\nand public speaking than we ordinarily find in the high-school course.\nOur students before completing the normal-school program are usually\nof the same opinion. In an Illinois normal school, 162 students, all highschool graduates, were recently asked how many wotild change their\nhigh-school courses if the coiurse was to be begun with their present estimate\nof educational values to the future teacher. Fifty-six per cent (mostly\nSeniors) wotild change the course; 44 per cent (mostly Jimiors) would\nnot; 45 per cent would take less Latin, 11 per cent less German, 18 per\ncent less mathematics; while 39 per cent would take more natural science.\nThe following program is suggested as an elective program in our\nlarger high schools — not as a finality, but as a better balanced assortment\nof our present high-school studies than is commonly chosen by future\nelementary teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nBIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n583\n\nThree years' work in English.\nFour years' work in science.\nTwo years' work in mathematics.\nTwo years' work in history and civics.\nTwo years' work in Latin, German, or French.\nTwo years' work in industrial lines.\nOne year's work in music and drawing.\nVITALIZED\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nThe third need of the high school from the standpoint of the normal\nschool is that the instruction in the various branches be more thoro and\nmore vital. There is a general complaint that high-school students are\npoorly taught, that they cover too much ground with little drill and real\nassimilation; that they have low ideals as to what thoroness and accuracy\nmean in the preparation of lessons; that their work is largely memorizing\nstatements they do not understand and soon forget; that they do not\nknow how to study; that they are poor in vocabularies and seem to lack\nwords to express ideas with which they must be perfectly familiar. The\nfundamental difficulty seems to be, as pointed out before, that their highschool study is largely a thing apart from their daily life experience. They\ndo not properly comprehend, appreciate, or assimilate the material they\ndeal with.\nThus English is the medium of instruction. Habits in the use of\nEnglish are forming in every classroom. Hence if students are to use the\nEnglish language effectively with correct idiom and pronunciation, it\nwill be brought to pass most economically, not by adding more courses in\nEnglish, but by paying due attention to these points in every class. Every\neJBfort made to secure precise and orderly thinking not only aids in the\nknowledge of the particular branch but makes for better English as well.\nThe inverse statement is equally true. Every teacher should be consciously\na teacher of English.\nTeachers especially need to be good readers, they must speak with\nease and effectiveness and in pleasing tones. They should be practiced\nin story-telling and platform speaking. They should have read widely\nin literature, largely in children's literature, and have committed thousands\nof lines to memory. The normal course is altogether too short for this\naccomplishment. It should have begun in the lower grades, and have\ncontinued all thru the years of the high school.\nThe sciences should be so taught that the student will feel evfery day\nthat his health, his happiness, and his success in Ufe depend upon the truths\nthey contain. They should explain natural phenomena and industrial\nprocesses, fuels, foods, sanitation, and the rules of right living. Altho\nthe sciences came into our high-school and college programs largely as a\nprotest against the old classical education with its emphasis upon formal\ndiscipline, its dependence on authority, we have gradually come to teach\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nthem as if their chief value lay in their method; in experiments to rediscover what the student knows in advance, in the verification of physical\nconstants, and in the solution of endless problems in energy and motion.\nFor the same reason biology should deal with the visible forms that surroimd the student and which should appeal to him every day, rather than\nwith the microscopic world.\nThe mathematics of the high school needs thoro revision. No other\nbranch is so imiversally studied as algebra and with so little real profit.\nThe time devoted to it should be reduced to one year, its topics limited to\nthose that generalize and extend arithmetical processes. For the ordinary\nelementary teacher imaginary roots are as incomprehensible and useless\nas the fourth dimension. The work should abound in concrete problems.\nInvestigations that do not begin in concrete problems and end in concrete\napplications should be omitted. A year of plane geometry, with many\npractical arithmetical problems involving geometrical elements, should\nsuffice in this branch.\nHistory should imdertake to answer this question: How did our\npresent institutions come to be as they are ? Only in so far as they answer\nthis are events or the lives of men worth knowing. Civics is a study of\nrights and duties in society. It deals with the co-operative efforts of men\nin the state to secure justice, protection, healthful conditions, education,\nand simdry other things of everyday value. It should emphasize function rather than structiire and machinery. No study in the curriculum\nis of higher value than economics. Without it the organization of modern\nindustry cannot be understood or rightly adjusted. It deepens the student's\ninterest in life, and awakens his public spirit as no other subject can do.\nBut to be of value it must be taught in terms of the student's environment.\nWhere the normal-school coiu-se is only two years in length, it is best\nin the high school to omit foreign language altogether and include in the\nlast two years a study of the common branches — not a review in the sense\nof going over grammar-school textbooks, but a fresh study of these subjects\nfrom a higher standpoint, a study that will enlist the best energies of\nadvanced students. A year of physical and commercial geography will\nset forth the conditions, purposes, and methods of hiunan industry. Grammar is rarely appreciated by the fourteen-year-old. It really belongs to\nthe Senior year of the high school.\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR TEACHERS\n\nThe fourth need of the high school is a different standard of preparation\nfor its teachers.\nThirty years ago mature and scholarly teachers who had served an apprenticeship inthe grades were frequently promoted to the high school.\nThey brought with them a knowledge of children, thoro familiarity with\nthe common branches 'even in their higher reaches, skill in teaching.\n\nTo\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n585\n\nteach the younger classes in the high school such teachers are needed today.\nInstead of these we find in the smaller high schools, from which most of\nour normal-school students come, a shifting corps of young, inexperienced,\nand untrained teachers, college-bred young women usually with little\ndefinite knowledge of what goes on in the grammar school. The break\nbetween the grammar school and the high school is too pronoimced. The\npupil finds a new organization, new branches of study, new teachers with\nnew methods of instruction. Teachers and pupils share in a mutual\nmisunderstanding.\nAll high-school teachers need as thoro professional preparation as\nelementary-school teachers. They need the same knowledge of the laws\nof the developing life of children and youth, of the psychological processes\ninvolved in all learning, of the principles and methods of teaching and school\nmanagement, of educational aims and educational values, of the relation\nof the school to other social institutions. Many superintendents testify\nto the fact that whereas elementary teachers usually enter heartily into\nthe work of reading-circles, teachers' meetings, and other means of professional growth, high-school teachers stand aloof. They will co-operate in\nliterary clubs and scientific societies, but they do not seem to realize the\nexistence of a great body of doctrine that informs and illumines the teaching art. They are thoroly committed to the dogma, so widely prevalent\nin university circles, that anyone who knows a subject can teach it.\nWe therefore hold that in selecting high-school teachers, school authorities should give due weight to professional education and training as well\nas to character and scholarship, and that teachers of extended experience,\nacknowledged skill, and ample scholarship gained thru private study\nshould not be excluded from the high school because of the lack of a degree.\nThere is a good deal of superstition in the reverence paid to degrees. A\ndegree is not a sacrament. It is not the outward and visible sign of an\ninvisible and inward spiritual grace. There are teachers of slender school\nadvantages who have, thru private study, reached a finer and truer scholarship than is attained by many graduates of our colleges and universities.\nIt is notorious that the significant advances in science and the arts\nhave not been made by men within college walls. The greatest teachers\nof men have often owed little to the schools. May it not be well to make\nsome sort of provision by which the Franklins, the Faradays, and the\nEdisohs of the educational world may bring their ministry to the teacher's\ndesk.\nAltho this report has set forth what your committee believe to be common shortcomings of high schools, it must be not inferred that we hold the\nhigh school chiefly responsible for poor work done by graduates of normal\nschools. The normal schools are not universally what this report demands.\nThese institutions need to examine their own organization, curricula,\nfaculty, and methods.\nTheir teachers are too often chosen because of\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "$86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntheir degrees rather than because of their personal power and skill in the\nclassroom. Often these teachers have had no real professional training;\ntheir experience as teachers before obtaining their doctor's degree is sometimes a record of failure. The actual classroom work in some normal schools\nis, outside of their training schools, but Httle better than that of high\nschools or colleges. The teacher recites most of the time. Pupils are\nnagged and growled at in pretty much the same old way. In many classes\npupils are passive recipients rather than active participants. The science\nand art of questioning is wholly disregarded. May not the high schools\nretort to our strictures that they are greatly handicapped by the poor\ninstruction given by normal-school graduates in the elementary school?\nA further inquiry into the question, How may normal-school faculties\nimprove the quality of their teaching? may properly supplement this\nreport.\nRespectfully submitted,\nDavid Felmley, Normal, 111.\nJohn H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111,\nCommittee ^ j. A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nWiLLLAM M. Davidson, Washington, D.C.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn H. Philui'S, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala. — It will no doubt\nbe noted that the report has been considerably modified since its preliminary statement\nwas heard at San Francisco one year ago. With a few minor exceptions the report appears\nacceptable.\nIts strenuous tone in dealing with the dominating influence of the college over the\nhigh school might lead the casual reader to infer that the committee would like to substitute the normal school for the college and the university as a dominating influence in\nsecondary education. Of course, this is far from the committee's intention, and a modification inthe form of statement may remove this objection.\nThe influence of the college is doubtless too dominant today in many of the smaller\nhigh schools, altho it has been greatly modified within the last few years. We must\nremember, however, that no matter whether the dictation comes from the college or the\nnormal school, the response must come from the people who after all control the high\nschool. The demand of the college for high-school preparation in Greek has long since\nfailed to arouse any response in the high school; \" college influence \" has not been dominant\nenough to restore Greek to its former place in the high-school course.\nI am heartily in favor of placing more emphasis in our secondary courses upon the\npractical subjects mentioned in the report, and believe that every college should recognize such topics in its entrance requirements. Indeed many of our colleges now give\ncredit for any work credited for graduation in any good high school. In speaking of vocational studies, however, we are in danger of restricting the term \"vocational\" to too narrow\na definition. It may not be difficult to show that, for many people at least, the study of\nLatin may have an important vocational value; especially is this the case where a com-\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n587\n\nfortable and practical knowledge of good English is desired. The value of the latter is\nproperly emphasized; it is difficult to see why the former may not be taught in such a\nmanner as to become the means of good English instruction.\nIt is true that in some of our larger cities, the older high schools have assumed as\ntheir function the fitting of students for college, while the newer manual-training and\ncommercial high schools in the same cities are set apart for those who do not expect to\nenter college. The inevitable result is a social cleavage inconsistent with the spirit of our\ndemocracy. These different types of schools should be combined; the student in the\ncollege preparatory course needs the industrial and vocational atmosphere and vice\nversa. We do not wish to discourage college preparation in our high schools, nor do we\nthink it desirable to create a chasm between the two classes of students by their unwise\nseparation.\nThe report has been written from the standpoint of the best type of normal schools\nin this country. But it must be remembered that the number of normal schools whose\nacademic curricula are equivalent to those of the college are very few. It is not surprising\ntherefore that high-school teachers are required to be college graduates rather than\nnormal-school graduates. It wiU be conceded that the academic scholarship accepted for\ngraduation in a large number, if not in the majority of the normal schools of this country,\nis but little in advance of that required for graduation in our best high schools. Our\nhigh schools should be commended, therefore, for adopting for their teachers the highest\nstandard of scholarship available. But \"college graduation\" is too restrictive. College\neducation or its equivalent, together with a good professional course, would be a more\nadequate statement of this indispensable high-school requirement.\nI feel also that the report in some of its statements is altogether too strenuous in\ndealing with the alleged weakness of the high school. In this respect the critical attitude\nof the normal school is so obviously similar to that of the university that comment is\nunnecessary. Both should remember that neither is quite so democratic as the high school,\nand that neither is likely to respond so readily to the heart beat of the great public, upon\nwhich all must depend for their patronage and support.\nWith these slight modifications I am prepared to indorse the report.\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111. — Dr. Felmley\nhas made many changes in his report since the St. Louis meeting, but he continues to\nadhere to the statement that the conscious aim of the high school is to satisfy the college\nrequirement. Later in his discussion he states that this conscious aim is very largely\nconfined to the smaller high school, but that from these smaller high schools comes the\nlargest percentage of normal-school students. The conscious aim of many of the small\nschools is doubtless what President Felmley has stated, but the aim is in many cases a\nrebellious aim even tho conscious.\nMany high-school principals and superintendents would gladly modify their courses\nof study so as to meet more nearly the needs of their communities, if the economic conditions ofthose communities permitted such action. It is a well-recognized fact thatit\ncosts much less to teach Latin, mathematics, English, history, modem language, than\nmechanical drawing, manual training, domestic science, stenography and typewriting,\nphysics, chemistry, biology, and other laboratory studies. For this reason there has been\nan unconscious clinging to the single curriculum composed largely of these studies whose\ncost is less than other studies.\nIt has so happened that many of the college-entrance requirements, especially those\nof the earlier type of institutions, were determined at a time previous to the introduction of\nthe newer studies. This we think an important element and one which must not be\nlightly passed over when we consider the studies of the curriculiun and the number of\ncourses offered by the high school.\nAnother question which President Felmley raises is with reference to the time when\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nhigh-school students decide to become teachers. An investigation would lead us to\nthink that a very considerable percentage make this decision before entering high school.\nHe passes over the fact that while the boys and girls in the eighth grade have decided to\nbe this or that, or to do this or that before entering high school, during their first year of\nthe high school they decide to do something else, and probably during their high-school\ncourse they will have reached three or four different decisions. We think that these conditions are probably normal and that most boys and girls in high school, and even in\ncollege, change their aim and purpose from time to time. An investigation among adults\nor those in middle life in any community will reveal the fact that there have been from\ntwo to six changes in occupation from the age of foiuleen to the age of twenty-five. This\nfact makes it all the more difficult to prescribe absolute limits in choice of work during\nthe high-school period, and would seem to indicate that a general course of study, not\nspecifically designed for one wishing to enter normal school, would be best.\nWe agree with President Felmley that vitalized instruction is very necessary in the\nhigh school. We woiild suggest, too, that this might have equal value in the normal\nschool and coUege.\nWe are in hearty agreement with what President Felmley says about professional\ntraining for teachers and shaill gladly welcome the time when the universities and teachers'\ncolleges, from which source must come the high-school teachers, shall give an abimdance of\nprofessional training for such high-school teachers. It is certainly true that the highschool teachers need as thoro professional training as any other type of teachers and that\nboards of education ought to give due weight to such professional preparation. Other\nthings being equal, we prefer high-school teachers who have had at least enough training\nto get a degree from an institution of good standing.\nAll in all, the report seems to us to be a valuable report and after the few changes\nwhich we have indicated have been made, we shall gladly indorse it.\nHomer H. Seerley, president of Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. —\nIt seems necessary to say a word in defense of the main propositions of this report. There\ncan be no desire for the normal schools to wish to dominate the high schools, thus taking\nthe place of the universities in the attempt to improve the school system. The true\nnormal school does not believe in domination, it believes in freedom for each class of\nschools; it would leave the high school free to perform to the best of its ability its highest\nservice to society. There coiil4 be no benefit from such domination, even if it could be\naccomplished. The whole object of this discussion is to ascertain from the point of view\nof the normal school, in what respect the high school could contribute to the making of\ncompetent teachers. No other vocation takes as many high-school graduates annually\nas does teaching. That being so, it seems reasonable that the normal schools are justified\nin asking the high schools to remember what a large contingent of their enrollment will\nprepare to be teachers and give them a little better preparation than the prescribed courses\npermit. This is certainly a reasonable proposition and no one should take exception to\nth« chief attempt of the committee.\nAll of these kinds of schools have a place, and a useful place at that, in the system of\neducation, and none of them should be disparaged or repudiated. The normal schools\nare statutory institutions. They were created by the states to meet an urgent demand.\nThey did not originate as colleges and imiversities have, as their province was determined\nby law. The work they try to do is very difficult. No other kind of an educational institution has passed thru such a fire of criticism. Yet their history of development, improvement, and expansion is one of the most interesting phenomena of the past fifty years,\nan evidence of the fact that they must be consulted as to educational policies, since they\nhave right claims upon the high school. Their development is exceeded by only one other\nkind of educational institution, the high school. It is marvelous what fifty years have\ndone in the erection of massive buildings, in the remarkable equipping, and in the improving\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\n589\n\nof the teaching force of the high schools. There is no prouder chapter in our educational\nhistory than that of the high school.\nThe normal school has no controversy with the college or the university but it has the\nright to ask these institutions to do their part toward helping perfect a school system.\nThe normal school goes to the college or the university for its teachers and its experts.\nThere is no other place to go, as talent and scholarship and capability are essential to\nthe normal-school faculty and those higher institutions attract such persons and train\nthem for excellence and usefulness. Hence the normal school respects and esteems the\nuniversity for what it can and should do for civilization. These several institutions are\nnot in each other's way, they are not contestants in the great field as they are coworkers\nand co-operators for the common good. There is more than room for them all and they\nshould each display the spirit and the attitude of workers for a better time with better\nresults in the education of the children and the youth.\nJohn W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. —\nDr. Phillips objects to the verdict of these normal-school students with regard to their\nhigh-school course, on the ground that they are not qualified to pass a discriminating\njudgment. His objection would be valid were it not for the fact that many of these students have been teachers for several years and are not immature and inexperienced as he\nregards them. Instead, what they have to say should be received with genuine respect.\nNot only have they done the practice work required of them in the course of study, but\nmany of them have such maturity and experience as to enable them to come to just conclusions respecting the value of the ordinary curriculum in the high school when looked\nat from the point of view of the prospective teacher.\nI find myself quite thoroly in accord with Dr. Felmley in the presentation of his case.\nIt is an admirable piece of work and ought to have a decided influence in the liberalizing\nof the high-school course. There may be a suggestion of narrowness in beginning preparation for teaching at so early a period but it may be said in answer to such a suggestion\nthat the proposed subjects are perhaps as liberalizing as those would be that are omitted.\nI cannot quite agree with him in regard to the study of Latin. I am convinced, however,\nthat there should be a material change in the methods of instruction in that subject. I\nfind that the average high-school graduate, with an experience of four years in the study\nof Latin, has very little acquaintance with the etymology of our English words derived\nfrom that language. It must always be true that the study of words will form a large\npart of any school curriculum. It is easily possible to make the study of Latin contribute immensely to the power of the student in dealing with his mother-tongue. The\nearly work seems stiU to be devoted to the acquisition of an acquaintance with construction\nat the expense of the content, and the significance of roots. If the shade of Julius Caesar\nshould enter the classroom and observe the ordinary processes employed in teaching his\nCommentaries he wo\\ild doubtless ask himself, \"Was it for this that I conquered Gaul?\"\nI should like to add to the curriculum suggested by Dr. Felmley a thorogoing study\nof reading — ordinary reading. At least one semester, of two or three periods a week, could\nbe used most advantageously in rigorous thought analysis and equally rigorous training\nin the selection of suitable forms of expression for the ideas contained in the text. I am\nwell aware that few high-school teachers seem competent to conduct such exercises.\nThey may fit themselves, however, for proper instruction and the results of such a course\nof training would be extremely gratifying. A new and unusual interest would be awakened\nin literature and especially in that fine art of expression in which we are so unfortunately\nweak. We enlarge upon the value of singing, but as between the possession of that desirable art and the art of genuinely good reading few would be found who would not award\nsuperior value to the latter.\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nREPORT\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF PROGRESS\n\nE. T. FAIRCHILD,\n\nSTATE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE\nSCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nTOPEKA, KANS.\n\n[National\n\nON RURAL\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\n(For report see papers of the St. Louis meeting of the CoiinciL)\nDISCUSSION\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, State Department of Education, Indianapolis, Ind. —\nWhile the rural schools and indeed all of the schools of Indiana, as Mr. Brown has said, have\nbenefited greatly by the minimum wage law, yet it has a weakness, in that it does not\nprovide for the experienced teacher. Because of the wages that must be paid the yoimg\nteachers, this piece of legislation has made the profession very inviting in its early years.\nBut there is no scale established by it, enforcing the payment of minimvmi salaries to\nteachers with a longer experience than three years. The scale stops with the third year,\nand it is possible for teachers of long experience and careful training to receive the same\nwage as those who have been in the profession but three years. Consequently a surplus\nis found among those entering the profession, but there is a deplorable scarcity of mature,\nexperienced, able men and women. These have dropped out for more lucrative employment.\nAll schools have suffered, but especially the rural schools, since the city schools refuse\nto take the inexperienced teacher and she is forced to spend her first years of teaching in\nthe coxmtry. Her heart and interests are in the city. She does not care to remain in\nthe community in which she teaches longer than is necessary to do her required work. If\nshe can return to the city each night, she endeavors to do so.\nA vigorous campaign is needed in the interests of rural schools and communities that\nwiU make the Ufe so inviting to the teachers, they will identify themselves more largely\nwith the community in which they work.\nConsoUdation of schools will add to the improvement of rural conditions by increasing\nthe tenure of office and salaries of teachers, and providing commodious, well-equipped\nbuildings in rural districts for the education of the rural boy and girl. But consolidation\nlike all other new movements must be taken up advisedly, and the subcommittee on consoUdation, a part of the committee from this body on rural education, must make its\ninvestigations and reports, it seems to me, not so much along the lines of argimient for\nconsoUdation as along those of investigating how schools have been consoUdated, under\nwhat conditions consolidation has proved better than anything else and imder what conditions the schools have prospered more by not consoUdating at all.\nThe members of your Committee on Rural Schools, as the chairman has well said, are\nnot here to discuss the work of the committee, which has had little time for anything\nbut a small beginning, but rather to ask your advice and suggestions for lines and methods\nto be followed out that the resxdts of their investigations may produce conditions, everywhere in rural districts, as good as those in Indiana — yes, far better than those in Indiana.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nJ. A.\n\nSHAWAN,\n\nPROGRESS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF THE\nSCHOOLS,\n\nYEAR\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO\n\nProgress is not always marked by innovations: New movements are\nin the direction of progress only as they prove themselves helpful and\nnecessary to the success of the cause to which they belong. In education\nas in everything else, many experiments are futile and lead to nothing.\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n591\n\nYet he who would seek the truth must try many things. Like the astronomer, he must sometimes focus his instrument thru the open slit, shutting\noff everything else so that he may see more clearly by concentrating his\nvision on the one object. There are a few who belong to this class and\nwho are sounding the height, depth, and breadth of many educational\nprinciples.\nEducation is yet in its flux. All truth has not been discovered, all\nproblems have not been solved. The specialist may continue to investigate\nand analyze, and the administrator continue to enlarge his horizon. By a\nchange of viewpoint, the administrator may find that his neighbor has a\nvision of truth that he himself never suspected; by another change, a much\nclearer grasp of the situation is obtained, and so on ad infinitum.\nIt has been and will continue to be the mission of the National Council\nof Education to afford these different points of view and to declare from\ntime to time what the truth in education seems to be. Truth itself is infinite\nand unchangeable. We do not see it all at one time. If, like the great\nplanets, it sometimes seems to retrograde, it is no fault of the truth, the\napparent motion is due entirely to a change in our own point of view. If in\nour haste, therefore, and before we have seen clearly we find ourselves\nmoving away from the truth, a back movement on our part would be\nprudent and right. This has often been made in educational matters and\nsome school systems have found it difficult to recover from their retrograde\nmotions.\nEternal vigilance is the price of educational progress.\nI am indebted to Dr. E. A. Jones, of Otterbein University, for some\nvaluable facts gathered by extensive correspondence and investigation and\nused in a recent address before the Central Ohio Schoolmasters' Club\nand showing the year's progress in the state of Ohio. I take it that this is\ntypical of what might be expected in other states, if time were given to a\ncareful investigation and study of conditions:\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n\"The last report of the state school commission shows an increase in\nexpenditures of about 2f millions over the preceding year; an increase of\n54,795 pupils; 28,023 teachers as against 27,841 in 1910; 238 new buildings were erected at a cost of $5,149,062; average salary for rural teachers\nin elementary schools, $56; and- in cities, for men, $88, for women, $67.\nThis shows a slight . increase over the preceding year. The niunber of\ncentralized and consolidated school^ is given as 186, a gain of 15 over 1910.\nOf this number 50 are completely centralized.\n\"No doubt the introduction of agriculture into so many of our high\nschools and improved methods of teaching it have had a good effect. If\nagriculture is taught in a practical way thru school and home gardens, and\nthe field plots, instead of from books entirely, botany will be better taught,\nphysics will be better taught, and perhaps even mathematics may feel\nthe influence.\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nASSOCIATION\nOF\n\n[National\n\nOHIO\n\n\"Ohio has many excellent rural schools, township high schools, centralized schools, and even subdistrict schools that, in respect to buildings, fine\nsurroundings, superior- teaching, advanced methods, and good equipment,\nwill compare favorably with similar schools in other states in the Union.\nAt the same time it must be admitted that there are yet in Ohio a good\nmany rural schools that are a reproach to the state. An examination of\nthe notebooks of our school inspectors will reveal the fact that in many\ndistricts there are dilapidated buildings, miserable outhouses, unsightly\nsurroundings, unsanitary conditions, no course of study, inefficient teachers,\nantiquated methods, and out-of-date textbooks. There is nothing to\nattract and interest, much less to inspire, the children. Much attention has\nbeen called to these backward districts during the last year thru educational journals and the public press. This publicity may have a good\neffect. It should awaken in these districts a public sentiment that will\nlead the citizens to elect a board of education that will change these conditions and give to the children the educational rights to which they are\nentitled. What is needed in country districts is more of centralization,\nmore trained teachers, and an extension of intelligent and helpful supervision until it reaches every township in the state.\n\"In the statistical report of the commissioner, a great gain is shown in\nthe number of pupils taking manual training and domestic science. In\n1910, 39 counties reported 4,023 pupils in manual training and 2,172 in\ndomestic science. In 191 1, 59 counties reported 16,236 in manual training,\nand 12,797 in domestic science.\"\nThis indicates to some extent the educational trend in Ohio.\nProgress is not measured by the number of new enterprises undertaken.\nThe year just closed has not been specially noted for its new movements in\neducation but in my judgment has been noted for the careful study of those\nin operation and a cold analysis of the results obtained.\nNote the subjects studied by the special committees appointed by this\nCouncil and submitted at the San Francisco and St. Louis meetings:\n1. The report of the Committee on a System of Teaching Morals in Education, with\nable treatment of the different phases of the problem by superintendents Brumbaugh,\nCarr, and Greenwood, in itself has been a most valuable contribution to the cause of\neducation. It was not a new movement but showed thoro study of internal conditions\nand carefully considered plans for their improvement.\n2. The Cultiiral Element and Economy of Time in Education.\n3. The Improvement of Teachers in Service in City Schools: Including: (i) HighSchool Preparation of Candidates for Normal Training; (2) Needed Adjustment between\nSecondary Schools and Colleges.\n4. Problems Relating to the Health of the School.\n\nSimilar subjects have been imder discussion by the General Association\nof the National Education Association and its various departments, to wit:\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n593\n\nOur Educational Progress and Improvement in the City, in the State, in the Nation.\nOrganization as Affecting the Course of Study and Economy of Time.\nVarious conditions affecting school efficiency, etc.\n\nThese were discussed in the Department of Superintendence and\nindicate the trend of educational thought during the year. But merely to\nenumerate these topics would take too much time and space. All are\nintensive rather than extensive — an honest effort to make good in present\nenterprises jather than to multiply new enterprises.\nELIMINATION\n\nWe frequently hear it said that the schools are attempting too muclf\nand this may be in a measure true. If so, it should be and will be corrected\nand this Council should be the great clearance-house where all such problems\nare disposed of. The setting of standards that may be advanced with our\nideals is the greatest forward movement possible.\nIt is interesting to look back over the courses of study which our grandfathers prepared and our fathers pursued. There is one before me now\nwhich was in use in a certain city forty years ago. Note: sixth, seventh,\nand eighth grades — reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, English\ncomposition, geography, history, constitution of the United States, algebra,\nbookkeeping, with memory as the principal faculty developed.\nAll that has been added in these years has been physical exercises, which\ncome as a relief; physiology, a few minutes once a week; and domestic\nscience or manual training, which occur once a week. All of these have the\neffect of relieving the tension due to close application to book studies.\nAs an offset to the above additions to school work, has come the studied\nelimination of obsolete and useless materials in all subjects, particularly\nin arithmetic, grammar, and geography, and the use of better methods\nand an appeal to thought. To know what is important and just how much\nemphasis to put upon certain facts is the truest test of a great teacher.\nEverywhere during the past year, the relative value of materials used\nwith the selection of those which are of most worth has been the watchword. True, this is only the echo of what our great leaders have been\npreaching for a score of years or more, yet, like the thunders reverberating\namong the summer clouds, it is necessary to keep the educational atmosphere clear.\nThe study given by our secondary teachers to the essentials in their\nrespective departments also marks substantial progress. The report prepared and printed for general distribution on the teaching of geometry\nmust serve to standardize, at least to unify, the teaching of this subject.\nCONSERVATION\n\nOF VISION\n\nAt the Boston meeting of the National Education Association a committee was appointed by the Department of Special Education to investigate and report on the status of the conservation of vision. As the\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncommittee entered upon this work the field rapidly enlarged. The question\nof artificial as well as natural lighting, the conditions in workshops and\nfactories, ophthalinia neonatorum, in fact, the steps that may be taken to\nprevent blindness as well as the conservation of vision, all were discussed\nbefore the committee.\nA lady representing the interests of a body of sewing girls in New York\nCity came before the committee and claimed that the light was insufficient\nin many shops and factories even to see the eye of a needle, much less to\nthread it. She thought that a standard of light should be fixed to meet\nsuch cases. This was beyond the field of work outlined by the committee,\nwhich wished to confine itself to the lighting of schoolrooms, the character\nof the printed page, and the limitation of work having too much eye-strain.\nThe work of the committee, however, led about one year ago to the\nformation of the American Association for the Conservation of Vision\nwhich has received substantial encouragement and support from the\nRussell Sage Foundation.\nThe conservation of the other senses has been receiving thoro consideration during the year, and a revival toward a careful development of the\nsense of touch bids fair to serve as a great relief to the overstrained nerves\nwhere defective vision and defective hearing obtain.\nThe passage of the new star, Montessori, across our educational horizon\nduring the past year, as seen thru the magazine telescopes and others, has\nattracted no little attention. While much that is used by this little Italian\nteacher is old and of slight value, the emphasis placed upon the individual,\nthe training of touch, and the development of the muscular sense must be\nof incalculable value, especially to young teachers. I have no doubt that\nall that is good will be adopted by and adapted to our American schools.\nRETARDATION\n\nAND ACCELERATION\n\nCompulsory education has forcibly brought to our attention two\nclasses of pupils — those who were compelled to attend school but could not\nkeep up with the average child, and those who could do more than the\nordinary grading required. These are problems of economy in school\nadministration as well as afi'ecting the internal workings of the schoolroom.\nEvery group of 35 or 40 repeaters in the elementary schools and every\ngroup of 25 or 30 in the high schools calls for an extra teacher, an additional\nexpense of from $500 to $1,000, in one case; and from $1,000 to $1,500, in\nthe other. During the past year this subject has received more attention\nthan any other school problem. Some of the best trained experts of the\ncountry have applied themselves to its solution, including the distinguished\npresident of this Council.\nIt is but natural to look over our own fields of labor in gathering facts\nto be used on an occasion of this kind. Perhaps the most encouraging\nfacts should come first. Statistics are not complete for the year just closed,\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n'\n\nS9S\n\nbut for the year 1910-11, 410 pupils, or 2 per cent, completed two or more\nsemesters more than the regular elementary grades to which they belonged.\nThis means an entire school of 12 rooms with an average of 35 pupils to a\nroom. On a basis of $600 to a teacher it also means the saving of $7,200\nin school funds. No doubt like results would be found in all cities, and in\nmany the ratio of saving would be much greater.\nA few facts (jfi the other side may not be iminteresting.\nA study of the causes of nonpromotion for the present year under the\nnew uniform report system shows:\nThat out of 22,000 pupils enrolled in the first eight grades, 12 per cent\nwere not promoted, 88 per cent were. I am quite sure that a comparison\nwith other cities will show that this percentage is very conservative — it is\nabout the same as that of New York City. Of those not promoted, the\ncauses as reported by the teachers were as follows:\n23 . 7 per cent were due to irregular attendance; 5 . 7 per cent to physical\ndefects; 8 . 9 per cent to personal illness; 39.3 per cent to mental incapacity;\n22.2 per cent to indifference. As might be expected, the largest number of\nfailures was in the first grade, almost one-fourth of the entire nmnber, which\nis not of the most serious importance; the eighth grade had the fewest,\nonly about 3 per cent of the whole number of failures; while the other six\ngrades in the order of the size of number not promoted were the fourth,\nfifth, third, sixth, second, seventh. All tests show that the problems are\nfound mostly in the fourth and fifth grades, followed closely by the third\nand sixth. Most large cities, particularly New York, are working out a\nsystem for their solution.\nTeachers are not supposed to be experts in classifications such as the\nabove, tho their study of the child will lead them remarkably near the\ntruth. In matters of mental incapacity, they cannot be expected to\ndifferentiate closely between that which is wholly mental and that which\nmay have a physical basis. The fact is that all of these causes of failure\noverlap and there should be someone who is specially trained and thoroly\ncompetent to analyze them so that each case may be handled in the most\npractical and economical manner, to the end that the swift may not be held\nback by the slow, nor the slow, discouraged, fall by the way on account of\nthe speed of the swift. The question then is: To what extent is retardation\ndue to mental, physical, and sense defects which may be improved, if not\nentirely corrected ? We are apt in our enthusiasm to jump at conclusions\nand to think that we have found a cure for all of our ills and imperfections\nin some new scheme. While the cure may not be at hand in every instance,\nyet if a large percentage of the handicaps are discovered and, thru a proper\nco-operation between the home and the school, corrected, great good will\nhave been done not only for the children concerned but for the future\ncitizens of the community. The greater the reduction of the number of\nrepeaters, the less the cost for general education and the greater its efficiency.\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn view of these facts which confront every city school system, what\ncan be done to solve the problem ? This question has been raised, in practically every city of the country, beginning with the great centers of population like New York, Boston, and Chicago. Some have made great\nprogress in its answer. That the teacher can and does do much goes without question, but that he should not be called upon to give the final answer\nto questions affecting mental and physical defects must be apparent to all.\nToo many problems of that kind already stand at his door. Where\naction is most needed his non-expert opinion would have least influence, if\nnot indeed be considered an impertinent intrusion, an impression which\nshould not be developed in the mind of the parent against the teacher.\nThe teacher may suggest cases, but the final opinion of an expert is necessary to bring such cases to the serious attention of parents and guardians.\nWhen I speak of an expert, I mean an expert, not a person who merely\nneeds the job.\nThere can be no question that the diagnosis of cases of mental deficiency\nleads to economy of administration and efficiency by the segregation of\nthose who cannot keep up with regular classes in schools of their own\nwhere they can do such work and receive such help as they most need.\nEvery school system has more cases needing such treatment than is realized.\nIn a psychological clinic made during the present year in our special\nschool for boys, and in two of the individual schools comprised of pupils\nwho were two or more years behind, the following results were shown\nthru the \"Binet test.\" The 25 boys in the special school were on an\naverage 2.27 years younger mentally than their natural age, tho many of\nthem were quite normal; I do not mean retarded — I mean younger mentally; one of the individual schools, consisting of 21 pupils, averaged 3.13\nyears, and the other with 20 pupils, 3.95 years younger mentally than\nnatm\"ally, while a few were 5, 6, and 7 years younger mentally than naturally. No doubt some cities have done similar work long ago, but many\nhave not. Such information ought to help in the solution of many problems. A child who is 7 years old mentally cannot cope with one who is 14.\nIt ought not to be expected. Such cases should be segregated and treated\ndifferently. But who shall say that this one or that one grades low mentally ? Here is where the teacher needs help. Only the judgment of an\nexpert will be respected, a teacher's opinion would be charged to prejudice\nand a lack of sympathy and patience. Such children have been allowed to\nlag behind altogether too long. They should be given a helping hand.\nSome cities have solved this problem, but not all.\nMEDICAL\n\nINSPECTION\n\nEvery American child is in a broad sense a child of the republic. Not\nthat the republic is to assume the responsibility for food and clothing,\nbecause something should be left for parents to do; but every child is\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n$97\nf\n\nentitled to every opportunity for prosperity and happiness which is given\nto any other child and under as favorable circumstances as the state can\noffer. The old doctrine, \"Every fellow for himself,\" has become obsolete.\nA newer and better principle underlies modem patriotism: \"Each for all\nand all for each.\"\nThe school has long since passed the stage of being an institution for\nthe acquisition of knowledge alone. While not losing sight of this accomplishment, as we hope, it has boldly given itself to the proposition that\neducation is a preparation for life and good citizenship, and that the school\nshould be life itself for those who attend. The child does not know what\nhe needs. Someone must think and act for him. Parents do not always\nknow what the child needs and too often do not care — in such cases someone\nmust think for them and, if necessary, compel them to act. The child has\nrights that must be respected and the welfare of the community demands\nthat handicaps be lessened or removed and that the best that there is in\neach child be brought out.\nPerhaps no movement in education has proceeded with greater momentum in the last few years than medical inspection. In 1900, comparatively\nfew cities had considered the importance of this work; in 1905, 55 cities\nhad undertaken it; and in 19 10, according to the Russell Sage Foundation, no less than 400 had inaugurated systems of medical inspection, and\nthe contagion has continued to spread. While largely the outgrowth of\ncompulsory education, the systems have been foimded on the principle\nthat \"sound health is vital to any community as well as to the nation.\"\nThat some mistakes have been made, there is no doubt. Standards\nhave not been uniform and vast volumes of statistics have been gathered\nin many cities that are of no value. In many instances, inspectors have\nwidely differed in their diagnoses of the same cases. All of this is to be\nexpected when we consider the rapid growth of the movement and the\nlack of specially trained experts to do the work.\nMaximum efficiency consistent with the preservation of health is a\nreasonable school doctrine. In the adoption of the following, this city of\nChicago has taken an advanced position:\nHealthy children should be safeguarded against communicable diseases, while\nparents of defective children should be apprised of the truth sooner, and thus enabled to\nhave their children treated before their weakness becomes chronic.\n\nEach pupil in this city when he enters the schools in September will be\nrequired to file a certificate from the family physician stating that he is in\ngood mental and physical condition. Those who do not do so will be examined by the school inspectors and any found to be mentally or physically\ndefective will be segregated from the rest of the pupils. This may seem\ndrastic but there are 350,000 yoimg lives involved, many of whom are\nhoused in all sorts of nooks and corners in this crowded city.\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThe report from the National Bureau of Education shows that there\nhas been a marked tendency toward industrial education in city schools\nthruout the nation the past year. In 191 1, the legislatures of nine states\nenacted laws with reference to some form of industrial training. These\nstates were Alabama, Colorado, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan,\nMinnesota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Wisconsin created a state\nboard of industrial education and provided for the establishment of vocational schools and of a school to train teachers in industrial subjects. In\nOhio, a beginning too has been made and the year shows commendable\nprogress. Technical and commercial high schools have been established in\nCleveland, trade schools and a commercial high school in Colimibus, a\nmanual-training high school in Dayton, and we have the co-operative\nsystem and continuation schools in Cincinnati. The trade schools in\nColumbus have been very successful and the board of education has enlarged\nthe scope of the work and will soon be compelled to provide more extensive\naccommodations.\nThe departments so far opened are carpentry, cabinet-making, woodturning, machine shop, electrical shop, and print shop. The school has\nbeen in operation for three years. In June last, a class of two was graduated\nfrom the printing department, the first class, as far as we know, ever to\nhave graduated from such a department in a public-school system. In\nconnection with the graduating exercises a printing contest was held at\nwhich a committee of practical printers acted as judges and spoke in the\nmost encouraging terms of the efficiency of the work. During the smnmer\nvacation, all of our trade-school boys have employment in the industrial\nshops of the city. The co-operative plan has been inaugurated and is\nproving successful.\nConcerning the co-operative system in Cincinnati Professor Schneider\nof the University of Cincinnati writes:\nThe co-operative course has now about three hundred students. During the past\nyear a new engineering building was completed at a cost of $250,000, and with the increased\nfacilities thereby obtained, much larger classes will be enrolled from now on; heretofore\nwe have been restricted by lack of room. Courses are offered in civil, electrical, mechanical, chemical, and metallurgical engineering. About 75 per cent of our students are young\nmen who could not afford to go to a college of engineering except from the money they\nearn in this course. All of them are high-school graduates with the necessary entrance\ncredits. The interest on the part of manufacturers is increasing amazingly and we have\nmany more requests for co-operation than we can take care of.\n\nThe work in domestic science and manual training is taking higher rank\nevery year and the past year has been no exception, as facts already quoted\nindicate. There is little difficulty now in getting specially trained teachers\nfor this work. This is particularly true in the department of domestic\nscience, and since so much depends upon the teacher — his preparation,\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n599\n\npersonality, and enthusiasm — the future of these departments is well\nassured.\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nRemoval from the farm to the city has become so serious in the past\nfew years as to be viewed as a menace to our American institutions. The\nobject in the establishment of agricultural colleges of the various states\nbegun a generation ago and the adoption of agricultural courses in the\ncommon schools of recent date was to promote scientific farming and to\ncheck this tendency.\nThe passage of the Cahill bill by the Ohio legislature in May, 191 1, is\nalready having its good effects in that state. The state commissioner of\ncommon schools reports that thru the supervisors of that department\nexcellent results are being secured. The textbooks on the subject are so\nin demand by the parents that the children are frequently unable to get\nthem long enough at night to prepare their own lessons for the next day.\nThe fathers become so interested in the subject that they frequently attend\nschool for the recitation in agriculture, which acts both as a spur and inspiration to the teachers, as well as an encouragement to the pupils. The\nobservance of Arbor Day for 191 2 was in some places, it is said, like an oldfashioned Methodist revival.\nOne very interesting feature of the work is the enthusiasm and skill\nshown by a number of city girls in preparing themselves to teach this\nsubject. The country girl too often thinks that she knows all about it\nand so depends upon her native knowledge. The city girl, on the other\nhand, finds it a new and intensely interesting field. What she lacks in\nexperience she makes up in enthusiasm and her knowledge is fresh and up\nto date. She learns quickly how to teach this important subject to a\nfarmer's son who is older than herself. The chemistry of the soil seems to\nher easy and natural and the use of lime as a counter-actant for an acid in\nthe soil, she tests with success, thus giving practical demonstrations of what\ncan be done with certain kinds of soil, multiplying their productive power\nmany fold. Now, if a city girl can do so much, what might not a country\ngirl or boy do ?\nIf the study of agriculture will serve to strengthen the attachment of\nthe sons and daughters of the farmer to the old home and result in greater\nproductive power of the soil, the movement may well be regarded as one\nof the most important in the educational world of the present day.\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nThis subject has received a great deal of consideration during the past\nyear. Its importance can hardly be overestimated.\nOne by one great expressive terms representing the technique in education cross the stage of educational progress, occupy the center for a while,\nand then take their places in the list of actors to be called upon as the play\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "6oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nprogresses. Thus ''concentration,\" \"co-ordination,\" \"correlation,\" \"motivation,\" \"apperception,\" \" self -activity,\" have come and taken their places\nin the vocabulary of the science of education. Some are used a great deal,\nsome very little, a few .have been slow to leave the stage, even after their\npart in the play was finished, but each has had its place. And now,\n\"vocational guidance\" is demanding and receiving our consideration.\nThis is not a new idea but it has received new significance as industrial\ntraining has become more prominent. What shall a boy do that he may\nwork out his mission in life ? The old idea of putting him to work at anything which came along, no matter what, has not proven itself wholly\nsatisfactory. A boy needs to continue at something and not to seek so\nmany new jobs. Activity in any direction has its value, but activity in\nthe direction of one's adaptability and bent is all important.\nSimply because a boy can draw a picture, play a jewsharp, or take an\ninterest in a sick dog is not conclusive evidence that he is destined to become\na great artist, a great musician, or a great physician. These may indicate\nan amount of appreciation or adaptation but the facts are not sufficient\nfor a final conclusion in choosing a vocation.\nIn our multiplicity of courses, many leading nowhere, there is great\nconfusion in the minds of those who choose, and the line of least resistance\nis too often the determining factor.\nThe parent should not be relieved of responsibility in a matter of so\ngreat importance, but often himself needs information and guidance. The\nteacher is already working up to the limit of his capacity and his business\nis primarily to teach; yet he is interested in the pupils before him, discovers\ntheir powers and limitations, and, perhaps, learns better than anyone else\nthe mental bent of each pupil. The principal or superintendent who has\nwatched his boys pass from grade to grade is in a position to give most\nwholesome vocational advice. Three things are true:\n1. Too many are passing out of our schools and away from our homes without any\ndefinite purpose in view and unprepared to do anything well.\n2. With something definite in view, studies have a new interest, and life has a new\npurpose.\n3. Service, the highest ideal of life, is emphasized and life becomes a mission, not\nmerely a career.\n\nThree things should be done:\n1. A careful study of the pupils. If it is the province of the schools to make good\ncitizens, someone in the schools should know what each pupil is good for.\n2. Information along the line of life's callings — agricultural, industrial, commercial,\nand professional — should be at hand.\n3. Frequent conferences by teachers, principals, and parents.\n\nWhat is the use ?\nCommissioner Snedden, of Massachusetts, says:\nVocational training is one of the most important issues before the educational world,\ncombined, as it always should be, with the necessary guidance to enable the pupil to\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF THE\n\nYEAR\n\n6oi\n\nchoose wisely the life-work in which he is most likely to succeed. Altho a satisfactory\nprogram for vocational work has not yet been wrought out, the recognition of the need of\nvocational training has now become quite general and much that is beyond the merely\nexperimental stage has already been evolved.\n\nIn commenting on the above Dr. Jones, of Ohio, says:\nMassachusetts in particular has accomplished a great deal during the year and\nCommissioner Snedden's reports on the subjects are encouraging.\nEvidently we are\nrapidly approaching the time when the vocational idea shall be not merely tacked on to\nour educational system or even ingrafted, but instead thoroly amalgamated with it.\n\nDr. Draper, of New York, in an address early in the year embodied\nthis idea in what he had to say about educational ideals. After making a\nplea for \"common honesty,\" he said:\nEducation that has life and enters into life; education that makes a living and makes\nlife worth living; education that can use English to express itself; education that does not\nassume that a doctor must be an educated man and that a mechanic or farmer cannot be;\neducation that appeals to the masses; that makes better citizens and a greater state — ■\nthat is the education that concerns New York.\n\nWe believe that this is the education for America. To know is of\ninestimable value but to be able to do is a greater accomplishment. Knowledge and action should go hand in hand. As between the cultural and the\nindustrial, a young man should be advised to choose both. During the\npast year many of us have been getting our good second breath in this\nmatter. Culture and motor activity should and do complement each\nother.\nteachers' salaries\nConsiderable attention has been given in most cities and in some states\nto the question of teachers' salaries. In fact, a committee, appointed at\nthe San Francisco meeting of the National Education Association is at the\npresent time preparing a report on this subject. Speaking for our own\ncity, for the past five years there has been an increase somewhere along the\nline each year. While this has not been large, not at all in keeping with\nthe increased cost of living, it has been encouraging to our teachers.\nWe have been fortunate in having Dr. W. 0. Thompson, president of\nthe Ohio State University, as a member of the city board of education for\nthe past six years. During practically all of that time he has been chairman\nof the Committee on Finance and has insisted upon better pay for the\nteachers and greater efficiency in the work. The tuition fund has been\nincreased 37 per cent in five years.\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAbout three years ago, the open-air school entered the educational\nfield. It has gathered considerable impetus and during the year just\nclosing has had its greatest momentum. Not only have these schools been\na blessing to the anaemic and to those predisposed to tuberculosis but they\nhave had an educational influence in the community.\nAs a result, greater\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nattention is being given to the ventilation and lighting of the home and\nthe school. Many states have passed laws fixing the standard of lighting\nschoolrooms as to amount, direction, and quality. Never before has\nventilation, heating, and sanitation received the attention that now obtains.\nAs a natural result, sensible decoration, cleanliness, and beautification\nfollow. This is as it should be, for the aesthetic, the ethical, and the intellectual are a trinity that should never be divided.\nUNIFORM\n\nREPORTS\n\nThe work of the Committee on Uniform Reports approved and adopted\nby the Department of Superintendence at its St. Louis meeting was a\nvaluable contribution to the educational progress of the year. These are\ndays of investigation — days when we seek and want to know the truth. It\nis far more important that we should find this out for ourselves in our own\nschools than that it should be left for commissions or committees to find\nit out for us, however much we might appreciate their approval or confirmation.\nThe primary object of this committee was to have reports prepared in a\nsufficiently uniform manner to make comparisons between different school\nsystems fair and useful; but the effect upon the different systems of schools\nin making it possible to study their own internal workings from different\npoints of view will prove more valuable than the outside comparisons.\nAs the schools have passed thru different stages of growth and development three steps should be noted:\n1. At first, the one great question was that of growth, and statistics\nwere of greatest value chiefly from that point of view. In those days the\nAmerican common-school system was an experiment that had to be tried\nout and numbers were supposed to indicate the degree of approval. As\nColumbus was the second city in America to employ a superintendent of\nschools, the speaker has had opportunity to note the importance attached\nto figures merely.\n2. From the days of Horace Mann, whose devotion to secondary education meant so much a half-century ago, until quite recently, the high\nschools of our cities have been measured largely in the same way. Of\ncourse numbers mean something, but size is not the vital question of the\npresent day.\n3. With the compulsory school law, so universal now, came a careful\nstudy of the quality of attendance. The chief question was: Were the\nchildren getting the benefit of the opportunities which the schools have to\noffer ? Did they attend school ?\nWhile not overlooking the value of such general information as indicated\nabove, the uniform reports bring to the front a more vital question than\nthat of growth. What are the schools doing for those who attend? If\nthere is a large percentage of nonpromotions, how is it accounted for ?\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n603\n\nNo teacher can study the causes for nonpromotion in her class, taking\ninto account irregular attendance, physical or sense defects, personal\nillness, mental incapacity, and indifference, without becoming more sympathetic for those who need sympathy and more interested in their welfare.\nBesides, the facts thus noted must come to the attention of those in authority and lead to such changes in conditions as may be necessary. No true\nteacher can take the pupil's cumulative card where presented, without\nhaving a special interest awakened in the child who presents it. No\nprincipal or superintendent can take the facts of failures by subjects as\nthey come to him, without being in a measure startled by the excess in\ncertain directions. A more careful study of the causes for failure in certain\nsubjects is immediately started and plans for their correction are prepared.\nAs the expert in any branch of study considers the large number of failures\nin his special line as reported by practically all of the school systems of the\ncountry, he will also apply himself to the solution of the problem by the\npreparation of a textbook better suited to the conditions and needs of the\nschools as thus shown.\nThe study of internal conditions and their improvement is the greatest\nschool question of the present day.\nWe have tried to touch upon a few of the problems which have been\nuppermost in our minds during the year. We could not consider all, there is\nstill much to be said: social centers, vacation schools, bibliography. As\nour vision enlarges, our ideals advance, and what seemed impossible at the\nbeginning becomes surprisingly easy with knowledge and experience.\nThe work of the year has had its special problems and difficulties for each.\nBut forgetting the unpleasant parts of these problems and difficulties, we\nshould press forward to a new and more advanced position, and attack the\nnew problems with courage, hope, and enthusiasm, thinking as we see them\nlooming up before us, as Byron said of the great St. Peter's:\nEnter; its grandeur overwhelms thee not;\nAnd why?\nIt is not lessened; but thy mind,\nExpanded by the genius of the spot,\nHas grown colossal.\n\nSo, before careful preparation and thought, all difficulties must vanish.\nDISCUSSION\nGrace C. Strachan, district superintendent of city schools, Brooklyn, N.Y. —\nFollowing is a brief outhne of the plan of organization followed in New York for taking\ncare of the exceptional child.\nSpecial classes are estabUshed for the blind, the deaf, the crippled, the anaemic, and\nthe mentally defective. These classes are not housed in special schools; neither does\nevery school have any or all of these classes. For instance, in the twenty schools which I\nsupervise, the total register of which is over 33,000, 1 have eight classes for mentally\ndefective children in six schools, one class for the blind, two classes for the deaf, four\nclasses for the crippled, and four \"open-air\" classes.\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe crippled children are gathered from various parts of the districts, and carried\nin stages to the school.\nThe teacher of each of these classes is paid an additional salary of $ioo. The register\nin the deaf and the blind classes is ten, in the mentally deficient and the crippled, fifteen,\nand in the open air about thirty.\nFor children not afficted in any of the ways described above, but who are not fitted\nfor the work of the regular classes done by children of the same age, classes which we\nname \"C,\" \"D,\" \"E,\" \"Rapid Progress,\" and \"Slow\" are estabhshed.\nThe \"C\" class is composed of foreigners. The work of such classes is the teaching\nof EngUsh to foreigners. As soon as any child in the class has a sufficient command of\nEnglish to take up the work of any regular grade for which he may be fitted, he is transferred to such class. It is evident, therefore, that the register of such classes is variable,\nbut we try to keep the maximima at twenty-five or thirty.\nThe \"D\" class is composed of children who will be fourteen years of age during the\nschool year, who will want to get their working papers as soon as they have reached the\nage of fourteen and whose educational qualifications are such that it is evident they would\nnot be fitted to pass the test required for working papers, if held in the regular grades.\nThe register of these classes is also limited to about twenty-five, and the course of study\nis modified by cutting the time devoted to some of the so-caUed \"fads and fancies,\" in\norder to increase the time for arithmetic, English, and geography.\nThe \"E\" classes are for the over-age children. Naturally they greatly exceed the\nother special classes in number. The register is kept below thirty-five if possible. As soon\nas pupils of the \"E\" classes are ready for the work of the regular grade in which the age\nof the pupils corresponds to their own, they are transferred to such regular grade. The\ncourse of study is modified also for these \"E\" classes. This modification is not formal,\nbut is left more or less to the discretion of each principal. In large schools, there is likely\nto be an \"E\" class for pupils of each year or half-year — and the pupils who are decidedly\nover-age are often promoted from one \"E\" class to another \"E\" class for several terms.\nThe beneficial effects of the organization of these special classes are: '\n1. The relief of the regular classes, resulting from taking out the mentally defective\nand otherwise aflBicted children, and also those who are either abnormally bright or\nabnormally slow. The teacher of the regular class is therefore able to handle satisfactorily larger\na\nnumber of pupils, and to accomplish much better results than under the\nold style of organizadon.\n2. Much more attention is given to the individual needs of each child, as in the\nspecial classes the register is much smaller, the children of similar deficiencies are grouped\ntogether, and their progress is much more rapid.\n3. The saving in money by the reducing of the number of \"repeaters.\"\nA. E. WrNSHiP, editor of New England Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. — Notwithstanding the extended, detailed, and graphic portraiture of the progress of the year\nas presented jby the chairman, it is probable that everyone of us has been thinking of\nwhat has not been said.\nTo my thinking, the great feature of the progress of the year has been the long\nstrides taken away from the tyranny of tradition and from the ardficiaUty which have\nheld a superstidous sway over the schools all too long.\nFor a third of a century we have been working more or less seriously to put the whole\nchild to school, and the year 1911-12 will be long remembered as the time when we first\nseriously said, \"Educate the child everywhere and all the time.\" It has been assumed\nuntil now that the school furnished all the education that was received in more than six\nthousand working hours. Now that we have come out from under the sway of that\nspuerstidon we wonder that we ever assumed anything of the kind. Mr. Alderman,\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n605\n\nstate superintendent of Oregon, is the leader in a group of earnest men who are helping\nin the child's education everj^where and all the time.\nA few specific activities in the line of progress are also worthy of notice. More has\nbeen done toward the purifying of the outhouses in country districts than ever before.\nTeaching morals has had a new significance; the beginning made in studying how to\nteach sex-hygiene is significant.\nThere has been a great movement toward providing suitable home life for teachers\nin rural districts. For instance, Walla Walla County, Wash., has no teacher who\nhas not a comfortable and reasonably attractive boarding-place. The county superintendent insists upon eating with every teacher where she boards. Already six school\ndistricts have built a teachers' house on or near the school lot. This movement for the\ndecent housing of the teacher is coming to have national significance.\nNeighborhood centers in connection with rural schools are assuming important proportions. Inone school district, near EUensburg, Wash., with thirty-two pupils enrolled,\nhas been built, by public taxation, a neighborhood house costing $4,000. It has every\nsocial, physical, and public convenience of a city Young Men's Christian Association\nbuilding, and brings together all the people frequently for social and public functions.\nWhile we have been investigating and talking there are great movements sweeping\nus forward in the social betterment of rural communities. In all this, the year 1911-12\nhas been memorable.\nEdwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111. — Superintendent Shawan has spoken of the progress made in the study of retarded children and of school attendance. There is another\nphase of this question which I believe is worthy of notice. There appears to be an\nincreasing appreciation of the fact that our customary period of compulsory school\nattendance terminating at fourteen is too short; that this terminus was not selected as\nthe result of any careful study of the question, but is the result of tradition. In many\ncivilized countries at present there is a movement on to lengthen this period from two\nto four years, either by adding one or more years to the period of attendance at the ordinary\nschool, or by requiring part-time attendance at supplementary continuation schools.\nBoth movements are to be seen in Europe and Amerfca. Several of the American states\nhave enacted laws during the last few years requiring students between fourteen and\nsixteen who are not at work to attend school.\nThere seems to be a general feeling today that to permit the boy or girl at fourteen\nto leave school and enter the business or industrial world without further instruction\nand guidance is a mistake. At fourteen, parental control is relaxing, new passions and\ninterests in the boy and girl are awakening, and they need guidance and instruction more\nthan ever before. To turn them loose at this time in the commercial or industrial world\nwithout this educational guidance and instruction often leads to life as a vagabond, a\nparasite, or a criminal.\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^SxELtA L. Wood, superintendent, kindergarten normal school, Minneajwlis, Minn.\nVice-President — Cora L. English, supervisor, public school kindergarten\nKansas City, Mo.\nSecretary — A. Jessie Davis, kindergarten director\nSuperior, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, Jtoy 9, 191 2\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Elementary Education.\nThe meeting was scheduled to take place in the Gold Room of the Congress Hotel,\nbut this proving inadequate in seating capacity, the meeting was transferred to the\nAuditorium Theater and called to order at 2:30 p.m.\nAnnouncements were read by H. B. Wilson, president of the Department of Elementary Education, and then the meeting was turned over to the president, Stella L.\nWood.\nIn the absence of the secretary, Marie E. Gorham, secretary of the Chicago Public\nSchool Kindergarten Association, was appointed secretary pro tempore.\nAfter a few words on the importance of education in childhood. Miss Wood spoke\nof the new educational method, the Montessori method, stating that Dr. Montessori has\ninterested more people than any other contemporaneous educator.\nMiss Wood then introduced the first speaker, Florence E. Ward, of the Kindergarten Department, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa, presenting Miss\nWard as one whose knowledge would be particularly valuable because, added to the fact\nof being a worker herself. Miss Ward had the opportunity of spending several weeks\nmaking personal observations of the workings of this method by Dr. Montessori in\nher \"Houses of Childhood\" in Rome, Italy. Miss Ward's topic was \"The Montessori\nMethod.\"\nCarl Byoir, president of the House of Childhood, New York, N.Y., followed with a\ntalk on \"The Presentation of Montessori Material.\" Mr. Byoir had on display considerable Montessori material and explained its object and method of use, also announcing that the material could be seen at any time at Thomas Charles's Kindergarten\nSupply House, Chicago, 111.\nElmer E. Jones, professor of history of education, University of Indiana, Bloomington,\nInd., was expected to present a paper on \"Suggestions from Cases of Unusually Rapid\nor Irregular Progress in Public Schools,\" but was unable to be present and the paper was\nomitted.\nAt this point. Miss Wood announced the appointment of Barbara Greenwood,\nLos Angeles, Cal., Alice Temple, Chicago, 111., and Alma Binzell, Winona, Minn., to\nserve on the nominating committee, and Lucy Terrill Ellis, Phoenix, Ariz., and Mabel\nOsgood, Fort Worth, Tex., were appointed to serve on the resolutions committee.\nDiscussion of preceding papers followed;60W.\n7 N. Hailmann, of the Normal Training\nSchool, Cleveland, Ohio, and Alice H. Putnam, of Chicago, 111., were called upon for\nexpressions.\nFurther remarks were made by Miss Ward and Mr. Byoir.\nAfter the reading of announcements, the meeting adjourned.\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNATIONAL\nSECOND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July ii, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the Gold Room of the Congress Hotel at 9:30 a.m.\nby the president.\nThe first speaker, Philander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education,\nWashington, D.C., presented a paper on \"The Place of the Kindergarten in the Child's\nEducation.\"\nGeorge F. James, dean of the School of Education, University of Minnesota,\nMinneapolis, Minn., followed with an address on \"The Basic Philosophy of Froebel.\"\nMary D. Bradford, superintendent of schools, Kenosha, Wis., read a paper on \"The\nKindergarten and Its Relation to Retardation.\"\nA general discussion followed in which Elizabeth Harrison, principal of Chicago\nKindergarten College, Chicago, 111.; Mary B. Page, director of Chicago Kindergarten\nInstitute, Chicago, 111.; W. N. Hailmann, Normal Training School, Cleveland, Ohio;\nand Alice H. Putnam, Chicago, 111., took part.\n▼\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\nFor President — Mary B. Page, director, Chicago Kindergarten Institute, Chicago, 111.\nFor Vice-President — Grace Fulmer, supervisor of kindergartens, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFor Secretary — Edith Adams, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nThis report was unanimously accepted.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 12, 1912\n\nThe meeting was held in Scammon Gardens, adjacent to the School of Education,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111., and was called to order at 2:30 p.m. by the president.\nAfter some preliminary remarks, John T. McManis, professor of education, Chicago\nNormal School, Chicago, 111., gave an address on \"Sense Training for Young Children.\"\nThe next speaker, Elliot R. Downing, assistant professor, School of Education,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111., spoke on \"Live Stock in Public Schools.\" Mr.\nDowning exhibited Uve goldfish, rabbits, silkworms, etc., and gave suggestions as to\ntheir food and care.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report:\nWhereas, The Kindergarten Department of the National Education Association,\nassembled at Chicago, 111., has received unfailing kindness, great inspiration, a feast of\nknowledge, and a larger vision;\nResolved, That special thanks are due our president, Miss Wood, for her imtiring\nenergy, in the preparation of this profitable program.\nResolved, That we extend grateful appreciation to those who have taken part in the\nMontessori discussion, which brought many to Chicago from long distances, and to\nthe Department of School Patrons, for their courtesy in extending use of Auditorium\nwhen our own meeting-place was inadequate.\nResolved, That we express our appreciation to our commissioner of education,\nPhilander P. Claxton, for his splendid address and his tribute to Frederick Froebel.\nBe it further resolved. That the Kindergarten Department tenders its general and\nheartfelt thanks to each and every individual who has in thought, word, or deed made\nour stay among you so pleasant.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was unanimously accepted.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSOCIAL\n\nSESSION — Friday Afternoon, July 12, 19 12\n\nThe Chicago Public School Kindergarten Association and the Chicago Kindergarten Club entertained the visiting kindergartners most charmingly at the close of the\nregular session of the Association, Friday afternoon, July 12.\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "VCepartmentl\n\nTHE\n\nMONTESSORI\n\nMETHOD\n\n609\n\nThe entertainment took the form of a garden party, and was held in Scammon\nGardens, adjacent to the School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.\nThe grounds were admirably suited for such an occasion and the day was favorable.\nA delightful program of folk dancing, music, and games was carried out, followed by\nrefreshments. A pretty feature was the presentation to each guest of a bunch of field\ndaisies and a dainty fan with wrist attachment.\nSeveral hundred were in attendance, which was a most gratifying recognition of\nthe hospitality offered.\nAmong the honored guests was the Baroness von Suttner, Vienna, Austria, member\nof the American School Peace League, and author of Ground Arms, which won her the\nNobel prize.\nVery special appreciation is due Miss Hofer, who directed the folk dancing and garden\ngames, and to the committees who planned and executed the details of the afternoon's\npleasure.\nMarie E. Gorham, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE MONTESSORI\nFLORENCE\n\nMETHOD\n\nELIZABETH\nWARD,\nKINDERGARTEN\nDEPARTMENT,\nTEACHERS\nCOLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nIOWA\n\nSTATE\n\nDuring the past year the Montessori method has been so much exploited\nby the press that its peculiarities have become familiar to those who read\nand one who attempts to describe it further is in danger of repetition. It\nis my wish at this time simply to give you some impressions of the system\nthat remain after a study of the work at first hand and a fortunate opportunity to gain something of the spirit of the method from the lips of its\nfounder.\nAmerica, marked by its pioneer spirit, has never been afraid to blaze\nnew paths in any field of activity, and has been most open-minded in its\nreception of light from whatever source. Because of this hospitality toward\nnew ideas, one is not surprised to find that among the students from all\nparts of the world investigating the Montessori method in Rome, Americans\noutnumber those of any other country, and it is easy to believe that no\nprejudice or tradition will be allowed to prevent our fair and just consideration of this new system.\nOne's presence in Rome does not, however, insure illumination on the\nsubject of the Montessori method. Dr. Montessori is difficult of access and\nher schools are not open to the public. So those who win entrance to the\nlaboratory and the confidence of this quiet, unassuming originator count\nthemselves fortunate.\nTo say that she answers all questions or that her system solves all\npedagogical problems, as some enthusiasts do, is manifestly absurd. The\nDottoressa herself makes no such sweeping claim. She does without doubt\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntKindergarten\n\npoint the way to a distinct advance along some lines of early education.\nLike many others, I went to Rome with some question as to whether the\ndevelopment of certain educational theories might not have been unduly\nexploited by seekers of magazine sensation. I came away, after weeks\nof daily coming and going in the schools, and personal acquaintance with\nDr. Montessori and her associates, with the conviction that no more\nearnest, sane contribution has been made to education since the time of\nFroebel and Pestalozzi than this made by Dr. Maria Montessori in her Case\ndei Bambini or Houses of Childhood in Rome, her peculiar service to\npedagogic science being her application of generally accepted principles\nwith a technique and original development and use of didactic material\nwhich give to these remarkable power and scope.\nI need say little of these principles, for they are the familiar and accepted\nones upon which all modern education is established. Dr. Montessori\nholds to the theory that self-activity is the only means of growth; that\n\"all human victories, all human progress, stand upon the inner force\";\nthat personality can develop only in an atmosphere of freedom; that\nenvironment, while it cannot create character, should provide wholesome\nstimulus for its development — not only the outward freedom of air, sunshine,\nand space, but the more vital freedom from invasion by other personalities.\nBelieving that the child can develop social virtues only by personal contact\nwith social problems, the school in her hands becomes a microcosm of the\nnormal social community, wherein the child confronts and solves for himself real problems. Since the highest ideal of social organization is selfdirection in the use of liberty under law, Montessori insists that the only\nlegitimate discipline is that which leads the child to control himself.\nInstead of annihilating the will, her method leads to the finest type of\nindependence.\nIn sharp contrast with the usage which makes the teacher the dominating figure in a schoolroom, is the self-effacement of the Montessori\ndirectress. Like Froebel's ideal kindergartner, she must be \"passive, not\nactive; following, not leading.\" Dr. Montessori's own illustration of the\nfunction of the teacher makes this point clear. She reminds us that the\nuseful guide who shows to a visitor a thing of artistic beauty simply says\nenough to enable the sightseer to understand and appreciate the object\ncontemplated, then withdraws himself, for the guide is not the object of\ngreatest interest. So the teacher must give desirable information, direction,\nand inspiration, then leave the child with the new truth. The garrulous\nteacher is an abomination to Dr. Montessori. She holds to the form of\nlesson presentation used by Seguin, minimizing words and calling forth\nmuch mental activity on the part of the child. \"A child smothered with\nwords comprehends little that is said to him.\"\nI once visited a board school in London where there was that painful\nquiet of suppressed, inactive children. Only one boy out of sixty moved\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": ")epartment]\n\nTHE\n\nMONTESSORI\n\nMETHOD\n\n6ll\n\nin his place, and when this one swung his feet gracefully into the aisle to\nmake the spine-curving seat less uncomfortable he was sharply reproved,\nSd the teacher said by way of apology, \"I have had this boy only two\nys.\" I knew without her telling me that this free Httle being had not\nbeen long in such an atmosphere, but that he would soon succumb to the\nwet-blanket treatment and be as unnatural and \"good\" as the others.\nj Dr. Montessori says:\n1 We do not consider an individual disciplined only when he has been rendered as artificially silent as a mute and as immovable as a paralytic. He is an individual annihilated,\nnot disciplined. We call an individual disciplined when he is master of himself.\n\nFundamental to all Dr. Montessori's work is her emphasis upon the\nvalue of sense-training, especially the basic sense of touch, which she makes\nuse of as a main avenue for intellectual awakening. The results which she\ngets from her methods of teaching reading, writing, and number are truly\nremarkable, both in the small amount of conscious effort put forth by the\nchild, and the brief length of time required.\nMontessori's thought is not to push the child forward into experiences\nbeyond his period of development but rather by expediting mechanical\nroutine to prevent his forming a distaste for study and thus to bring him\nopen-minded and alert to the earlier enjoyment of exercises in literature,\nart, and science.\nOne might think that only a skillful teacher, perhaps a Montessori\nherself, with a selected group of children, could accomplish such results;\nbut here the visitor meets with surprise. There are a number of these\nschools, in widely differing quarters of Rome. In them are found children\nfrom all classes of society. There is the Pincian Hill School with its tenderly\nreared scions of the exclusive aristocracy; the one in Via Giusti conducted\nby the Franciscan nuns and composed of children from the self-respecting\nmiddle classes; and the school of San Angelo in Pescharia with its children\nof the lowest social strata.\nThat the Montessori system is fundamentally right is demonstrated by\nthe fact that it seems to work successfully with all these various types of\nchildren, despite the differences in heredity, home environment, and\nearly training.\nAs for the qualifications of the teacher, or \"directress,\" as Dr.\nMontessori prefers to call her, there is wide range, from the scholarly,\nscientific Dr. Montessori herself to the cloistered Franciscan nun. The\nearnest teacher imbued with reverence for the child's personality and the\nideal of its development in an atmosphere of freedom is boimd to win a\nmeasure of success. Often she becomes powerful, beyond her own expectation, asDr. Montessori has so admirably argued.\nIn Via Giusti is the school which Dr. Montessori conducts under her\nown personal supervision and it is here that one sees the real laboratory in\nwhich the Dottoressa is watching the practical working-out of her plans.\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nunder physical conditions that are quite ideal. Instead of a single schoolroom with stationary seats and desks, as found in the average primarj\nschool, these children enjoy large open courts and generous spaces for\ngardens and games. All. furnishings are made with a view to .children's\ncomfort and convenience, even the chairs and tables being light and movable.\nThe didactic materials and apparatus inviting investigation are everywhers\nin evidence.\nInstead of arranging the children in even rows and classes and requiring\nthat at stated times they shall engage in prescribed occupations, they work\nsingly, or form themselves into natural groups according to mutual taste\nand present interest. Often a dozen different activities are going on at\nonce, the children going freely to the convenient cupboards for the autoeducational, self-corrective materials in the use of which these schools are\nso unique. There is no confusion, no disorder, neither is there the unnatural\nquiet which is the fetish of the overorderly teacher. One might fancy the\nschool anti-social until it comes time for the games, the serving of the\nluncheon, or other exercises which require community effort.\nMontessori has comparatively few dramatic games and little interest\nin make-believe. She holds that the child hungers for reality and for\npurposeful activity, and puts into his hands the tools for gardening and for\nmany of the household processes. She beheves that the truth and wonder\nof the world furnish all the food the imagination needs, so the fairy story\nis not much in evidence.\nThis blending of work and play, of doing for the sake of the product,\nof appealing to the child's understanding as well as his imagination, develops\nhabits of thrift, industry, and service, and gives self-mastery and bodily\npoise. It is delightful to watch the absorbed interest with which these\nlittle workers sweep and fold their small rugs and the housewifely precision\nwith which they put away their little brooms. Their earnestness is illustrated bythe oft-repeated story of the Queen's visit to one of these schools.\nA child who was arranging some materials was asked by the Queen to\nread; she smiled acquiescence, but continued her work. An older person,\nembarrassed by the child's apparent indifference, said, \"Rosa, don't you\nknow that this is the Queen?\" \"Yes,\" said the child, \"but doesn't the\nQueen know that I must put away my work before I begin to read ?\"\nI have only attempted in this limited time to speak of a few of the\ndistinctive features of these Italian schools, and have not discussed the\nfeasibility of their adoption here in America nor have I made comparison\nbetween the Montessori school and the kindergarten. I will state, however,\nthat I believe there is little inherent antagonism between the general ideals\nof Montessori and those of the broad-minded disciple of Froebel.\nThe kindergarten and the Montessori school are built in the main upon\nthe same basic principles. In the working-out and exemplifying of these\nprinciples we find marked differences. These should call forth friendly\ninvestigation and discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPRESENTATION\n\nOF MONTESSORI\n\nMATERIAL\n\n613\n\nOne who associates eccentricity with genius will be happily disappointed\nin meeting Dr. Montessori. She is a graceful, queenly woman of much\npersonal charm. Always becomingly gowned and free from afifectation,\nshe illustrates the fact that there is no necessary antagonism between\nbrilliancy of mind and attractiveness of person. She proves on acquaintance to be an untiring seeker after truth. Personal recognition and\nespecially sensational notoriety are farthest from her desire. Her hope is\nthat American educators will give her study and results serious consideration, judging them finally on their own merits, and tjiat her materials shall\nnot be separated from the use for which she has so painstakingly perfected\nthem, but rather kept together as parts of a system.\nOne who seeks to be fair and candid, I feel sure, must conclude that\nwhile\nAll the good the past has had\nRemains to make our own time glad,\n\nthere is not yet any such thing as finaUty in methods of teaching small\nchildren. It is not likely that we shall see any clear line of cleavage between\nthe old and the new, but we shall no doubt see in time the introduction of\nevery demonstrated principle which will help children to escape unnecessary\ndrudgery, and to find the acquisition of truth and power a process of delight.\nTHE PRESENTATION\n\nOF MONTESSORI\n\nMATERIAL\n\nCARL BYOIR, PRESIDENT OF THE HOUSE OF CHILDHOOD, NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.'\n\nAn inquiry now into the methods of Dr. Maria Montessori can only\nserve to furnish the basis of a comparison between kindergarten and\nprimary education in the United States and the methods pursued in the\n\"Houses of Childhood\" in Rome, with a view to the possibilities of adapting for our use whatever may be of value under our conditions. The\nmost casual observer will recognize at once the fact that American teachers\nare working in a school environment entirely different from that of the\nMontessori schools in Rome. On this account, it is possible now only\nto form a judgment which actual teaching observation in our schools\nmust confirm or deny. Dr. Montessori's own book is a complete exposition of her method. It would be too presumptuous here to attempt more\nthan to indicate to the American student how the Montessori method\nmay be approached for an understanding of its relation to our teaching\nmethods.\nThose who seek to compare Dr. Montessori's principles with the\nmethods of the kindergarten or the primary grades will find singularly\nfew points of comparison. This does not mean that the method of the\nDottoressa is educationally \"a bolt from the blue.\" It means simply\nthat the principles underlying her method have been developed in an isolated\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nfield; a field in which a few exact scientists have devoted their lives to\nthe betterment of the conditions of the unfortunate. We shall find many\npoints of contact when we compare this method with the methods that\nhave long been in use in the teaching of the blind, the deaf and dumb,\nand the mentally defective.\nMaria Montessori, as a teacher of the idiot children of Italy, found\nin the methods of physiological sense-training a formula applicable to the\neducation of normal children. She has applied this formula with the\nmethod of the experjpiental psychologist. In Dr. Montessori's career\nwe may observe a life of preparation for the bringing-together of educational\nmethods which have been long applied in distinctly separate fields. With\na splendid knowledge of the history of methods, Dr. Montessori has combined the fruits of special training; as a physician, she learned the physical\nneeds of the child; as a teacher of deficient children, she mastered the\nmethods of sense- training; to an exact knowledge of psychology and\nanthropology she has added an inventive mechanical genius probably\nunrivaled in the history of education. This great Italian teacher has\nbuilt a new laboratory of experimental psychology and equipped it with\nnew instruments of psychometry fitted to the needs of her child subjects.\nWe shall find the historical basis of the Montessori method in the\nwork of Itard and Seguin with idiots; in the work of Periere with deaf\nmutes; of Haiiy for the blind, and in the treatises of the Christian School\n(St. Simonism). Similarly, we shall see that the principles underlying\nthe Montessori method have more in common with the theories of Spencer,\nRousseau, Descartes, and Pestalozzi than with the philosophy of Froebel.\nSuch a statement is not intended to mean that there are inherent conflicts\nbetween the methods of the kindergarten and those of the Case dei Bambini.\nRather they are supplemental methods in whose combination the American\nteacher may find a mean of improved pedagogy.\nIn The Montessori Method, Dr. Montessori has most generously acknowledged her indebtedness to Seguin. Long before Seguin returned in 1880\nfrom the Vienna Universal Exhibition as United States commissioner on\neducation, he had dreamed of \"the imion of the joyous exercises of the\nkindergarten, with the application of physiology to education.\" This\ndream has found in the work of Dr. Montessori a fuller realization than\nSeguin could have imagined and a richer fulfillment in a method that is\npsycho-physiological. Over half a century has passed since Seguin wrote\nin Idiocy and Its Treatment:\nThe physiological education of the senses is the royal road to the education of the\nintellect; experience, not memory, the mother of ideas.\n\nDr. Montessori has answered the appeal of Seguin and from the physio-logical methods of the education of idiots has \"obtained a formula applicable\nto universal education.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEE\n\nPRESENTATION\n\nOP MONTESSORI\n\nMATERIAL\n\n615\n\nOne other principle of Seguin underlies the method of Montessori:\neducation thru the development of the affective functions. It may be\ntrue that the study of Seguin inspired in some measure Montessori's\nbeautiful love for the child. Certainly it is true that these great French\nand Italian teachers combine with a common method of physiological\nsense- training the principle that\nto make the child feel that he is loved, and to make him eager to love in his turn, is the\nend of our teaching as it has been its beginning. If we have loved our pupils, they felt\nit and communicated the same feeling to each other; if they have been loved, they are\nloving.\n\nMuch emphasis has been laid upon the methods of Seguin because it\nis only thru an understanding of Seguin that we shall fully understand\nMontessori. It might be well in the serious study of the Montessori\nmethod to bear in mind Seguin's conclusions from the experiments of\nPeriere :\n1. That the senses, and each one in particular, can be submitted to physiological\ntraining by which their primordial capability may be indefinitely intellectualized.\n2. That one sense may be substituted for another as a means of comprehension and\nof intellectual culture.\n3. That our most abstract ideas are comparisons and generalizations by the mind\nof what we have perceived thru our senses.\n4. That sensations are intellectual functions performed thru external apparatus\nas much as reasoning and imagination thru more internal organs.\n\nThe methods of Seguin adapted and improved may be seen in practical\napplication at such splendid American schools as the Massachusetts School\nfor Feeble Minded, at Waverly, Mass., and the Seguin School, at Orange,\nN.J. In the school at Waverly there is a richness of sense-training material\nand a success in its application probably surpassing even that of Dr.\nMontessori in the Italian schools for idiots. In adapting the materials\nof Seguin employed in these and similar institutions, Montessori has\ncarefully eliminated those too obvious steps which are necessary for the\neducation of the deficient, but which will not serve for the normal child.\nMontessori has added to the groundwork of Seguin the fruits of a mechanical\ngenius probably unparalleled in the history of education. Her apparatus\nshows in every piece an infinite patience in the observation of the processes\nof the mind of the normal child and an ability to translate her thoughts\ninto concrete materials.\nThe didactic apparatus used by Dr. Montessori is not a set of mere\nseparable toys. Neither are these materials used simply for the purpose\nof sense-training. In the fullest sense they are the instruments of the\npsychological laboratory. The method of Dr. Montessori is the method\nof the experimental psychologist. But the apparatus of the psychologist\nwas not available for the purposes of Montessori because her subjects\nwere very young children. The apparatus of the psychological laboratory\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfKmdergarteti\n\nfor mental tests depends in its application largely upon the observations\nof the subject. Professor James expresses this concisely in the statement,\n\"Introspective observation is what we have to rely on first and foremost\nalways.\" But methods dependent upon introspective observation are\nalmost useless in testing children under five years of age; for instance,\nthe test-type or the astigmatic chart in the tests for visual acuity. The\nchild cannot read, nor can he express the visual impression obtained from\nthe chart. So in testing auditory acuity, even so practicable an instrument as Seashore's audiometer, largely used in tests with school children,\nwould doubtless becomes less valuable in tests with very young children.\nTests dependent upon introspective observation are usually also dependent\nupon the nomenclature of the subject for expressing his impressions.\nNeedless to say, the three-year-old child is not capable of the adequate\nexpression of its own impressions.\nIn an investigation of the Montessori didactic apparatus, viewing\nit in the light of the methods of the laboratory, it is important to bear\nin mind a distinction emphasized by Dr. Montessori. The psychologist\nmeasures the senses; Montessori educates the senses. When the psychologist has secured his data, his work with the individual subject is\ndone; when the teacher of the Montessori method has measured the sense\nacuity of the pupil, a basis for the education of the senses of the individual\nhas been secured.\nEven as the psychologist finds no detail too trivial to be neglected\nin the \"setting \" of a test, so Dr. Montessori lays emphasis upon the methods\nof administration. This gives rise to the necessity for the fundamental\nprinciple of the complete liberty of the child in its spontaneous observations. Ifthe teacher first shows the child how to build the \"broad stair,\"\nshe has learned nothing of the child's perception of the relation of blocks\nof graded sizes. But if the child, playing unaided, builds an irregular\nstairway, the teacher easily observes that the child cannot regularly relate\nthese blocks. So the teacher no longer leads the child, but follows as\nan observer. The teacher stands in the place of the experimental psychologist. Once the child's faulty observation is ascertained, the teacher\nbecomes a leader to show the right way. Seguin saw that this was the\nplace of the teacher in the application of sense- training method when he\nwrote:\nBefore entering into the generalities of the training, the individuality of the child\nis to be secured; for respect of individuality is the first test of the fitness of a teacher.\nAt first sight, all children look much alike; at the second their countless differences appear\nlike insurmountable obstacles; but better viewed these differences resolve themselves\ninto groups easily understood.\n\nThis corroborates the actual teaching experience of teachers of the\nMontessori method: that the first few weeks of individual observation\nare weeks almost of chaos. But out of these apparently immanageable\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPRESENTATION\n\nOF\n\nMONTESSORJ\n\nMATERIAL\n\n617\n\ndifferences there arises an almost perfect discipline. The method trains\nthe individual, but the early days are trying ones for the teacher. Some\nactivities must be suppressed; peculiarities must be watched; individuals\nmust be assisted toward finding their place in the new school community.\n, As a result of these days of observation, the teacher acquires a knowledge\nof the individual needs of her children that makes possible the discipline\nborn of the happy employment of the pupils.\nA study of the Montessori apparatus as sense-measuring and sensetraining material is best made in the sequence in which it is presented to\nthe children. The dressing-frames are not properly a part of the sequence\nin sense- training. They have their place properly in what Dr. Montessori\nterms \"gymnastica.\" They develop in the children a practical facility\nin the use of their fingers and make an interesting game of the simple\noperations of dressing. They constitute a part of the system which has\nas its aim the preparation of the child for independence in his environment.\nProbably, too, these simple little frames have a direct importance in the\npreparation for writing. Their mastery by the child requires a number of\ncomplex motor correlations which entirely escape the casual observer.\nThe defective child is almost entirely incapable of these correlations.\nNormal children have a lack of facility in the use of their own fingers in\nbuttoning, tying, and lacing, which the adult mind can scarcely comprehend.\nSince these materials have been exhibited in America, many fond parents,\nupon examining these frames, have made such remarks as, \"My little\ngirl wouldn't be interested in that; they are too easy.\" This same parent\nis unutterably surprised when she discovers that her little girl cannot do\nmany of these simple things with any degree of facility. In this connection,\nit is to be observed that the children of the Case dei Bambini are the authors\nof their own materials. Dr. Montessori has developed her apparatus\nafter years of painstaking observation of her little pupils, and often 'the\nminutest details of mechanical construction, often overlooked by the\nadult observer, are of great importance to the child mind.\nThe sensory training properly begins with the six sets of wooden\nblocks. All of these sets of blocks are truly \"auto-educational,\" the\nmaterials are self-corrective. There is only one correct combination in\neach set. Either the given lesson is correctly done and the child knows\nthat it is right, or it is incorrectly done and the child knows that it is wrong.\nThe teacher as a passive observer acquires an exact knowledge of the\nlimits of the child's perception. \" All of these block games have an objective test. For instance, in the \"long stair,\" the child has a double opportunity to perceive errors thru the graduating lengths of the sticks and the\nregular alternate coloring of the decimeter units. The three sets of cylinders, being the first step in visual perception of differences in size, are\nmost positive in the correction of errors. If the child misplaces any one\nof these cylinders, he finds himself at the end with a cylinder for which\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "6i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthere is no socket in the base. Later, he makes the correction immediately upon perceiving that a given cylinder does not exactly fit where\nhe has placed it. Later when the child begins nimieration, he begins with\nthese same blocks and approaches a new problem with the confidence\nborn of familiar materials. All of the block games are composed of ten\npieces and form the basis for the decimal system as well as for counting.\nThe \"long stair\" is particularly rich in its possible combinations for\ncounting, addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. Much of\nthe Montessori work is like this: the children become thoroly familiar\nwith many fundamental forms long before they know what they are, or\nwhat advanced uses are to be made of them.\nThe color spools show more definitely the laboratory method. In\nduplicate boxes, there are sixty-four color spools. These colors are not\npure primary colors and tints and shades. They are color mixtures.\nThe effort is not to teach the child the colors or their names, but to train\nthe sense of color discrimination. The child must make very fine discriminations inlaying out and matching these colors. If the little pupil\nin arranging a color carpet mixes a lighter spool among the darker ones,\nthe teacher-observer sees at once the child's faulty perception. It is not\nnecessary for the tests that the child have any knowledge of color or know\nthe names of colors. Indeed, few adults could find names for all the\nMontessori spools.\nSo the laboratory analogy could be carried out with practically every\npiece of the Montessori material. The teacher must be not only a welltrained teacher, but a well-trained observer. An analysis of the method\nfrom this point of view indicates how much misapprehension has been\nbrought about by Dr. Montessori's use of the term \"auto-educational.\" A\nlarge and imaginative American public is prepared for a system that requires no teaching, and expectantly awaits the phenomenon of a convenient\nroom, supplied with blocks and sandpaper letters, incubating child prodigies, who, at the age of four, will come forth with a knowledge of many\nlanguages and complete understanding of higher mathematics. If there\nis any method which requires well-trained teachers, it is the physiological\nmethod of sense-training.\nDISCUSSION\nW. N. Hailmann, Normal Training School, Cleveland, Ohio. — It is gratifying to note\nthat, in the presentation of her work, Dr. Montessori bases her procedures broadly and\neloquently upon recognized principles of the new education of which Froebel is the\nacknowledged prophet. Her Method of Scientific Pedagogy is replete with appeals in behalf\nof self-activity, independence, self-help, freedom, respect for the child's individuality and\nspontaneity.\nIn truly classic style, she satirizes certain shortcomings of the current school: its\nunhygienic seatings, its repressive discipline, its artificial incentives, its disregard of the\nchild's needs, its false methods, and the rest.\nFor this, for her single-hearted devotion to her children and to her work, for the\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPRESENTATION\n\nOF MONTESSORI\n\nMATERIAL\n\n619\n\nfervor and impressiveness of her words, for her vigorous advocacy of the \"scientific spirit\"\non the part of teachers, for her ingenuity in providing a stimulating environment and\neffective devices for her purposes, as well as for the enthusiasm she stirs in all who are\ntouched by her work, she is entitled to the admiration and gratitude of all who are interested in the momentous work of education.\nThe charm and cogency in the establishment and defense of her principles should\nnot, however, carry us off our feet. For it is not these principles, but certain details and\nspecific achievements in their application to the conduct of her \"Children's Houses\" that\nconstitute the claim to the prominence given to her work.\nConspicuous among these details are her devices for sense-training. Dr. Montessori\njustly attaches primary value to sense-training in the mental development of the child.\nIndeed, a number of her exercises can be used with advantage in the play-work of the\nkindergarten and of the primary school. But, in her hands, these plays yield no outcome\nbeyond the training of the senses, furnish no stimulus to the child's imagination, no opportunity for the exercise of the constructive and creative instincts. The child recognizes\nand names certain sense impressions with remarkable accuracy, but fails to apply these\nto purposes of self-expression. To use Froebelian terms: the child deals in these exercises\nall but exclusively with forms of knowledge, but remains a stranger to forms of life and of\nsymmetry or beauty.\nAgain, these exercises as conducted in the Children's Houses exert in character and\ncircumstance an intensely isolating influence. Usually, each child plays alone, finds\npractically no intellectual S3anpathy, no opportunity to use bis successes in social effort.\nEven in some of her otherwise excellent color and sound games and in certain marching\nexercises each child is practically alone, fails of social intro-ordination in a common purpose, fails to feel that his presence is needed for social success. Nor can I find any indication that the free and directed games relieve this dearth in social application of individual\nability in sense-perception.\nProbably these shortcomings, if they are such, are due to Dr. Montessori's antecedents. Itappears that she gained her pedagogic enthusiasm in connection with the\neducation of defectives in an insane asylum. Here, following the lead of Dr. Seguin, she\nachieved surprising results, and even brought some idiots to read and write and to prove\ntheir ability subsequently at an examination in the public schools together with normal\nchildren. This, when she came to take charge of the Children's Houses, led her to attempt\nthe application of the methods for defectives to the education of normal children between\nthe ages of three and six, and to formulate the plausible principle that the same didactic\nmaterial which with defectives renders education possible will with normal children stimulate auto-education.\nIt is obvious that work under such a principle — involving neglect of language, of selfexpression, of social tendencies, of productive and creative activity — threatens arrest of\ndevelopment in these directions. A notable instance of this is related by Dr. Montessori,\naltho with different intent.\nSome visitors who had noticed that the children could read print, sent them some\nillustrated books, simple stories which she, however, felt they could not understand, altho\nthe teachers had assured her that they could read better than the second elementary.\nDr. Montessori, in order to assure herself, had the teachers tell the children the stories\nin order to see how many were spontaneously interested. The teachers were not to call\nthe children to order. After a few words, the children began to withdraw their attention,\nand soon all were noisily engaged, each in his chosen occupation.\nIn a second experiment, she had some children read in the book without running\nexplanations and questions. After a while, the child was asked if he understood what he\nhad read. This he promptly denied. She explains this by stating that the child had heretofore been engaged only in the \"mechanism of the language\" and had no idea as yet\nof the \"logical language\" with which the book dealt.\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe ingenuity with which she supplied this lack is noteworthy. Her account of her\ndevices is full of valuable suggestions to primary teachers.\nIndeed, among the achievements of her day-nurseries none has attracted so much\nattention as their success in leading the little ones to proficiency in the arts of writing and\nrudimentary arithmetical notation. This represents, in fact, the only noteworthy outcome of the elaborate training of the tactile and muscular senses.\nHer method of teaching writing merits unreserved approval in so far as it rests on\ndrawing and avoids the customary ado about holding pencil or pen. But the abrupt\ntransition from the first exercises in drawing to the drawing and writing of letters is quite\narbitrary. The children's interest in the woric obviously does not rest upon any felt need\non their part, but is stimulated and sustained by elaborately artificial means.\nThose of us who may be tempted by Dr. Montessori's brilliant exploit \"to go over to\nthe enemy \" should remember her experiments with the reading children, related a moment\nago, which show clearly that while the children could draw and write and call letters and\nwords, \" they still were strangers to language, to its bearing on feeling and thought, and\nto its social value.\"\nMoreover, Dr, Montessori's apparent success is attributable in a large measure to the\ncharacter of the language with which she deals. With a simple and consistently phonetic\nlanguage like the Italian, the strictly synthetic Montessori method, based on the unvarying\ncorrespondence of sign and sound, will secure a measure of success in the \"mechanism\nof the language.\" But the varied and seemingly arbitrary relations of sign and sound in\nthe English language, together with the great increase in phonic elements, call for much\nphonic analysis in preparation of subsequent synthesis in writing.\nNone of my strictures can in any way detract from the great merit of Dr. Montessori's\nremarkable work, as indicated in my introductory remarks. Indeed, they are meant\nmerely to direct attention to certain of its features which seem to call for readjustment of\nher devices, where these seem to fall short of the principles she so eloquently and fervidly\nsets forth.\nIn his classical Report on Education as United States commissioner on education at\nthe Vienna Exposition, republished in extended form in 1880, Dr. Seguin advocates for\nlittle children the \"physiological infant-school\" as resulting \"from the \\mion of the kind\ntreatment of the Salle d'Asyle and the joyous exercises of the kindergarten, with the\napplication of physiology to education.\" It is a pity that Dr. Montessori, so eminently\nqualified to accomplish this, slighted the first two of these factors and borrowed so much\nfrom the school for idiots and the questionable traditional tendencies of the current\nprimary schools of Italy.\nAlice H. Putnam, Chicago, HI. — ^There are two essentials to be considered in the\nstudy of any educational plan, especially if it appears to contradict our traditions:\n(i) A willingness to look at it without prejudice or preconceived opinions; we must at least\nkeep these quiescent. (2) We must consider it as a whole, must see the purpose of this\nwhole; must see that its parts hold together consistently; that no device shall assume\nundue proportions.\nFreedom thru activity is the keynote of Dr. Montessori's method; but this freedom is\nnot flung at the child. He is taught little by little how to make the best use of it. Senses\nand motor activities are so exercised that he grows into freedom thru his own doing. What\nhe does in this process may seem a small thing to us, but it is not so to him. So long as\nhe puts himself, his whole self, into the act, it is true self-activity; activity for its own sake.\nThe child unconsciously prepares himself for his daily life-work, whether it be learning\nto dress himself, or to draw, read, write, deal with number, or in fact to work out any of\nhis little experiences. This preparation thru the child's own doing should be more heeded.\nAs for the very early training in reading and writing, I confess to a prejudice which\nmay be overcome in time.\n\nPossibly the child's desire for this form of expression, springing\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBASIC\n\nPHILOSOPHY\n\nOF FROEBEL\n\n621\n\nfrom his imitative instinct, may be as natural as his desire to deal with objects which to\nus, now, seem more concrete than words.\nKindergartners know quite well how definite a child's ideas of simple number grouping may be. Illustration:\nA kindergartner asked Jack (four years old) what he was doing with his sticks.\n\"Making believe they are marching\" (they were in groups of two). Presently Jack said,\n\"Now they're in fours.\" The kindergartner said, \"I didn't know you could count four.\"\n\"I didn't count them,\" said Jack. \"I saw two, and I saw two, and I thinked four, then\nI marched 'em.\"\nI believe the child from two to four or five needs exactly what Dr. Montessori is\ndoing for him; but he also needs the play, song, and story of the kindergarten.\n\nTHE BASIC PHILOSOPHY\nGEORGE\n\nF. JAMES,\n\nOF FROEBEL\n\nDEAN\nOF THE SCHOOL\nOF EDUCATION,\nMINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nKindergarten teachers are peculiarly fortunate in being drawn for the\nmost part to the work which they are doing in the school system by a definite\npreference and inclination toward the training of children in their early\nyears. They have the advantage also of a general education extending\nvery far beyond- the experience of the pupils under their charge and a\nprofessional discipline directed specifically toward efficiency in their chosen\nfield. Within this field, more than at any other stage of public instruction,\nthe theory of education has been developed and methods of its administration established. , Vital problems within the field, however, are still pressing\nfor solution and these demands will be met satisfactorily only in proportion\nas kindergarten teachers get back of the device, the method, and the\ntheory to the fundamental philosophy of Froebel. The theory of kindergarten teaching has been developed on the basis of interest, self-activity,\nmotor training, play instinct, imitation, and particularly on the admirable\nprinciple of pioneers in this field, that the educational process is more important than the product, the mode of thinking more significant than the\nthought, the manner of doing more vital than the thing accomplished.\nBack of the theory is the basic philosophy of Froebel to which every kindergarten teacher should have recourse as a never-failing spring of inspiration\nand guidance.\nFroebel stands forth as one of the stupendous figures in educational\nhistory and every phase of his thinking calls for thoughtful consideration.\nHis basic philosophy has been to some extent overlooked or deprecated by\nhis followers. Some have been inclined to apologize for his symbolism and\nto condone his philosophic suggestions as irrelevant and negligible altho\npardonable in the light of his practical, helpful labors for the school. This\nattitude does him much less than justice, for even in the vague and scattered\nrevelations of his deeper thinking we get the true explanation of his vitalizing force. Too often the starting-point in the thinking of educational\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ntheorists is disregarded, altho this determines to a considerable extent the\nscope and degree of their influence. We know Froebel as an effective\norganizer of principles in early education. Back of the theorist, however,\nstands the philosopher, and altho we have been inclined to neglect his basic\nthought because he presents it somewhat obscurely, nevertheless the message of this great reformer was conceived in the depths of his philosophic\nreflection and only by immersing ourselves in that can we catch the full\nimport of his gospel.\nThe pedagogic effectiveness of Froebel lies in his philosophy, which was\nin turn thruout tinged by his religious thinking, and this again -^as strongly\nmystical, as is natural, since the root of all religion is mysticism. Many\nearnest students of Froebel have turned away from this phase of his teachings because the mystical stands in the popular consciousness for the\nobscure, the unreal, the fantastic, all equally repugnant to a scientific\nattitude and training. Nevertheless most men and women are mystic in\nsome phase of their thinking and will come thru to a consistent theory of\nlife, not by neglecting, but by analyzing this element of their experience.\nIn the mysticism of Froebel lies much of his power, and a careful study of\nhis basic beliefs will serve to vivify the work of all those who are laboring\nin his name.\nThe essence of mysticism lies in a spiritual conception of the universe\nand a religious attitude toward all experience, which describes exactly\nFroebel's position. Influenced by the current philosophic thought of\nGermany, he developed a pure idealism which conceived the universe as\nan organic unity infused by self-conscious universal life and defined the soul\nas an individualization of this universal life or reason which comes gradually\nto a realization intimate, direct, complete, of the encircling universe and the\nspirit which informs both it and him. The Education of Man from the\nopening paragraph shows how completely Froebel's philosophy is expressed\nin this mystic attitude, and in his life and writings appears every kind of\nmystic experience which William James has summarized in his Varieties of\nReligious Experience.\nThe metaphysical type of mysticism which affirms the absolute imity of\nall creation sees with Froebel, back of the world of nature and the world of\nhumanity, interpenetrating both, the workings of a spiritual force. In this\nspiritual force each of these worlds verily lives and moves and has its being\nand thru it each becomes organically related to the other in a single universe.\nThe world is real to Froebel, MacVannel excellently puts it, because of the\ncontinuous self-determination of a spiritual principle involving the process\nby which the world is maintained as an organic whole. The universe to\nhim is the means of evolution from the infinite and every self is a part of\nthe universal life, each child the struggling expression of an inner divine law.\nThe religious variety of mysticism finds its essence in the striving of\nthe individual toward union with the divine, and Monroe has pointed out\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBASIC\n\nPHILOSOPHY\n\nOF FROEBEL\n\n623\n\nthat this underlies one type of education which in various schools has\nmarked the effort to come into actual and immediate communion with the\ndivine. To Froebel as to all of the mystic brotherhood, \"God ceases to be\nan object and becomes an experience.\" Everyone is by virtue of the divine\neffluence within and is capable of attaining to its source; the object of\neducation is to realize this destiny. The development of the individual\ninto unity with the absolute comes thru the working of evolutionary forces\ncommon to the natural and to the spiritual world alike. In a real sense\nFroebel was a pioneer in the theory of evolutionary development in western\nthought. A statement of this principle appears centuries earlier in oriental\nphilosophy but it did not spread at that time to Europe, and therefore\nFroebel deserves credit for his quick absorption of this idea from the\nscientific and the metaphysical reflection of his age and for the logic with\nwhich he based on evolution the theory of conscious human growth. The\ninfluence of this conception in educational history has been more potent\nbecause of his conviction that nature and man alike are coming to a higher\ndifferentiation, not thru mechanical causation, but thru the intimate\nworkings of the self-conscious spirit.\nA third type of mystic consciousness is marked by a wonderful intensity\nin ethical experience and reflection. So fully is Froebel a mystic in this\nsense that many pages from his volumes could be interpolated into the\nwritings of St. Catherine of Siena, St. Francis, or Thomas a Kempis and\nfind in them a proper context. In Froebel also appears the aesthetic\nvariety of mysticism markied by a peculiar intuition as to beauty. The poet\nand the painter in their moments of exaltation seem to catch the beatific\nvision most mystically because beauty is the unfailing attribute of creation\nand lives in its purer forms on higher planes where the consciousness of\neach begins to merge into the one consciousness. As man knows the divine\nintuitively because his nature is one with the infinite, and as he sees the\nunity of all things because he is part of the universal spirit and in transcending experience feels the cosmic throb, so Froebel caught the intuition\nof the beautiful and made it one primary object of endeavor. The typical\noptimism of the mystic results in Froebel from his conception of the significance ofthe universal purpose, his realization of the indwelling life of\nthe infinite, his prophetic vision of the final completion of the evolutionary\nprocess, all of these combining to establish a never-wavering faith and an\nabsolute poise and happiness. This most distinctive trait Froebel manifested alike in his teachings and in his life.\nIf the chance had come to Froebel to work out his plan thru the later\nas thru the earlier stages of individual growth, he might not have come far\nshort of the world-old method of self-training which the western mystics\nof the Christian church conceived much as did the ancient teachers of the\nEast and which Hugo St. Victor sets forth in his admirable treatise. However, this development of his thought did not fall within Froebel's oppor-\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Kindergarten\n\ntunity and we can only infer from the characteristics already noted how far\nthe mystic element might have been developed in a fuller exposition of his\nphilosophy. Perhaps enough has been said to suggest how richly the\nkindergarten teacher may be rewarded by a study of what has been so far\na neglected part of Froebel's thinking.\nTHE KINDERGARTEN\nMARY\n\nDAVISON\n\nAND\n\nITS RELATION\n\nBRADFORD, SUPERINTENDENT\nKENOSHA, WIS.\n\nTO RETARDATION\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAccording to the law of my state, Wisconsin, a child there may begin\nhis education at public expense at the age of four years. He is required\nto go to school from the seventh to the fourteenth year, unless he has completed the elementary course before he is fourteen. At fourteen he may\nwithdraw to work at certain sorts of employment, on condition that he\nhas completed the fifth grade; but if he does so, he must attend for five hours\na week, imtil he is sixteen, a special industrial school provided for such\nchildren.\nFurther details of this law are not needed here: enough has been given\nto show that Wisconsin is endeavoring to help the 50 per cent of her children who there, as in other states, end their regular schooling with the\nfifth grade.\nIt is the consideration of this 50 per cent that causes two problems to\nassume dominating importance:\nFirst, how to make those first five grades the most profitable possible for all boys and\ngirls, especially for those who, entering late, will, as soon as the fifth grade is completed,\nbe snatched away from school, provided they have attained their fourteenth birthday, or\nit can be made to appear that they have reached it.\nSecond, how to bring a larger proportion of children beyond the fifth grade and into\nthe seventh and eighth grades before their fourteenth birthday is reached and thus help\nto lay a broader and a better foundation for intelligent citizenship.\n\nI cannot deal with the first problem here, but will say in passing that\nI believe it will be largely solved when the courses in those lower grades\nand the teachers who administer them have been more thoroly kindergartenized; that is, when there is more general recognition of the educational\nvalue of play and of the dominance of the constructive instinct in human\nnature; when the great psychological truth is better appreciated that thru\nthese early years eyes and finger-tips are the nourishing points of intellect,\nand when the idea of motivation of all school activities has taken better\nhold of school practices.\nIt is with the second problem that this paper deals; namely, that of\nhelping and insuring the progress of children in school, so that their fourteenth birthday will find a larger proportion of them in sixth, seventh, and\neighth grades. In the solution of this problem also I believe the kindergarten to be an important factor.\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN'S\n\nRELATION\n\nTO RETARDATION\n\n625\n\nIn December, 1910, it became necessary for me to defend the kindergartens ofthe system of schools of which I have charge, from a movement\nattempted by the mayor and some of the aldermen. The need of a new\nschool building in a rapidly growing city was felt. The school board was\nurging an appropriation for the purpose. His Honor visited some of the\nschools and reported as an argument against the movement that the schools\nwere taking in babies that should be at home with their mothers, and that\nI was hiring nurses at seventy dollars a month to take care of them. His\nproposition was to turn out the kindergarten children and thus make room\nfor the others and obviate the need of a new building.\nThe thing wasn't done, of course, for effective means of defense were\nwithin reach and were immediately used; namely, an appeal to the voting\nfathers of the four hundred little children who would be affected by the\nmayor's proposed action; and, most important of all, a daily paper willing\nto publish my appeal. (By the way, I have found that when an educational\ncause gets mixed up with politics, the phrase \"voting fathers\" is a shot\nthat does great execution.)\nMy public contention on this occasion was, as it had repeatedly been\nat other times when urging communities to establish kindergartens, that\nsince, by the law of Wisconsin, a parent may demand education at public\nexpense for his four- and five-year-old children; that since a child cannot\nprofitably be started in what is commonly regarded as regular school work\nbefore the age of six years, and that to attempt this work before that age is\na waste of time, if not a positive detriment later; therefore, it is necessary\nthat these young children be provided with a sort of education adapted to\ntheir age and their needs.\nThis sort of education the kindergarten affords.\nMy further contention was (and I would not quote it here, except that\nit applies quite generally) that in a city like Kenosha where 1 1 . 8 per cent\nof the public-school children are born across the ocean, and where 52 per\ncent of them come from homes where one or both parents are foreignborn, and in a large number of which homes a foreign language is spoken,\nthe kindergarten serves another very important purpose. It puts children\nat an early age in command of the English language, so that when they are\nold enough to be taught to read they can go right ahead with it. Before\na child can be taught to read English he must be taught to understand and\nto speak English.\nThus I explained to these \"voting fathers\" why I wanted kindergartens\nfor all little children and why I was especially covetous of every little\nItalian, Bohemian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, and Croatian child of\nfour and five years; and how, by gathering these for a half-day for two\nyears under the care of trained teachers, they would at six years of age\nunderstand English and be ready to begin to read; how they would have\nquickened powers of perception, would be able to make with the hands,\nand express with the tongue, would be trained to self-control and respect\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Kindergarten\n\nfor the rights of others, and be given such a start that their fourteenth\nbirthday would find them well up in the grades.\nThis was my plea and my reasons for it. Had some hard-headed\ntaxpayer called for evidence- that six years was the best age for beginning\nfirst grade, or proof that the kindergarten start was an accelerator of school\nprogress and a saver of retardation, I could not then have produced the\nproof.\nSince that time, however, there has come to us, as all kindergartners\ndoubtless know, the convincing result of the wide study made by Leonard\nP. Ayres of the Education Division of the Russell Sage Foundation, one\nimportant phase of which was the investigation of the relation between\nentering age and subsequent progress among school children. It is, as you\nknow, a study of the membership of the eighth grades of 29 cities and\ninvolves 13,867 children. The conclusion he reaches, after a most careful weighing of his data, is that six years is the best age for a. child to\nbegin his grade work.\nWith that question settled for me by a scientifically handled investigation, Iundertook to find out by a study of my own small school system\nwhether the kindergarten really did for us the other things claimed; whether\nthose who come to the first grade at six years with kindergarten training\nmake more rapid progress than those who enter without it. This study\nmakes no pretentions to perfection, but it serves to furnish satisfactory\nproof of my assertions, and was honored by your chairman with being\nthought worthy of presentation here.\nQuestions were sent out to all first-, second-, third-, fourth-, and fifthgrade teachers. Those of higher grades than the fifth were not brought\ninto this study because of the fact that in Kenosha the kindergartens have not\nbeen in operation sufiiciently long or so generally thruout the city as to have\nrepresentatives in the higher grades in sufficient numbers for comparison.\nThe teachers were asked to classify their pupils as slow, average, and\nbright, according to general ability and progress, and then to classify under\nthese heads the number of their pupils who started with kindergarten training, and the number without it.\nSecond, they were asked to give the average age on June 30 in years and\nmonths of the children of these two classes in each of the three groups,\nslow, average, and bright.\nThird, to give the average number of years in school, since entering\nthe first grade, of those with and without kindergarten training in each of\nthe three groups.\nThe total number of children involved in this study is 1,663, of which\n925 did and 738 did not start with the kindergarten. According to the\njudgment of the 43 teachers entering into this investigation and reporting\non their respective classes, 26 per cent of the children are slow, 46 per cent\nare average, and 28 per cent are bright.\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN'S\n\nRELATION\n\nTO RETARDATION\n\n627\n\nSince, as I have already stated, the kindergartens have not been\nsufficiently general or sufficiently long established in our city to catch all\nthese children as beginners, and since children of grade age from other\nplaces are constantly entering school, it was expected that each of the three\ngroups in each grade would have its portion of those with and those without\nthe kindergarten training. In the slow and average groups these children\nare found to number respectively 54 per cent and 46 per cent of all.\nIn the bright group or those making most rapid progress, kindergarten\nchildren are 60 per cent, and those without 40 per cent.\nThis fact, that children with kindergarten training form a larger portion\nof the rapid group than of the average and slow, seems to indicate that they\nwere better equipped for the race, and so outdistanced in larger numbers\ntheir fellows.\nNext, taking up the statistics in regard to ages of the children in each\nof these three groups, a careful figuring of results shows that in each of\nthe groups, slow,, average, and bright, in all of the five school grades the\nkindergarten children are younger than the others. The difference in\naverage age varies from grade to grade, the total average difference for\nall grades being 8 . 4 months. This means that all the children with kindergarten training wherever found in the first five grades have an average\nage which is 8 . 4 months below that of all the children without such training.\nAnother question related to average number of years since beginning\nthe first grade. In view of the importance which recent school investigations are attaching to retardation, this part of my study has not the degree\nof reliability that is desirable. The card system necessary for correctness\nin such investigations, which system provides a convenient record of the\nschool histories of all school children, has not been in operation long enough\nto furnish the authentic data needed, consequently, in some instances,\nthe teachers were obliged to rely upon the memory of the child or the\nstatement of the parent. For the greater number, however, especially in\nthe three lower grades, the averages reported by teachers are essentially\ntrue.\nAssuming that the normal rate of progress is one grade a year, that at\nthe end of June, 191 2, each child completing the first grade should have\nbeen in school a year, and each child completing the second grade should\nhave been in school two years, and so on up the line, the average error,\nor amount of time over this standard, for the children in each grade was\ncomputed, the two classes, those with and those without kindergarten\ntraining, being kept separate as before. From this, an average for all\ngrades was computed.\nThis average retardation was found to be forty-two hundredths (.42)\nof a year for all children with kindergarten training and fifty-nine hundredths (.59) of a year for all children without such a start. From this\nit was readily reckoned that the 925 children of the former class were ahead\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nof where they would have been without kindergarten training by a total of\n151 years and that the 738 children without the training lost a total of 121\nyears by being thus deprived.\nWhen this saving and loss in years is expressed in money cost it takes\non more concrete signij5cance, especially with school boards. Here is a\nsituation, as Mr. Ayres says, where \"time\" is money.\nThe average cost per year of children in the Kenosha schools is about\n$23. From this unit cost it is found that by providing children kindergarten training the city has saved $3,489 on 925 such children involved in\nthis count; and that it has lost, thru the greater retardation of the 738\nchildren who had missed such training, a total of $2,783.\nThere are two sorts of arguments in favor of kindergartens which\nsuperintendents and teachers can use with school boards.\nFirst: That it is the right of every little child to have the best possible educational\nstart, and hence the duty of school oflficials to see that kindergarten privileges are afforded\nto all. Second: That it is the right of taxpayers that there be wise and economic expenditure of school money, and that, therefore, all means for diminishing retardation, and\nconsequently for lessening the cost of education, should be employed, one of these means\nbeing the kindergarten. A school board absolutely indifferent to the former of these arguments may feel some power of appeal in the latter, especially when the figures and dollar\nsign are produced.\n\nMy inquiry also contained these directions: Compare children with and\nthose without kindergarten training in these respects:\n1. Ability and willingness to sing.\n2. Ability to draw, construct, and write.\n3. Freedom in language expression.\n4. Self-control and ease to discipline.\n\nThe limits of this paper will not permit me to give residts except the\ngeneral statement that the majority of judgments favored the pupils with\nkindergarten training.\nAs a fitting close, I use an idea derived from Mr. Caffin's new book on\nThe Relation oj Art to Life, which I have recently been privileged to read\nin manuscript. The author takes the varying abiUties of an individual\nlike Michael Angelo, Franklin, Lincoln, or some lesser person, and shows\nhow each of his powers may be likened to a circle concentric with others\nabout the individual self, some with longer, some with shorter radii. He\nthen shows the analogy of this to the collective genius of mankind. Each\nhuman constituent of society has its individual capacity, cuts its own\ncircle upon its own radius about a common center.\nMr. Caffin says:\nThe scheme presents an infinity of concentric circles, embracing efforts and ideals\nof all imaginable varieties of scope, each of which is measured by the radiating individual\ncapacity; while all the diverse energies of the individual men and women have their\ncenter in a common inventive and constructive instinct.\n\nThis truth, which Mr. Caffin has enabled us better to image, the kindergarten recognizes, and imtil courses of study above the kindergarten and\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN'S\n\nRELATION\n\nTO RETARDATION\n\n629\n\nthe teachers who administer them come to a fuller realization of it, there\nwill be retardation — and retardation worse than that which means failure\nto complete a prescribed course — retardation in the more important sense\nof failure in children to reach their greatest possibilities — retardation which\nmeans the dwarj&ng of the radius of individual efficiency.\nDISCUSSION\nElizabeth Harrison, principal of Chicago Kindergarten College, Chicago, 111. — It\nis well for us that such men as Commissioner Claxton and Dean James come to us now\nand then with their clear insight into the profoundly deep significance of the thought\nwhich underlies the kindergarten. They reawaken the kind of enthusiasm which overcomes all obstacles and bums up sordid considerations. In the security which the\nkindergarten has obtained by being accepted as a part of our great public-school system\nlies the danger of our losing sight of the central idea of the kindergarten. It is more than\na sub-primary grade. It is more than an infant manual training or art department. It\nis more even than a miniature social community where each one finds his rights and\nrespects the rights of others. The fact that it prepares the child for the primary grades\nas can no individual home training has been testified to by too many grade teachers to\nneed further argument. So too the fact that it begins the training of little hands in the\nshaping and molding of the materials of the world by which the child is surrounded and\nthus awakens his interest in the processes of industry is true, and it is also true that a\nlove of beauty is awakened in his breast by the flowers and pictures, the music and song,\nthe stories and childish dramas of the kindergarten. But it has a deeper, far more important mission. It is the new view of humanity, the call of the soul for better recognition of\nits rights, that has made the kindergarten the leaven which is working in the most conservative schools, broadening and enlarging their curriculum with the living interests of\nplay, of gardening, of workshops, of excursions, of pageants, and the like activities of\nreal child life.\nWe have lived too long a separate and exclusive class. With the full realization of\nthe increased spiritual life which the true kindergarten brings, we ought to embrace every\nopportunity that is offered us to enter into new and different fields of work, and thus\nprove that it is a living, universal principle of deep significance which must be recognized\nin all of our work, not a method, nor a set of devices.\nThe great National Congress of' Mothers has asked us to come to their help in raising\nthe standards of motherhood. Are we ready and willing to do it ? If so, every kindergartner will have a mothers' club and will induce it to become a part of her state organization, the Parents and Teachers Association. We have an influence over mothers that\nteachers in the more advanced grades do not have, owing to the fact that we come into\ncloser contact with the home, and the mother of the wee tot of four keeps nearer her\nchild in his first venture into the great outside world. As a rule kindergartners have ten\ntimes as many mothers visit their schoolrooms as do the grade teachers, and are more\noften invited into the homes of their pupils. It is a great opportunity and a great\nresponsibility.\nAgain, an almost unlimited field is opening before us in the organized social service\nwork which is re-christianizing our land. Everywhere we hear the statement made that\nkindergartners make the best juvenile court assistants, inasmuch as they know how to\nappeal to and interest the reckless, wayward bo)^ or girl whose home life has not given\nhim or her a fair chance. The heads of social research work testify that the kindergartentrained woman can get nearer the solution of the problems of the causes of poverty and of\nmatrimonial unhappiness than can the well-meaning, but too reserved worker, because\nshe, the kindergartner, has the key which will always unlock the mother's heart — namely,\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Kindergarten\n\na sympathetic interest in the woman's child — and oftentimes can make suggestions which\nwill help the poor distressed woman who cannot afford money to spend on childish pleasures\nby showing her how to create homemade toys and to plan home entertainments for her\nchildren by the children themselves.\nDo we JuUy realize the greatness of the great command to go forth and preach the\ngospel, the real gospel of love and helpfulness, which has come to us with the gift of insight\nthat our kindergarten study has brought ? Of all gifts the gift of insight into the tnie\nmeaning of life, it seems to me, is the greatest. Sometimes I fear we do not appreciate this,\nelse we would not hear of kindergartners seeking easy places and high salaries. There are\nkindergartners of today who are selling their birthright to serve humanity in the highest\nway for a mess of pottage. It is because they have lost sight of the great fimdamental\nreligioixs basis of the kindergarten. When rightly considered it reveals a newer and\ndeeper interpretation of religion in that it not only accepts the doctrine that all men are\nchildren of God but proceeds to work for the unfolding of that divine inheritance by\nunderstanding and protecting every childish effort at right self-expression and encouraging\nevery loving recognition of others and the glad serving in the little commtmity — all\nGod-like traits that lift mankind out of the narrow, selfish life of personal ease.\nWhile we are here assembled has come the mighty cry from China to send over more\nkindergarten missionaries — to that long-benighted land now awakening so marvelously.\nMost of you have read the little leaflet entitled An Appeal for the Kindergarten in China.\nIn it come these significant words: \"The kindergarten movement appeals to the new\nsense of power and consciousness of ability in the Chinese women, and gives them the\nopportunity they are seeking to serve their country.\" Are we ready to answer the call ?\nIf not, let each one of us look into her own heart and ask if we are keeping there the\nsacredness and the greatness of our calling.\nW. N. Hailmann, Normal Training School, Cleveland, Ohio. — We owe much, indeed,\nto statistics. Yet, in their inferences statistics are prone to deal with externals too\nexclusively and to neglect the inner springs of life. This inner world it is difficult to\nreach under the ordinary methods of the experimenting statistician; it reveals itself only\nthru channels of sympathy. These must be kept open by the experimenter, if he would\nreach the whole truth.\nBy way of illustration, I would point to the Elementary Industrial School established\nin the fall of 1909 in Cleveland by Superintendent Elson. He found in the schools a\nnumber of retarded children in the sixth grades who, measured by the ordinary external\nstandards, were two years behind their grades, who had lost courage and had come to\n\"hate school.\"\nThe superintendent, who brought to child-study both heart and head, decided to test\nthe matter and to determine whether the children's retardation was indeed due wholly to\ntheir lack of ability. For this purpose he established the Elementary Industrial School\nand gathered into it 136 children in eight classes, five for the boys and three for the girls.\nThe school was not to be a vocational school. Industrial considerations were, indeed,\nto lead, and the so-called practical tendencies of the children were to be appealed to both\nin handwork and in academic work. At the same time, no effort was to be spared to touch\nthe deeper springs of personality and to lead them to a broader appreciation of the value\nof the work.\nDuring the fall of the second year of the school, it was my privilege to inspect its\nwork for a period of two weeks. Among other things, I requested the children of the\nadvanced classes to state to me in short letters what in their opinion the school had\ndone for them, if anything. Some of their replies were truly pathetic in their earnestnes . cannot\nI\nrefrain from reporting a few of these:\n\"This school has helped me to wish to be helpful to others, and it has taught me to\nwork so that, when I am home, I can help my mother.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIVE STOCK\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n631\n\n\" I like this school because I am of more use in the world. I learned how to be a lady.\"\n\"In the grade school I felt as if I just wanted to stop, but here the work is so interesting that I don't like to leave it.\"\nFrom the boys I cull these utterances:\n\"The lessons were so interesting that I felt as if I was taking a new hold in life. It\nhas taught me what an education means in life.\"\n\"This school has made me be more of a man; it has made me have more self-respect.\"\n\"The school has helped me to think and to get my work more easily.\"\nUpon graduation at the close of the second year, it was found that these children, in\naddition to their efl&ciency in manual and domestic work, had done a full equivalent of\nthe work of the two higher grades of the grammar school for which they had previously\nbeen deemed unfit. Thus were they rescued from despair and ruin. The inner life had\nbeen touched; purpose had been awakened and established.\nAnd this is what statistics must learn to do, before their inductions can attain full\nvalue as guides in educational practice.\nAnother important factor in gathering data for statistical purposes is the personality of\nthe experimenter. Here, as in the case of the teacher who would judge the child, it is\nneedful that he should take into account himself as an influence upon the child's reactions.\nPermit me to add a word as to the metaphor of \"concentric circles\" as applied to the\nchild's development. It seems to me an unfortunate choice. It involves a sudden jump,\nhowsoever slight, from the circumference of one circle to that of the next. And this is\ncontrary to the fairly well-established fact that growth and development are continuous.\nTheir line of expansion is distinctly spiral.\nThis is but a corollary of the law of self-activity on which all that is good and best in\nthe kindergarten is based, and which is steadily and irresistibly gaining control in every\nphase of educational work — 'the law that bids us seek the elevation of the race thru the\nchild lifted, under our ministering influence, by its own power into realization of everhigher possibilities.\n\nLIVE STOCK\nE.\n\nR.\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nDOWNING, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,\nUNIVERSITY\nOF CHICAGO,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTHE SCHOOL\nOF\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nA generation ago the child was considered a little man or a little woman\nwho only needed to grow bigger. Now we realize that the child is as dififerent from the adult as the monkey is from the child, that the evolution to be\naccomplished by the child before he reaches adult condition is a long and\ncomplicated process. We no longer try to foist on the child our adult\ninterests if we are wise pedagogs, but endeavor to find out what the child's\ninterests are and utilize them in its development.\nChildren are, as a rule, interested in animals. The teacher in the\ngrades may well make use of them and it is my purpose merely to suggest\nhow she may care for them most readily. I know from past experience\nthat the average teacher thinks it a grave task to assume the care of an\nanimal in the schoolroom. But it is a relatively easy proposition, as\nanimals thrive with little care and usually receive so much that they die of\noverfeeding or injudicious attentions. If Rosa Bonheur found it worth while\nto study the commonplace farm animals, or Landseer found the association\nof his dogs worth while, or a Kipling or a Thompson-Seton considers the\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nanimal worth a place in literature, certainly it is not beneath the dignity of\nthe kindergarten teacher and her children to study animals. The child\ncomes to school from a world of outdoor interests and it is wise to continue\nthem in his school environment.\nThe aquarium for the goldfish needs in it some aquatic plants. These\ncan be bought with the fish or may be taken from almost any pond in which\nthe water is clean. One or two small fish are enough for an aquarium that\nis ten or twelve inches in diameter. The fish food bought of the dealer\nanswers well. Rolled oats will be taken with avidity occasionally, but not\ntoo much food should be given. Only so much should be put into the\naquarium as is promptly snapped up by the fish; and feeding once a week\nis quite enough. If the plant life is kept fresh the water of the aquarium\ndoes not need to be changed.\nRabbits make admirable schoolroom pets. A box 2X2X3 feet makes\nroom enough for a pair. It may be covered with poultry netting, and a\nsmaller box with a hole in it, to be used by the rabbits as a door, should be\nput into the larger box so they may crawl into this nest whenever they\nplease. Some sawdust sprinkled in the bottom of the box will help to keep\nit tidy. The food should be of some dry material. Grain with an occasional bunch of green stuff makes the cage less objectionable than the odors\nthat arise when a good deal of succulent food is given.\nGuinea-pigs are treated in much the same way. In a similar cage one\ncan keep pigeons or ringdoves in the schoolroom and watch all stages of\ntheir life-history. A smaller cage with finer netting will serve well for\nwhite rats. These can be fed on stale bread, and given plenty of old\nnewspaper in which to burrow and make their nests.\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools\nVice-President — ^Julian C. Bryant, principal, Madison school\nSecretary — Gertrude Longenecker, State Normal School\n\nDecatur, 111.\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nSan Diego, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 19 12\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in joint session with the Department\nof Kindergarten Education in the Auditorium Theater.\n(For program and minutes see Department of Kindergarten Education.)\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 10, 191 2\n\nThe department met in the Gold Room of the Congress Hotel at 9:00 a.m., and was\ncalled to order by the president, H. B. Wilson, who said that the program of the preceding\nafternoon was of special interest to teachers in the primary grades of the elementary school,\nand that the program of the morning offered a subject of interest to all teachers of all\ngrades, the general topic being, \"The Economy of Time in Elementary Education.\"\nThe first paper, on \"The Need of Standards for Measuring Progress and Results,\" was\npresented by W. C. Bagley, professor of of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\nThe president named the following persons as a committee to nominate officers for\nthe ensuing year:\nHenry Lester Smith, superintendent of schools, Bloomington, Ind.\nF. D. Tharpe, assistant superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo.\nCharles W. Blessing, principal of School Number 7, Albany, N.Y.\n\"Suggestions from Cases of Unusually Rapid or Irregular Progress in Public Schools\"\nwas the next paper on the general topic, given by E. E. Jones, School of Education,\nIndiana University, Bloomington, Ind.\nThe discussion was led by Samuel W. Brown, of San Jos6, Cal.\nIn the absence of John Munroe, superintendent of schools, Cokato, Minn., who was\nto read a paper on \"Saving Time in the Grammar Grades,\" the department adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July ii, 191 2\n\nThe third session of the Department of Elementary Education met in the Gold\nRoom, Congress Hotel, at 2:30 p.m.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following names:\nFor President — L. D. Coffman, supervisor of training school, Illinois State Normal\nSchool, Charleston, 111.\nFor Vice-President — Livingstone McCartney, superintendent of schools, Hannibal,\nMo.\nFor Secretary — Gertrude Longenecker, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n6 3\nThe nominations were approved and the 3officers\nelected.\nThe first paper under the general topic \"The Place of Training in the Practical Arts\nin the Upper Grades of the Elementary School as a Part of the Program of General\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nEducation and Vocational Guidance,\" was presented by C. A. Prosser, secretary of the\nNational Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, New York City, and was\nentitled, \"Practical Arts and Vocational Guidance.\"\nThe discussion of Mr. Prosser's paper was opened with a paper by Frank M. Leavitt,\nassociate professor of industrial education. University of Chicago, Chicago, lU. This was\nfollowed by a paper by John C. Brodhead, assistant director of manual arts, public schools,\nBoston, Mass.\nThe informal discussion following was led by E. G. Cooley, of Chicago, HI.\nGertrude Longenecker, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE NEED\n\nOF STANDARDS\n\nW. C. BAGLEY, PROFESSOR\n\nFOR MEASURING\nRESULTS\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nURBANA, ILL.\n\nPROGRESS\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nOF ILLINOIS,\n\nThe relation of accurate standards of efficiency in teaching to economy\nof time and energy in elementary education is direct and imequivocal.\nThe careful construction of such standards will promote economy in a\nvariety of ways. In the first place, it will provide the classroom teacher\nwith a definite goal toward which to direct his efforts; and the lack of a\ndefinite aim constitutes a imiversally recognized source of waste. In the\nsecond place, it will furnish a powerful incentive to the pupil; for a standard\nof attainment that is universally accepted acquires thereby a significance\nthat incites to effort far more effectively than a standard which has back\nof it only individual or local opinion. In the third place, and most\nobviously, the construction of adequate standards will enable the supervisor\nto detect weaknesses in teaching, and either aid him in correcting these\ndefects or justify him in demanding the teacher's removal. In the fourth\nplace, such standards will provide a means of testing new methods, and will\nprevent the persistence of inadequate, wasteful, and impracticable methods\nsimply on the ground that they are \"good\" from a theoretical point of view\nand \" ought to work \" ; and, by the same token, it will be possible to estimate\nin an effective way the comparative value of different textbooks. In the\nfifth place, by means of standards, growth in the efficiency of a system of\nschools may be determined with a nicer degree of accuracy than may now\nbe attained.\nIt is in the service that standards may render to the inexperienced\nteacher that I am personally most interested. One who is engaged in\npreparing recruits for the public-school service is frequently discouraged\nand depressed by the difficulties of the task. Skill in teaching, like skill in\nany other art, can come only thru the discipline of experience. In some\narts, the discipline has been racial rather than individual: successful\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEED\n\nOF STANDARDS\n\n635\n\npractices are crystallized in complex habits which may be acquired thru the\nprocess of imitation, with some diflSculty, it is true, and yet without requiring each individual to undergo all of the struggles and failures which made\nup the thorny path thru which the art developed in the race. Typical arts\nof this type are the mechanical trades, such as carpentry and metal working,\nand certain phases of professional activity, such as surgery and dentistry.\nIn other arts, the discipline of previous generations has been concentrated\nin rules, laws, and principles which the novice may master, again with some\ndifficulty and struggle, and yet without repeating laboriously the toilsome\nsteps of discovery and trial and refinement and revision which make up the\nlong history of human achievement in the realm of accurate knowledge or\nscience. Arts of this type are represented by medicine, law, engineering,\nnavigation, and agriculture.\nThe art of teaching occupies an almost imique position among the hmnan\ncalh'ngs in that its technique can only in part be acquired by imitation, and\nin that this technique has not yet been adequately crystallized in general\nprinciples. As a result, the beginner is severely handicapped in comparison\nwith beginners in other fields of effort. The materials of education he must\nknow, but, however nearly complete his mastery of subject-matter, the\nproblem of controlling children in masses, of guiding their activities aright,\nand of passing on to them the accumulated culture of the ages, he must\nmeet and solve with very little effective help from the experience of others.\nThis condition is, to my mind, one of the most serious obstacles to the\nincreased efficiency of our school system as a whole. If Coffman's recently\npublished study of the teaching population is to be trusted, one-half of our\npublic-school teachers are twenty-four years of age or under: one-quarter\nof the total number are twenty-one years of age or under; one-half remain\nin the profession only four years or less; a large number leave after one,\ntwo, or three years of service. If Ruediger and Strayer are to be trusted\nin their study of qualities of merit in teaching, we may conclude that it\ntakes the elementary-school teacher five years of actual teaching work to\nreach a stage of maximal efficiency. The problem in the preparation of\nteachers becomes, therefore, one of reducing teaching experience to a\ntrustworthy basis, and of so formulating this experience that it may be\nreadily assimilated and applied by the beginner. The construction of\nstandards offers one means — and perhaps the most effective — of meeting\nthis need.\nOne may perhaps be pardoned for citing a personal experience as illustrative of this point. As a beginning teacher in a one-room elementary\nschool, I developed what I have since recognized as a most deceptive\nillusion of success. I believed sincerely that I was doing effective work.\nI was enthusiastic; I liked my pupils and I think that they liked me —\ncertainly they had no reason not to like me, for, as I remember it, I never\nasked them to do anything that they did not want to do. By dint of\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlEkmenUiy\n\nplaying the game aright, I got on well with my patrons. But now, as I\nlook back upon those two years, I cannot escape the con\\iction that the\ngrowth that I stimulated in my pupils was negligible, except indeed in a\nnegative direction, where it was all too pronounced.\nWhat I lacked in my own unsupervised apprenticeship was precisely\nthat definiteness of aim which standards and scales would have provided.\nI was ignorant of what should be accomplished in the way of my pupils'\ngrowth in the course of a year, a half-year, or a term; and, as a consequence,\nI accepted results far below the capacities of my pupils — and also far below\nmy own capacity to achieve had the standard been set. Thomdike's\nhandwriting scale would have been a godsend to me at that time. Courtis'\nstandards in arithmetic, I am confident, would have increased my efficiency\nduring my first term's service to a point far beyond that which I reached\nafter five years' service as an elementary-school teacher and supervisor.\nNow I am perfectly aware that a good many teachers have not been\nhandicapped in this way. But I know from my own experience in training\nteachers that a good many others suffer as I did from this lack of definite\nstandards toward which to work; and I am convinced that much of the\nwasted and ineffective effort during the first two or three years of the\naverage teacher's service can be traced to this source. Our craft experience, in other words, has not been adequately capitalized.\nAll this does not mean, of course, that we have not a certain capitalized\nexperience in education from which each generation of teachers may draw\nsome usefvd dividends. It does mean that this capital is meager in comparison vdih the magnitude of our task, and in comparison with the great\nmass of experience that has never been capitalized and never can be made to\npay dividends either because it has never been recorded or because it has\nbeen garnered without a proper control of conditions. And it is because the\nconditions imder which we work are so complicated and so difficult to control\nthat this poverty of usable experience exists.\nI have no retort to make to the critic who tells us that educational\nscience is still far from adequate to its task; we who attempt to train\nteachers know this, I think, rather more intimately than any layman can\never know it. But for the critic who, ignorant of the intricacy and complexity of our problem, has only sneers for our efforts or a contemptuous\nsmile for our claims to scientific standing, I can only say that, item for item\nof scientffic knowledge, item for item of skill crystallized in practice, our\nprofession is not to be unfavorably contrasted with many of its better\ncircimistanced sisters. It is only when we measure this knowledge and this\nskill against the background of our problem that we realize the severity of\nour handicap.\nThe earliest navigators lacked compass and chart; they had no chronometer to tell them at high noon their distance from the prime meridian;\nthey had no sextant whose reflected image of the sun would indicate their\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "•Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEED\n\nOF STANDARDS\n\n637\n\nlatitude; they had no logarithms; no knowledge of trigonometric functions;\nthey had no patent log by which they might compute their dead reckoning\nif the sun and stars failed; they had no barometer to tell of approaching\nstorms. They simply headed their boats in the direction in which they\nbelieved their port to lie, and did their human best to get there. It was a\nwasteful process, but some of them managed to get across.\nSlowly thru the centuries the science of navigation was developed and\nrefined. Compass and cross-staff and astrolabe; astronomical and trigonometric and logarithmic tables; globes and projections; great-circle\nsailing; and finally the sextant and the chronometer: these are the dots\nthat punctuate the long story of man's conquest of the sea — and between\nthese dots are the generations of men who went down to the sea in ships\nand did their best with the instruments and materials at their command.\nIt has seemed to me that there is a closer analogy between the art of\nteaching and the art of navigation than between teaching and some of the\nother professions with which it is so frequently and often so unfavorably\ncontrasted. Navigation has the advantage because its principles are now\nclearly understood. It was once confronted as we are by a problem complicated bya multitude of factors, the resolution of which seemed hopeless.\nAnd yet, one by one, the values of these irritating x's and y's have been\nslowly and laboriously determined. Education must travel by the same\nroad of patient and painstaking investigation.\nNa\\dgation deals with material forces; teaching deals with forces that\nmen for ages have looked upon as intangible, unmeasurable, and irreducible\nto formulas and equations. Some of us have even gloried in the fact that\nwe were dealing with forces that we did not understand and have found a\npeculiar consolation in the belief that they never could be understood.\nSome have felt — and sincerely enough — not only that the reduction of\nthese forces to law and order was impossible but that to attempt it was\nlittle less than sacrilegious. Happily or unhappily, this attitude has changed.\nWe have come to see that playing with forces that we do not understand\nis hardly a pastime to brag about, and that there is only Job's type of\nconsolation in putting forth effort that is barren of results. Gradually it\nis being borne in upon us that the world of mind, like the world of matter,\nis governed by law; that the progress of school children in the acquisition\nof knowledge and skill can be measured if once we learn how, and must be\nmeasured if we are to know whether we are going toward the particular\nport for which we sailed or are merely drifting with the current. We have\n'long had our educational \"aims\" but too often they have given us no aid\nbecause they have been formulated in terms too remote to connect with the\nsituation that is here and now. We are now feeling the necessity for reducing these aims to a series of mediated and subordinate and tangible ends,\nthe attainment of each of which will lead to the next. It is no longer\nsufficient to say that education must develop moral character: we must\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elemenu&y\n\nknow what habits and what items of knowledge and what ideals we must\nengender in our pupils in order that moral character may be achieved. It\nis no longer sufficient to say that the high school must prepare for life;\nthe American high school at its inception had this aim clearly and beautifully formulated, but along came someone and said:\nIf you teach your pupils this subject, and impart to them such and such information, and drill them into such and such habits, you can fit them for college.\n\nThe latter prescription was definite; the teacher, as Professor Jackson has\nsuggested, knew how to give a definite type of information and fix a definite\nset of habits fairly well; he was at a loss to know how to prepare his pupils\nfor life. It was too large an order for him, and so he did the definite thing\n— not because it was easier nor because he wanted particularly to do it, but\nbecause it was something that he knew how to do. We now see that if we\nare to realize so large an aim as fitting pupils for life, we shall have first to\nanalyze our problem into its elements, and formulate it in terms of educational products or outcomes — factors that we can describe and measure in a\nfairly definite way. So long as we speak of educational outcomes in vague\nmetaphors, or in the loose terminology of popular speech, just so long will\nthe progress of our art be governed by the blind principle of trial and error.\nThus far the work of constructing standards in education has proceeded\nin two different ways, really giving us two types of standards, both of which\nare necessary. The first tj'pe is represented by the definition of the \"unit\"\nin the high-school program of studies; agreement as to the number and kind\nof units that will be accepted for college entrance; and similar definitions\nwhich have resulted from the pioneer work of the Committee of Thirteen\nand of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.\nSimilar standardization of terminology has been proposed for higher education by the Carnegie Foundation. This type of standardizing work is\nimportant and valuable, for it clears up the confusion due to equivocal and\noverlapping terms, and paves the way for the construction of standards of\nthe second type.\nThis second type of educational standard is represented by the work of\nBinet in his scales for measuring general intelligence, of Thomdike and\nAyres in the construction of their penmanship scales, of Courtis with his\narithmetic standards, and of Hillegas with his standards of English composition. The construction of these scales means something more than a\nmere agreement among educators as to what shall be the content of certain\neducational terms. It involves a determination of what average, subnormal, and supernormal children are capable of accomplishing under given\nconditions of growth and training.\nIt is in determining and defining these norms of growth and achievement that a goodly share of our investigating and research energy may be\nprofitably expended during the next two or three decades. As yet, only the\nsurface has been touched. There is scarcely a field of educative activity in\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEED\n\nOP STANDARDS\n\n639\n\nwhich it is not possible to promote economy by determining thru careful\ninvestigation what the normal pupil may accomplish in a given time and\nconstructing standards upon the basis of these investigations. It is\nchiefly in connection with the subjects that are primarily drill or habitbuilding subjects that the pioneer work has been done. But in every subject certain habit-bases may be laid, and these bases may very profitably\nbe reduced to norms. What dates should be memorized in the study of\nhistory? What rules are either essential or valuable as outcomes of\ninstruction in grammar? What automatic bases are important in\ngeography ?\nAnd with reference to outcomes of teaching other than specific habits,\nI am not without confidence that persistent investigation will do much\nto enable us to measure teaching efiiciency far more adequately than it\ncan now be measured. Whether principles have been effectively taught —\nwhether they have been presented or developed so that the pupil not only\nunderstands them, but is also able to apply them to the ordinary situations\nof life — this we should sometime be able to test in a satisfactory and helpful\nway. Whether ideals and attitudes have really been made important and\ndynamic factors in our pupils' lives ought not to be beyond our ken as it\nusually is today.\nThe grave danger that is involved in the present keen interest in the\nconstruction of standards and norms lies, of course, in the temptation to\nforget or neglect the more intangible outcomes. Educational doctrine today\nis giving vastly more attention to habit-building processes than it did ten\nor even five years ago. In some respects, we are witnessing today, in\neducational theory, a renaissance of drill. This is distinctly a step forward,\naltho it looks at first glance like a reactionary movement. Its reactionary\nfeatures, however, are likely to be intensified by the clean-cut definiteness\nthat characterizes the new standards. It would be very easy to concentrate attention upon the standards to the detriment of the methods by\nmeans of which we bring our pupils up to the level that they represent.\nIt is obvious enough that this would be a distinctly backward step.\nIt is necessary to remember, then, that while the construction of standards isa task of paramount importance, while it is perhaps the most promising field that the scientific study of education has so far exploited, it is not\nthe only task that confronts us. If the history of our art teaches us anything, itis that nostrums, panaceas, and universal cure-alls in education are\nsnares and delusions. In a field of activity so intricate and so highly complicated as ours, it is both easy and disastrous to lose the perspective. To\nkeep this clear perspective must be our constant struggle. We must give\nup the notion of solving all of our problems in a day, and settle down to\npatient, painstaking, sober, and systematic investigation. In our craft,\nthe attitude of finality is fatal.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nSUGGESTIONS\nFROM\nCASES\nOF UNUSUALLY\nRAPID\nIRREGULAR PROGRESS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nOR\n\nE. E. JONES, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON,\n\nIND.\n\nIt is significant that in the recent scientific study of education few\nstatistical studies have been made upon the youth who show exceptional\nability in the public schools. All sorts of statistical studies of great importance have been carried on to determine quantitatively and qualitatively\nmental deficiencies of different groups of children, but, so far as the writer\nknows, no study has appeared which traces the history and development of\nexceptional children from the time they enter school until they are distributed thru promotion to the secondary schools and higher institutions\nof learning.\nThis study is a meager attempt to begin such a work. If it is important\nto know and score the intelligence of the child who at best can never attain\nto anything more than mediocrity, certainly we are warranted in undertaking an investigation which will throw light upon that class of children\nwho, by their intelligence and activity, are distinctly superior to their\nfellows. Obviously it is from this class of youth that we are to expect\nleadership rather than from any other, and if a careful survey of the actual\nproductivity of this class will reveal to us any classification of subjectmatter, any methods of gradation and promotion whereby the supernormal\nchild will come to his highest development, certainly we have hit upon a\nfield worthy of the most careful investigation.\nThe data for this study have been gotten from the records of thirty-six\ndifferent city and town systems in the Middle West. Two hundred and\nfifty-seven children of exceptional ability have been studied. The method\nof procedure was as follows:\nA personal letter was written to the superintendent stating briefly the\npurpose of the investigation, and asking his co-operation in securing all\ninformation possible concerning the supernormal children under his supervision. He was asked to provide copies of their complete records in the\nschools, both as to attendance and scholarship. He was asked to secure\npersonal statements from teachers and\" others as to the general ability of\nthese children, and if possible give all the data necessary for the accurate\ndiagnosis of each child studied. An exceptional child was provisionally\ndefined as one who had skipped at least one grade in passing from the first\ngrade in the public schools to the high school.\nObviously there were some difllculties. First, it was diflicidt to find\nfrom all the lists sent in those who had remained in the same system for\nthe period of time covered in completing the eight grades. Second, owing\nto the inadequacy of the records, the times of, and reasons for, promotions\nwere rather difficult to obtain. Third, statements of teachers concerning\nindividual children varied so greatly as to make them rather unreliable in\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRAPID\n\nOR IRREGULAR\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n641\n\ntabulating data. Notwithstanding these difficulties we were able to make\nclassifications and gradations among the exceptional children studied which\nwill throw at least some little light upon the difficult problem.\nThere has been little attempt to classify supernormal children. They\nhave usually been lumped together, forming a small node at the upper end\nof the probability curve, with little distinction among them as a group.\nThe present study, however, reveals clearly several distinct types, with\ndifferences even more marked than we are able to find in subnormal or\nnormal children. They, as a class, present more diversified interests, show\ngreater individual differences, more marked traits, and more highly specialized mental functions than any other group. One brilliant child differs\nfrom another as much as, and more than one brilliant adult differs from\nanother. This seems true because of the fact that the child's brilliancy has\nnot been dimmed by the traditionalism of school instruction, but shines\nforth in its native light. The brightness of the exceptional child's mind is\nnot determined by habits educated into his nervous system, but by inherent\nand instinctive endowments and neural connections which cannot be\nacquired at any cost of training. For these psychological and neurological\nreasons his traits are marked and distinct and superior, and we find in the\nexceptional child the most highly differentiated mental traits to be found\nanywhere in the whole gamut of mentality.\nOn the basis of the data received for this study, 257 exceptional children\nfrom thirty-six different cities and towns have been classified and grouped.\nThe grouping is necessarily rather roughly made, but it is of sufficient\naccuracy to show tendencies among such children, and is certainly as\naccurate as the ordinary classification and gradation of children in the\npublic schools. In fact it is chiefly based upon the record grades in the\nvarious systems, tho in some instances individuals were ranked higher\nor lower as the circumstances seemed to justify. Two factors usually\nentered into the ranking of these children: first, the number of years it\ntook them to complete the work of the eight grades; second, the character\nof the work done as shown by the actual records of the child. The following\nranking of these children, therefore, may be of service to teachers in\ndealing with the problem of classification of supernormal children, and\nit may serve as a tentative basis of classification for future investigators\nin this important field of experimental pedagogy.\nRank I. — Seventeen children appear in this group. They show excellent ability in all the grades and completed the eight years' work in five\nyears. It should be said of this group that each individual in it is robust\nin health, strong in mental development, and possesses many of the traits\nof true leadership. The children in this group are not always models in\ndeportment, but they possess a balance and poise of character and ambition\nto do well which steers them pretty clear from serious trouble, even tho\nthere is occasional complaint from the teachers. They are regular in\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n,\n\n[E/ementary\n\nattendance, and are usually (90 per cent of the cases) from good parents of\nthe well-to-do class, most of whom have had at least a high-school education\nor its equivalent. The children whom we have placed in this highest rank\nare a distinctly superior class of individuals. Not all of them have shown\nsuch brilliancy early in the course, but it has in every case appeared by the\ntime the child has reached the third grade, and the skips in grades are about\nevenly distributed from the third grade on. Evidently home training and\nhome inspiration have a great influence on this group. There is much\nevidence in each one of these seventeen cases that in addition to the great\nnative ability of the child there is careful parental supervision and close\nco-operation with the school authorities. Ten of these children started to\nschool at six years of age, six at seven years of age, and one at eight years\nof age. There are no visual or auditory defects in these children worthy\nof mention, and their health is uniformly good thruout the period studied.\nRank II. — Children falling in this rank show very much the same\ncharacter of ability as in Rank I, but do not appear to be quite so robust;\ntheir attendance is not always perfect, and their capacity for work is not\nso high. They all complete the eight years' work in six years. These\nchildren are highly intelligent, tho possibly they could not be counted as\nbrilliant. It is my opinion, however, that there are three or four children\nin this group who could very easily have been brought up to the equal of\nRank I, if they had not had the handicap of poor parental training and\nencouragement. Out of the 257 children I have placed twenty-four in\nRank II.\nRank III. — Fifty-six children fall in the third rank, and constitute those\nwho have completed the eight years' work in seven years. These children\nfall a little below Rank II in general ability and all-round efficiency, yet it\nmust be borne in mind that they are a supernormal class of individuals.\nIt is my opinion that as many as twelve in this group might very easily\nhave been crowded up into the second rank, if all the conditions had been\nfavorable, and one or two might possibly have foimd their way up into the\nfirst rank. One boy in this group, of superior mind, met with an accident\nwhich kept him out of school a good part of one year. He might easily\nhave fallen in Rank I had he been permitted to pursue his studies continuously, and had he received the excellent parental care of those in Rank I.\nRank IV. — This is the median group of the exceptional children studied,\nand represents eighty children possessing general ability a little lower than\nthose of Rank III, but who managed to complete the course also in seven\nyears. Their grades are not so high as the preceding group, and they do not\nshow such originality, yet they are hard workers, and at some time during\nthe period were able to skip a grade. There is a strong probability that\nquite a mmaber from this group could have been made to appear in the\ngroup above. Some of them would have distinctly fallen in the group below,\nhad it not been for the marked influence of good homes and very hard work.\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRAPID\n\nOR IRREGULAR\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\n643\n\nEvery child in this rank stands distinctly above the median of the children\nin the grades, and represents the middle class of a distinguished group of\nchildren. This group must not be confused with the median group of all\nchildren attending school.\nRank V. — Fifty-two children fall within this rank. They possess only\nfair ability, but are exceedingly careful workers, and at some time during\nthe course managed to skip a grade, completing it in seven years. This\nclass is distinctly marked and has characteristics of its own. In native\nability its members fall clearly below those in the rank above, but in point of\neffort are fully their equal. The parental inspiration too is wholesome, and\nwe see here a good illustration of the achievement of individuals of only fair\nability thru the proper training in the home, and individual effort on the\npart of the pupil. With other environmental conditions some members of\nthis group might be found in the group above or in the group below. Lacking in native ability, they are more subject to the ordinary educational\ntreatment than the groups above, and consequently do not show the distinguished traits of the preceding groups.\nRank VI. — From the 257 children studied, twenty-eight of excellent\nability are given a position of sixth in rank. They are placed so far down\nin the scale because they have evidently depended entirely upon their\nbrilliancy to carry them thru the work of the grades. They appear to be\nlazy, their attendance is somewhat irregular, and while at some time they\nhave been allowed to skip a grade, at some later time they have lost a grade,\nor had to repeat a grade or a portion of a grade. The reasons usually\nassigned to their falling-back in the latter part of the course, is that their\nformer promotion made them conceited, and thenceforth they put forth\nno effort, became less and less studious, finally failing to complete the\ncourse in less than eight years. . This group too is rather distinct and clear.\nThere is a certain type of child that cannot stand success. They may\npossess considerable brilliancy, and have great power of concentration and\nefl&ciency at times, but there are lapses, and on the whole the lack of continuity inthe effort brings them to a position not above the average of the\nregular students in the grades, who complete the course in eight years.\nRank VII. — Only seven children out of 257 are placed in this lowest\nrank. They have good ability, and in certain traits are really very superior,\nranking possibly as high as the second or third groups, but as a usual thing\nare poor workers. The only claim that the children of this group can have\nfor being above the normal is that they too have all skipped a grade at one\ntime or another in the grades. Either thru the partiality of the teachers,\nor thru an extraordinary spurt on their part, they have achieved this one\ndistinction, but this achievement has been more than counteracted by the\nfact that they have all fallen back a grade at least, and some of them as\nmuch as two grades, consuming nine years to complete the eight years'\ncourse. This group represents a clear case of dissipated effort and wasted\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|£Iementary\n\nenergy. They have plenty of ability to have ranked as high as the second\nor third groups, but indifference and lack of concentrated effort brings them\nto the bottom of the scale.\nIt is only proper to say that the effort to rank all these children correctly\nmet with great difficulty.. Coming from different school systems with\ndifferent standards of scoring made the problem rather perplexing at times.\nHowever, the different systems of scoring were reduced to a common\nstandard, by which each individual child was measured, and it is thought\nthat the individuals are placed approximately within the groups to which\nthey belong. At least the individuals are as accurately placed in the scale\nas they would be in any of the systems to which they belong.\nThe educational suggestions from the above study seem quite obvious.\nWe have here at the upper end of the curve of distribution a distinct node\nof intelligence and ability to which we have given little attention in times\npast. Educational procedure is arranged for the average child, and the\nsupernormal is made to conform to this average as nearly as possible.\nThis is done very largely for economic reasons. From the data in this study\nit is evident that we are now confronted with several problems. I suggest\nthem merely as problems, because at the present time there is no solution\nat hand, and there is little evidence that educators see the full significance\nof the problems in the education of a democracy.\nI. There is a great economic problem involved in the provision of adequate instruction\nfor all of these ranks of exceptional children. Education in a very few years will cost\ntwice as much as at present; hence the economic problem is probably the first one to\nbe solved.\nII. There is a distinct problem in the correct training of teachers who will be qualified\nto teach such children. Obviously the ordinary grade teacher who is professionally trained\nfor the great average of childhood is unqualified for such work. There should be developed\na teaching class exceptionally qualified to deal with brilliant children.\nIII. The problem of the readjustment of the course of study to meet the needs of\nbrilliant children has hardly been touched by first-class thinkers and experimenters.\nHere is one of the most fruitful fields for experimental pedagogy.\nIV. Seventy-two per cent of all students in the first four ranks are girls, and 63\nper cent of the students in the three lowest ranks are boys. Here then is a distinct\nboy problem. As was indicated above, many of the ones ranking low were thus placed,\nnot because of lack of ability, but because of lack of effort. This is notably true of the\nboys. The method of instruction and the content of the course of study should be\nmodified so that the boy who ranks seven may be made to rank two or three or four\nbecause he has a profound interest, and all of his powers are employed. The data that I\nhave show that the course of study is feminized, as well as the teaching force. It is\ntime that we analyze the course of study from the sex standpoint and give each sex\nwhat it needs.\nV. It is my judgment that university schools of education and boards of education\nand private endowments should establish elementary schools for exceptional children,\nwhere they can be under the most careful statistical study for a series of years. It is\nonly by such means of experimentation that we can hope to reach scientific conclusions\nupon the question of the education of the brilliant child.\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmmt]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS AND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n645\n\nIn conclusion I should say that we are under the deepest educational\nobligation to this distinguished group of children. From it must come our\ngreatest thinkers and greatest workers. There must be adequate provision\nfor all the different ranks of intelligence among this superior class, if they\nare fully to express themselves in intelligent reactions to society. Education\nin a democracy means the functioning of the school completely for every\nchild of every rank.\n\nPRACTICAL ARTS AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE\nC. A. PROSSER,\n\nSECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE\nOF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nPROMOTION\n\nIn spite of all the other excellent things which our public-school system\ndoes for childhood, most boys and girls leave the portals of the schoolhouse\nto enter all kinds of wage-earning occupations not only untrained but\nundirected as to what they ought to do in life.\nMore than 6,000,000 boys and girls between fourteen and eighteen years\nof age are employed in various ways in this country. This does not include\nthe additional army of children in some of the southern states leaving school\nat the tender age of twelve. During the present year at least 2,000,000\nmore childish wage-earners upon reaching the age of fourteen will enter the\nranks of industry. More than seven out of ten of this multitude did not\nfinish the work of the elementary school. More than three out of four of\nthem did not reach the eighth year of the schools, and more than one out of\ntwo the seventh year. Almost half of them had not completed the fifthgrade work. Great numbers of them were barely able to meet the test for\nilliteracy necessary in order to secure working certificates which in most of\nthe states is a test on the work of the fourth grade.\nThese children not only entered life deficient in the elementary-school\neducation which our day regards as being necessary to the civic intelligence\nand thie vocational efficiency of everyone, but practically all of them had\nbeen trained by a formalized process in the things of the books alone, which\ngave them no opportunity to find what they would like to do and what\nthey were best able to do in life. Practically all of them went to work\nwithout proper vocational direction and guidance. All of them found the\ndoors of most of the skilled and desirable industries closed to them until\nthey should become sixteen years of age.\nSince they must work somewhere, most of these childish wage-earners\nfind their way largely by accident into low-grade skilled or unskilled\noccupations — the great child-employing industries and enterprises which\nare always wide open at the bottom to receive young workers but closed\nat the top so far as permanent desirable employment is concerned. Here\nbecause their work lacks purpose and hope they drift about from one position\nto another, changing in some states, it is said, from one unskilled position\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nto another on an average once every four months. The resulting moral\ndegradation to the child and the tremendous cost to the employer due to\nthis indifferent, unstable, fluctuating service cannot be estimated. For\nmost of these children the years from fourteen to sixteen spent in wageearning in store and shop and factory are wasted years, since they find\nthemselves at sixteen in the same position as at fourteen — starting life\nwithout any adequate preparation for wage-earning. Their menial,\nmonotonous, more or less automatic work not only gives no skill which will\nbe useful to them in after-years but also arrests rather than develops\nintelligence and ambition.\nOut of the great army of children who leave the schools at fourteen to\ngo to work and get from those schools no further attention come the ne'erdo-wells, the loafers, tramps, gamblers, prostitutes, and criminals, for whose\ncare the state spends more money in penal and correctional work than it\nwould have cost to have prevented, thru proper vocational guidance and\ntraining, many of them from becoming a burden and menace to society.\nIn the absence of any work in the elementary schools which discovers\nthe taste and ability of children, many pupils after receiving the gradedschool diploma elect the high school when it does not give the training which\nis best suited to their needs and to the kind of work they are to do in the\nworld. They do this largely because they have not found themselves and\nhave not come to realize either the kind of work which they are destined\nto do or the kind of training which would best prepare them for it.\nAll boys and girls are, in the neighborhood of fourteen years of age,\nrequired to make a choice of some kind. They decide first of all whether\nthey are to attend school longer or go to work. If they are to attend school\nthey must decide what kind of school they are to enter. As vocational\nschools, or departments, are established to meet the needs of those who are\nnot destined for business and professional careers, every pupil ought, as the\nresult of his previous training, to be in a position at fourteen years of age\nto make an intelligent choice of the occupation which he desires to follow\nor the kind of training which he wishes. This can be done only by some\nsystem of instruction in the upper grades of the elementary schools which\nwill test pupils out by other things in addition to arithmetic, spelling,\nreading, writing, and other traditional subjects of a general education.\nThe results of our failure thru the schools properly to direct and train\nall the children of all the people for usefid service are unmistakable.\nMisfits in all vocations confront us everywhere. Many workers are\ninefl&cient because they are not adapted to the work they are doing and\nsome because they have not been properly prepared for it. This lack of\nefficiency constitutes a permanent handicap not only to the worker but to\nthe calling which he follows. It means lessened wage, imcertain employment, failure of promotion, economic struggle, waste in the use of material,\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n647\n\npoor workmanship, reduced output, and the lowering of the standards of\nskill and workmanship of American industries.\nWe talk much today of the necessity of conserving our natural resources.\nLet us not forget that the richest asset which this country possesses is the\npractical and constructive ability of the children who sit in our schoolhouses today and who are to be the workers and the leaders in industry of\nthe future and whose talent and aptitude, whatever it may be, can be\nuncovered only by some system of training within the schools that will give\nit a chance for expression. Every consideration requires that every worker\nshould have a chance to discover and to develop to the full all his possibilities, both for the good of himself and for the welfare of the social\norder. It is idle for us to talk much about conserving our natural resources\nuntil we have by a system of vocational guidance and training developed a\ntype of intelligent, skilled workman in shop and home and farm who will\nso deal with the products of our soil and our mines as to eliminate waste\nand transform them into products of higher and still higher value.\nAbove all, we must in some way secure a better adjustment of every\nworker to the calling in which he can work most successfully, so that he\nmay have the joy that comes from a sense of achievement, and experience\nthe uplift that blesses every man who finds himself employed at a task in\nwhich he is interested and at which he is able to render a service creditable\nto himself and beneficial to his fellows.\nVocational guidance and vocational education are necessary in meeting\nthe problem of fitting the great mass of our people for useful employment.\nEach is the handmaiden of the other and each is indispensable to the\nsuccess of the other. This paper will confine its attention largely to the\nquestion of how vocational guidance may be best given boys and girls at\nfourteen years of age.\nTwo things are necessary in any successful program of vocational\nguidance: a greater knowledge of the child than we have thus far obtained\nthru the work of the schools, and the close co-operation of agencies other\nthan the schoolmaster in the attempt to give advice and counsel to the child\nas to his choice of a life-work.\nNo vocational counselor, however competent and however devoted,\nwill be able to deal with most children at fourteen years of age unless he\nknows more about their taste and ability than the fact that they have\nmade this or that percentage in spelling, reading, arithmetic, geography,\nhistory, and other public-school subjects. Such a record may determine\nwhether or not the child is destined for high school and for college; it does\nnot at all reveal the other tendencies and capabilities of most pupils. It is\nequally true that the vocational counselor must, if he would be successful,\nlearn how to secure in some way the active, helpful co-operation of laymen\ndrawn from many different walks and occupations in life who will be able\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nto give him and those children with whom he deals the benefit of the\nexperience which they have had and serve as big brothers and big sisters in\nthe task of helping the adolescent boy and girl to find themselves.\nThe greater knowledge of the child which we need to have in order to\ngive vocational direction is to be obtained only by some system of training\nwithin the schools the children between twelve and fourteen years of age\nwhich shall help us to find out what they would like to do and what they\nare best able to do.\nUnder the comparatively simple and primitive conditions of farm and\nvillage life of an earlier day, the experiences the child went thru in his\nenvironment on the farm and in the village imcovered his interests and his\nability largely without the aid of the schoolroom. The little red schoolhouse on the hill still tested him in the things of the book; his environment\ntested him in the things of life.\nThe boy came in contact with a round of activities which were distinctively educative to him in the practical affairs of life. He sowed while\nthe father plowed. On rainy days he tinkered with the farm machinery\nin the bam. When he was not able to repair it, he took it to the village\nhard by and helped, in a humble way, the artisan there to do the work. In\nthe village he came into rather intimate contact with the work of the blacksmith, the wheelwright, the saddler, the carpenter, the shoemaker, and all\nthe other skilled trades which the community afforded.\nOut of this experience with the realities of things, certain undoubted\nbenefits came to the boy. The experiences he went thru were distinctively\neducative to him. He learned to do many things by doing. He touched\nthe realities which in themselves gave insight and power. There can be no\ndoubt that the success which the Uttle red schoolhouse was able to obtain\nwith its term of school, its inadequate facilities, its poor teachers, measured\nby our modern standards, was largely due to the fact that the pupils came\nto the school with a background of life-experience and a knowledge of the\nthings which the book only photographed and symbolized, which inspired\nthem in a short time and under unfavorable conditions to master the\nthings of the book.\nThis experience was distinctively socializing. The boy came in an\nelementary way to understand the trials and difficulties, and achievements,\nworkmanship, and ideals of the artisan. No matter what he became in\nafter-life — the judge on the bench, a lawyer at the bar, a doctor driving\nlonely roads at night, a teacher in the schoolroom, an artisan following one\nof the trades which his community needed — he carried into his life-work a\nsympathetic understanding and appreciation of the work of his fellows that\nrendered him measurably more capable in his own and bound him and them\ntogether in a bond of appreciation and understanding.\nOut of this work came a very sensible vocational guidance. The father\nand the boy and the neighborhood came to know what the boy was interested\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n649\n\nin and where his largest success would be made. With the doors of the\ntrades opening up before him at the close ot his elementary schooling, he\nwas able to choose and to follow in content and with success the work for\nwhich he was best fitted.\nIt should be said by way of passing that this elementary experience\nduring his childhood days with the tools and processes of different occupations, particularly the one in which he became interested, gave him considerable elementary preparation and understanding of the work which he\nwas to follow and was a distinct benefit to him in mastering it in a more\nserious and thorogoing way when he came to his adolescent years.\nIt seems clear to all of us that, under the conditions of modern life, the\nopportunity of the boy to secure such real experiences outside the school\nhas, to a very great extent at least, disappeared. Trades have become\nfactoryized. Large-scale production not only has taken the ownership of\ntools from the worker but has harnessed him as a machine-hand to one\nmachine under the shop roof where he may serve all his days in carrying\non one process, making one small part of the finished output of the establishment. Seldom, if ever, does the boy of tender years have an opportunity\nto get beyond the factory gate to even witness the work which is being\ncarried on behind it.\nChildren have become herded together in great cities; the population\nis becoming more and more urban; children live huddled together in\napartment houses; even playgrounds are difficult to secure. The school\nterm has been lengthened from four months to ten and the pupils are being\ncrammed and saturated with the facts of the book, which at best are only\nphotographs or summations of the life-experience denied most of them.\nOf course, children do have life-experience, but it is the experience of the\nsuperficial observer of rapidly changing phenomena around them and not\nthe kind with which in former days they had an opportunity to come into\nintimate contact and in which they were able to participate actively with\nbrain and with hand.\nAll the arguments that are being used today to show the necessity of\nvocational direction and guidance for children facing the complexities of\nour modern industrial and commercial life point at the same time to the\nneed of securing for children in some way the kind of life-experience, before\nthey become fourteen years of age, which will give some basis upon which\nthey, and those guiding and directing them, may deal intelligently with the\nproblem of placing them in proper schools, of giving them proper training,\nand of placing them in the callings of life for which they are best suited.\nIf it be admitted that practical experience with the realities of things\nis a necessary part of the training of the child between twelve and fourteen\nyears of age, and if it be admitted further that under modern conditions it\nis not possible for the child to secure this training as he should in his environment outside the school, then the duty and responsibility rest upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nschool as the agent of the state for the welfare of childhood to give it under\nthe school roof.\nThere is a sense in which it may be truthfully said that to a very great\nextent in the past the result of the training of the elementary school, and of\nthe high school as well, has been to select by elimination, closing the door\nfrom time to time by a system of tests and examinations against all those\nwho were not able to respond successfully to the kind of studies that were\nbeing ofifered in the schools and to the demand upon the capacity of the\nchild in dealing with abstractions. More and more, in our theory of the\nAmerican public-school system, we are swinging around to the idea that\nit is to be the mission of the schools in the future to select by testing and\ntraining — to adjust boys and girls for life by having them undergo varied\nexperiences in order to uncover their varied tastes and aptitudes and to\ndirect and to train them in the avenues for which they display the most\ncapacity.\nSuch a program as this would require a differentiation of the course of\nstudy for pupils between twelve and fourteen years of age. The amount\nof difference in the course of study for different kinds of pupils in any given\nschool system would of course depend upon the size of the city, the extent\nof its resources, the size of the building, the number of different groups of\npupils dealt with, and the size of each group.\nIn a city of 50,000 people, the usual elementary school might well offer\nfor the seventh and eighth years a high-school preparatory course, a commercial course, a household arts course for girls and a practical arts course\nfor boys. All the pupils from these different groups could well take in the\nsame classes, if necessary, the same work in English, history, civics, music,\ndrawing, penmanship, physical training, which would occupy at least half\nof a lengthened day in the schoolroom. They would separate from each\nother for different work in the lines in which they were being tested.\nPupils in the high-school preparatory course, who were in it because it\nwas already determined that they were to go to high school and to college,\ncould take courses in elementary algebra and in a foreign language. The\nelementary algebra would be as good, or better, training to meet the demands of the high school as any other course. The foreign language could\nthen be taken up at a time when the child was better prepared to deal with\nit. It is a weU-known fact that one of the great diflGiculties in the teaching of foreign languages in the high schools is that pupils take them at a\ntime when the language instinct is at the ebb rather than at the flow.\nPupils taking the commercial course would be those who were going\nout to commercial life at fourteen or going into the commercial department\nof the regular high school, or going out to the private commercial college,\nor who intended after the regular high-school course to fit themselves to\nenter business life. These should take in the differentiated work rich\ncourses in the keeping of simple accounts, commercial arithmetic, com-\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n651\n\nmercial geography, and probably be given some elementary experience in\nhandling a typewriter. Such commercial arithmetic and geography is\njust as good as any which the schools have ever oiBfered, and, because it\nappeals to the interests of these pupils, is better than any other.\nGirls taking the course in household arts between twelve and fourteen\nwould be girls who were going out to the factory to spend, on the average,\nsix years before taking up home-making in their own homes, or girls who\nwere going home at fourteen to stay with mother, or girls who were going\nto the high school for a year or two and then going home to await marriage,\nor girls who expected to take the household arts training offered by the\nregular high school. These should have rich courses, in a lengthened day,\nin cooking, with the how and the why of the work; sewing and hat-trimming\nwith the how and why; sanitation and hygiene of the home; household\ndecoration; and some little elementary experience in the problem of the\ncare of the sick.\nBoys wanting the training in practical arts would be boys who at\nfourteen were going to make a choice of some wage-earning occupation,\nor who were going to enter some industrial or trade school, or who were\ngoing to take the manual-training work in a regular high school or enter a\ntechnical high school. These should have rich courses in the practical arts,\nwith the how and the why of the process given whenever possible, industrial\narithmetic, industrial geography, and elementary drawing closely related\nto the work which they were doing in the shop.\nThe high school claims that what it wants is trained minds rather than\nany particular content or book experience leading up to its work. If this\nbe true, then any one of these courses is as good a preparation, at least for\nthe general course in the high school, as any other course of instruction.\nPupils taking any one of these courses who should decide after graduating\nfrom the elementary school that they wished to attend the regular high\nschool would be in as good a position as any other pupils to take its work.\nSo far as \"the door of opportunity\" leading out to the regular high school\nis concerned, they would not be injured, to say the least, by the kind of\nelementary-school experience which they had received.\nNor is there any reason why between the ages of twelve and fourteen a\nflexible arrangement of the school program should not permit the pupils\nin any one of these courses to receive some experience in some of the other\ncourses as a test of their interest and their capacity.\nIt goes almost without saying that after such an experience in the\nupper grades of the elementary school, boys and girls upon graduating\nwould be in a position to face either some calling or further schooling, much\nbetter prepared to make an intelligent choice of what they should do than\nthey can be under the present school regime, thru which many of them come\nto know only that they have or have not been able to respond successfully\nto the tests which have been set up in the academic work.\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "6S2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nWhere courses in the practical arts, including the household arts, are\noffered in the seventh and eighth years of the work, the administration\nshould be so flexible as to permit boys and girls twelve years of age, who\nwere retarded in their work so that they had not reached the seventh year\nof the course, to receive the benefit of the instruction irrespective of the\nquestion of where they might be located in the graded schools. This\ntraining in the practical arts would probably be of more benefit to retarded\nboys and girls than to any other. Practically all of them will leave school\nat fourteen years of age, or seek to enter an industrial school. They must\nmake a choice of some wage-earning occupation. They need perhaps most\nof all to have such experience between twelve and fourteen years of age\nas will help them when they reach the close of the period of compulsory\neducation to make an intelUgent choice of an occupation. Every experience\ngoes to show that these retarded boys and girls who were not able to\nmeasure up to the things of the book are able to learn by doing. When\nthey are taught such subjects as spelling and arithmetic in connection\nwith the work which they are doing with their hands, they are able to\ngrasp them much better because they are being taught on the basis of the\nactual experience which they are receiving.\nThis paper will from this point direct its attention entirely to the\nquestion of training in the practical arts for boys between twelve and\nfourteen years of age. If this training in the practical arts is to help boys\nto find themselves in order that at fourteen they may make an intelligent\nchoice of their work for the future, it must be varied. A course in wood\nworking, excellent as it may be, only reveals whether or not the boy responds\nto it with his interest and his aptitude. A course in metal working alone\nwill determine only whether or not he is adapted to that work. A course\nin printing alone shows whether or not he has any tendency toward the\nprinter's trade. What we need is not a course in wood working, or a course\nin metal working, but an organization of training in the practical arts\nduring the seventh and eighth years which will include experiences drawn\nfrom many different fields of employment, such as wood working, metal\nworking, electrical working, printing, book-binding, leather working, clay\nworking, gardening. These should not be known as courses at all, but\nshould consist of a series of jobs, projects, enterprises, tasks — call them\nwhat you will — taken some from one field and some from another. The\nprogress of the boy thru the school in a given year should be stated in terms\nof a series of experiences, some of them in wood, some in metal, some in\nprinting, some in electrical work, etc.\nThe boy should follow these as a series of carefully graduated experiences, each one being taken up when, as the result of his previous training, he\nwas able to deal with it. The work might be arranged so that he would give\nhis time in the shop for a certain period, a month or so, to wood, then to\nmetal, then to electrical work, then to printing, etc. It is believed, however,\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n653\n\nthat the best results would be secured by having him assigned jobs from\ndifferent fields rather indiscriminately, a job in metal working following\none in wood; a job in electrical work following one in printing These shop\ntasks he should follow individually rather than as a member of a group.\nThere is no reason why all the pupils in the class should be working upon\nthe same kind of a job at the same time nor that they should be working\nupon different jobs from the same field of industry at the same moment.\nA course of training in the practical arts like that described above\nwould require a varied rather than an extensive equipment. Instead of\nduplicating tools and machines so as to provide every pupil with a carpenter's bench, every pupil with a case of type, every pupil with a lathe,\nevery pupil with a doorbell and battery, just a few pieces of equipment,\nrequisire in order to give the boy experience in any occupation, would be\nnecessary, the pupils being taught individually and being shifted about so\nas to permit the varied equipment of the shop to keep them all busy at\ndifferent tasks. The total cost of the equipment necessary to do this\nwould certainly not be any more, and would probably be less, than that of\nthe present method of duplicating pieces in order to teach pupils by the\ngroup method.\nSome cities have some of their ward or elementary school buildings\nlocated near each other. Where this is true, it would be possible to secure\nvaried experience in different practical arts for boys by having each one of\nthese buildings devote its attention to arts or lines of employment different\nfrom that to which each of the other buildings g£tve its attention. By\nshifting the pupil for a portion of his day or year from one building to\nanother, these buildings thru co-operation could secure training in varied\nactivities for the boys.\nIf the interest and capacity of the boy is to be properly tested, the\nexperience which he receives in the school shop should be made as real as\npossible. This means that the instructor in charge of the work should have\nat least some elementary knowledge of the industry dealt with. For the\npurposes of this pre-vocational training, he need not be a journeyman or\nmaster of the calling, but he should have had a suflScient contact with it to\nbe able to bring some of its atmosphere into the schoolroom. There are\nprobably some excellent instructors in manual training for boys in this\ncountry today who are women, but the burden of proof rests upon him who\nproposes a woman as teacher of the practical arts for boys to show she has\nhad such experience and possesses such ability as to render her an exception\nto the general presumption that the teachers of this work should be men.\nThe work should be carried on as nearly like the actual shop as possible,\notherwise the experience lacks reality. This does not at all mean that in\nthe instruction an attempt should be made to reach shop standards of\nworkmanship. In the earlier days, boys had an opportunity to tinker in\nan elementary way at different occupations.\nThe work was valuable to\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthem not because shop standards were reached but because they had an\nopportunity thru it to find out whether they responded to it. The aim of\nthe work should not be large skill but life-experience. Ideals of workmanship for the boys in the shop are good, and to some extent necessary, but\nthey should not be inculcated thru refined work on a few limited tasks to\nthe point of defeating the larger aim of helping the boy to find himself.\nAt the best, it will be impossible for the school to make this work in\npractical arts so real as to present to the child the work as it is carried on\nin the industry. Every place where the local community has the work\nwhich is being done in the school carried on in a shop or factory, arrangements should be made to have the boy visit the establishment and secure\nan opportunity under favorable conditions to see grown men carrying on\nthe work on a large scale which he is attempting to do as a boy would do it\nunder the school roof. In this way the manufacturing establishments,\nshops, and farms of the community would be made to co-operate with the\nschool in bringing the boy into contact with the work of the world so that\nhe might choose from it that which he was best adapted to pursue.\nPupils should be taught individually rather than by the group method.\nThe work should be put on a productive rather than on an exercise basis.\nThe shop should make useful things to be utilized by the school or by the\nschool system. Every experience goes to show that boys are much more\ninterested in making things which are to be used in the school system and\nthru which the boy is conscious of the fact that he is contributing something\nthat is socially useful than they are in making a tabouret for sister's parlor.\nSomewhere in the course there should be work done by the boy that\nsmacks of the time element and ways of the shop outside. Where pupils\nmake parts of things, all should get an experience both in making parts\nand of assembling those parts into the finished product.\nThe experience which the boy undergoes in the shop should be made\neducative for him. He should do there something more than merely use his\nhands. On every job which he performs, every opportunity should be used\nto have him do whatever drawing, arithmetic, spelling, and even composition work will enable him to do the job better and to gain power in the\nuse of related academic work.\nSuch a program would not be a difficult or complicated one were it not\nso totally at variance with the present practice of the schools. The large\nresults to be obtained from the work justify its introduction, tho a more\nflexible administration of both academic and manual-training work in the\nseventh and eighth years would be necessary. It seems certain that to\ncarry out such a program more time would have to be given for manual\ntraining, or training in the practical arts, than at present. This might be\nsecured by the substitution of such work for other required subjects. It\nwould probably best be secured by lengthening the school day. Advocates\nof the lengthened school day point out that if pupils gave half their time to\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n655\n\nactual work with their hands rather than to close attention to books, a\nlonger school day would not only not be burdensome but would be beneficial\nto them physically as well as otherwise.\nIt is certain that if we are to accomplish anything worth while in\nworking with the hands with children between twelve and fourteen years\nof age, we must give more time to the work in the program than the average\nof fifteen or twenty minutes per day which in most cases is allotted the\npractical work, and which gives it only the same importance in the course\nas music and spelling. We need wider experience and training for the\ninstructors. Wood working and metal working have been the only lines\nof training for which they have been prepared in our schools. They need\nnot only preparation for different lines of work in the schools but a wider\nand more intimate contact with other lines of industry. In order to\nattract desirable teachers to the work who will be willing to make such\npreparation and secure such experience, there should be more salary for the\ncapable. Above all, there needs to be in all quarters a greater recognition\nof the place and value of training in the practical arts in the elementary\nschools, both for its educative benefit to the pupils and as an indispensable\npart of any successful attempt to give proper vocational guidance and\ndirection to the adolescent.\nIt is not denied that the program set out above raises some problems\nnew in character, doubtless some that are difficult of solution from the\nadministrative standpoint, which cannot be discussed in detail here. I am\nattempting to set forth some of these in a printed sheet, which has been\ndistributed in this meeting, under the heading:\nSOME\n\nQUESTIONS\n\nFOR SOLUTION\n\n1. Should all children of twelve to fourteen years of age be required to take some\ntraining in the practical arts ?\n2. What difference in amount and kind should be made in the training as between\nthose strongest in book work and those strongest in manual work ?\n3. Should this training in the practical arts be restricted to those who have reached\nthe seventh grade at twelve years of age, or should all children, even if they are retarded\nin their work, who need the work be given it ?\n4. How much experience in an industry or occupation should an instructor have in\norder to teach it as a part of pre-vocational training in the practical arts ?\n5. What changes should be made in the preparation of teachers of manual training\nin the practical arts as now given in order to fit them properly to carry on such training\nas shall serve effectually as a part of a program of pre-vocational guidance and education ?\n6. How may teachers of practical arts in the upper grades of the elementary schools\nsecure necessary experience in lines of industry or occupations with which they are expected\nto deal ?\n7. What should be the time allotment given to training in the practical arts?\n8. What are the kinds or types of jobs or experiences or enterprises from each of the\npractical arts, such as gardening, metal working, wood working, electrical working,\nprinting, book-binding, cement working, clay working, that the schools should give ?\n9. To what extent should the school add to the list of practical arts others carried on\nby the local community ?\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "6S6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\n10. How can the instructors in the practical arts aid in giving proper vocational\nguidance and direction to pupils ?\n11. What should the school authorities do with the output of the work in the practical\narts?\n12. What are the working programs for such training in the practical arts for those\nof twelve to fourteen which seem best for typical or representative school units in cities\nand towns of varied and given population ?\n13. Should the school day be lengthened in order to give the training, or can it be\ngiven in the present school day by substituting it for some work now required ?\n14. If proper time allotment is secured by substitution, in place of what other work\nshould it be offered ?\n15. To what extent should this school training in the practical arts be supplemented\nby visits to places in the community where they are being practiced commercially ?\n16. To what extent should the job or enterprise be used as the means, or center, or\ncore of instruction of the boy in related arithmetic, drawing, English, geography,\ncivics, etc. ?\n17. What would be the best equipment for a two-year course of training in the\npractical arts, for a group of twenty boys, in which the jobs or experiences of the pupil\nwere drawn from a number of different occupations or employments ?\n18. From what practical arts should the experiences be drawn for a course of training\nas a basis for the vocational guidance of girls; and what would be the best equipment for\nsuch a course in meeting the needs of a group of twenty girls ?\n19. To what extent, by co-operation between different elementary-school buildings\neach equipped to give work in only one or two practical arts, could pupils be interchanged\nfor a part of the day so as to give them varied experience in activities drawn from a niunber of different arts ?\n20. How may we best impress school authorities with the great educative as well as\nsocial and economic value of the right kind of work in the practical arts for children\ntwelve to fourteen years of age so that it may cease to be a mere appetizer for academic\nactivities and be given its proper place and opportunity in the work of the school ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrank M. Leavitt, associate professor of industrial education. University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111. — It is obvious that the program suggested by Mr. Prosser cannot be carried\nout without differentiating educational opportunities, purposes, and methods at a somewhat earlier point in the school system than that which has been commonly accepted as\nthe established point of divergence; that is to say, earlier than the beginning of the so-called\nhigh-school period. This fact, that children must decide, or must have decided for them,\nthe question as to which of the several paths shall be taken when they reach, let us say, the\nbeginning of the seventh grade, forms the storm center of argument between those who\ncontend for or against the admission into the elementary school of vocational courses or\nvocational motives. The opponents of such a procedure maintain that nothing so sordid\nas the problems of earning a living should be imposed upon the immature children found\nin this grade. The advocates believe that the earning of a living has become by this\ntime, for many children, a matter of vital and immediate concern and that this vocational\nmotive must be employed to stimulate interest in education in general if we are to retain\nin the school beyond the compulsory school period a very considerable proportion of our\nboys and girls.\nIt is my purpose, in discussing Mr. Prosser's paper, to enlarge a little on this one\nfeature of the plan — the necessity for promoting this differentiation of purpose and\nmethod in the upper elementary grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n657\n\nDifferentiation is necessary because, as we come nearer and nearer to the realization\nof our dream of universal education, we are forced to substitute, to some extent at least,\nthe popular ideal of education for the philosophical.\nThe late Professor William James, in speaking of the newer conception of psychology,\nand its influence on educational thought, long before the specific question which we are\nnow discussing became acute, stated the matter with great clearness:\nAn old historic divergence of opinion comes in here. Popular belief has always\ntended to estimate the worth of a man's mental processes by their effects upon his practical\nlife. But philosophers have usually cherished a different view. \"Man's supreme glory,\"\nthey have said, \"is to be a rational being, to know absolute and eternal truth. The uses\nof his intellect for practical affairs are, therefore, subordinate matters. The theoretic life\nis his soul's genuine concern.\" Nothing can be more different in its results on our personal\nattitude than to take sides with one or the other of these views and emphasize the practical\nor the theoretical ideal. In the latter case, abstraction from the emotions and passions\nand withdrawal from the strife of human affairs would be not only pardonable, but\npraiseworthy, and all that makes for quiet and contemplation should be regarded as\nconducive to the highest human perfection. In the former the man of contemplation\nwould be treated as only half a human being and passion and practical resource would\nbecome once more glories of our race, a concrete victory over this earth's outward p)Owers\nof darkness would appear an equivalent for any amount of passive spiritual culture, and\nconduct would remain as the test of every education worthy of the name.\nTheoretically the philosophical ideal should enable us to determine what constitutes\nthe best education. This best education would then become the uniform and eventually\nthe universal education. The popular ideal, however, absolutely requires that we seek\nto establish diversity of educational opportunity corresponding to the diversity of the\n\"practical\" needs and capacities of \"all the children of all the people.\"\nThe demand which is being made for this diversity of educational opportunity is\nfrequently accompanied by severe criticisms of the schools as they are. I am not one who\nbelieves that these criticisms are justifiable. I am confident that our schools were never\nbetter than today and that it would be difficult indeed to make the best schools more\nsatisfactory than they now are for those children who progress happily from grade to\ngrade, succeeding with all their studies, regular and special — art, literature, science; and\nstimulated and interested by all their activities, manual, physical, aesthetic, and social.\nI can hardly imagine how anything could be devised which would develop in such children\nmore ability, resourcefulness, and adaptability, or would enable them to meet more\nsuccessfully the duties of their vocationa,l lives and their social and civic responsibilities.\nTruly the schools have afforded these children both efficiency and culture. But for large\nnumbers of our boys and girls who leave school at the earliest possible opportunity,\nuninterested and ineffective, and indeed for many others whose success in their present\nschool work is only mediocre, a truer, finer philosophy of life might be gained by the\npractical study of principles and processes which they must certainly apply in an early\nindustrial future than can possibly be given by the study of those more abstract subjects\ncommonly included in the traditional courses of study, the applications of which are, for\nthese children, infinitely remote.\nAgain, differentiation is becoming necessary because we are taking account of the\ntime element in education. It is becoming more and more clear that an education cannot\npossibly be given in the few short years between five or six and fourteen. Our problem\nis not, therefore, to give an education, but to develop that interest and curiosity in\neducation which will later result in sending the children to other sources of information,\nthe libraries, the evening classes, the public lectures, the scientific and trade journals,\ntheir friends, their foremen, their employers. The best school cannot give an education,\nbut a school may develop an impelling curiosity and may give pupils some ability to find\nout how and where that curiosity may be satisfied. It is obvious that with such differences\nas exist among the children in our public schools — temperamental, financial, and social — •\nwe must have a corresponding variety of stimuli to arouse their curiosity or interest.\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "6S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nAnd finally we must furnish this differentiation in the schools at the time when the diversified interests appear in the children. We must not lose sight of the fact that there are\nother educational factors besides the schools and that these are offering counter-attraction\nto the children. Nor should we forget that whereas formerly the education chose the\nchildren, today the children are choosing the education. Whereas formerly the school\nreceived, tested, and finally selected those who were competent \"to get an education,\"\ntoday children are, in a measure, seeking the kind of education which they most desire, be\nit the commercial trade school run for profit rather than for the pupil, or the alluring\n\"job\" which promises advancement, or the public school. It behooves us to bear this\nfact in mind, for the good of society if for no other reason, and to offer a wide variety of\neducational opportunities within the school system, and at about twelve years of age, to\nthe end that each child may be kept under the beneficent supervision and guidance of\nthe state thru as many of these precious formative years as is consistent with the present\nneeds and ultimate possibilities of the individual.\nJohn C. Brodhead, assistant director of manual arts, public schools, Boston, Mass. —\nAs regards ability and general vocational interests, there has been greater freedom in\ncourses of the manual arts than in academic subjects, in suiting work to local interests\nand to individuals. Pupils whose academic averages have caused them to repeat a\ngrade have not been compelled to repeat their handiwork courses, but have gone on as\ntheir abilities have warranted. This has been true of girls in their cooking and sewing,\nas of boys in their shopwork. Moreover, the modem teacher of handicraft is expected\nto know the local industries and to interpret them to his or her pupils.\nIn few cities does the hard and fast course now obtain. The backbone may exist,\nplanned to bring out the many sides of the subject, but only as a series of points of departure, many options being offered, all along the line, of problems concerning the home,\nfield, club, or even market. The last half of an eighth-grade course might wisely consist\nof problems entirely self-selected, subject only to the veto of a wise instructor.\nIn some communities, the pupils study typical industrial activities, such as transportation, mining, agriculture, etc., and fashion, in miniature, working models of cars,\nbridges, hoists, plows, and the like. In other places, the activities formerly carried\nout in Wood alone have broadened out until we hear of scattered centers where shoerepairing, ceramics, book-binding, concrete construction, printing, sheet-metal working,\nor electrical wiring are given as subjects of manual training.\nOccasionally, boys are set to laying floors, running up partitions, and even building\nsubstantial structures for themselves or the school, and girls make curtains, draperies,\nand table linen for such buildings. In one large city, the course will call hereafter for lo\nper cent of the pupils' manual training time to be applied toward the production of school\nequipment, not as a measure of economy, but to give the test of economic value to the\nwork, to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of the division of labor, to call for\nco-operative effort, and to enforce lessons of efficient utilization of time and materials.\nAll the above is manual training, pure and simple, good for all, capable of correlation\nin any sane curriculum, and, while not specifically vocational, offering fine opportunities\nfor wise vocational ad\\nce and guidance.\nAll over this country, we have prided ourselves on offering a high-school education\nunder strong teachers, in small classes and in fine buildings, complacently feeUng that\nherein we were offering equality of opportunity to all. Lately we have come to see that\nequality of opportunity does not mean identity of opportunity and we are establishing\nour technical high schools, our high schools of commerce, and our high schools of practical\narts, not to mention trade or industrial schools of the secondary type. This is as it\nshould be, but while we are spending, in completing the education of those who pass thru\nour high schools, the large sums necessary to carry them thru the three or four years,\nwhat are we doing for the still larger number who, for various reasons which I will not\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n659\n\ndiscuss here, complete their formal education at fourteen years of age, and frequently\nin the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades?\nIn as conservative a city as Boston, pupils of the sixth grade, whose \"ability and\nvocational interests\" prompt them thereto, have been, for generations, admitted to the\nLatin School, the sole acknowledged function of which has been to prepare its students\nfor college. And Boston has come to feel that, if it is reasonable to carry on such a school\nwith its high-salaried masters, its small classes, and its six-year course for one group,\nit is only fair to spend any reasonable sum in excess of the present elementary per capita\nexpense in preparing other groups in the upper elementary grades for the vocational\nfields upon which they feel that they must enter at or soon after the age of fourteen.\nAnd so we have, in Boston, a Girls' Trade School and an Industrial School for Boys,\nin the establishment and operation of which we have had such valuable assistance from\nMr. Prosser. As these schools admit at fourteen years of age, whether or no the pupil\nhas graduated from an elementary school, they are examples of differentiation adapted\nto the vocational interests of children who are, for all academic purposes, in the upper\nelementary grades. These schools have a long school day and a long school year and\npupils spend about half of the time in the shops on productive work and the rest of the\ntime in studying shop English, shop arithmetic, business forms, hygiene, current events,\nindustrial history, etc. These schools are certainly the solution of the problem of the\ngirl or boy who has been able to reach the seventh or eighth grade, who has an inclination for industrial pursuits and can find it possible to spare one or two more years for\neducation. On the other hand, the overgrown boy hopelessly behind his fellows in the\ngrades, because of a disinclination for the regular curriculum, is inclined to leave school\nat fourteen years of age and it is rather late for the industrial school to call him, even if\nit wanted him, which is not in all cases apparent.\nAt this point Boston presents some prevocational experiments for your consideration. Some of them are four years of age, some are but just started, and I trust that\nthere are many more to come. Each one groups itself around the constructive work of\nsome typical industry, such as machine-shop practice, sheet-metal working, printing,\nbook-binding, furniture- or box-making. A small class (about thirty) is organized from\npupils twelve years of age or more, from any grade where they are badly behind their\nfellows of equal age, provided they have some manual dexterity. They are put under the\ncharge of a warm-hearted, adaptable teacher, preferably a man, and are divided, in the\nlight of scholarship, into two divisions. Each division receives ten hours' instruction\nweekly in the shop under an instructor who, ordinarily, is a craftsman as well as teacher.\nThe academic work is that outlined above for trade schools, with problems drawn from\nthe shop as much as possible. Only such shop activities are attempted as would naturally lead to the advanced trade school. We hope that, at the end of two years:\n1. The pupil will have found the pertinence of ordinary school subjects, can go back\ninto the ordinary grades, and pass on to graduation and the high school; or (more likely)\n2. He will have found that his bent lies along industrial lines and will appreciate\nhow much he will ultimately gain by further instruction. Such a pupil will naturally\ngo to the trade school to find his vocation and perfect himself therein ; or (if worst comes\nto worst)\n3. The pupil will leave school and enter some industry where there is a possibility\nof advancement, and with a desire for such advancement. He will, moreover, have a\nbetteir chance to obtain such employment than if he had not had the definite training in the\nprevocational center. It has not taught him a trade. He may not have handled the\nmaterials, nor employed the processes of his new vocation, but he has been taught economy\nof material and time, to take and carry out orders, to work with, under, or over others,\nand to produce a merchantable commodity in some material.\nE. G. CooLEY, Chicago, 111. — I wish to dissent from the ideal picture which has been\npresented to us of the disadvantages of the city boy. It has been assumed that the successful men all come from the country, but facts will not support this assvunption. An inves-\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementaty\n\nligation of the origin of the great men of Europe revealed that many of the illustrious\nmen- of France, Germany, Italy, England, and Scotland have come from the cities,\nGeneva leading the list and Paris following.\nWe may profit more largely than we now do from the methods of the kindergarten.\nThe kindergarten turns the active motives of children to account, and similar methods of\nprocedure should be carried up thru the grades. Mr. Prosser has stated that differentiation inhandwork shoxdd begin at twelve years of age. I believe differentiation\nshould begin farther down than seventh or eighth grade. The handwork of the kindergarten should be modified, and carried on thruout the elementary school. I do not\nbelieve in attempting to handle this differentiation in the two upper grades. The\nelementary school would do well to consider kindergarten methods more carefully, tho\nmuch has already been accomplished in this direction. The American elementary school\nis the best in the world; even Germany admits this. This is largely due to the fact\nthat Froebelian teaching is observed here more fully than there. Germany's secondary\nschools are better.\nWe agree that vocational training is needed. Scotland deals with the question\neffectively. The interested people in the towns make investigations and report conditions.\nThey need not make difficult experiments to discover needed differentiations.\nThe child should have a chance to use his hands, and he should begin early. Some\nlines of effective manual- training work have been based up>on reform-school methods.\nThe Rochester Reform School makes articles for use in the school system. This can be\ndone effectively, but it is not the solution of the question for the normal child. These\nboys of the reform school have been crowded out of the school system; they are\npresumably the inferior people. Education has assumed that vocational work shall be\nprovided for the inferior; that incapacity in academic work shall be the excuse for\nvocational education. This is a serious error. Brainy fellows are needed in trades.\nMen who start as apprentices in trades take positions of leadership more frequently than\nuniversity graduates. Education should not select the dullard for blacksmithing and\ncarpentering. It establishes undesirable class distinctions. The white-shirt brigade is\nno brainier than the overall brigade. Academic positions are not higher. Separation\ninto inferior and superior work should not be made between different occupations, nor\nbetween the opportimities of men and women.\nJohn C. Brodhead, Boston, Mass. — Let us begin the solution of the problem where\nit pinches most. Take the children who are falling below grade in academic attainment\nbecause society has forced upon the school certain standards of attainment. We must\nfirst elevate public opinion. At present we must meet the greatest need, which is opportunity of development for the child who is academically retarded.\nE. G. CooLEY, Chicago, HI. — ^We should use the school arts as foundation for\nvocational work. Give the children who are taking vocational training special courses\nin English, science, and other academic subjects, with the point of attack in each changed\nto re-enforce the manual activities.\nCharles A. McMurray, director of Normal Training School, De Kalb, 111. — It has\nbeen said that industrial work stands on a par with academic work. This depends on\nwhether the industrial work has sufficient thought-content to warrant it. In all other\nstudies there is a body of organized thought-content. Is there a progressive thoughtdevelopment in the course of study in the industrial arts from the kindergarten up?\nIf the subject-matter here has equal worth for the world, it must be because it has\nfundamental thought-content. Can we lay out a progressive series of problems from\nsimple to complex, requiring growth in mental power and manual skill? The child\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nARTS\n\nAND\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n66l\n\nmust design its own constructions and solve its own problems.\nManual training is\nessentially a thought-process and forces the worker back to correct thinking.\nIf a child is called upon to design an object, he thus combines in his thinking all\nthe elements of a complete problem. This precedes the detailed process of working out\nthe complete product. Thought thus precedes and accompanies skill in execution. In\nturn it is corrected and influenced by the nature of the tools and materials used. The\nindustrial arts have a rich body of thought which may be organized into a connected\nseries of problems.\nFrank M. Leavitt, Chicago, III. — Efficiency of education must be measured by the\ndegree of resourcefulness and adaptability which it develops in children. The large\npercentage of children who are failing in our public schools indicates not inferiority\nnecessarily but inability to handle the kind of problems which the school has put up to\nthem.\nC. A. Prosser, New York, N.Y. — ^The training in manual arts in Boston is real\nin that all objects made are used in the school system. But I regret that the boys spend\nthe major part of their time in one kind of work. We need to set up a series of shops\ndoing different kinds of work. We need the co-operation of principals of the schools\nwith men who are doing industrial work. It is a difficult problem and must be worked\nout slowly by more doing and less talking. Try out things with small groups and\nthen widen out into bigger groups. Like the old Negro who continued to fish in the\nmudhole tho he knew there were no fish in it, we have been doing things because they\nwere near.\nI agree with Mr. Cooley that it would be a fine thing to provide pre-vocational\ntraining thruout all the grades of the elementary schools, but at present the school arts\nand industries are unsuccessful and offer one of the greatest problems which we have.\nThe course in industrial arts needs to be reconstructed from the foundation up. At\npresent many children have to choose a vocation at fourteen years of age after the upper\ngrades have neglected to offer them any sort of vocational opportunity or guidance.\nThis great army needs testing out in the schools and we must meet the problem in some\nway.\nE. G. Cooley, Chicago, 111. — ^This problem can be handled in the eight years of the\nelementary course, better than in the last two years, and by so doing provide a training\nin motor activity all the way thru.\nC. A. Prosser. — Replying to Mr. McMurray, who asks that industrial training prove\nits educational value, I would say that there should be no divorce between manipulative\nand academic work. The weakness of the position of manual training has been the aloofness of other studies which have denied to manual training the opportunity to justify\nitself by co-operation with academic studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^John Calvin Hanna, principal, Township High School\nVice-President — Edward L. Brown, principal, North Side High School\nSecretary — Clarence D. Kingsley, Manual Training High School\n\nOak Park, 111.\nDenver, Colo.\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 1912\nThe meeting was called to order in the Banquet Room of the Auditorium Hotel,\nChicago, 111., by President John C. Hanna.\n\"The Report of the Committee on the Articulation of High School and College\"\nwas presented by the chairman, Clarence D. Kingsley, of the Manual Training High\nSchool, Brooklyn, N.Y., and was adopted by the department.\nThe president appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nH. E. Brown, principal, New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, HI.\nJ. B. Ragan, principal, Industrial Arts High School, Sterling, Colo.\nD. W. Springer, principal, High School, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nJohn C. Hanna delivered the president's address, on \"Unrest and Wreckage.\"\nLotus D. Coflfman, supervisor of Training School, Eastern Illinois State Normal\nSchool, Charleston, HI., presented the following paper: \"The Relation between Supply and\nDemand for High-School Teachers.\"\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nClarence D. Kingsley, Secretary\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 10, 19 12\n\nThe members of the department met in round table conferences at 2:30 p.m. as\nfollows:\nA.\n\nEnglish — Chairman, James F. Hosic, head of the Department\nof English,\nChicago Teachers College, Chicago, 111.\nThe English Round Table Conference was called to order in the Banquet Room of\nthe Auditorium Hotel.\n\nCopies of the English Journal, containing the \"Report of the Committee on CollegeEntrance Requirements in English,\" under the topic, \"The Influence of the Uniform\nEntrance Requirements in English: A Report of Progress,\" were distributed, and J. F.\nHosic, as chairman of the committee, added a brief statement as to additional information\ngathered in New England, Philadelphia, and elsewhere. He reported that, in accordance\nwith a resolution adopted by the Round Table at San Francisco in 1911, the committee\nhad organized a society called the National Council of Teachers of English, the first meeting of which was held in Chicago, December 1-2, 191 1.\nThe report of the committee was approved, and a motion passed to the efifect that\nthe committee be continued with instructions to co-operate with all other national com66\nmittees concerned with the high-school course 3in English. The intention of this motion\nwas to open the way for the preparation of a national syllabus of secondary English. At\nthe request of Elmer W. Smith, of Colgate University, Hamilton, N.Y., the committee\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niSecondary\n\nwas further instructed to make provision for oral English as a definite and important part\nof its work.\nIt having been ref>orted that the Board of Directors of the National Education\nAssociation had approved the action of the Round Table in changing its name to English\nSection, a motion was passed for the appointment of a nominating committee, which\nwas appointed by the chair as follows:\nWalter J. Hunting, superintendent of schools, Carson City, Nev.\nMrs. Henr>' Hulst, Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich.\nElmer W. Smith, Colgate University, Hamilton, N.Y.\n\n*\"\n\nThis committee offered the following report:\nFor President — James Fleming Hosic, Chicago Teachers College, Chicago, III.\nFor Secretary — Vincil C. Coulter, head of the English Department, State Normal\nSchool, Warrensburg, Mo.\nThe report of the committee was adopted.\nGeneral Topic: \"Ways and Means of Increasing the Effectiveness of Instruction in\nEnglish Composition.\"\nUnder this topic, the following papers were presented:\nA. \"Vocational and Moral Guidance thru English Composition in the High School,\"\nby Jesse B. Davis, principal of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich.\nB. \"Oral Themes,\" by Eleanor Sheldon, instructor in English, State Normal School,\nOshkosh, Wis., and Mary E. Courtenay, teacher of English and oral expression, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nVincil C. Coui.ter, Secretary pro tempore\nB. Ancient Languages — Chairman, Wilfred F. Beardsley, principal of Evanston\nTownship High School, Evanston, 111.\nThe Round Table of Ancient Languages was called to order by the chairman at\n2:30 P.M.\n\nThe following papers were presented:\nA. \"Some Facts Concerning Classical Training,\" by John Adams Scott, professor\nof Greek language and literature. Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.\nB. \"A Plan to Reduce Failures in Latin\" by Arthur S. Chenoweth, Oak Park and\nRiver Forest Township High School, Oak Park, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nWilfred F. Beabdsley, Chairman\nC. Modern Languages — Chairman, Charles M. Purin, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nThe meeting of the Conference in Modem Foreign Languages was called to order at\n2:30 P.M., by the chairman, in the South Room of the Auditorium Hotel.\nThe speakers were introduced by the chairman, Charles M. Purin, who gave a brief\nsurvey of the Modem Language Round Table Conference in connection with the National\nEducation Association.\nThe following jmpers were presented:\nA. \"Methods of Teaching German and the Personality of the Teacher,\" by Amalie\nNix, president of the German Pedagogical Society of Minnesota.\nDiscussion: Eda D. Ohrenstein, Hyde Park High School, Chicago, 111.\nB. \"The Place of Phonetics in High-School German,\" by Eduard Prokosch, University ofWisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nDiscussion: Leonard Bloomfield, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.; Louise Fortier,\nNew Orleans, La.; J. N. Lenker, Minneapolis, Minn.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nCharles M. Purin, Chairman\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n665\n\nD. Mathematics — Chairman, Charles M. Austin, Central High School, Minneaf>olis,\nMinn.\nThe Mathematics Roimd Table Conference was called to order at 2:30 p.m. by the\nchairman, in the Banquet Room of the Auditorium Hotel.\nThe business of the meeting was the presentation of the \"Final Report of the\nNational Committee of Fifteen on Geometry Syllabus,\" by Earle R. Hedrick, professor\nof mathematics, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo., who was chairman of the subcommittee having in charge the syllabus proper. The general chairman, H. E. Slaught,\nprofessor in the University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., who was supposed to be in Europe,\nwas able to be present and join in the discussion, which was led by Henry W. Stager,\nFresno Junior College, Fresno, Cal. This report is printed as a separate pamphlet.\nR. H. Jordan, of Minneapolis, Minn., then presented a paper on \"The Relation of\nthe Suggested Geometry Course to the Manual-Training Course in High School.\"\nThe following resolution was unanimously adopted:\nResolved, That the report of the Committee of Fifteen on a Syllabus in Geometry be\naccepted with thanks, that its adoption as a basis for the teaching of geometry in the\nUnited States be recommended, and that the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations ofthe National Education Association be asked to contribute toward the expense\nof further circulation of the report.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nCharles M. Austin, Chairman\nE. Science — Chairman, Joseph L. Thalman, head of the Department of Biology, Oak\nPark and River Forest Township High School, Oak Park, 111.\nThe Science Round Table Conference was called to order by the chairman at 2 : 30 p.m.,\nin the Francis I Room of the Congress Hotel.\nThe following papers were presented:\nA. \"The High-School Course in General Science,\" by V. G. Barnes, high school,\nMadison, Wis.\nDiscussion: Ada L. Weckel, Oak Park and River Forest Township High School,\nOak Park, 111.\nB. \"Method in the General Science Course,\" by John G. Coulter, Bloomington, 111.\nDiscussion: Charles E. Peat, Lewis Institute, Chicago, 111.\nIt was moved and carried that the Conference extend its thanks to J. C. Hanna,\npresident of the section, for the establishment of the Conference, and suggest to him that\nthe Conference be made a permanent part of future programs.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nE. D. Huntington, Secretary\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July ii, 1912\n\nThe Round Table Conference of the Special Joint Session of the Departments of\nHigher Education, Normal Schools, and Secondary Education was called to order in the\nAuditorium Theater at 9 : 30 a.m. by the chairman, John Calvin Hanna, principal of Township High School, Oak Park, lU.\nGeneral Topic: \"The Significance of Recent Investigations in the Field of English.\"\nUnder this topic, the following papers were presented :\nA. \"The Labor and Cost of Composition Teaching\":\n\"The Present Conditions,\" by Edwin M. Hopkins, professor of rhetoric and English,\nUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.\n\"Methods of Amelioration,\" by John M. Clapp, professor of English, Lake Forest\nCollege, Lake Forest, 111.; Harry G. Paul, assistant professor of English, University of\nIllinois, Urbana, 111.\nB. \"Desirable Equipment for English Work,\" by Vincil C. Coulter, head of the\nEnglish Department, State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nC. \"Progress in Articulating School and College English,\" by James F. Hosic, head\nof the Department of English, Chicago Teachers College, Chicago, 111.\nD. \"Progress in Standardizing the Measurement of Composition,\" by Ernest C.\nNoyes, teacher of English, Fifth Avenue High School, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nA motion was carried to indorse the report presented by Professor Edwin M. Hopkins,\nand request the proper officials of the National Education Association to give it the indorsement of the general body.\nV. C. Coulter, Secretary pro tempore\n\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 12, 191 2\n\nThe department was called to order by the president, John C. Hanna, principal\nof Township High School, Oak Park, 111.\nH. E. Brown, chairman of the nominating committee, reported the following\nnominations :\nInd. For President — M. H. Stuart, principal, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis,\nFor Vice-President — I. M. Allen, principal of high school, Wichita, Kans.\nFor Secretary — ^WiUiam C. Hill, principal. Central High School, Springfield, Mass.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was received and the officers were\nimanimously elected.\nOn motion of James F. Hosic, of Chicago, the committee of the English Section on\nCoUege- Entrance Requirements in English was recognized as a committee of the Secondary\nDepartment and authorized to co-operate with other existing national organizations\ncontemed with high-school English.\nOn motion of Herbert E. Slaught, of Chicago, the following resolution adopted by\nthe Mathematics Roimd Table was indorsed by the Secondary Department:\nResolved, That the report of the Committee of Fifteen on a Syllabus in Geometry\nbe accepted with thanks, that its adoption as a basis for the teaching of geometry in the\nUnited States be recommended, and that the Committee on Investigation and Appropriations ofthe National Education Association be asked to contribute toward the expense\nof further circulation of the report.\nOn motion of Clarence D. Kingsley, of Brooklyn, the President of the National\nEducation Association was requested to appoint the members of the twelve subcommittees\nto work with the Committee on the Articulation of High School and College.\nThe following papers were then presented:\n\"The Professional Training of High-School Teachers,\" by W. C. Bagley, professor\nof education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n\"The Influence of Prolonged and Carefully Directed Work,\" by Otis W. Caldwell,\nSchool of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nSpencer R. Smith, principal of Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, 111., and chairman of the committee, presented the \"Report of Committee on Cosmopolitan HighSchool Curriculum.\"\nThe report was adopted.\nThe president then introduced M. H. Stuart, the incoming president of the department, who invited suggestions from the members of the department for the pvupose of\nincreasing the usefulness of the department, and urged the co-operation of the high-school\nteachers in supplying material for the subcommittees of the Committee on the Articulation of High School and CoUege, which are to work on the various high-school subjects during the ensuing year.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nClarence D. Kingsley, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPAPERS\nTHE REPORT\nCLARENCE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nAND\n\nON\n\nARTICULATION\n\n667\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE ON THE ARTICULATION\nOF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE\n\nD. KINGSLEY, TEACHER OF MATHEMATICS, MANUAL\nHIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N.Y., CHAIRMAN\n\nTRAINING\n\nTwo years ago this department adopted resolutions requesting colleges\nto discontinue the entrance requirement of the second foreign language\nand to recognize as electives all subjects well taught in the high school.\nDuring the following year this Committee on the Articulation of High\nSchool and College was appointed and in July, 1911, submitted a report\ncontaining:\nA. Some preliminary considerations on the field and function of education in the\nhigh school.\nB. A working definition of a well-planned high-school course.\nC. Reasons for the adoption of this definition as the basis of college admission.\nThe report contained also a supplementary report recommending that high-school\nwork in both foreign language and mathematics be no longer regarded an indispensable\nprerequisite to a college education.\n\nThis report, including the supplementary report, was adopted by the\nSecondary Department. The National Education Association appropriated $300 for the continuation of the work of the committee. That sum\nhas been spent in printing and distributing nearly 30,000 copies of the\nreport. The committee wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the state\nsuperintendents of public instruction in thirty states, Porto Rico, Alaska,\nand the Philippines, over a hundred college presidents, and many school\nofficers in the labor of distributing these copies. The report has been\ndiscussed by many high-school and college faculties and educational\nassociations; it has been formally indorsed by various associations; enacted\nwith practically no modifications by the State Board of Indiana as defining\nan approved high-school course; and is receiving favorable consideration\nby college authorities.\nThe chairman of the committee has devoted three months this spring\nto the preparation of a bulletin to contain a tabulation and analysis of\nthe entrance requirements of about 250 leading colleges and universities. The Bureau of Education has furnished clerical and other assistance and will publish and distribute the bulletin when prepared.\nRecent events indicate a marked tendency toward the hearty recognition by the colleges of the broader function of the high school, a willingness\nto articulate with the high school thus broadened, and a desire to learn\nthe actual needs of high-school students in order to supply teachers who\nare better equipped to meet those needs.\nThe willingness of the college to articulate with the broader high\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nschool places immediately increased responsibility upon high-school\nteachers, principals, and superintendents for the wise selection and organization of curricula, subject-matter, and methods of instruction. Many\nworkers are now engaged in enriching, re-examining, and reorganizing the\nmaterials in each subject. But our progress will be slow and wasteful\nunless we now adopt a simple and effective method for making the results\ngained by these workers generally available. To accomplish this purpose\nyour Committee on the Articulation of High School and College herewith\nsubmits the following recommendations:\n1. That for each of the following subjects a subcommittee be organized:\n(i) English\n(7) Mechanic arts\n(2) Mathematics\n(8) Home economics\n(3) Ancient language\n(9) Agriculture\n(4) Modem language\n(10) Business\n(5) Social science\n(11) Music\n(6) Natiural science\n(12) Pedagogy and psychology\n2. That a round table be organized in each of the subjects where such roimd table\ndoes not exist, and that the subcommittees be appointed.\n3. That each committee collect from a limited number of well-organized, large and\nsmall high schools in the various parts of the United States material on its own subject\nunder the general headings:\nSurvey of work now conducted.\n,\nRecommendations for modification.\nSuggestions for experiments.\nA suggested outline for this material is given below.\n4. That each subcommittee critically review the material, prepare an abstract thereof,\nand draw up recommendations for such modifications as seem wise, and such experiments\nas seem desirable, together with a statement of the conditions under which the experiments\ncould have fair and reasonable trial.\n5. That the Bureau of Education be requested to publish and to distribute the\nreports of the various subcommittees.\n6. That the National Education Association be requested to appropriate the sum of\n$1,200 for the work of the Committee on the Articulation of High School and College and\nof the twelve subcommittees, including the expense connected with the necessary meeting\nor meetings.\nSuggested Outline for Material\nI. SURVEY\n\nor\n\nWORK\n\nNOW\n\nCONDUCTED\n\n1. Name or Subject\n2. Name of High School\n3. Place in the Curriculum: In what year or years of the high school is this subject\nstudied ? Why?\nHow much time is devoted to it?\nIs it elective, or prescribed for all? Why?\n4. Content: Does your work resemble that in any well-known syllabus? If so, what\nmodifications are you making ? And if not, give definite outline of your subject.\n5. Purpose: To which of the following ends does the subject make substantial\ncontribution ?\na) Development of specific efficiency: civic, vocational, domestic.\nb) Development of general efficiency; that is, intellectual power.\nc) Development of ideals: civic, vocational, domestic, personal character.\nd) Development of appreciation: aesthetic, literary, scientific, social.\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON ARTICULATION\n\n669\n\nIndicate how the dominant purpose or purposes of the subject modify and control the\nmethods of instruction.\n6. For Whom Valuable: Entirely irrespective of college-entrance requirements and\ncredits, of what value is this course to a student who is likely to go to a college of\nliberal arts ? to a college of engineering ? to a college of agriculture ? Of what value\nto a student who is undecided as to his vocation or continued education ? to a student\nwho is not going to a higher institution ?\nFor what group or groups of students is it particularly valuable ?\n7. Methods: Is the subject taught by the recitation method, classroom discussions,\nlaboratory method, or a combination of methods? Describe any important feature\nin the methods employed.\n8. Equipment: What would be the approximate minimum cost of equipment reasonably\nadequate for teaching the subject to a class of thirty pupils ? of fifteen pupils ?\nHave you a larger equipment than this in your school ?\n9. Examinations: To what extent do you use written examinations as an aid to instruction ? to what extent as a means of testing the right of the student to promotion ?\nWhat comment have you to make upon the value of examinations for each of these two\npurposes ?\nn. recommendations for modifications\nUnder this heading give any modifications that you would recommend. Indicate\nwhether your recommendations are based upon an individual opinion or upon the opinion\nof a substantial number of other teachers of your subject. Do present college-entrance\nrequirements stand in the way of such modifications? Mention any other obstacles to\nthe changes recommended.\nQuantity: Please state explicitly whether the results in this subject conducted under\nyour present time allotment would be improved if the number of topics or the quantity of\nwork attempted under certain topics were mateidally reduced.\nIII. suggestions for experiments\nUnder this heading suggest any experiments that you think should be tried. Mention\nany special conditions that would be necessary to make a fair trial of the experiments and\ncite any instances in which similar experiments have been tried, indicating results obtained.\nRespectfully submitted,\nClarence D. Kingsley, chairman, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. (Now agent, State Board of Education, Massachusetts.)\nWilliam M. Butler, principal, Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nFrank B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n(Now Boston, Mass.)\nCharles W. Evans, high school, East Orange, N.J.\nCommittee { Charles H. Judd, head of Department of Education, University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111.\nAlexis F. Lange, head of Department of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nW. D. Lewis, principal, William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam Orr, deputy state commissioner of education, Boston, Mass.\n,William H. Smiley, principal, East Side High School, Denver, Colo.\nSupplementary Statement by the Chairman of the Committee\nIt seems appropriate at this time to give a somewhat fuller accoimt of the progress\nthat has been made during the past year. I shall commence by quoting some statements\nof opinion regarding the report of last year.\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nE. W. Butterfield, secretary, Educational Council of New Hampshire, writes:\nThe more I consider the report of your committee, the better I am pleased with it.\n* I think you have the right plan and the one that must ultimately be accepted.\nTheodore Townsend, secretary, Delaware State Board of Education, writes:\nThe report is working along lines which must prevail in our schools, if public-school\neducation is to be of its highest value to the pupils attending them.\nProfessor H. V. Neal, Knox College, Indiana:\nNothing that I have read in a long while has given me the satisfaction that has come\nwith the reading of this report, which embodies so completely the mature thought of\nsciool men upon this important question.\nJames Scherer, president, Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal. :\nI have read it with great care and regard it as the best treatment of its subject that\nI have ever seen.\nBrainard Hooker, coimty superintendent of schools, Indiana:\nMy high-school teachers in meeting Saturday unanimously favored your report and\nwish that it may come into use in high-school course and college-admission requirements.\nWe shall make an effort in Indiana to have the committee's report worked out in high\nschool and in college.\nDavid Snedden, commissioner of education in Massachusetts, in transmitting the\nreport to the high schools and colleges in Massachusetts, wrote:\nIn distributing this report, I wish to express my conviction that it marks a distinct\nstep in advance in the solution of the problem with which it deals. The committee offers\na positive program. It has taken due account of conditions as they exist, both in colleges\nand in secondary schools.\nNathan Schaefer, state superintendent in Pennsylvania, sent immediately for a thousand copies, but woiJd have preferred to have much greater latitude for the high school.\nHe wrote to the committee:\nProfessor Judd's comment strikes me very favorably. The report of the committee\nwill do good altho I think it is tinged with the same narrowness which afflicts present\ncollege-entrance requirements. I would admit any student to college who is mature\nenough to grasp what the college has to offer.\nState Superintendent J. W. Crab tree, of Nebraska, wrote:\nI expect to send with the report a letter calling attention to important features of the\nreport and advising our colleges to put its principles into operation at once.\nIn Minnesota the transition from high school to college has been worked out perhaps\nas well as in any state in the Union, and State Superintendent C. G. Schulz writes regarding the report:\nThis is one of the most carefully thought-out reports that has at any time been made\nbefore the [National Education] Association. It states the high-school situation exactly\nas our school men in Minnesota desire to have it arranged. The relationship proposed\nbetween the college and the secondary schools is practical and sensible.\nMany college professors and college presidents for years have expressed themiselves\nstrongly in favor of more flexible entrance requirements. President David Starr Jordan,\nof Leland Stanford University, bears imequivocal testimony to the wisdom of permitting\nthe largest possible latitude to the high schools and believes there is no excuse for any\nother practice. President M. L. Burton, of Smith College, Mass., in his first report,\nissued within the last year, comes out strongly in favor of a new order. He says:\nThe highway between the secondary school and the college, instead of becoming inviting and appealing, has become impassable and repelling. The high school is the natural\nfeeder of the coUege. To block the way between these two constituent units of our\neducational system is nothing short of suicidal. The desire of the high-school educator,\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nARTICULATION\n\n67 1\n\ntherefore, for a more intimate co-ordination of the courses and a more generous recognition from the colleges is perfectly justified.\nProfessor A. P. Brigham, of Colgate University, New York, writes:\nI find myself in deep and hearty sjonpathy thruout with the proposals of the committee and the arguments by which they are supported.\nThe report has been indorsed by various teachers' associations among which may be\nmentioned the following:\nMaine State Teachers Association.\nMichigan State Teachers Association.\nNew Jersey High-School Teachers Association.\nHigh-School Teachers Section and County Commissioners Section of the Indiana\nState Teachers Association.\nIn Connecticut the Classical and High-School Teachers Association this year worked\nout independently a program tending strongly in the direction of this report. Their program has been submitted to the Connecticut colleges, Yale, Trinity, and Wesleyan, and\nthe attitude of the colleges in that conservative state is most encouraging.\nIn the High-School Teachers Association of New York City a Committee on Conference with the Colleges, composed of three principals and three teachers, unanimously\nindorsed the report except that one of the principals maintains that no student should\nbe admitted to a college of liberal arts unless he offers both mathematics and foreign\nlanguage.\nOf immediate significance is the action that has been taken during the past year\nputting the report into effect both in school curriculum and in college-entrance requirements.\nThe State Board of Education in Indiana, April 23, 191 2, adopted new requirements\nfor approved high-school courses based upon this report. In its circular letter the board\nstates:\nThe course of study in commissioned high schools has not been sufficiently elastic to\nadmit of the introduction of various practical educational subjects with which the modem\nschool boy and girl should be familiar. The modification of the present course of study\nfollows the report outlined by the National Education Association Committee on Articulation of High School and College and gives a wider range for the high-school course of\nstudy.\nWhile these new rules are not binding on the public or private colleges in Indiana, it\nshould be noted that the University of Indiana and several colleges, including DePauw,\nEarlham, Franklin, Hanover, and Wabash, now grant four or five units' credit for any\nsubjects counted by an approved school toward its own graduation.\nThe state board of education in Kansas gives its official approval to nearly all of the\nmain propositions of the report and proposes in the new course of study now being prepared\nto prescribe not more than three units of English, two of mathematics, one of science, and\none of history, and recommends but does not propose to require two units of foreign\nlanguage. Four units, or six when foreign language is not taken, are to be left free for\nindividual and community needs.\nState Superintendent Alderman, of Oregon, writes that they intend to revise the highschool course and to follow the report adopted by the Secondary Department of the\nNational Education Association.\nState Superintendent Dewey, of Washington, distributed the report and sent a questionnaire to each high-school teacher in the state with a view to adopting the report.\nPrincipal Hart, of Spokane, writes that a cursory glance at the replies received from the\nquestionnaire suggests that the vote will be largely in favor of the report.\nIn addition to the states just mentioned, several other western states had already\nsecured a large degree of flexibility in high-school courses and college-entrance requirements. In the East, Maryland has for two years had a law whereby all colleges receiving\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nstate aid must admit, without examination and without condition, all graduates from\napproved high schools having four-year coixrses. The course in Maryland is now being\nrevised following, I am informed, rather closely the recommendations of this department.\nThe state boards of education in many of the states will apparently hereafter exercise\ngreater control over the high-sChool curriculum. The University of Maine has of its own\naccord withdrawn from the New England College-Entrance Certificate Board and will\nhereafter accept the certification of schools made by the state board.\nIn the meantime what have the colleges been doing ? Harvard and Chicago adopted\ntheir new plans a little over a year ago and those plans have been discussed in this department. During this last year many colleges have increased the flexibility of their requirements.\nThe discussion at the University of Michigan has been keen, finally resulting in the\nadoption last month of a flexible plan whereby graduates from the best schools will be\nadmitted upon the presentation of an unqualified recommendation covering any twelve\ntmits from the list of academic subjects and any three additional imits counted by the\nhigh school toward its own graduation. It seems to me that the chief diflSculty in the\nplan of the Um'versity of Michigan lieg in articulating with strong commercial courses.\nUnfortunately, economics, commercial geography, and commercial and economic history\nare not included in the h\"st of academic subjects and consequently the commercial student\nmay receive credit for only three units of commercial work.\nThe University of Minnesota has avoided this difficulty by including a number of\ncommercial subjects under \"history and social sciences,\" thus ranking them as academic\nsubjects. The subjects thus recognized are as follows:\nElementary economics, one-half unit.\nCommercial geography, one-half or one unit.\nHistory of commerce, one-half or one unit.\nEconomic history of England, one-half unit.\nEconomic history of the United States, one-half imit.\nIn addition to these subjects four imits may be oflfered for vocational subjects,\nincluding therein the following commercial subjects:\nBusiness law, one-half unit.\nBusiness arithmetic, one-half imit.\nElementary bookkeeping, one unit.\nAdvanced bookkeeping, one imit.\nStenography and typewriting, two units.\n\n*\n\nConsequently seven and one-half units of credit, or exactly one-half of the entire\npreparation for college, may be obtained in commercial subjects for entrance to the\nUniversity of Minnesota.\nReed College, a new college opened last fall on the Pacific Coast, imtrammeled by\ntradition, announces that it had previously arrived at the principles enunciated by our\ncommittee and quotes a large part of the report in the catalog. It also states:\nNo prescriptions whatever are made concerning the subjects to be offered for admission\nAltho there is no evidence to prove that a so-called college-preparatory course\nis the only one that qualifies a student for college work, there is abimdant evidence of\nclose correlation between good work in school and good work in college.\nAs indicating the consistency of this liberal policy with extremely high standards,\nit is worthy of note that Reed College admits no conditioned students and no special\nstudents, and furthermore that of 263 applicants for the first class, all but fifty were\nrejected.\nPrinceton has reduced the amount of foreign language reqviired but has devised a\nspecial system in order to discriminate against history in the high school. One year of\nhistory coimts one-half as much as one year of other electives.\nAlfred University has an interesting plan inasmuch as it combines the prescription o {\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNREST\n\nAND\n\nWRECKAGE\n\n673\n\nfour-fifths of the fifteen units, varying with the course to be pursued, with absolute freedom\nfor the other three units. This method of leaving three units entirely free greatly increases\nthe ease of articulation, while the prescription of twelve units insures a high degree of\nuniformity in Freshman work.\nThe bulletin now being prepared under the Bureau of Education will give in tabular\nform the subjects prescribed and the subjects accepted for college admission by about\ntwo hundred of the stronger colleges of liberal arts, eighty-one colleges of engineering,\nand thirty-one colleges of agriculture. No institutions requiring less than fourteen\nunits are included. This bulletin is intended to show the present status of entrance\nrequirements and, if revised from year to year, will take the place of long rows of college\ncatalogs and will dispel serious confusion in interpreting catalog statements. An\nexamination of the requirements of 203 colleges of liberal arts shows the following facts:\n1. Twenty-eight institutions have already recognized the principle that part or\nall of the high-school course may properly be left entirely free for approved schools to\nuse as they see fit. Leland Stanford, Clark, Reed, Hamlin, Macalester, and Ohio University will accept any fifteen units of good work from an approved school. Eighteen\ninstitutions, including the above, grant credit for as high as four units for any good work\nthat an approved school counts toward its own graduation.\n2. Over two-thirds of these 203 institutions give some credit for one or more vocational subjects — drawing, shopwork, household economics, agriculture, or business.\nAbout half of them give two or more units and one-fifth of them give four or more units\nof credit for such work. The wide variation as to the particular subjects that will be\naccepted suggests vague and contradicting opinions by college faculties regarding the relative educational value of these subjects. Thus, some institutions credit shopwork and\nbusiness but not agriculture, some credit agriculture and business but not shopwork,\nwhile others credit shopwork and agriculture but not business.\n3. The change in the amount of foreign language required is striking. Sixteen years\nago a study of the requirements of 432 colleges showed that nearly three-fourths of them\nrequired both Latin and Greek for admission to the A.B. course. Today an examination\nof the requirements of 203 of the best colleges shows that only about one-fifteenth of them\nrequire both Latin and Greek for admission to the A.B. course.\nMoreover, a student who can offer no Greek or modern language and only three\nyears of Latin can meet the foreign language requirement of 105 of the 203 high-grade\ncolleges of liberal arts and may become a candidate for the A.B. degree in 82 of these\ncolleges.\nSimilarly a student who can offer no Latin and only three units of German can\nmeet the foreign language requirement of no colleges of liberal arts and may become a\ncandidate for the A.B. degree in 73 of these colleges.\nThree years of French will admit him to 105 colleges, three years of Spanish will\nadmit him to 68 colleges, two years of Latin will admit him to 77 college^, two years of\nGerman tp 85 colleges, and two years of Spanish to 56 colleges.\nFinally, there are 22 colleges of liberal arts to which a student may be admitted\nwithout any language other than EngHsh and he may become a candidate for the A.B.\ndegree in 18 of these colleges.\nIn conclusion, the colleges are rapidly placing the responsibility for the selection of\nsubjects and the methods of instruction upon the high school. Therefore, it devolves\nupon the high school as never before to rise to meet a magnificent opportunity.\n\nUNREST\nJOHN CALVIN\n\nAND\n\nWRECKAGE\n\nHANNA, PRINCIPAL OF OAK PARK AND RIVER\nTOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, OAK PARK, ILL.\n\nFOREST\n\nThe most striking characteristic of the present period in the world's\ndevelopment is unrest.\nThere is not only progress and decay; not only the strife between the\nradical and the reactionary; not only changing of times in the midst of\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwhich we ourselves are changing. These conditions are manifest in every\nperiod of history and they cannot surprise us nor disturb our attitude\nand purpose.\nBut there is a general. spirit of unrest. It is manifest not only in regard\nto religious creed, but in regard to moral code. It is manifest not only\nin regard to questions of the form of goverrmient, but the whole structure\nof government is called into question — not monarchy or democracy is\nthe question, but anarchy is seriously studied.\nEvery fundamental thing is questioned. Nothing is accepted as\nsettled, from the constitution of matter to the individuality of spirit;\nfrom the stability of property rights to the essence of sin.\nThese questionings, moreover, are not merely speculative, they are\ntaking a practical turn. Men seemingly are to fly thru the air, annihilate\nspace and time, convey messages without a medium, manufacture any\nsubstance from any other substance, obliterate the lines of demarkation\nbetween the chemical elements, see thru solid bodies, tremble at no obstacle\nof cost or weight or toil, rend continents, finance wars or panics, create\nlife from dead matter, change soul traits by surgical operations, obliterate\npersonality, seize immortality, and defy heaven itself.\nThe story is told of a blase New Yorker who, after being shown the\nlions of Chicago, manifested his lack of enthusiasm by a politely concealed\nyawn and when remonstrated with defended himself by saying, \"Oh well,\nanyone who lives in New York is not easily surprised.\" We may paraphrase this and say, \"Anyone who reads the papers and magazines becomes\nincapable of surprise.\"\nThe giant under the volcano is turning himself over. Restlessness\nbelongs to the times. This is true everywhere from the Alaskan gold\nfields to the Chinese republic, but it is conspicuously so in America. Not\nonly are all the general causes that bring about the world's restlessness in\nfull and vivid operation here in our own land but there are some facts\nthat have operated here in peculiar fashion.\nHere is the great experiment of self-government, keenly watched by\nthe whole world.\nHere is freedom of thought and action and movement. Here is intermigration unrestrained, more general between the mighty kingdoms three\nthousand miles apart that we call the United States, than between the\npetty townships that the ancient Greeks called the states of Hellas.\nHere are resources in such abundance and variety as the world cannot\nmatch. Here is opportunity — ^not only knocking at every man's door,\nbut dragging him out thru the window. Tradition is nil; change is expected;\nnovelty is welcome; experimentation is the breath of life; sensationalism\nhardly tickles longer our palates.\nThere is one phase of this unrest and one way in which the causes for\nit operate to which my attention has never been called imtil recently.\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department\n\nUNREST\n\nAND\n\nWRECKAGE\n\n675\n\nThe overturning of settled things which began with the Renaissance\nand was made vital by the Protestant Reformation, which found voice\nin the Puritan movement in England and culminated in the acts of 1688,\nwhich a century later burst forth in the war of American independence,\nand flamed in the French Revolution — this immense change in men and\ninstitutions, as we all know, took diverse forms in various places. One\nillustration is sufficient: compare England's revolution of 1688 and France's\nrevolution of 1789.\nMany times we have been told that our country is in less danger of\ndisaster because of the careful, considerate habit of mind in the AngloSaxon race from which we are sprung. The Germanic stock moves slowly\nand surely where other races sputter and parade and explode. And there\nis truth in all this. Great changes have come about in England since the\ndays of Henry VIII — ^probably as great as any that have come about in\nFrance, but the upheavals and overthrows and volcanic disturbances in\nthe latter country have had no parallel in England. We, of that ancient\nstock, are progressive and free to advance, but we must make haste slowly,\nand thus avoid blunders — our sense of proportion, our sense of loyalty to\nwhat is well established, our sense of fair play and acceptance of the results\nof an honest decision, our sense of humor, all these things save us Americans\nof the good old Anglo-Saxon stock from going off half-cocked as do those of\nother stock. This is the commonly received view and it has much of truth\nin it, but let us examine closely into the facts.\nIt is worth while to observe that \"we Americans\" does not mean what\nit did in 1862 — fifty years ago. The stock is modified. Not only is there\na large and important infusion of people from south European and central\nEuropean and other stocks, but — and here is the new thought — it is, in\nmy judgment, undoubtedly true that we ourselves whose ancestors all\ncame from England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Holland, Germany, or\nScandinavia — that we, the original native Americans, as distinguished from\nforeigners, as we choose to call them, have been influenced by contact\nwith these outsiders, these Chinks and Hunks and Ginnies and Dagoes,\nas we contemptuously name them, so that our attitude toward the settled\nthings is largely different from what it was two generations — nay, one\ngeneration ago. We, even as they, are beginning to pronounce \"liberty\"\nas if it were spelled with a final e. Our conception of progress is a little\nnearer the speed limit, our notion of freedom is a little more hysterical, our\nconception of happiness is more tinged with recklessness than it was formerly— with the rapidity, the hysteria, the recklessness that hitherto have\nbeen associated in our minds with the lands and races south and west of\nthe Channel and the Rhine and the Alps. Verily the times^ are changing\nand we in the midst of them are ourselves undergoing a change.\nToday let us concern ourselves with unrest in the high school and the\nquestion, What is its relation to the wreckage in the earlier years of the\nhigh-school curriculimi ?\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nI have hesitated a little to use the expression \"unrest in the high school\"\nbecause so frequently the phrase \"in the high school\" is used unfairly.\nFor example, excited critics shriek alarm because of \"immorality in the\nhigh school,\" meaning, when you get right down to brass tacks, isolated\ncases of immorality manifested by boys and girls who, because of their\nyears, happen to be high-school pupils. Thus they attempt to convey the\nimpression that the high school as an institution, on account of its mismanagement orthe feeble character of its administrators, or on account of\nits evil nature, is responsible for the immoral acts of these youth, done and\nperformed outside of school hours and outside of school premises, and in\ndirect opposition to all school influences. We might as well speak of the\ncorrupt influence of Sunday schools because now and then a person who is\na Sunday-school scholar commits a sin and brings shame to his parents.\nSo when I speak of \" unrest in the high school,\" I do not mean the unrestful qualities or actions of persons of high-school age, but I do mean the\ndissatisfaction of pupils with the routine of high-school work and studies\nand the shifting restlessness more or less manifested among a large proportion of high-school students — not merely a negative manifestation, an\nunwillingness to work, but a positive tho groping and blundering movement\nin the direction of doing something other and different rather than doing\nwhat is set before the youth to do. They are not merely infected by the\nhook worm of indolence, but, stung by the wasp of energy, they are dissatisfied with the present environment as one is likely to be who is stung.\nIt is a fact, a momentous fact, big with consequence, and it is our duty to\nrecognize it, to account for it, to meet it, and to act so as to satisfy the\nneed that occasions it.\nUnrest and wreckage — cause and effect. Yes, true enough, cause and\neffect, but which is cause and which is effect ? Does the unrest produce\nthe wreckage or does the wreckage produce the unrest ? Both of them are\nin operation as cause and both are in existence as effect.\nIt is not merely true that because boys are restless they drop Latin.\nIt is not merely true that because girls are restless they flunk algebra.\nIs it not as true and even more important that because they fail in Latin\nor in algebra they are dissatisfied with themselves, with their studies, with\ntheir environment ?\nA high-school student who is doing well with a subject, who is mastering his daily task — such a one is not seeking to drop that subject. Achievement brings joy, to young as truly as to those who are older. Mastery\nbrings satisfaction whether one is fourteen or forty.\nThe right way to win the youth to a faithful, loyal, persistent attitude\ntoward his studies, whatever they may be, is to bring together such elements\nin his personality and environment as shall bring about success in his studies,\nmastery of his problems, achievement of his tasks, and he will find calm\nand satisfaction and will keep himself to faithful, persistent, loyal work\nand training.\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nUNREST\n\nAND\n\nWRECKAGE\n\n.\n\n677\n\n\\\n\nThe problem is further to seek. The causes of failure and so of dissatisfaction and unrest are such as these: bad physical conditions in regard\nto food, sleep, hygiene generally; bad habits of life owing to poor family\ndiscipline and other outside social conditions; bad social conditions in the\nschool owing to neglect and failure to co-operate on the part of parents,\nschool authorities, and teachers; bad conditions of teaching — done by\npoorly equipped, uninterested, untrained teachers; bad program conditions\nenforced by financial and other difficulties — allowing too short periods for\nrest and successful study; bad judgment in the selection and arrangement\nof courses; bad influences dominating the high school in the way of inflexible\ncollege-entrance conditions; bad policy on the part of the states in the\nprovision of means and control of standards, in the equipment of its teachers;\nbad business judgment in the estimating of what good teaching is worth\nand will cost; bad morals in the false and unfair assessment of property\nfor taxing purposes; bad management in the handling of public funds for\nschool purposes — ignorant and negligent committees, ignorant and selfish\narchitects, ignorant and dishonest contractors — all these wasting the funds\nfor equipment and thus making a shabby allowance of funds for the real\nbusiness of teaching; bad sense of harmony in the leaving of too much\nin school problems to individual community initiative, and too little to\nintelligent national control and ideals noble yet practical. All these bad\nconditions and bad practices contribute to the inefficiency of the high school\nand bring about the wreckage which stupid and unreasonable critics point\nto with wrathful joy — the wreckage which really makes the unrest in the\nhigh school.\nThere will be reform and improvement and it will come from one of two\nsources — from inside or from outside. If it comes from the inside it will\nmean that teachers, while working up to the limit of their powers to improve\nthe results with the present conditions, will unite in an intelligent, reasonable,\nand irresistible demand for improvement in conditions in certain specified\ndirections. And if that demand is made at once intelligent, reasonable,\nunited, it will be irresistible. The outside will co-operate with the inside\nand results will come.\nBut if on the other hand the teachers are selfish, and refuse to give of\ntheir thought to problems of reform and cling each to the interest of his own\npetty advancement; or if teachers are stupid and fail to see the overturning\n\nwhich is bound to come; or if they stick to the toad's-eye view of life and\nneglect the bird's-eye view; if we find them hammering away each at his\nown little anvil, scratching away each at his own little plot of ground, magnifying the importance of that which is near by and petty as compared with\nthat which is everywhere and fundamental; if, instead of showing that the\nschoolmaster is the master of the school and all its problems, they demonstrate that he is merely a slave in the harness, Hellenic to be sure, but a\nslave to his Roman master and so incapable of large thinking; then the\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nreform will come, to be sure, but it will come from the outside instead of\nfrom the inside, and it will be rude and crude and smashing and reckless\nand brutal and full of wreckage and ruin and waste and pitiful loss of\nmuch that is fine.\nSuch a reform was that of 1865 — ^waste of untold blood and sorrow and\ntreasure, abounding in hate and backward movements of reaction and full\nof blunders colossal and far-reaching.\nBut the reforms that are coming about in England today and some\nthat are coming about in our own country seem to be of the other sort,\nfrom within and therefore sweeter and surer and freer from accompanying\ndisaster.\nLet us — ^we ourselves, the school-teachers — let us find out the faults\nand weaknesses of our schools and study the causes and suggest the remedies.\nA nobler aim we could not set for ourselves.\nThe general aim of this program of the Department of Secondary\nEducation, in so far as it takes up new work, is to consider some of the weaknesses in our present high-school system as manifested by the wreckage of\nthe earlier years, and, if possible, to suggest practical means by which this\nmay be diminished. I find that there is general accord among thinkers\non educational problems in this feeling: first, there is serious need for a\nhigher grade of teaching power in the high-school teachers of the country,\nbecause the function of the high school is coming to be more clearly recognized and defined as \"the people's college,\" indeed, that institution where,\nto quote Lang, \"efiicient citizenship, the very. heart of liberal culture\nfrom the viewpoint of democracy, demands nowadays a trinity of developed\nsenses — a vivid historic sense, the scientific evolutional sense, and a practical\neconomic sense,\" and because the parent and the youth are both more\nexacting than formerly. That is, that the community is beginning to know\nwhat its high school is for and beginning to demand the results that such\nan aim calls for, and to insist that the money and machinery invested shall\nsecure the product desired, at a minimmn of waste. Millions upon millions\nare invested in splendid high-school plants, tax levies and bond issues are\napproved, and for something more and other than a rustle of white gowns\nand diploma ribbons, even more and other than a few banners and collegeentrance certificates.\nOf course these structures have many blunders and much waste and\nsome graft. That is partly a business problem, but it should be studied\nand controlled more by the school man.\nBut the other big problem is the problem of the teacher. Let us\nassume that communities are able and willing cheerfully to tax themselves for the erection and equipment of plants, let us assmne that there\nshall be a sufficiently increasing appreciation of the value of secondary\neducation, let us assume that reasonable salaries can be offered, then will\ncome the very practical question of supply and demand for high-school\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nUNREST\n\nAND\n\nWRECKAGE\n\n679\n\nteachers; and that topic is in the hands of one exceptionally qualified by\nstudies general and special, Dr. Cofifman, whose paper will follow this.\nThen if we should find that there is in sight actually or potentially a\nsupply of men and women now engaged in, or ready soon to enter upon,\nthis profession, than which no other can be higher, the second very practical\nquestion arises, How about the professional equipment of these teachers ?\nDo we demand enough ? Can we safely demand more ? This is the topic\nwhich on next Friday afternoon will open the program as it is to be presented\nby Dr. Bagley, whose authority to speak on such a topic is unquestioned.\nFinally, if the supply should be found or can be made equal to the\ndemand and if the time has arrived when a higher standard of preparation\nfor the profession can be set up and maintained, then is there something\nmore and something definite and practical that can be suggested to improve\nthe situation, reduce the wreckage, and satisfy the unrest ? Can improvements be made in the method of teaching, in the machinery of the actual\nwork of instruction, in the circumstances of time and space, which will\nmake it possible more nearly to realize the ideal in the matter of results ?\nWe have improved on the old-time- ungraded schools, running thereby\ninto danger of dead uniformity and loss of vitality. We have reduced the\nnumber of classes to be taught by one teacher in a day from twenty or thirty\nto, let us say, five. We have lengthened the class period correspondingly\nor nearly so. We have developed specialists and organized department\nwork to the last degree of refinement, sometimes putting a wire edge on the\nfine tool perhaps.\nWe have adopted the doctrine of interest from the Herbartians, whether\nas they intended it or not, and have made \"going to high school\" look\ndelightful to the youngster peeping in over the fence from the grade school\nand its milder joys.\nWe have borrowed many notions from college life — some of them useful,\nothers of them ill adapted to the period of adolescence and home life, a\nfew of them actually pestiferous and sadly needing eradication.\nBut — have we learned how to distribute our week and our day and our\nhour? Have we thru long experiment hit upon the wisest plan for controlling, directing, stimulating the actual intellectual process of the youth's\nmind? Is the balance between \"study\" and \"recitation\" achieved?\nIs it true that the youth knows or learns during his high-school period\nhow to direct his attention, utilize his power, study without too much of\ndreaming or too much of parrot-like memorizing ? Is it possible that by\na certain sacrifice in the direction of decreasing the nimiber of pupils to\nbe handled in one day by a teacher we could achieve with the individual\nresults so much more satisfactory, reducing the annual wreckage so considerably as to make up in actual cash for the increased outlay brought\nabout by the reduction in the number of pupils to be handled in a day by\none teacher ?\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nFor the annual wreckage is a heavy waste. Right there is the weak\nspot. That is where the trained investigator looking for a possible reduction in cost, a possible improvement in product at the same cost, would\nplace his unerring finger. .\nNear the end of my first year as a high-school teacher my principal\nasked me how many first-year pupils in beginning Latin were going to\npass. I told him not over eighty-five out of the total of one hundred who\nwere in my classes, and I was greatly distressed that I seemed to have\nmade a failure with th,e remaining fifteen. He comforted me with the\nassurance that 15 per cent was about the normal proportion of wreckage\nin first-year pupils. He relieved my mind, but not thoroly nor permanently.\nThe percentage is too high. Whether the fault be in the teacher or not,\nand after making all due allowance for bad home training, shabby preparation for high-school work, physical defects, wrong social conditions, still\nthe percentage is too high. The pupil in many instances does not know\nhow and needs to be shown. I will not go farther. We shall all await\nwith keen anticipation the treatment of this topic by Professor Caldwell\nin the fourth and last paper of this. special series on Friday afternoon.\nIt is true, then, to summarize, that the prevailing modern unrest,\nthe tendency to question everything, even the things most thoroly settled,\nor supposed to be settled by experience, has its manifestation peculiarly\nin America, the melting-pot of the nations, even the more conservative\nstock being influenced by the presence and example of the more radical\nand dramatic stocks.\nIt is true that the faUure to achieve success in the work offered produces\nthe imrest among the youth themselves and that the causes for this too\nlarge percentage of failures are numerous and largely outside of the teacher's\nimmediate province.\nIt is true, however, that there is much of deficiency and error in the\ninstitution itself, and that the needed and possible improvement ought\nto come from within rather than without, so as to secure desirable results\nwith the minimiun of shock and concomitant disaster.\nIt is therefore our special program to study the causes of wreckage, and\nto suggest such means as are practical for improving the quality of instruction, after learning the proportion of supply and demand, by demanding,\nif the time is ripe for it, a higher standard of equipment for our teachers,\nand then to make careful search for ways of improving the machinery\nof instruction, thus all together calling upon the imiversities, the colleges,\nthe normal schools, the teachers themselves, the taxpayers, and the whole\ncommimity to unite in an effort to improve the work and the spirit\nengendered, to reduce the wreckage, and to allay the unrest by removing\nits causes.\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUPPLY\n\nTHE RELATION\nLOTUS\n\nD.\n\nAND\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nBETWEEN SUPPLY AND DEMAND\nSCHOOL TEACHERS\n\nCOFFMAN,\n\nEASTERN\nILLINOIS\nCHARLESTON,\n\nSTATE\nILL.\n\nNORMAL\n\n68l\n\nFOR HIGHSCHOOL,\n\nThe relation of the supply to the demand for high-school teachers could\nbe determined exactly by an exhaustive statistical study. The data were\nnot at hand for this. It is a matter of common knowledge, however, that\nthe supply of high-school teachers is inadequate to meet the demands of\nour rapidly expanding secondary-school system. And yet in the face of\nthis fact efforts have been or are being made in many states to standardize\nthe entrance requirements of this phase of teaching. These standards are\nregistered in laws, rules, and conditions set up by local educational officers,\nin examination and certification systems, and in university or other institutional provisions. Every standard, be it consciously formulated or a mere\nmatter of precedent, operates as a limiting agency; it restricts or reduces\nthe already limited supply of teachers. The number of prospective\nteachers is largest when we have no standards at all and smallest when we\nhave high standards. An inverse relationship exists between the entrance\nrequirements of any type of teaching and the supply of teachers available\nfor that type.\nThe supply of thoroly and properly trained high-school teachers is even\nless than the supply of high-school teachers in general. Means for the\ntraining of such teachers are multiplying and it seems that more auspicious\ndays are dawning. In spite of a somewhat warranted antipathy of long\nstanding that still persists here and there among university men for departments of education, colleges and departments for the professional training\nof high-school teachers are being created and put on more substantial\nfootings everywhere.\nHeretofore there existed a common assumption that only those who\nwere to teach in the elementary schools needed special courses in professional\ntraining. At one time a stigma of plebeianism was placed upon such courses,\nbecause they were believed to be indifferent short cuts to low-grade\ncareers. It was a comparatively easy matter to transfer this notion and\nfeeling to professional courses for teachers of every kind. But as our classconsciousness has become more strictly professional, the demands have\nbeen more and more imperative that a systematic and comprehensive\nsurvey of the problems of education be required of all before they enter\nactively upon teaching careers. Such wide variability exists among states\nwith reference to these demands that any attempt to tabulate them would\nbe valuable only for detailed and technical comparative study.\nThere are reasons which lead me to believe that the difference between\nthe supply and the demand for high-school teachers of the type wanted is\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nincreasing. The recent report of the United States\neducation, referring to this problem, says:\n\n[Secondary\n\ncommissioner of\n\nFor twenty years the rate of increase in the number of secondary students has\nbeen greater than the rate of increase of population\nThe per cent of increase in\npopulation since 1890 has been nearly 47, while the per cent of increase in secondary\nstudents has been 208.\n\nThe increase has been more rapid at certain times in certain sections\nthan in others. Last year, for example, it was twice as great in the South\nAtlantic and Western states and five times as great in the South Central\nstates as in the North Atlantic and North Central states. This spread of\nsecondary education in these quarters has been due not so much to the\nincrease of teachers trained locally as to the active democratic spirit of our\nshifting and highly complex social life which insists upon an equalization\nof educational opportunities for all types of mind.\nOur changed social conditions have been accompanied with a multiplication ofeconomic opportunities. These have reduced the attractive\nforce of teaching as a vocation, particularly for men. It rather seems that\nthe number of men in teaching increases with the sterility of the soil and\nin proportion to their distance from city life, and decreases as the chances\nfor work increase in more remunerative fields. This, however, is not the\nwhole truth. It is a fact that when superintendents consider a man and\na woman for a given position at a given salary, they have been compelled\nin most cases to choose the woman, because of her superior fitness for the\nwork. It has been pointed out by Professor E. L. Thorndike, of Columbia\nUniversity, that great advances in popular education have been accompanied byan increased feminization of the teaching population; that the\nchoice of women over men has increased when the requirements have been\nraised; and that at least one of the prophecies of the pernicious effects of\nthis feminization has not materialized — ^it has not driven boys away from\nand kept girls in the high school. This feminization is the natural result\nof a swift-mo\\dng social evolution; it cannot be averted. Nevertheless,\nfor many reasons which appeal to common-sense, men are wanted; but\nmany of the men we should have to choose, if we chose any, are not wanted.\nNor are we likely to attract the most gifted imtU the rewards in teaching\nare made fairly commensurate with the rewards in other professional\npursuits.\nThe tendency toward a professional craft spirit among high-school\nteachers is shown in the total length of their experience and in the number\nof years they have taught in their present places. Figures pertaining to\nthese items will measure roughly the original capacity and the interest and\nzeal of the teachers to render service. A reasonable degree of permanency\nin the work at a given place might be taken as indication of a professional\nattitude, while shortness of tenure and transiency may be regarded as indications that teachers are more controlled by selfish than by altruistic\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deparcment]\n\nSUPPLY\n\nAND\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n683\n\nmotives. These statements are merely attempts to describe the situation\nin terms of emphasis rather than in terms of inclusiveness, for it is well\nknown that some teachers move because they can be of more service and\nsome remain in their present places because they never have a chance to\nmove.\nI have recently compiled data for 3,058 teachers in high schools on the\nlist of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.\nMy returns show that the range of experience of high-school teachers is 41\nyears, but the median number of years of experience men teachers have\nhad is 6; women teachers, 5; irrespective of sex the median is 5. These\nfigures are a little less than those found by earlier investigators. It may\nbe that a wider selection would have raised the median age a little, but\nnot much. According to these returns there are as many teaching in high\nschools who have had four years or less of experience as there are who have\nhad six years or more of experience. They mean that we have in five years\nenough changes in the high-school teaching population to equal the total\nnumber of teachers in it in any given year. It is obvious that teaching is\nstill used by many as a stepping-stone to other fields of activity. Men\ngive it a greater professional stability than women, for they remain in it\nlonger; but the length of time they remain is not long enough to insure\nprofessional solidarity.\nThe mobility of these 3,058 teachers is tremendous. The median number of years of experience the women have had in their present positions\nis 3, and for men it is 2. Of the women 27.8 per cent and of the men 33\nper cent are teaching in their present places this year for the first time.\nIn round numbers about every third high-school teacher moves annually,\nand the staff of the average high school is changed once in but little more\nthan three years. These figures are fraught with great significance to the\npractical school administrator, particularly when he recognizes that there\nare as many high-school teachers who have taught a year or less in their\npresent places as there are who have taught three years or more. With\nsuch a shifting group the difficulties and burdens of the administrators are\nincreased. There is hardly an even chance that a new high-school teacher\nwill stay long enough in a given position to stamp his personality upon the\nschool, and so to enter into its life as to leave behind him a tradition for\nserious study and worthy intellectual stimulation. He can hardly be said\nto be a factor in the life of the community in two years or less of time. Is\nit any wonder that some communities look upon high-school teachers as\na type of more or less cultured transients ?\nWhile the teachers are partly, they are not wholly to blame for this\ncondition of affairs. The struggle for mere existence is severe, but it is not\nany more severe than the struggle for abundance. Communities not\ninfrequently require a standard of living of high-school teachers beyond\nthe possibilities of their salary. The tastes of the teacher might be those of\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\npeople in refined economic leisure, but the salaries prevent the enjoyment\nof these higher things. Between what they ought to do and what they can\ndo there is a wide gulf. This partly explains why young men are increasingly dissuaded from entering teaching. Certainly an income that increases\nin a ratio less than the corresponding ratio of increase in the cost of living\ntends to attract mediocrity — not talent.\nAltho men stay in teaching longer and thus give greater permanency\nto it than women, they move more frequently and thus become less a part\nof the life of any particular school or of any particular community than the\nwomen. This failure of theirs at least offsets, I think, what teaching in\ngeneral gains from their greater permanency. What the implications of\nthis situation are, I do not care at this time to attempt to elaborate.\nAnother measure of the demand for high-school teachers is shown in\nthe amoimt of experience they have had before they begin teaching in a\nhigh school. Superintendents and principals persistently seek candidates\nwith experience. From their insistence one might suspect that his chances\nwere greatly lessened for securing employment in a high school if he were\nwholly without experience. Of course if there were two candidates of\nequal training and of equally desirable personal qualities, one with and the\nother^ without experience, the former in nearly every case would receive\nthe appointment. But considering the matter by and large without relating\nit to any certain place, the truth is that there are almost as many high-school\nteachers elected each year without experience as with experience. This\nhardly seems believable and yet the figures I have collected show that 42\nper cent of the men and 55 per cent of the women high-school teachers had\nhad no experience at the time of their election. Almost 49 per cent of the\nsecondary teaching corps thus got their initial experience in high-school\nwork.\nIt may be urged that this inexperienced half are better trained. Without doubt this is true sometimes, but not always; nor is it the rule. Common observation and common-sense teach us that in the case of niunerous\nindividuals and of certain commimities and institutions, training is not\nrigidly adhered to as a standard of efficiency. The operation of idealistic,\nsentimental, religious, political, and blood-kin considerations still plays\na conspicuous part here and there in the selection of teachers.\nWhen experience is related to salary, using salary as an objective measure\nof efficiency, the correlation is almost perfect for the first four or five years,\nthat is, each additional year of experience calls for a fixed ratio of increase\nin salary. After this there is practically no correlation at all. By this I\ndo not mean that salaries are never increased after this time. If they are,\nthe occurrence as a rule is due to the existence of salary schedules or to individual differences, and not to the operation of mere experience. About\nthe time, therefore, that the average high-school teacher has completed his\napprenticeship and has received the stamp of public approval for his\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUPPLY\n\nAND\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n685\n\nincreased eflficiency, he forsakes the calling. A most liberal estimate will\nnot give him more than two years of service after he has attained this\nmaximum of efficiency.\nThis relationship, and the fact that half the time we cannot get experienced teachers, furnish, in a reflex way, measures of the supply. Half\nthe time we must take young, inexperienced college graduates. Most of\nthese come in expecting to stay but a short time and they do stay but a\nshort time. They risk little and they gain little, but their little risk and\nlittle gain are checks on the more rapid advance of the profession as a whole.\nA measure of public necessity is indicated by the number of graduates\nof different types of institutions found teaching in high schools. If figures\ncould be secured for a country-wide investigation, answers to the following\nquestions would be interesting, if not valuable: What proportion of our\nsecondary teachers are college graduates ? normal-school graduates only ?\nhigh-school graduates or less? The natural history of 1,386 teachers in\nhigh schools on the accredited list of the University of Illinois shows that 4\nper cent have had no training beyond a high school, 8 per cent have had\nnormal-school training only, 67 per cent have had university training only,\nand 21 per cent have had both college and normal-school training. These\nreturns probably represent a higher percentage for college-trained and a\nlower percentage for normal-school trained teachers than one would secure\nwere he to take a random sampling of teachers from all classes of high\nschools, and not those on an accredited university list only. Nevertheless\nthese results are first-hand evidence of what the public wants or must use\nin the way of training. More than two-thirds of all the high-school teachers of Illinois — and I find this to be almost universally true — are college\ntrained. In Vermont 74 per cent of the secondary teachers are of college\ngrade; in Washington 82 per cent; in New Hampshire 92 per cent; in New\nYork and Massachusetts, nearly 100 per cent.\nPerhaps one reason why we have not more persons of normal-school\ntraining teaching in high schools is because the normal schools have not\nheretofore provided such training as would equip their graduates for this\nkind of work. It seems more probable that the academic and professional\ntraining of such teachers will be secured more and more in university and\ncollege departments. I, personally, am of the opinion that with certain\nexceptions, college graduation should be held as the final minimum for\nbeginning high-school teaching.\nCertainly the kind of people we have in teaching necessarily affects\nthe kind of teaching we get. Differences in traditions, in social class,\nintellectual maturity, and in academic and professional training, must be\nimportant factors affecting public opinion of the merits of the teacher and\nof his work. High-school teachers represent a select class; but with them\nas with the majority of all other classes of teachers, the professional motive\ncomes late. The great problem of the administrator is that of creating a\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nspirit of professionalization. For the great majority when they first enter\nteaching this ideal is chimerical. It exists among the favored few who\nrecognize the high value of their servantship. The demand is for this kind.\nIf the supply could be touched with this spirit, we should be dominated by\nprofessional ethics, and should no longer be a mere aggregation of units.\n\nTEE PROFESSIONAL\nW. C. BAGLEY,\n\nTRAINING\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nURBANA, ILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nTEACHERS\nOF ILLINOIS,\n\nShall we make a requirement of strictly professional study in the\nselection of high-school teachers? I understand that this question refers\nto the general policy that high-school authorities should adopt. We have\nin many states, of course, something that is, in effect, a requirement of\nprofessional study. That is, college graduates are licensed to teach if\nthey have completed a certain munber of hours in the study of educational\nhistory and theory. California has added a half-year of practice teaching\nimder supervision. Illinois, however, stands at the other extreme, licensing no teacher — even when graduated from its own normal schools — ^without\nan examination, and encouraging professional study only by including\nprofessional subjects in its examinations, especially for state certificates.\nLegal requirements, however, are not of especial interest to us at the\n■present moment. The problem that I wish to discuss is whether the time\nis ripe for high-school men in general to take the same attitude toward\nprofessional training that they have already taken, with such beneficial\nresults, toward collegiate training in subject-matter as a qualification for\nhigh-school teaching.\nThere are several arguments for and against this policy that I should\nlike to discuss with you briefly.\nIn the first place, there is the argument from analogy with other professions, but this need not detain us long. Law and medicine require\nprofessional training of their candidates for licensure; but it may be argued\nthat, for the high-school teacher, the study of subject-matter to be taught\nreally constitutes professional training for the teaching of that subjectmatter, and that, in demanding a college education from high-school\nteachers, we are doing all that is necessary to satisfy the analogy.\nIn the second place, it may be inferred, again by analogy, that strictly\nprofessional training has proved valuable in the preparation of elementary\nteachers and will prove equally valuable for high-school teachers. Rather\ncarefid statistical studies indicate that courses in psychology, educational\ntheory, and practice teaching under supervision, actually operate to increase\nthe efficiency of begiiming teachers in the elementary schools. I refer\nhere particularly to Meriam's investigations and to the study of Ruediger\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n687\n\nand Strayer on qualities of merit in elementary teachers {Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. I). In the latter study, it is shown that graduates\nof normal schools in general rank higher among elementary teachers than\ngraduates of colleges; that is, when elementary teachers are ranked according to merit, a larger proportion of the normal graduates are in the higher\nranks; while, of all the college graduates in elementary service, a large\nproportion — about 44 per cent — are in the two lower ranks. The factor\nof selection probably operates here (that is, the elementary school selects\nthe best college graduates) ; but even allowing for this, it is reasonable to\nassume that the strictly professional training of the normal school is an\noperative factor.\nOne might infer, then, that because strictly professional training\nimproves the efficiency of the elementary teacher, it will improve the\nefficiency of the high-school teacher. But against this it may be urged\nthat the conditions in the two types of education differ and that the same\nrules do not hold in both. The burden of evidence lies, then, with the\nadvocate of professional training. He must bring facts and not a priori\ninferences to the support of his contention. What facts are available?\nHave we any investigations proving that strictly professional training does\nresult beneficially? Or, if these facts are not available, or thoroly satisfactory, have we data that will show that the weaknesses of beginning\nhigh-school teachers are such as seem remediable in some measure by\nprofessional training ?\nWith reference to the first question, we have little satisfactory evidence.\nIt is difficult to compare on a wide scale the success of teachers who have\ntaken professional work in their college courses with the success of college\ngraduates who have not had such special training. The only extensive\nstudy that has been made is that of Boyce {Journal of Educational Psychology, March, 1912), who had about four hundred high-school teachers\nranked by their principals, and who found a slight tendency in favor of\nprofessional training; that is, the teachers having this training showed a\nslight but suggestive tendency toward a higher ranking than teachers\nlacking the training.\nTaking this evidence for what it is worth, let us now pass to the next\nquestion. What are the important factors of efficiency in high-school\nteaching and what are the most significant sources of failure ? Are these\nfactors of strength amenable to improvement thru training? Can the\nweaknesses be remedied by training ?\nBoyce in his study of the rankings of high-school teachers, first according to general merit, and then according to specific qualities of merit,\nfound that the most significant factor in general efficiency is ability to\nimpart instruction. This means something more than scholarship or\nknowledge of subject-matter, for this factor was also included and took a\nlower rank.\nIn other words, technical skill in instruction is a factor of\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nprime importance, and this, it is obvious, is amenable to directed growth\nthru the proper type of technical preparation.\nAnother specific quality of great importance is the ability to control\npupils or administer ''discipline,\" and this, too, as has been demonstrated\nin the preparation of elementary teachers, is subject to directed growth\nthru a mastery of technique.\nOther important qualities are not so readily amenable to improvement\nthru a directed course of technical preparation. These are ability to\nco-operate, studiousness, and ability to stimulate individuals.\nLet us now pass to the causes of failure or the sources of weakness in\nhigh-school teachers. Last spring, I had sent to five hundred superintendents aletter requesting information concerning the teachers who last\nyear were dropped from the high-school corps because of failure in their\nwork. I asked simply for the number of failures and for the cause or\ncauses of each, as the superintendent diagnosed them. The results show\nthat the most significant cause of failure is the inability of the teacher to\nadjust himself to the community. This might be termed a weakness in\npersonality, but the supplementary information volunteered by a number\nof superintendents to the effect that normal-school graduates evidence\nthis weakness much less than college graduates leads me to suspect that\nthe proper professional training may do something and possibly a great\ndeal to correct this weakness.\nOther important sources of weakness are deficiency in instructional\nability and deficiency in discipline, and these factors, as we have pointed\nout, are amenable to control thru adequate preparation. Weakness in\nscholarship does not seem to be an important cause of failure and, in general,\nthe causes of failure complement in a very convincing way the factors of\nefficiency as determined by Boyce. (I may also add that a similar census\nof over five hundred failures among elementary teachers confirms with\nequal force the conclusions of Ruediger and Strayer regarding factors of\nefficiency in grade teaching.)\nI now wish to take the bull by the horns and say something about\nthis puzzUng and irritating factor of personality. This is acknowledged\nto be one of the most important factors in teaching efficiency, and it has\ngenerally been assumed to depend entirely upon the operation of forces\nthat cannot be controlled or modified. In short, this is the factor that\nhas been looked upon as an endowment — a. native gift — which training\nand education cannot modify in any measurable degree.\nNow it would be futile to deny that there are certain individual qualities that cannot be modified by taking thought upon them or subjecting\noneself to any sort of instruction, inspiration, or discipline, and it would\nbe futile to deny that these unmodifiable traits are important and significant in the personality of the superior teacher. But I am confident that\nwe have overestimated, here as elsewhere, the number of these fatalisti-\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n689\n\ncally unmodifiable traits, and I am prepared to back up my confidence\nwith some rather definite evidence.\nWhat I am concerned with here is the meaning of the term personality\nas this term is used by the practical school man in speaking of a teacher's\nqualifications.\nThis term is so important in selecting teachers that last year I suggested to a graduate student, Mr. F. L. Clapp, that he spend his research\ntime upon its analysis. He first secured from one hundred school men a\nlist of the ten subordinate and specific qualities that each believed to be\nimplied in the larger term \"personality.\" As might be expected, a large\nvariety of specific qualities were mentioned; but, as also might be expected, on certain of these qualities there was a. very general agreement.\nThese in the order of their importance were:\n1. Sympathy\n2. Personal appearance\n3. Address\n4. Sincerity\n5. Optimism\n\n6. Enthusiasm\n7. Scholarship\n8. Vitality\n9. Fairness\n10. Reserve or dignity\n\nIt will be noted that of these, sympathy, sincerity, optimism, enthusiasm, vitality, and to some extent reserve, will be conditioned largely\nby innate forces; but appearance, address, scholarship, and to some extent\nreserve, may be significantly modified.\nIn order to get at the matter in a way that would eliminate the personal\nbias and prejudice expressed in these analyses, the list was sent to four\nhundred school men with the request that they rank their six best teachers,\nfirst with reference to general personality, and secondly with reference to\neach of these specific qualities. One hundred forty rankings were returned,\nrepresenting over seven hundred superior teachers. From these data the\ncorrelation between personality and each of the subordinate qualities\nwas computed by the Pearson method. The order of the qualities thus\ndetermined was as follows:\nI. Address\n2. Personal appearance\n3. Optimism\n4. Reserve\n5. Enthusiasm\n\n6. Fairness\n7. Sincerity\n8. Sympathy\n9. Vitality\n10. Scholarship\n\nThe indices for address and personal appearance were especially high,\nand suggest that these factors, which can be modified, are of fundamental\nsignificance in what we ordinarily term personality. Let me repeat that\nthis ordinary conception of the term is what concerns us in the present\nconnection.\nTwo types of evidence confirming this suggestion, that personality\nis not the fatalistically unmodifiable thing that we have supposed, are\nalso included in this study.\n\nIt was found, first, that \"general personality\"\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nis directly correlated with experience — in general the teachers of longest\nexperience were ranked highest. This may mean, of course, that the\nteachers of strong personality survive; but it may also mean that the\nteacher acquires a good many of the important elements thru the discipline of experience. In the second place, there is a strong and unequivocally direct correlation between personality and training in normal schools\nand colleges — the proportion of teachers in the two highest ranks of personality increasing steadily from the group with no normal-school or college\npreparation to the group that represents both normal-school and college\npreparation. Again, it may be contended that the normal school and\ncollege select the best personalities to begin with, but this would be very\ndifficult to establish. I believe that it is safe to conclude that this factor\nof \"teaching personality\" is not the fatalistic bugbear that we have hitherto\nassumed, but that several of its most important elements can be improved\nthru the discipline of experience, and this means, of course, that the proper\nsort of training (which always seeks to accomplish what actual experience\naccomplishes, but in a shorter time and with less waste) may influence this\nfactor in a manner that is subject to direction and control,\nI am not so foolhardy as to maintain that the technical training of\nthe normal school or of the educational departments of the universities\nhas yet reached a point of development where it can with certainty give\njust the right training to each prospective teacher. I do assert, however,\nthat, so far as the facts at our command point in any direction, they point\ntoward the value of technical training for teachers of both elementary\nand high-school grade.\nNow many of the qualities that make for efficiency in high-school\nteaching can be adequately developed in the college only by providing\nproperly supervised practice teaching in schools of secondary grade, . It\nis only thru work of this sort that initial efficiency in instruction and discipline can be markedly improved. Very few of our colleges and universities, however, at present command these facilities. In the meantime,\nmany of them require courses in educational theory and history amounting\nin some cases to fifteen or twenty semester hours. Personally I do not\nbelieve that so heavy a requirement is justified. Hitherto in the University\nof Illinois no professional work has been required of intending high-school\nteachers, altho a large number of students have voluntarily elected professional work. I have discouraged an overplus of such work on the part\nof students preparing for classroom teaching, on the ground that we could\nnot justify too much of it in comparison with the claims of the subjectmatter to be taught, which should, I believe, constitute the bulk of the\nstudent's preparation. Last spring, it was suggested that a minimum of\nsix semester hours in education be required of all students who wished the\nofficial recommendation of the university for high-school appointments.\nIt was specified that three of these hours should be devoted to a survey of\nthe field of education with the aim of acquainting the student with the\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROLONGED\n\nAND\n\nCAREFULLY\n\nDIRECTED\n\nWORK\n\n691\n\nnature and function of that type of social service which he proposes to\nenter, and to a brief but compact statement of educational principles. The\nother three hours should be devoted to a study of the technique of instruction\nand class management with observation of secondary work, and practice in\nconstructing detailed plans illustrating different types of teaching.\nIf practice teaching facilities had still been available, as I hope that\nthey will again be within the next biennium, we should have recommended\na full semester of practice under supervision for inexperienced candidates.\nThis would have made eleven semester hours in all of strictly professional\nwork. I contend that this is a moderate allotment and I also contend that,\nif properly conducted, courses in this amount and of this character will\noperate to raise significantly the initial efficiency of the high-school teacher.\nI may add that this recommendation was adopted by our university senate\nwith but three dissenting votes.\nNow the factor that this tj^je of training fails to look after is the same\nfactor which was brought out in our study of the causes of failure — namely,\nthe ability of the individual to adapt himself to the community that he\nserves. It is here that the normal-school graduate is superior to the college\ngraduate; and that superiority is due, I believe, not to any specific courses\nthat the normal school offers, but rather to the attitude of professionalism\nwhich the atmosphere of the normal school engenders and to which every\ndetail of its organization must contribute. In a large university, this\nfactor is difficult to reproduce. Something, of course, may be done by\ninstruction; students may be warned to avoid certain activities and attitudes when they begin their teaching; they may be lectured to about\nprofessional ethics; and we take every opportunity to force these important\nprinciples and precepts home. But the attitude of professionalism — the\nspirit of consecration to service — cannot be satisfactorily engendered in\nthis way. What is needed is a somewhat separate organization within the\nuniversity which shall represent the profession of teaching, and thru which\na craft spirit may be developed. I believe that secondary-school men\nwould promote the interests of their cause by urging in every legitimate\nway the organization of such separate schools.\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF PROLONGED AND\nDIRECTED WORK\n\nCAREFULLY\n\nOTIS W. CALDWELL,\nI.\n\nSCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\nNO INCREASE IN THE PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS WHO COMPLETE A HIGHSCHOOL COURSE\n\nIn the period between 1900 and 19 10, the number of pupils in public\nhigh schools in the United States increased over 76 per cent (from\n519,251 to 915,061).'\n\nDuring this same period the number of high-school\n\n' Annual Report, United Slates Commissioner oj Education, 1911. p. 0.\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nteachers who teach these pupils increased over 100 per cent (from 20,372\nto 41,667). The number and value of high-school properties increased\nproportionately during this period, including better quality and quantity\nof facilities for work in libraries, laboratories, gyiRnasia, etc. But there\nhas been no increase in the proportionate nimiber of pupils who complete the high-school course. For each of the last twenty years, approximately 12 per cent of the enrollment of the high schools has been\ngraduated. Regardless of the increase in facilities, and of an increase in\nteaching force, which is one-third greater than the increase in the number of\npupils, and of an assumed increase in the relative efficiency of their teaching\nforce, and regardless of the increased public belief in secondary education,\nthere has been no increase in twenty years in the percentage of high-school\npupils that take a full high-school course. The fact that they begin the\nwork indicates clearly that someone in control regards it as worth while\nfor some reason for these pupils to engage upon the work of the secondary\nschools, tho they may at the outset expect to do but one or a few years of\nthe work. But the fact that approximately 88 per cent do not complete a\ncourse indicates that most of those who thought it worth while to enter the\nhigh school, for some or many reasons do not find it possible or perhaps not\nworth while to follow out the course, even if at the outset they intended\ndoing so.\nn.\n\nFAILURE\n\nTO CARRY\n\nWORK ONE DOMINANT\nLEAVING SCHOOL\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN PUPILS\n\nAmong the many factors that operate to cause pupils to leave high\nschool, failure to carry the work is prominent. In one Chicago high school\n432 pupils entered the Freshman class in the autumn of 1909. Of these\n432 pupils, 338 left school before completing the third semester, thus leaving\n94 of the original 432 in school. Of those who left, 124 made no passing\ncredit in the school and 121 others failed to receive passing credits in 43\nper cent of the subjects which they took. The remaining 93 pupils who left\nschool made average grades above 80 per cent (75 being the passing grade\nin this school), tho the pupils failed to secure credit in 22 per cent of their\nsubjects. There were, therefore, 245 of the 338 pupils who had a percentage\nof failure from nearly half to all of their subjects, and 93 pupils who failed\nin 22 per cent of their work. The 94 pupils who remained in school failed\nto receive credit in slightly less than 5 per cent of their subjects.\nIt seems possible that this case is more striking than would usually\nappear from such investigations, since the problems associated with this\nparticular school may be peculiarly difficult.\nIn a careful study made by Mr. G. R. Johnson, of St. Louis, and covering\nrecords from twelve high schools with a total number of 18,926 pupils, he\nfinds that approximately 90 per cent of those pupils who were faihng in\ntheir work left school, while but 10 per cent of those who were making 90\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPROLONGED\n\nAND\n\nCAREFULLY\n\nDIRECTED\n\nWORK\n\n693\n\nper cent or better in their work left school. This percentage of those who\nfailed and left school remains almost constant thruout the four years, with\nthe exception that in the Chicago and Kansas City schools rather a larger\npercentage of the failures drop out in the earlier years than in the later\nyears, while in the smaller schools the percentage of dropping-out of those\nwho fail remains about the same thruout the whole high-school course.\nDoubtless the compulsory attendance law and the sixteen-year labor\nlaw are factors in continuing for a time the attendance of pupils who do\npoorly; and that with the close of the sixteenth year economic and social\nnecessity takes these pupils out of school. But we must note the fact that\nthe percentage of failures who leave school remains almost the same for all\nthe years of the high school. Possibly the termination of the period when\npupils must attend school may operate to relieve those who are failing from\nthe necessity of further attendance in an institution in which they do not\n\"make good.\"\nIII. SCHOOL METHODS AS CONTRIBUTING CAUSES TO THE FAILURES WHICH\nLEAD PUPILS TO LEAVE SCHOOL\n\nAmong the many and intricate factors which affect the relative success\nor failure of pupils, the methods of dealing day by day with the series of\ntopics that make up a given study are of supreme importance.\nThe present situation. — In the elementary schools from which these\npupils have come to the high school, the school day runs from 8 : 30 or g : 00\no'clock to 3:30 or 4:00 o'clock and the greater part of all study is done\nduring school hours, under direct or indirect supervision of the teacher.\nThe teacher is present to correct any misunderstandings in assignments, to\ngive a directing question or suggestion, or to quicken the endeavor, when\nsuch is needed. The work of one year is fairly well connected with that of\nthe preceding years and partially new and partially old ground is covered\neach year. In the high school, particularly in the first year, the subjects\nof study are largely or wholly new, often so new as to constitute fields quite\nunknown to the pupils. Even when some of the subjects are not new we\nhave a larger change than occurred between any two elementary grades.\nPupils in a given subject go to the special room of the teacher for their\nrecitations, recite and receive their assignment, and then go to another\nclassroom for another subject, or return to their assembly room or to their\nhomes with their assigned work for the next day. The teacher in the\nelementary school ordinarily meets the pupils of a given grade for most or\nall of their work, and knows them as they appear in all their work. In\nhigh school each teacher is especially interested in one or a few subjects and\nthis one or few are the only ones in which the teacher knows his pupils. In\nthe elementary schools the teacher often stands as representative of one\ngrade of pupils. In the high school the teacher usually stands as representative ofa subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nNot only does the first-year high-school student encounter new content\nof subject-matter, but usually a new kind of school day. Many high\nschools begin work at 8:30 or 9:00 o'clock and close at 1:00 or 1:30 or\n2 : 00 o'clock. In many schools all of the hours in school are occupied in\nrecitation or laboratory work, all individual study or assignments being\ndone away from school.\nThe conditions for home study present all the possible variations, but\nmost home study must be done under discursive influences — a little study,\na little conversation about irrelevant matter, an intermittent discontinuance\nfor small household duties, a prolonged intermission for recreation, with\nthe half-consciousness of wrong-doing because of unfinished and overhanging lessons, even interrupted sleep because of a host of unfinished tasks,\na final effort to secure categorically such facts regarding the assignment as\nare essential to enable the pupil to meet the teacher, a consciousness of\nincompleteness of preparation and a hope that, if called upon at all, the\ncall may come for the facts that are in the pupil's meager store. Often the\npupil's own initiative to home study must be supplemented by commands\nor entreaties from parents; sometimes parents must do pupils' work for\nthem, under penalty of family chagrin due to impending failure of the child.\nIn most cases poor habits of study, an essentially immoral attitude toward\nstudy, result from purported home study, tho some pupils of good ability\nand strong individuality may do quite effective or superior work thru home\nstudy. The habit of dawdling, waste of time in getting to work, wondering\nwhether the work really must be done, whether a lexicon, encyclopaedia, or\nparental answer to questions may not be found, leave an entirely improper\nattitude toward real study. Sham work, at first as a makeshift, later\nbecomes the only kind of which some individuals are capable.\nIV.\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nTO\n\nDETERMINE\nTHE RELATIVE\nCLASSROOM\nSTUDY\n\nVALUE\n\nOF DIRECTED\n\nIn the effort to improve the above situation it has seemed to several\npeople to be worth while to see if more carefully directed classroom study,\nless so-called recitation, and less home work might not yield better results.\nA. Experiments in mathematics. — Some experiments have been carried\non by Mr. Ernst R. Breslich of the University High School department of\nmathematics, reports of which are published in the October, 1912, School\nReview.\nAt the outset Mr. BresUch found that some pupils who did poorly on\ntheir assigned work did not understand the suggestions that had been given\nregarding good ways for undertaking the home work. Parents insisted\nthat the assignments made were impossible, whereas for one reason or\nanother the pupils had failed to get essential suggestions regarding the\nassignment. Even with assignments clearly imderstood certain habits of\nhome study which did not exist had been assumed.\nA series of visits to\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROLONGED\n\n*\n\nAND\n\nCAREFULLY\n\nDIRECTED\n\nWORK\n\n695\n\nother classes showed similar conditions. Pupils reported poor results from\ntheir home study, various excuses or no excuses being offered. The teacher\nexplained away the pupil's difficulties and, in most cases, the pretense of\nhaving the work done at home was continued.\nTo ascertain the ways in which the members of one class attack their\nwork, Mr. Breslich assigned a lesson, taking unusual care to make clear all\nphases of the assignment. The class was then told that the next fifteen\nminutes would be^iven to studying the lesson assigned. All pupils were\nslow in beginning the work and some occupied all of the fifteen minutes in\ngetting ready to go to work. Some who ordinarily came to class with\nwell-prepared lessons looked about to see how others were undertaking the\nwork, and then followed them. Few really accomplished anything in the\nfifteen minutes.\nTo investigate more carefully these individual habits of study, Mr,\nBreslich told his classes that at a certain hour each day the classroom\nwould be open to students who had difficulty with assignments or wished\nto make up back work, and good use was made of this opportunity.\nThe teacher passed about among the pupils as they worked, making\nsuggestions, but rarely answering questions directly.\nIt was then decided to make more prolonged trial of this supervised\nstudy with all members of one class. In one section of the class no home\nwork was assigned and in the other section home work was assigned in the\nusual way. The two sections had the same work. Both spent fourteen\nlessons on simultaneous linear equations, at the end of which the same test\nwas given to both sections. The relative standings in grades which these\ntwo sections received upon the same examination, at the close of the preceding semester in mathematics, prior to these experiments are :\nSection A, average 81.4; Section B, average 79.4, B being slightly\nweaker than A. In Section B 5.9 per cent of the class had failed in the\npreceding semester and none in Section A.\nSection A was given home work with no classroom supervised study.\nSection B was given supervised study and no home work. Upon the\nexamination following the fourteen lessons their standings were:\nSection A, home work, average 62.8, with 50 per cent receiving the failure mark.\nSection B, supervised study, average 65.5, with 31.2 per cent receiving the failure\nmark.\n\nIt is to be noted that Section B, a somewhat weaker section, surpassed\nSection A, and that its lower number of failures indicates that the poorer\npupils profited most from the supervised study. Section A reported an\naverage of i j hours spent on each lesson, while in Section B the actual time\nof class work was 36 minutes per day. Section B solved an average of two\nproblems more to each pupil than did Section A. With the supervised class\nwork as a basis, too much time was spent on the home assignments. Section\nB worked slowly during the first three lessons, but with the development of\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nindependence and confidence they soon worked rapidly. The interest and\npleasure of Section B, some of whom had failed in the preceding semester,\nwere noticeable.\nIn the following topic to which six lessons were given, the methods were\nreversed. Section A being given supervised classroom work and Section B\nhome assignments, and class recitations. At the close of this series of\nlessons, the same test was given both sections with the following result:\nSection A, supervised work, no home work, average, 77.5.\nSection B, home work and recitations, average, 86.4.\n12.5 per cent of Section A failed on the test and 5.70! Section B failed.\n31.2 per cent of Section A secured a mark of A, and 52.9 per cent of B secured\nthe A mark.\n\nThis seems to show that the pupils in Section B, by means of their\nprevious fourteen supervised lessons, had learned enough about independent\nstudy to enable them to do their home work in such a way that Section\nA even under supervision did not surpass Section B in six lessons. The\nability of Section B gained under supervision persisted in home study thru\nsix following lessons.\nB. Detroit experiments in algebra and Latin. — In the Detroit Central\nHigh School a different plan has been followed, but one which relates to this\ntopic. Principal David McKenzie writes:\nWe have experimented somewhat with a plan to give additional direction to the\nweaker pupils of the ninth grade. I cite the two cases of first course in algebra and Latin.\nAt the end of ten weeks all pupils who were marked failing in these subjects were grouped\ntogether for special work in addition to their regular recitation periods. They were given\ntwenty lessons each, on the ground covered during a period of six or seven weeks. Each\npupil was treated as a pathological subject. In the final test they were marked as follows:\nLATIN\n\nTotal number of pupils\nNumber marked \" Good \"\nNumber marked \"Excellent \"\nNumber marked \"Fair\"\nNumber marked \"Weak \"\nNumber \" Not passed \"\nNumber \"Left\"\n\n'.\n\n15\n6\ni\n3\ni\n3\ni\n\nALGEBRA\n\nTotal number of pupils\nNumber marked \"Excellent\"\nNumber marked \" Good\"\nNumber marked \" Fair\"\nNumber marked \"Weak\"\nNumber marked \"Not passed\"\nNumber marked \"Left\"\n\n20\n2\n4\n3\n5\n3\n3\n\nIt is plainly evident that a large number of ninth-grade pupils need greater direction than they receive at present, and I am convinced that we must resort to some plan\nto give them this additional help, if we are to ehminate excessive mortality in this grade.\n\nC. Joliet double-period plan. — In the Joliet Township High School for\nsome years two periods per day, ten hours per week, have been given in\nall, to all science work, manual training, domestic science, and mechanical\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROLONGED\n\nAND\n\nCAREFULLY\n\nDIRECTED\n\nWORK\n\n697\n\ndrawing. This school has also used this plan with beginning algebra,\nbeginning geometry, and beginning history, possibly other subjects also.\nIn Joliet the consensus of opinion of teachers is that the scheme is successful.\nThe principal states that by such a scheme \"the percentage of failures\nmay be reduced to a minimum, and that is a compensation for the slight\nincrease in teaching force and extra amount of money spent for teaching.\"\nD. Murphysboro manual-training experiment. — At Murphy sboro. 111.,\nan experiment has been under way which, while not bearing directly upon\nour question, has a collateral bearing upon it by indicating that even single\nperiods and niore prolonged periods of class instruction may be used in\nsuch ways as to make the shorter and not the longer period desirable, tho\ndoubtless longer periods usually seem desirable.\nA small class of boys in manual training was divided, one section being\ngiven single periods for this work, the other the same number of double\nperiods. The principal, Mr. G. J. Koons, stated that the single-period\npupils were not above the double-period boys in their general class standing\nnor in ability. All were given piecework and records were kept of the hours\nused by each boy in completing each piece of work. Eleven pieces of work\nwere completed by each pupil. The single-period pupils used approximately 25 per cent less time on an average for each piece than the doubleperiod boys, and on the test given to all at the close of the work, the singleperiod pupils averaged 7 per cent above the double-period pupils. This\nexperiment suggests a possible waste of time in longer periods, possibly lack\nof readiness in attacking work, of attention and high tension of effort\nthruout the period. It is well known that appreciation of relative shortness\nof time available usually results in higher alertness, readiness of attack,\nhigher tone, and more constant prosecution of the work in hand. It must\nbe kept in mind that the Murphysboro experiment involves a small number\nof pupils and withal may be more of a suggestion of method than of the\nvalue of any particular length of period given to a study. Most teachers\nwho have tried classroom directed study find double periods, part for study\nand part for general discussion, most effective.\nE. General science. — Thruout the whole United States there has been a\nsignificant attempt to introduce courses in general science into the first\nyear of the high school. While in different schools these courses vary\nlargely in their content, length, and in many details of method, they agree\nin their purpose of being less formal, less rigid and abstract than the highly\ndifferentiated sciences, and in selecting and treating topics in science in\nsuch ways that the pupils think thru these topics with good methods of\nthinking and with a knowledge content that appeals to the pupils as being\nworth while. The dominant method is that of class study of real things\nand real situations. An active attempt is made to secure individual\nexperimentation or individual study from every pupil. The whole general\nscience movement is an attempt to secure a scientific method of work upon\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nconcrete problems, the significance of which appeals to the worker. We\nhave been putting first-year pupils into formal sciences which were beautifully organized and orderly, possibly even elementary from the point of\nview of the adult science and research student, but which are an abstract\nfield to the pupil who has not been led to rationalize the common phenomena\nof his surroundings. This general science course has met a splendid\nresponse and its method has resulted in more ' effective work in subjects\nother than science during the first year and in the sciences in the following\nyears. It is stated by teachers and principals that where significant\nlaboratory courses in general science are given, fewer pupils fail in their\nwork, more remain in school in the second year, and there is a much larger\ndemand in subsequent years for courses that utilize laboratory methods,\nsimilar to those of general science courses. The method and significant\ncontent of the general science course seems to prepare in ability to work\nand in desire to work in other laboratory courses. My own observation\nleads me to conclude that the oft-made statement that pupils are naturally\naverse to work is much exaggerated. If properly guided to independent,\npurposeful study, really significant work becomes a pleasure to most pupils.\nGeneral science is an attempt to get back to the valuable parts of the\nnatural history of our fathers, the purposeful, dynamic, thoughtful, but\nelementary interpretation of common, significant problems, the kind of\ninterpretations which physiography promised to give when it first came\ninto secondary schools and which physiography may still serve to unify\nbetter perhaps than any other single branch of science.\nThe more fully directed study in general science and in other laboratory\nsciences presents an opportunity for indi^ddual, first-hand study of concrete\nthings, for experiment and interpretation of phenomena. But, as is true\nin other high-school subjects, it is wasteful for the science teacher merely\nto assure himself that the pupils and materials are inclosed within the same\nroom. Science in which we boast of concrete studies, of the laboratory\nmethod, and of the possible significance of content that is unsurpassed has\nsometimes become as formal in its home assignments, as unlikely of achievement, its recitations as free from individual dynamic activity, as any other\nsubject. It, as well as the other subjects, needs to be revived by use of its\nown concrete laboratory method. Laboratory teaching in science or other\nsubjects may rise to the highest level of excellence or may descend to a\nmeaningless mechanical manipulation that is deadening. But it is believed\nthat the laboratory method offers us an important method greatly needed\nin all our high-school subjects, and most seriously needed in the first years\nof the high school.\nv.\n\nSOME NECESSARY CHANGES IN THE METHODS\n\nOP THE ABOVE\n\nThe cases cited above in which increased efficiency of classroom work\nis sought are too few to be conclusive, but they are highly suggestive if in\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROLONGED\n\nAND\n\nCAREFULLY\n\nDIRECTED\n\nWORK\n\n699\n\nthe absence of more conclusive guidance we assume that these experiments\npoint to a proper change in procedure.\nIt must be obvious, that if such methods of high-school work are used,\nsome important changes must be effected. Most important of all is wider\nrecognition of real teaching, real development of pupil-power, as compared\nwith assigning and hearing lessons and telling facts to pupils in case they\nhave not understood them. Recitations and class discussions and home\nassignments should not be wholly omitted, but these may profitably be\nmuch reduced. Then, when teachers direct their pupils in study, assignments may be expected to become more appropriate, more carefully planned,\nless frequently made at the close of the period as the class is starting from\nthe classroom. The assignment is a highly important part of the period's\nwork, and it is an educational misdemeanor to make an incomprehensible\nassignment.\nThe extension of these methods of study would help to eliminate some\nof the abuses of the ordinary classroom recitation. In order to ascertain\nwhat opportunity each pupil has to respond in class, the following records\nwere niade by Mr. Breslich upon visits to classes other than his own. In\none first-year class of twenty-two pupils one pupil recited twice, one eleven\ntimes, the others ranging between these; in another class of thirteen pupils,\none recited four times, another eighteen times; in another one recited six\ntimes, another twenty-three times. With directed individual study, each\nwould have fuller opportunity for work. It does not follow that all general\ndiscussion should be omitted, but in directed work there are ample opportunities for general discussions. Nor does it follow that no home work\nshould be assigned.\nA more intimate interest in each pupil is possible thru classroom study.\nThe ordinary assignment of home work and classroom recitation method\ntends to reduce all the class to a base level. Classroom study enables the\nteacher better to teach the weak pupil and the strong pupil, each to his\nhighest efficiency. The class recitation method — a sort of vermiform appendix on our educational system — often consists either in allowing the best\nstudents to do the work or in having them sit idly by, developing habits\nof low tension while the teacher attempts to pull up the weaker ones to a\nfair understanding of the point at hand. It requires a higher order of\nability to teach genius than mediocrity, and our present classroom methods\noften ignore genius, thru an ill-balanced sense of duty to the mediocre, or\nneglect the majority in the interests of the few brighter pupils. Wellbalanced study should enable the teacher to stimulate all to a high degree\nof effort.\nClassroom study means a longer school day and more teaching force,\nor longer hours for the present teaching force. The school day should be\nlonger. Germany has approximately thirty school hours per week to our\napproximately twenty hours per week in our secondary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "yOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAlmost all high-school work should be done at school in school hours\nunder guidance of real teachers. Less assigned home work will mean less\ncarrying of responsibility for school duties during the hours at home when\noften such responsibilities cannot be met and under conditions which often\nfoster ineffective habits of study. There will always remain plenty of good\nhome work; good reading, some assignment upon work in line with school\nwork; but our pupils should no more carry home with them the larger\nburden of their school work than a good business man should take home\nwith him his major business duties.\nThe longer school day is not to be feared, but welcomed, if by means\nof it adequate time for proper study is secured. We have cheapened our\nschools by shortening them. Even longer hours for teachers, the time being\ngiven to more prolonged and more effective teaching in a reduced number\nof classes, is not undesirable, if by means of these longer hours more effective\nteaching and less wreckage thru failure in high school may be secured.\n\nREPORT\nSPENCER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nR.\n\nSMITH,\n\nCOMMITTEE\nON COSMOPOLITAN\nSCHOOL\nCURRICULUM\nPRINCIPAL\nOF WENDELL\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nPHILLIPS\n\nHIGH\n\nHIGHSCHOOL,\n\nThe Committee on the Cosmopolitan High-School Curriculum has\nbeen delayed in its work because of the lack of funds to proceed. At the\nJuly, 19 II, meeting of the National Education Association at San Francisco a small appropriation was allowed.\nWith this money in hand and with an addition of three members, the\nwork has been reorganized. At the St. Louis meeting in the winter of 191 2,\nthe committee had a session at which it was decided to reinforce the plans\nof organization of work as presented at the Boston meeting of 1910, by the\nquestionnaire detailed below, thru which is sought the opinions of the highschool men of the country as to the ideal high school, the obstacles in\nthe way of reaching such ideal, and whether the ideal in mind is\narbitrary or fitted to the community. The plan of work presented at\nBoston was somewhat modified at the St. Louis meeting and is now in the\nhands of the individual members of the committee for such changes as each\nmay deem necessary. This plan will be reviewed again in the light of the\nanswers received from the questionnaire which is the basis of this report,\nand the final questionnaire will be in the hands of the high-school principals\nearly in the coming winter.\nThru this preliminary questionnaire the committee hoped to obtain a\nfree and untrammeled expression directly from the men who are out in the\nfield, which would serve as a basis of study, rather than the opinion of the\nfew men who are on the committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] REPORT\n\nON COSMOPOLITAN\n\nREPORT\n\nON THE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n701\n\nQUESTIONNAIRE\n\nThe preliminary questionnaire, in addition to the questions, calls for\nthe name and location of the institution, the kind of school, i.e., whether\nacademic, technical, manual-training, commercial, or combined, and the\nnumber of each sex enrolled. The questionnaire proper consists of the\nfollowing three questions:\nQuestion i. If you were free to organize a high school according to your own ideas,\nwhat general plan for organization, either in administration or in program of studies,\nwould you follow ? What changes in your own school are necessary to realize this ideal ?\nQuestion 2. In the present situation, what obstacles prevent your realization of this\nideal ?\nQuestion 3. Would you advocate this kind of school for the average community,\nirrespective of local conditions, or would you so organize the school as to promote the\ninterests of your community ? All answers are considered confidential if so desired.\n\nThis inquiry was sent to the high schools in all cities of ten thousand\npopulation and over. Replies were received from 175 of these schools in\ntime to be used in this report. In most cases the blanks are filled out by\nthe high-school principal, in a few instances by the superintendent. In\nusing the term principal, no discrimination is made between the two. The\nfirst two questions are very general and permit much latitude in answering.\nThe number who give similar answers does not show that others would not\nhave agreed, but it simply shows what stands out most prominently in the\nminds of different men as demanding attention.\nI. Of the replies received to Question i, 162 favor the cosmopolitan\nhigh school, 11 the separate specialized schools, and 9 are in favor of modifying the academic course so as to include subjects of a vocational nature\nwhich would change them to cosmopolitan high schools. (These are\nincluded in the numbers favoring cosmopolitan high schools.) Less than\n7 per cent would establish specialized schools.\nThe following table gives the distribution of the schools according to\ntheir enrollment with reference to the kind of school the principals would\n2725\n\nprefer:\nEnrollment of High School\n250 and less\n2i;o— «;oo\ntcoi— 7 so\n7ei— 1,000\n1,000—1,500\n1,501—2,000\n2,001—2,500\n2,501 and over\n\nNo. of Principals\nFavoring Cosmopolitan Schools\n\nNo. of Principals\nFavoringized SpecialSchools\n\n20\n\nI\nI\n2\n\n•\n\n18\n\n4\nI\n\n18\n4\n4\n\nI\nI\n\nThis table shows that a majority of the 46\nprincipals reporting, of the\nlarger high schools as well as those of the smaller high schools, favors the\nestablishment of the cosmopolitan high school,\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe laboratory method of instruction, that is, giving the teacher charge\nof her classes during the study periods so she can give individual assistance\nto the pupils that need such help, is advocated by 17 principals. This\nwill require a longer school day and a larger teaching force. A longer\nschool day is favored by 14. Seven of these 14 favor the laboratory method\nof instruction. The hours most frequently mentioned are from 8 : 00 a.m.\ntill 5:00 P.M., with the usual intermission at noon.\nThe organization of the school by departments with department heads\nis a change that is desired by several. In such cases it is intended that the\nauthority of the principal be increased and that the department head be\nheld responsible for the work that is done in the department.\nAmong other changes suggested are the part-time courses, the sixyear high school beginning with the present seventh grade, the extension of\nthe present curriculum to include the first two years now given in the colleges, segregation of the sexes, arrangement of the program of studies\nsimilar to the German plan, i.e., not to have all studies come five times a\nweek for a short period, but some once or twice a week, others three and\nfour times a week thruout the year according to the importance of the\nsubject, parallel courses with no electives, courses with many electives,\nemphasis on the cultural studies in all courses, emphasis on the vocational\nstudies in all courses, and student control.\nThe plan of the part-time courses is not to bring the industries into the\nschool but to bring the school into touch with the industries so that the\ntime of apprenticeship will be shortened and the pupil will be ready to\nmeet the situation as it is, when he leaves school.\nAs to the studies which the different principals would require in all\ncourses, there is considerable uniformity as well as difference in opinion.\nEnglish, mathematics, science, history, and language are required by most\nof those who make any specific mention of the studies they would require\nin all courses. A few would make English the only required subject,\nmore would require only English and mathematics, but the majority who\nmake specific mention of the studies they would require name the general\nbranches just mentioned, but permit election within the departments. In\nseveral instances physical training, hygiene, biology, parliamentary law,\neconomics, civil government, logic, ethics, and various vocational studies\nare required.\nII. The answers to Question 2 indicate that the obstacles that prevent\nthe school men from attaining the desired goal are various and many, and\nin many instances cannot be attributed to any one cause. The leading\nobstacle mentioned by 73 of the principals is lack of funds. Lack of\nproperly trained teachers, low salaries, lack of room and equipment are\namong the chief obstacles mentioned, and in most cases can be removed if\nthe proper funds are available.\nThe lack of funds may be due to several reasons. A community may\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] REPORT\n\nON\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n703\n\nbe small and compelled to support a larger school than it is able to; it may\nbe a rapidly growing community so that in spite of the fact that new buildings are erected and more teachers are employed the facilities are still\ninadequate for doing the proper work, as is the case in many of our western\ncities. The school may not obtain its share of the community funds due\nto the fact that other municipal matters have been put more plainly before\nthe people and hence have received a part of the support the school should\nhave had, or the board may refuse deliberately to carry out the wishes of\nthe community and deny the necessary funds.\nAmong the other obstacles mentioned are tradition, lack of knowledge\non the part of the community as to what Is best, conservatism of the community, college-entrance requirements, poorly trained men as superintendents, lack of knowledge of high-school problems on the part of the\nsuperintendent, requirements for high-school graduation, private-school\nsentiment, conservatism of teachers, politics among the members of the\nboard of education, lack of community interest in its schools, the presence\nof specialized schools, the requirements of the state department of education, lack of the proper relation and connection with the elementary schools,\nand the overemphasis of either the vocational or the cultural studies.\nIt will be noticed that most of these obstacles are to be found outside\nof the school and that in order to secure the desired change it will be necessary to acquaint the outside interests with the conditions as they are. It\nis hoped that the answers to the final questionnaire will bring out these\nconsiderations.\nIII. That the school men as a whole are interested and work for the\ninterest of the communities in which they work, is shown by the answers\ngiven to Question 3, Ninety would organize their school to promote the\ninterest of the particular community in which they are working. Fortyone would arrange the course of study so as to meet the need of the average\ncommunity as well as the need of the local community. Only eleven\nwould organize the course of study to meet the need of the average community regardless of local conditions.\nThe questionnaire incidentally also brings out the lines of work upon\nwhich certain schools are laying emphasis and thereby shows a lack of\nunity as to purpose and content of the high-school curriculum.\nTo show how some of the principals feel in regard to the situation at\nthe present time, the following statements are interesting.\nSays one:\nOur educational conferences are held at too high an altitude. Little that they do ever\ngets down to the voter, who after all decides those educational problems. They, the\nvoters, do not know that we are in session. We need campaigns, with speakers and a\npublicity bureau that will bring the educational questions right down to the people.\nThey are permitting the best they know and they know no more because we do not have\nenough political sense to realize that we can get results from the power house.\n\nTo those who favor the German trade ideal the following are of interest:\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nI would not allow temporary demands or even necessities entirely to override the\nnotion of culture. Sickness or old age to a person imused to solace from books becomes a\nvastly greater burden.\nA living may be paramount, a competency may be desirable, but an independent\nfortune is not a greater necessity than a preparation for a happy and contented period\nof advanced age. This to my mind is one of the strongest arguments against the abandonment wholly or partially of the culture elements in the curriculimi of our secondary\nschools.\n\nAnother lays stress on the quality of the teachers:\nOrganization will not make an ideal high school. Form but not content, that is the\ntrouble now; a program of studies but no one to teach them. If I had the power to organize a school I would get men and women to teach not what is in some made book, but\nwhat they know from life.\n\nStill another says:\nWhen the school properly serves its commimity, that community will appreciate it\nand boast of i,t. Then the other communities will take notice and ask why they may not\nbe thus served. We need a few real, active, peerless pioneers. Progress will follow fast\nthen.\n\nThe following received since this report was drafted is of deep interest\nas it comes from a leading high-school man of the country:\nDenver, Colo., July s, 1912\nMr. Spencer R. Smith, Principal\nWendell Phillips High School\nChicago, Illinois\nMy dear Sir: I regret that absence from the city and press of other work made it\nimpossible to reply to your favor regarding cosmopolitan high school before the meeting\nof the Secondary Department.\nI am very much in S5Tnpathy with the objects of your\ncommittee and believe that you have started an important investigation. At a later\ndate I will reply carefully to your preliminary questionnaire.\nVery truly yours,\n(Signed) W. H. Smiley\nI suppose that there is no more difficult question than the question of the relative value\nof subjects and, for this reason, there is the utmost need of discussion of the question\nwhich you propose. I feel more and more the weakness of students who become superficially acquainted with too many subjects to get real growth and pwwer thru increasing\nclearness of thinking that comes from hard and repeated attacks upon the same subject\nfrom many different intellectual angles. Many young teachers and most parents are\nnot going to appreciate this unless those who have the making of school programs are\nable to rate subjects with justice and give sound pedagogical reasons for the same, thus\nindicating their convictions as to the relative values of subjects for accomplishing certain\nspecific and definite educational ends. We do not recognize at all clearly, the mass of us\nteachers, the difference between subjects that are used to secure right moral or aesthetic\nfeeling and those whose purpose it is to give intellectual power.\n\nWithin the past year a most important contribution to the study of\nsocial problems has been made by Dr. Walter E. Weyl. A close study of\nhis book The New Democracy will indicate a necessity for a complete overhauling of the whole of our secondary education. Time will permit of a\nbrief quotation only:\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] REPORT\n\n01^ COSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCBOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n705\n\nThe future education of the masses, however, should not be the traditional Procrustean unrelated and undififerentiated education of yesterday, but an education which\nfully equips the child for his industrial, political, and social life. For too long the school\nhas been half-asylum, half-penitentiary. For too long it has stood alone in irrelevant\nisolation, knowing neither factory nor farm, neither kitchen nor voting-booth. For\nmuch too long it has been a place where ignorance has taught ignorance, where individuality has been weeded and crushed out\nOur new education .... must be an\neducation which will aid society in the conservation of the life and the health of citizens\nand in their progressive development. It must aid men in their industrial pursuits, in\ntheir political activities, and in their private life outside of industry and politics.\n\nTwo most important reports have emanated from this city within a\nfew weeks, both sounding a warning to those interested in the education\nof our boys and girls, and in their preparation for the responsibilities that\nare to come to them in life.\nThe first of these reports to reach us is A Report on Vocational Training\nin Chicago and in Other Cities, by a committee of the City Club of Chicago,\nunder the chairmanship of Professor George H. Mead of the University of\nChicago.\nIn this report is found the following statement:\nOur great contention is that vocational training be introduced into our school system\nas an essential part of its education, in no illiberal sense and with no intention of separating out a class of workingmen's children who are to receive trade training at the expense\nof an academic training\nJust as liberal a training can be given in the vocational\nschool as that given in the present academic school.\nIndeed we feel that the vocational\ntraining will be more liberal if its full educational possibilities are worked out\nWe\nagain insist that vocational and trade training must appear in the American public school\nas an essential part of that unique system.\n\nIn connection with the above, note a late expression of a layman who\nhas given much attention to the cause of education both in England and\nAmerica. Mr. Alfred Moseley is quoted by the Sierra Educational News\nas saying:\nBy no means ever separate the technical school from the so-called classical. The\nstudent who emphasizes work in the former must broaden and enrich his life thru contact\nwith the classics and humanities. Likewise he who goes in for the literary, needs just\nas much the help to come from a first-hand knowledge of the industries. The two lines\nof work should be carried on in the same institution, not in separate schools. Moreover,\nlabor is lessened thru this plan, with a corresponding saving in time and money.\n\nThe second of these reports is Vocational Education in Europe, made\nto the Commercial Club of Chicago by Mr. Edwin G. Cooley, formerly\nsuperintendent of schools in Chicago.\nSpeaking of the problem before the German' people of the twentieth\ncentury whose rebirth came in the nineteenth century, Mr. Cooley says:\nA new education was necessary for a state founded upon these principles, an education based upon the principles of self-activity and self-responsibility, a training for the\nhead, the hand, and the heart, broad system, taking into consideration the needs of all\nthe individuals of the state.\n\nSpeaking of Dr. Kerschensteiner's book Education for Citizenship, Mr.\nCooley continues:\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nMere technical training will lead to national selfishness and not to true patriotism.\nGermany must, therefore, educate the man and the citizen as well as the workman.\nBoth utility and culture must be included in the general schools for the people. Both\naims, the cultural and the useful, have their justification; each taken by itself is onesided and inadequate to meet the demands made upon the modem citizen.\n\nMuch is said today of the conservation of our national resources. We\nthink of the physical resources, \"our forests, our mines, our fisheries, and\nour water power,\" and are ever forgetful of our human resources. Professor Carver of Harvard University, again to quote Mr. Cooley, puts the\ncase in this way:\nIn the present conservation movement, it is highly important that we realize two\nthings:\n1 . That our most valuable resources are our people, and\n2. That we are wasting people more than anything else.\nIf we forget either of these things, we shall probably find ourselves trying to save\nat the spigot while we are wasting at the bunghole.\n\nAbove we have had a composite of opinion. The problem is ours.\nThe study proposed by this committee is an attempt at its solution. We\ncannot more than give the main divisions of the investigation.\nIt is intended to study:\nA. The plant and its maintenance.\n1. Cost of building or buildings.\n\nB.\n\nC.\n\nD.\nE\n\nF.\nG.\nH.\nI.\n\n2. Equipment— cost of installation and upkeep — character of equipment furnished.\n3. Cost of repairs — to establish comparative cost of repairs and maintenance.\nOrganization.\n1. Teachers, salary, sex, appointment, professional and social betterment.\n2. Pupils — elimination and survival — failure and promotion — intensive study of\nsubjects ofifered in course of study.\nRelation of parent to pupil; eflfect on pupil and curriculum.\n1. Nationality of parents.\n2. Occupation of parents.\nMedical inspection a factor in school development.\nThe high school and the college with a study of activities pursued by high-school\ngraduates who do not continue their studies formally beyond the high school; college\ninfluence; examination and certificate systems.\nHigh-school control; state, county, city supervision.\nSelf-directed work.\nVocational guidance.\nStudy values relative to conditions found in the investigation of preceding studies.\n\nIn the pursuance of this study it is proposed to make use of such material\nas may be on hand, the assistance gained thru the answers given to the\nquestions to be sent out to the principals of the high schools of the country,\nwhose knowledge of the situation is first hand, to discover the needs of our\ncommercial houses, manufacturing concerns, from the management of\nsuch, with a view to developing a supply adequate to the demand, not\nin number, but in required efl&ciency; not forgetting that the material\nwith which we work is the human being, not a machine, to be conserved\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepaxtmentJ\n\nREPORT\n\nON COLLEGE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n707\n\nas a citizen of a great commonwealth, as the upbuilder of a home in which\nculture makes for happiness.\nMr. Marshall in his Economics, quoted by Mr. Cooley, says:\nMan's character has been developed thru all the ages by his daily work. Religious\nideals, and military and artistic spirit may at times be the most shaping influences, but\nman's daily work in securing his daily bread has never been displaced from its leading\nposition for any great length of time.\n\nRuskin and William Morris have blazed the way; idealistic and somewhat Utopian, it may be, but it points to a goal which it is hoped the\ndemocratic ideal of our modern high school may reach, the close union of\nculture and technical efficiency adapted to the conditions of the twentieth\ncentury.\nRespectfully submitted,\nFor the committee,\nSpencer R. Smith, Chairman\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\nA.\n\nREPORT\nJAMES\n\nOF THE\n\nF. HOSIC,\n\nHEAD\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\nIN ENGLISH\n\nOF THE\n\nOF ENGLISH,\nCHAIRMAN\n\nDEPARTMENT\nCHICAGO,\nILL.,\n\nCHICAGO\n\nREQUIREMENTS\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe Committee on College-Entrance Requirements in English, which was authorized\nat the Boston meeting in 1910 and continued by the Round Table in 1911, hereby reports\nthat it has in part accomplished its work. In accordance with instructions, we gathered\nas much information as possible by the middle of January, 1912, and then, thru the\ncourtesy of the English Journal, published a report, which was at once placed in the\nhands of the members of the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements\nin English. In response to a most cordial invitation from the Executive Committee of the\nConference, four members of the committee were delegated to attend the meetings of the\nConference and take part in its discussions. At the meeting on February 22 and 23,\nMessrs. Thomas, Heydrick, Miller, and Hosic were present, and at the meeting of May\n30 the first three named were again in attendance. The action of the Conference was\ndistinctly in the direction of greater freedom for the high schools. A summary of the\nprincipal changes will be given at the joint conference to follow, under the topic \" Progress\nin Articulating School and College English.\"\nThe report of the committee as presented to the Conference, with the omission of\ncertain introductory matters of a historical nature, appears below. It is suggested that\nthe committee be continued and that it be instructed to co-operate with other similar\ncommittees in the preparation of a national syllabus.\nTHE CONSENSUS\n\nSO FAR OBTAINED\n\nThe committee has received replies to some or all of its questions from over seven\nhundred persons, acting either as individuals or collectively. The 225 teachers of English\nin the high schools of New York City, for example, sent a imanimous report condemning\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secmdary\n\nthe present requirements and examinations. The English section of the State Teachers\nAssociation of Illinois, and the associations in Nevada took similar action. As nearly as\ncan be determined, these persons are identified as follows: high-school teachers, 694;\nnormal-school teachers, 13; teachers of English or of education in the colleges, 20; principals and superintendents in towns and cities, 44; state inspectors and state superintendents of public instruction, 13. The distribution is as follows: New England, 35; Middle\nStates, 282; South, 31; North Central, 295; West, 42. Both larger and smaller public\nhigh schools are represented, but, imfortunately, few private schools have been heard\nfrom. It is certainly desirable that their views should be known.\nAs usual, the answers to the questions sent out by the committee fall into three\nclasses, radical, moderate, and conservative. All sections of the country are about\nequally represented in each class, but the conservatives are greatly outnumbered. Comparatively few say that they consider the influence of the Uniform Requirements entirely\nhelpful. Many are grateful for the emphasis upon English work which the colleges have\nhelped to establish, but most feel that it is time to go forward. With increasing knowledge\nof the nature of the pupils and of the character of the results actually obtained, the high\nschools themselves must work out progressive courses in English, wisely adapted to\nvar>'ing needs.\nRepresentative opinions concerning the influence of the requirements upon the course\nare as follows: \"have good influence\" (seven schools); \"unify the course\" (five schools);\n\"give definiteness\" (four schools); \"set a high standard\" (four schools); \"determine the\ncourse\" (six schools— nearly all assume that they do); \"force use of unsuitable material,\nhamper, restrict\" (fifty-two schools); \"emphasize the unessential,\" \"deadening,\" \"pernicious,\" \"call for memory instead of thinking\" (several others). As to the influence\nupon methods of teaching, about one-fourth of the answers are favorable: \"more systematic and thoro, \" \"guide inexperienced teachers,\" \"establish imiformity,\" \"co-ordinate\nliterature and composition\" are among the phrases used. Several say that methods are\nnot influenced at all; the large majority find something to deplore. \"The requirements\nprevent freedom and individuality,\" \"hinder adapting the work to the pupils,\" \"cause\nmechanical work,\" \"overemphasize analysis and collecting of facts at the expense of\nappreciation and of ethical appeal,\" \"institute cramming for examination, college methods,\ntechnical study.\" It seems evident that a large number of teachers feel the Uniform\nRequirements to be, for one reason or another, a positive hindrance to effective teaching.\nAs to the influence on the pupils, a respectable minority find it wholesome: \"Importance\nis lent to the work,\" \"the compositions are better,\" \"the reading is better.\" A few think\nthe influence is confined to the fourth year of the course. A large number can detect\nno influence, while very many discover \"dislike,\" \"indifference,\" \"wrong conception of\nliterature as a mere task,\" \"looking only to getting to college,\" and \"loss of interest on\nthe part of the non-college group.\" Some complain that the pupils are overburdened,\nand a nvmiber say that the influence of the requirements depends upon the attitude of\nthe teacher.\nSix high schools would make no change in the English course if the college requirements were eliminated; they are satisfied with them. One says, \"no change for western\ncolleges.\" Several declare that they pay no attention to the requirements. Inspection\nof their courses shows, however, that they do use most of the books on the list. The\nmain body come out strongly for reform. They urge more composition, especially oral\ncomposition, more use of subjects from the life-exp)eriences of the pupils in place of those\nfrom books, more emphasis on \"fundamentals.\" The literature course, they say, should\nbe more flexible, better adapted to the needs, interests, and capacities of boys and girls;\nmore modem books should be read; the work should aim at appreciation, not at information and technical analysis in preparation for an examination; the work of the last two\nyears is too abstruse and too exacting; American Uterature is neglected; there is no progress from year to year. The earnestness of these protests is unmistakable.\nA large\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n709\n\nnumber of the writers feel and feel deeply the unwisdom of sacrificing the possibilities of\ngrowth in taste and in character on the part of boys and girls for the convenience of\ncollege examiners, or a mistaken pride in turning out successful candidates. It is difl&cult\nto see how tradition, no matter how strongly intrenched, can stand long in the way of\nreorganization.\nMost schools make no distinction between those who are going to college and those\nwho are not, but give the same training in English to all. A few provide special drills\nin the fourth year to meet college commands, and several schools offer special courses in\npreparation for business. Very few complain of the influence of a particular college,\ntho it is evident from the answers that certain higher institutions in various parts of the\ncountry do exert a powerful influence on the schools near them.\nThe aim of the high-school course, as stated in the circular, was pronounced satisfactory bynearly all. A few would add such words as \"clearly,\" \"easily,\" and \"effectively\"\nafter \"express\" in the statement concerning grammar and composition, and a much larger\nnumber would include \"ethical training,\" \"enlarge the view of life,\" \"raise standards of\nconduct,\" and similar purposes in the aim of literature.\nThe answers as to the selection and distribution of literature are exceedingly difl&cult\nto summarize. There is no agreement here, and it is evident that the Uniform Requirements have not thrown much light on the problem. The principle most frequently\nsuggested is that the literature should be adapted to the interests and capacities of the\npupil and should grow more diflacult as he advances. Others would \"include a variety\nof types,\" \"illustrate the development of English literature,\" \"choose representative\nauthors,\" \"illustrate the forms of discourse,\" \"correlate with composition,\" \"cause\nworld classics to be read in school and modern authors outside,\" \"assign certain books\nfor study and others for home reading,\" \"both satisfy tastes and create them.\" Some\nwould teach American literature in the first two years and English literature in the last\ntwo. Others say, \"from the objective to the subjective,\" \"story first and subtler poetry\nand essays last,\" \"follow chronological order,\" \"include a variety of form according to\nmaturity in each year,\" etc. No doubt there should be considerable flexibility of choice\nand arrangement, but it is hard to escape the conviction that the high-school course in\nliterature presents an educational question that has not received adequate study from\nanybody.\nThere is great difference of opinion also as to the lists. The conservative minority\nwish them prescribed or partly prescribed and partly advisory. A few suggest the prescription oftypes. Many choose open lists or no lists at all. But by far the larger\nnumber declare for advisory lists arranged by some authoritative body. Almost no one\nseems to think the present list entirely satisfactory, the principal objection being that the\nbooks are not sufl&ciently varied to meet the needs of all classes. It is urged by some that\nmore modem short stories and more selections by American authors be included. Several\nfind Milton too remote from the interests of their classes. Few definite suggestions are\nmade, however, and it seems evident that little experimental work has been done to\ndetermine what books are best suited to high-school pupils.\nThe majority would retain the distinction between reeding and stttdy, tho it is clear\nthat the question was not understood to refer to the application of these terms which is\nmade by the Uniform Conference. To require both class study and rapid outside reading\nthruout the four years is apparently the rule. The vote means, then, that most would\nhave both intensive and extensive reading. It may fairly be inferred from the other\nanswers that the majority are opposed to the setting-apart of a few books to be studied in\nthe fourth year in preparation for a college examination.\nNearly all would make provision for the history of literature, but, as already indicated,\nthere is lack of agreement as to what the provision should be. The following suggestions\nare made: \"talks\"; \"a light requirement\"; \"a comprehensive glance somewhere\nin the course\"; \"distribute thru the four years\"; \"a separate elective course\"; \"with a\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntextbook in a definite course\"; \"in the second year\"; \"in the fourth year\"; \"by periods\nas a setting for the authors\"; \"a text with reading of selections\"; \"in the history- course\";\n\"subordinate to the classics.\" Here is another educational problem for solution.\nThe test for entrance to college suggested in the circular met with strong approval,\nexcept as to \"conversing.\" Several feel that the pupil would be too much embarrassed\nto do himself justice. A very few prefer examination on prescribed books, and others\nsuggest partial certification. But the overwhelming majority prefer certification to any\nsort of examination for entrance to college, for the reason that examinations do not\nexamine and that the effect of them upon the schools is bad. With the best intentions\nin the world, college professors are unable to set examinations adapted to high-school\nboys and girls, and so long as there are examinations to be passed so long pupils will be\ncoached to pass them, to the infinite detriment of natural, healthy interest in the subject\nfor its own sake.\nMany would, under certain conditions, give a high-school diploma to a pupil they\nwould not recommend to college. They propose, however, various methods of guarding\nthe practice, and they would treat such cases as exceptional.\nThe National Conference on English Requirements should be made up of college\nand high-school representatives in equal number, say most of the writers. A few add\n\"from all localities.\" Several declare boldly that the high schools should be free to determine their own courses, and one or two suggest the advisability of including teachers of\nsubjects other than English.\nTwo additional topics of great importance were brought forward. The first is that\nof co-operation among aU the teachers of a school in securing good English. The other\nis that of the organization of the elementary course in English and the high-school\ncourse in English into one unified, coherent whole. These are subjects to be pressed\nupon the attention of the National Council of Teachers of English, however, rather than\nupon that of the National Conference on Uniform Requirements.\nA few letters from well-known students of current educational problems will serve\nto supplement the principal facts set forth above.\nTwo professors of education write:\nI believe that coUege-entrance requirements in English are having a very definite\ninfluence upon the high-school work. The state university requirements in English\nhave entirely remodeled the ciurriculum of high-school English in this state during the\nlast ten years. I think that as much has been accomplished as is possible by merely\nstating years and books. The next step that our colleges and normal schools must\ntake is to indicate in much more detail the method of carrying on the work. Many\nteachers are trying to foUow the entrance requirements but are doing it in a mechanical\nfashion. As a result, many of our boys and girls finish the high school with a repugnance\nfor reading good literature, and with utter inability to write decent English. I receive\nabout two hundred new students each year in my department, and I find many of them\nvery poorly equipped for writing their everyday ideas, and for expressing the ideas with\nwhich they deal in my own subject. I presume that they could define figures of speech,\nwrite riiles for capitalization and pimctuation, but when it comes to expressing their ideas\nin clear terse English many of them utterly fail. They also fail in punctuation.\nThe failure of pupils to gain a love for good literature is due in a large measure to the\nlack of adaptation of the reading-matter to the ages and individual aptitude of the\ndifferent pupils. Most of the English work is in the hands of women, w:ho frequently,\nvery usually, do not imderstand boy nature. I have one boy in the high school who is\ndeeply interested in mechanics, out-of-door sports, and woodcraft. He draws from our\ncity library and the university library scores of books every year upon those subjects.\nHis teacher of English, a woman, keeps him after school frequently to learn stereotyped\ndefinitions of words and figures of speech, and to urge him to learn the traditional literature properly. If she could only meet the boy upon his own footing, she would have\nno difficulty in enlisting his interest and in securing satisfactory results.\nSimilar difficulties arise in the composition work. Most of the composition exercises\nare ill-adapted to the interests and capacities of the children. They are given all sorts\nof formal composition exercises in which they have little interest, but they are allowed to\nmake slipshod statements in their everyday expressions, and little attention is given to the\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\n711\n\ncomposition in the history class, the mathematics class, or the physics class. Why could\nthe composition work not be more closely related to the other subjects ? Tons of effort\nare expended by teachers in trying to make pupils into short-story writers and authors.\nMuch less time and energy spent in helping them to express themselves simply yet\naccurately on everyday matters would be much more effective.\nI am convinced that the teaching of grammar, rhetoric, and composition in the\nschool is too formal; it consists too much in the learning of definitions, rules, and formulae,\n• with illustrations more or less remote from the pupil's interests and everyday expression.\nThe purpose which many instructors seem to keep in mind is to have the pupil acquire a\ntheoretical knowledge in these fields, rather than to have him gain facility in the employment of effective modes of expression. It seems to me that the pupil is required to learn\nconventional matters rather than to acquire a feeling for the best forms in current usage.\nThe work of the school is too far removed from the actual linguistic needs of everyday life.\nThis results in alienating the affections of many pupils for all work in grammar, rhetoric,\nand composition. It is probable that the majority of pupils would vote that these were\nthe most distasteful subjects in the whole high-school course.\nI do not think that the requirements in English for entrance to college work are\nentirely responsible for the formal character of instruction in the high school. Undoubtedly they have put a premium upon mere verbal learning, tho I believe there is much\nless emphasis upon that sort of thing now than there was a few years ago. But even if\nthe colleges would accept anything which the high schools would present, it is probable\nthat the work would still be more or less formal and remote, until instructors gain the\nview that the object of these branches is not to acquire theoretical knowledge so much as\nto gain facility in the use of modes of expression that are appropriate to the everyday\nneeds of the pupil. If instructors would be governed by this latter conception, their\nwork would be based less upon formal textbooks than is now the case in most places.\nIn respect to the teaching of literature I am convinced there is too great formalism\nhere also. According to my observation, pupils are still required to memorize what\nsome analyst or critic says about the character and values of the English classics. It\nis undoubtedly worth while for high-school students to analyze Enghsh masterpieces;\nbut it seems to me to be worthless to memorize what other people say about the qualities\nof any work or selection which is written. It is probable that if pupils were not examined\nupon these formal matters, instructors would not feel the necessity of insisting upon them\nin their teaching.\nFrom the principal of one of the best of the Eastern high schools:\nIt seems to me that so far as examinations are required by the colleges they should\nbe examinations for power rather than for definite information. I think that the specific\nnature of college-entrance examinations has greatly hampered the English work in the\nhigh school. Instead of testing the pupils as to their ability to read, to write, and to\nspeak good English, the college examinations have emphasized the candidates' information\nconcerning a large number of things that are not essential. They have specified exactly\nwhat literature was to be read, and designated so closely just what was to be done with this\nliterature that all individuality has been ground out of the teachers.\nIf I felt that we could trust the colleges to handle the matter in a common-sense way,\nI should say that it would be well for them to require an examination testing the pupils'\nability to read and interpret English of the grade, say, of Macaulay's Essays, or of Tennyson's Idylls, or of the less difficult plays of Shakespeare; that they should require the\npupil to be able to write an account of his own experiences in straightforward, idiomatic\nEnglish, practically free from rhetorical and grammatical errors, and that he should be\nable to carry on an intelligent conversation on the topics of the day without exposing any\nridiculous defects in his speech, either in construction or in expression. The colleges,\nhowever, are so largely manned by young Ph.D.'s who have taken their degrees on such\nsubjects as the rhythmic recurrence of \"or\" in Shakespeare's plays of the middle period,\nthat I fear we shall not get any large educational treatment of our pupils from them.\nPersonally, I think the time is not far distant when the colleges will take graduates\nfrom a four years' high-school course on the recommendation of the principal. I should\nmuch rather trust the high-school principals than the colleges in these matters, for it will\nbe some time before the colleges get away from the idea that an education means a\ncertain quantum of information in the hierarchy of subjects.\nFrom the superintendent of public instruction in an eastern state:\nI have often wondered whether it would be desirable to give separate consideration\nto the teaching of English as expression and the teaching of English for appreciation — in\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondaiy\n\nother words, composition and literature, including under the first oral expression. I have\na conviction that the greatest source of confusion in English teaching at the present\ntime is the attempt to teach largely by the same methods these two different types of\nwork, which, in my estimation, rest on essentially different pedagogical necessities. I\nwould even go so far as to say, as a result of observation, that in the ordinary secondary\nschool and college, separate teachers should, wherever possible, be had for literature on\nthe one hand, considered mainly from the standpoint of appreciation, and formal English,\nmeaning thereby largely expression and analytical study of some literary products, on\nthe other.\nFrom neighboring colleges, also in the East:\nConstant agitation of changes in the English entrance requirements tends to cause\nuncertainty to preparatory school teachers. The new requirements set by the conference\nof 1909 have not yet gone into effect. Until they receive a fair test it seems inadvisable to\nreopen the entire subject. The new requirements seem to us suflBciently flexible to meet\nthe demands of teachers for variety.\nThe oral test suggested in 3a (3) is impracticable with us, owing to the very large\nnumber of candidates examined. To the following question, whether a high-school\ndiploma should be given to a pupil whose deficiencies in English are such as to prevent his\nbeing recommended for admission to college, we should answer decidedly. No. We prefer\nentrance examinations to certification because they seem to us to afford more convincing\nproof as to the candidate's ability. The recommendation of the preparatory school\nteachers may be helpful as collateral evidence, but we think a man should be able to meet\nsuch college tests as we give. We have for some time been setting some topics of general\nnature for composition.\nThe college-entrance requirements in English, as at present administered, do not\nfoster the best kind of English work in the high schools.\n1. c) They limit the high-school course to readings which may be good for one school,\nand may be bad for another school with different problems.\nh) They inevitably oblige most of the high-school teachers to prepare pupils for\nexamination, rather than to give them the best training. When the uniform entrance\nrequirements were first proposed, nobody expected this result.\nc) I believe that most pupils write literary appreciations which they think will be\nacceptable, rather than their own opinion of the books read.\nd) In my judgment the high-school course in English should include English grammar, practical composition work, the history of English literature, and a considerable\namount of reading. One of the chief evils of the present system seems to me to be that\npractically every book put into the hands of the pupil is a textbook. When I first read\nPilgrim's Progress, I read it as a book, not as a school text, with annotations and questions.\nI feel sure that the reduction to a school text of every piece of English literature which\nis put into the hands of a high-school pupil is decidedly injurious to an appreciation of\nliterature.\nThe methods should be left to the school. Results are all that the colleges ask.\n2. a) \"The whole range of his experience\" seems to me unsatisfactory. I remember\nwell that, at the age of sixteen, I had very little experience. I should, nevertheless, have\nresented certain subjects for composition which I have seen proposed. No boy should\nbe compelled to put on paper his private and personal feelings.\nI have no objection to (i) and (2), tho I believe that ability to write is the first\nrequisite.\nb) In my opinion, uniform requirements are an absurdity. For examination piirposes, the distinction between reading and study should be dropped. I believe that,\nin teaching literature, some books or essays should be exhaustively studied, and others\nread for general effect.\nSome elementary history of English literature ought to be thoroly mastered. Highschool graduates should know the names of our great writers and the names of their\nprincipal works.\n3. A good composition and a statement of reading done would satisfy me, as an,\nentrance requirement. I do not believe that literary \"appreciation\" is a proper test.\nUnder the conditions of admission examinations, I do not think that oral tests are fair\nto the pupils. Nervousness might debar many.\nCONCLUSION\n\nIt is clear that there is little or no difference of opinion on some of the points involved\nin the investigation. The lists of books which are published from time to time by the\nNational Conference practically determine the choice of classics iox the high-school course.\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nTHRU\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\n713\n\nThe use of them varies. The nearer the school to an examining college the more rigidly\nthe teachers adhere to the list and the more technical and detailed is the study required.\nSchools which send graduates mainly to accrediting institutions, on the other hand\nfrequently regard the lists as merely suggestive and seem to feel free to choose books and\nadapt teaching to the class in hand. It is the examination, and particularly the kind\nof examination set, which is objected to by the schools. Many teachers declare a preference for examination as opposed to certification for college entrance, but they almost\ninvariably stipulate that the examination shall be more liberal than at present. It is\nevident, also, that the emphasis upon literature in the reports of the Conference has\ncircumscribed the composition work of the schools. Many teachers feel that, at present,\nliterary composition receives proportionally too much attention and that the forms of\nexpression in use in daily life, particularly the oral forms, are being neglected. This is\ndue, in part, to the demand for more or less exact knowledge of the form and content of\nthe books prescribed and, in part, to the failure of school authorities to provide adequately,\neither in teachers or in equipment, for the teaching of composition. It may be necessary\nto separate the course in composition from the course in literature, as several have suggested, in order to bring about needed reforms.\n\nTOPIC:\n\nA.\nJESSE\n\nWAYS\n\nAND MEANS OF INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS\nINSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION\n\nVOCATIONAL AND MORAL GUIDANCE THRU\nCOMPOSITION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL\nB.\n\nDAVIS,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nGRAND\n\nOF\n\nENGLISH\nRAPIDS,\n\nMICH,\n\nTo teach men how they may grow independently and for themselves is, perhaps,\nthe greatest service that one man can do for another. — Jowett.\nEvery pupil who enters the high school presents himself as a candidate for some\nsuccessful career in life. He may have little or no conception of what that means, but\nsuch is the faith of the pupil and his parents that they expect the school will in some\nway secure for him the much-coveted prize. That the schools fail to meet this expectation isevident on all sides. A diploma does not necessarily assure one happiness or\nwealth: all about us are educated misfits — round pegs in square holes. Discouragement, failure, and crime are the natural results of misguided lives. We have failed to\nteach men how they may grow independently and for themselves toward a successful\ncareer in that calling for which they may be best fitted by nature and preparation.\nRealizing the need of directing the work of our pupils along this line, a plan for\nvocational and moral guidance was originated in the Central High School of Grand\nRapids, Mich., about four years ago. The word \"guidance\" has in this connection a\nspecial significance. From the vocational point of view, it means the gradual unfolding\nof the pupil's better understanding of himself; it means the opening of his eyes to the\nbroad field of opportunity in the world; it means a selection and a preparation for his\nown best field of service as a social being. From the moral standpoint, the idea of\n\"guidance\" is peculiarly essential in the development of the pupil. Ethical instruction that merely informs the brain does not necessarily produce better character. It is\nof most value when it is in some way applied to the actual thinking and acting of the\npupil. In this connection guidance means the better understanding of one's own character; itmeans an awakening of the moral consciousness that will lead the pupil to emulate\nthe character of the good and great who have gone before; it means a conception of\noneself as a social being in some future occupation, and from this viewpoint, the appreciation ofone's duty and obligation toward his business associates, toward his neighbors,\nand toward the law.\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niSecondary\n\nIn our attempt to aid our pupils to choose their course of study with a degree of\nwisdom, to give an aim and purpose to their work, and to plan definitely for some vocation for which they seemed best fitted, we outlined a plan which we called \"vocational\nguidance.\" It is not often that, in an attempt to find a solution for one problem, one\nhappens to work out a scheme that proves to be a very satisfactory solution of three\nperplexing questions. Such, however, was the result in this case, for we found that the\nplan not only tended to give vocational aim to the high-school course, but, as the work\nprogressed, it developed into a very practical course of moral instruction. Moreover,\nnow that it has been in operation for over three years, we find that it has solved some\nof the problems of English composition. It is from this point of view that I wish to\nbring to the attention of teachers of English the opportunity that is theirs, while imparting the technical and Uterary sides of the subject, to improve their results and at the same\ntime to guide their pupils in a systematic course of instruction that will tend to prevent\nmany misfits in life, and that also may be the means of raising the standard of moral\neflSciency in the coming generation.\nThe writing of themes by pupils of secondary-school age is not exceedingly popular,\nparticularly with the red-blooded, matter-of-fact boy. Work for work's sake does not\nappeal very strongly to him. The average exercise in English composition upon subjects of more or less questionable interest may have its disciplinary value, but it too\noften lacks the added value of originality or life-interest, and the themes rarely leave a\nlasting Impress upon the writer. Each study in the curriculum of today must meet\nthe demand of a very practical civilization. Its cultural value, while fully recognized\nand appreciated, is not all-siifficient, but to this must be added a practical motive. English composition is no exception to this rule. It may, however, be given a motive that\nis in the highest sense practical, by connecting it with the broader purpose of vocational\nguidance.\nOur attempt to accomplish this is what I wish to outline in this paper.\nIn the Central High School of Grand Rapids the course in English continues thruout\nthe entire four years. In each grade and class the work is divided into three parts:\nviz., grammar or rhetoric, composition, and literature. The exercises in composition\nare both oral and written. Not less than three, and often more, of these exercises are\nbased upon the work in vocational and moral guidance. Such exercises do not supplant\nall other theme work, for not more than one-fourth of the time given to composition\nis usually taken for this study. A general outline by semesters is followed, but each\nteacher is expected to use her own judgment and originality in carrying out the detail\nof the plan.\nFIRST- YEAR\n\nTOPIC:\n\nELEMENTS\n\nOF\n\nSUCCESS\n\nIN\n\nLIFE\n\nThe work of vocational guidance really begins in the eighth grade with a discussion\nof the value of an education, the reasons for going to high school, and the choice of a\ncourse of study in the high school. However, I shall confine my description to the\nscheme as carried out in the high school. The topic for the first year or ninth grade is\ncalled \"Elements of Success in Life.\" The vocational work of the first semester of this\nyear is devoted to the study of the lives of successful men and women for the purpose of\ndiscovering the habits of life and work that have contributed to their success. Lists\nof these characteristics are made and they form the basis for studying the fundamental\nelements of success. For the pupil to work out for himself these principles of life from\na study of the lives of men of all ages, and as a class exercise to make this deduction from\nsuch a comparative study, makes a lasting impression of the eternal verity of human\nvirtue. A comparison of the opportimities and difficulties of these men and women with\nthose of the pupil forms another very beneficial theme. Each teacher that has a real\ninterest in the plan will develop from this suggestion ideas for both the oral and written\nwork.\nThe second semester of this first year is devoted to self-analysis.\n\n\"Know thyself\"\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nTHRU\n\nENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\n715\n\nis the principal theme. This is possibly the most helpful of all the work when handled\nwisely. The pupil should not be permitted to dwell upon his own weaknesses or faults,\nbut should be guided in finding his strong points. Individual characteristics, such as\ntemperament, likes and dislikes, experience, special, aptitudes, etc., should be brought\nout in confidential papers to be read and discussed in private with the instructor. This\ngives the teacher a wonderful opportunity to enter into the great work of guiding and\nmolding lives. By being inspired with confidence in his own ability to do and be something worth while, the pupil can be given a new start that will be made evident in all\nthat he does. For class exercise very interesting topics that will help the pupil to gain\nan estimate of his present worth may be suggested: \"How I could earn my living if\nI left school now\"; \"Some employments of boys and girls of my own age\"; \"Personal\nadventures\"; \"The business asset of personal appearance, good manners, cheerfulness,\netc.\"\n\nSECOND- YEAR\n\nTOPIC:\n\nTHE\n\nWORLD'S\n\nWORK\n\nThe first semester of the second year or tenth grade is occupied with a survey of\nthe world's work in general. The object of the study is to broaden the pupil's vision of\nthe possible vocations beyond the narrow field of his previous experience. Reports on\nvarious occupations for men and for women are read and discussed in class. A card\nindex has been prepared by one class listing about seventeen hundred different vocations.\nSuch a catalog with references and data regarding the status of the particular vocation\nin the locality is a very valuable adjunct to the school library. Few pupils of highschool age have any conception of the very large field of opportunity that lies before them.\nIt is quite essential that during their high-school course, and before they have gone\ntoo far, they should get this wider view of life. By these investigations a fairly good\nidea can be gained of the desirability or undesirability of certain vocations. Wages,\nchances for advancement, health conditions, future growth of the business or profession,\nand other considerations provide an abundance of material for oral composition.\nHOW\n\nTO\n\nCHOOSE\n\nA VOCATION\n\nThe topic, \"How to Choose a Vocation,\" which is made the basis of the second half\nof the tenth-grade themes, appeals strongly to the interest of the pupils. By this time\nall are vitally concerned with the problem. They now need careful guidance in an attempt\nto narrow down the number of attractive vocations to the one or two fields which their\nown peculiar fitness seems to indicate are best. Here must be applied all that has been\ndeveloped before. The pupil must be led to examine himself again as to his natural\nability and tastes; he must make a survey of his opportunities and possibilities, and then\nmust make a careful application of these to the call to service. This is the crowning\nopportunity of the true teacher to reveal to his students some appealing career, some\ncompelling purpose that will be to them what teaching is to him. An appreciation of\nthe great law of service should be made the ideal of the discussion and theme work in\nthis course. By a possible process of elimination the pupil may be led to decide upon\nsome vocation or some special line of future activity for which he is now to make definite\npreparation.\nTHIRD-YEAR\n\nTOPIC:\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nLIFE'S\n\nWORK\n\nThe beginning of the third year in the high school is the critical time in the life of\nevery student. It is here that he must know whether he is to elect the subjects that will\nprepare him to meet the college-entrance requirements, or those that will best fit him\nfor a commercial or industrial career. It is also at this period that a large number drop\nout because they have no real purpose in attending school and are tempted to take the\nfirst apparently good position that offers itself. If the work of the previous semester\nhas been fairly successful it will be evident in the interest with which the pupils undertake to plan the steps by which they may reach the goal of their ambitions.\nFor this\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "7l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\npiupose it is quite essential that the school library be well equipped with catalogs of\nall kinds of schools and colleges, and with such material as may be obtained relating to\ncommercial and industrial conditions.\nBUSINESS\n\n\"AND PROFESSIONAL\n\nETHICS\n\nBy the last half of the third year the pupil either has chosen a definite vocation or\nhas a general field toward which he is working. He can profitably take time here to\nconsider the ethics of his calling. Interesting debates can be developed out of the problems of modern business methods. Each profession has its peculiar code that should\nbe well understood by those thinking of entering it. The relation of employer and\nemployee, rebating, promoting of stock companies, the moral responsibility of the professional man toward his client, and many other topics will suggest themselves as valuable\nthemes in this grade.\nFOURTH- YEAR\n\nTOPIC:\n\nSOCIAL\n\nETHICS\n\nThe individual and society, from the point of view of the chosen or assumed vocation, is the central thought running thru the themes of the first semester of the Senior\nyear. Why should I, the professional or business man, be interested in the public schools,\nthe slums, social settlements, the church, the Y.M.C.A., or other fields of social service?\nWhat do I owe to the community in which I live ? How can I improve the moral conditions in my neighborhood? Other similar topics will also suggest themselves to the\nteacher who catches the spirit of the work.\nDuring the second semester the themes take up the relation of the individual to\nthe state from the same vocational point of view. The call for business and professional\nmen in politics, or the \"new patriotism\" as described by Josiah Strong, sounds the keynote for the discussions. A few suggestive themes will indicate the trend of the written\nwork as follows:\nMy profession or my business and the law; The effect of a well-governed city upon\nbusiness; Why should I be willing to pay taxes? What is meant by the \"patriotism\nof peace\"?\nThis plan gives a concreteness to the discussion of social ethics that is very desirable.\nThe impression is lasting and it is personal in its application.\nThis brief description of the course in vocational and moral guidance is but an outline of the portion of the scheme applied to the department of English. Other departments are co-operating where possible, and the teachers known as grade principals or\nsession-room teachers are trained advisers in the work of vocational counseling. The\nprincipal of the school is the chief counselor, and a vocational bureau of business men\ncomplete the broader plan.\nTo give any tangible report of the results of our four years of effort in this work is\nvery difficult. They are more intellectual and spiritual than material and cannot be\nestimated by statistics. We no longer consider vocational guidance as an experiment\nbut as an established part of the curriculum. One must mingle with the pupils and\nteachers to appreciate the spirit of the institution. The work has at least eliminated\na large proportion of the drifters who were the troublesome element in the school; it has\nreduced discipline to an almost negligible quantity. While each pupil may not have\nchosen a definite career, he is at least taking life more seriously; he is making the attempt\nto find that thing which he must do if he is to fulfill his ideals.\nTESTIMONY\n\nOF PUPILS\n\nIn order that I might bring you the testimony of the pupils themselves who have\njust completed the course, I asked them to answer briefly and frankly the question:\n\" How has this vocational study helped you ?\" They were assured that there was nothing\npersonal to me in the question and that all that I desired was a truthful statement of\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nTHRU\n\nENGLISP\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nthe impression that they had received from the work.\nindicate the general attitude :\n\n717\n\nA few characteristic replies will\n\nIt broadened my view of the things that I could do in the world.\nIt has made me realize the need of planning for a career.\nIt has aided me chiefly in showing me what I ought not to do.\nIt has given me a working plan for my daily tasks.\nFrom the moral standpoint the following replies are significant:\nIt has kept the thought of what I was to do when I finished school constantly before\nme, and I have studied harder and with greater purpose.\nThe character study helped me most, as I realize that there are changes in my\ncharacter that I must try to make.\nThat I must work harder to measure up to those who have gone before.\nNever having had to think of earning my own living, I had not thought much about\nvocations; but when compelled to write on one, I began to think, and I realized how\nlittle I was equal to doing anything. I am seeing life in a different light now, and I am\nmore considerate of others because I can put myself in their places.\nTESTIMONY\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nOF\n\nENGLISH\n\nThe twelve teachers of English in the Central High School of Grand Rapids are\nenthusiastic over the results of the work in their classes. From their reports I have\nselected a few statements as to the effect upon the work in composition:\nThe vocational themes insure originality of composition and provide subjects of\nvital everyday interest.\nThe students now feel that the study of English is of practical value.\nThe pupils enter the advanced classes with an uncommon interest and earnestness\nof spirit.\nThe themes are well adapted to the various forms of composition and we have\nseemed to get much more out of them than ever before.\nThe opinion of the teachers regarding the vocational value of the themes is indicated\nin the following expressions:\nIt has undoubtedly prevented some misfits in the choice of vocations.\nIt has stopped several of my pupils who were drifting.\nEven tho it may not determine a pupil's actual vocation, it adds inestimably to his\noutlook on life and his attitude toward work, and makes for bigger and better lives.\nThe moral sentiment can hardly be separated from the vocational. Each teacher\nis very positive of the ethical value of both the oral and written themes.\nThey report:\nThat it gives an opportunity to use the pupil's ambition as a lever to lift him away\nfrom harmful habits and to strengthen his character.\nThat the pupils appreciate the fact that character counts in practical life.\nThat they give evidence of a higher sense of honor, a finer feeling for others, and a\nbetter understanding of what is necessary to make good.\nPerhaps the one bit of testimony that expresses more than all the rest is this:\nIt makes the teacher feel that she is doing more than teaching English; that she is\nhaving a share in the wonderful work of molding lives.\nThis last statement sounds the keynote of the entire plan. The demand for a\npractical course of moral instruction in the public schools and particularly in the high\nschool has been urgent for many years. It is not effective when taught as a course in\nformal ethics; it fails to reach those who need it most when made elective; it is not\npersonal or practical when taught in the abstract; and it does not give time for growth\nwhen given as a single-semester course. Thru four years of composition work in the\ndepartment of EngHsh, all of these difl&culties are surmounted, and furthermore, the\npupils are getting the moral training, not as such, but as a part of a practical preparation\nfor life. With the wide choice of subjects in the cosmopolitan high school, with the\ndiversity of entrance requirements for technical schools and colleges, and with the need\nof a closer relationship between the public schools and the commercial and industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "7i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondaiy\n\ncommunity that supports them, comes this most positive demand. We are called upon\nto guide and prepare those who are to go out into the numerous ways in life in a manner\nthat will eliminate the misfits and that will make for greater efiiciency in every vocation.\nIn no department of the high school nor by any other means can these most vital problems\nbe so satisfactorily solved as in the department of English, the great backbone of the\nAmerican high-school curriculiun. And best of all, in rendering this noble service, there\ncomes in return the well-deserved reward of increased efficiency in the department itself.\n\nELEANOR\n\nSHELDON,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nB I.\n\nORAL\n\nIN\n\nENGLISH,\n\nTHEMES\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOSHKOSH,\n\nWIS.\n\nWhen I accepted the invitation of your chairman to speak before the English Round\nTable of the National Education Association on the subject of oral themes, it was with the\nemphatic and sincere assurance that I knew nothing about the subject except what I had\nlearned thru practical experience in my English composition classes at the Oshkosh State\nNormal School. I cannot speak of theory at all; of what is being done plsewhere, I know\nonly in a general way; I may tell you the veriest commonplaces of oral theme work,\nthings that you already know; if so I ask your indulgence. I ask your indulgence, too,\nfor the personal note which may be present. I speak only from my own experience, and\n\"I\" and \"we\" may frequently recur in the course of the remarks.\nThe work in oral themes, as it has developed in the Oshkosh Normal School, is\nentirely independent of the regular public-speaking coiirses. It was undertaken in an\neffort to overcome the bad speech habits of the students. In this it was more successful\nthan any other device tried. Gradually, however, I became convinced that some of the\nends usually sought by means of written composition could be attained by means of oral\ncompositions, and that this could be accomplished by a much smaller expenditure of\ndrudgery than the same amount of written work would require. Further trial fully\njustified the belief, and oral themes have become an important and regular part of the\ncomposition work.\nIn the full development of the system — but perhaps I ought not to call the work a\nsystem for it is more like a series of classroom devices — oral themes were called for at\nstated intervals, usually once a week. The assignment was in exact correspondence with\nthe work being done in written themes and in class study. For example, at the beginning\nof the course when the class was studying in the textbook the principles which govern the\nconstruction of an expository paragraph, when the reading consisted of analyzing model\nparagraphs, and the assignment in written work involved practice in building such\nparagraphs, the oral themes asked for paragraphs of exposition. When the class studied\nnarrative, the oral themes consisted of brief incidents or longer adventures. The length\nof the themes varied from three to eight minutes.\nIn the beginning the students are advised to write out the theme, following a carefully prepared outUne; then to endeavor to talk the theme, using the outline to assist the\nmemory. They repeat the theme thus two or three times before coming to class. When\nthey recite, they are allowed to use the outline, but in order to insure its brevity, they\nmust use a slip of paper no larger than a visiting card.\nThe audience is held responsible for a full criticism of the performance. For this\npurpose, the students come to class armed with paper and pencil and take notes thruout\nthe recitation.\nThe system, when used in conjunction with and as a supplement to written themes,\nseems to me to possess certain advantages and to achieve definite results. In the first\nplace, it is an excellent means of overcoming bad speech habits; it has many advantages\nfor criticism; it furnishes an excellent opportunity to emphasize structure, and to develop\nthe very desirable but rare quality of interest.\nThese are the very objects sought in\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORAL\n\nTHEMES\n\n719\n\nwritten composition. If they can be attained by means of oral compositions, and it will\nbe my effort to show that they can, the economy of time and efifort is at once apparent.\nEvery teacher of English composition is familiar with the student who knows all the\nprincipal parts of the verbs perfectly, who is entirely aware that \"had ought\" won't do,\nyet when he opens his mouth to speak, \"he done it\" and \"had ought \" come forth with\nperfect naturalness. The only hope for such a student is to educate his ear. Not until\nthe sound of bad English is shocking, does the tongue overcome its habits. There are\nstudents in every class who are sensitive to these mistakes. If they are listening, pencil\nin hand, ready to jot down material for the criticism they are to be called upon to make,\ntheir alertness is gradually communicated to the others. The mere fact that three or\nfour students in a class of twenty begin to take notes warns the others and the speaker\nthat something is wrong. Naturally this disconcerts the speaker, but on the whole his\ndiscomfiture is a good thing. He is made uncomfortable by his mistakes, and presently\nhis own ear anticipates the accusing pencils of his audience. He corrects himself hurriedly,\nhoping to forestall criticism. As the work progresses, the ears of the class become more\nsensitive and mistakes less frequent. The teacher then warns the students that the\nobvious jotting-down of mistakes is liable to be confusing to the speaker. The accusing\npencil then gives way to the shocked look, and the same end is gained. When a gross\nerror is made the whole class feels it. There are knowing glances. Here and there a\nstudent will begin to take notes and check himself. The class is conscious of the fact that\nsomething is wrong.\nThe sensitive ear thus being developed on oral theme days does not remain inactive\nduring the other sessions of the class. There is a sense of real irritation when mistakes\nare made in the general recitation. Naturally, since the millennium has not arrived, the\ndrill of a twenty weeks' course in composition does not overcome all the bad habits of\nyears, but the oral theme work accomplishes more than any other device tried. When\nthe process of improvement is once started, the students take a lively interest in carrying\nit on. In some very bad cases, I have called in the assistance of room-mates or friends.\nThey have acted as censors outside the classroom. Some of the most eager students have\nmade the formation of good speech habits a sort of game. At the end of the week the\nperson having the largest list of offenses is required to pay some kind of a forfeit imposed\nby the person with the cleanest record. The teacher is often asked to arbitrate in these\npleasant contests.\nOral themes possess many advantages for criticism. The first and by far the most\nimportant is that the teacher's comment is given immediately. Every teacher is familiar\nwith the fact that a keener interest is displayed in the criticism of themes which are\nreturned the very day after being handed in. The exigencies of teaching frequently make\nsuch a return of themes impossible. In oral themes the criticism is not only invariably\nimmediate, but it is much more immediate than the comment on written themes can ever\nbe. It is given directly after the theme, when the student's interest in his performance\nis at its height. Then he is most anxious to know wherein he has succeeded and how he\nhas fallen short.\nNot only is the criticism immediate, but every member of the class is benefited by it.\nThe written comment, which every teacher tries to make helpful and stimulating as well\nas full of warning, reaches but one student, no matter how excellent it is. The criticism\ngiven to an oral theme loses none of its intimacy, rather it gains intimacy since critic\nand student are face to face, and yet it is given to the whole class. The students have\nheard the theme, they have been asked to express their opinion of it, and have listened\nto the opinions of their classmates. Normal-school students are especially anxious to\nknow standards for judging. They listen eagerly to the teacher's summary of the criticism and often stop at the desk after class to discuss further some point just touched on.\nAnother advantage that may be found in oral themes is the possibility for helpful\nemphasis upon structure. Such an emphasis is highly necessary in my work. The\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nstudents come away from their high-school English regarding an outline as a fetish to\nwhose worship composition teachers are hopelessly addicted. The relation between\nthe fundamental mental processes, between clear logical thinking and an outline, has\napparently never occurred to them. That structure could be emphasized in oral work\nwas a surprise to me. Most composition teachers feel that the stringy sentence and the\nrambling, paragraphless mass are the special bane of oral expression. However, the \"so\nhabit\" and the \"and habit,\" two bugbears that are largely responsible for the stringy\nsentence, can be detected and corrected under the same system that eliminates the \"he\ndon'ts\" and the \"you was-es.\" Strong, well-knit sentences do not become a habit\nexcept thru much drill, both oral and written, but here, as elsewhere, the oral theme\nfurnishes an effective and economical means of accomplishing some of the necessary drill.\nIn the larger units, the paragraph and the composition as a whole, the structure in\nspoken discourse is somewhat more difficult to master than in written. The very paragraph indentation, which warns the eye that the discussion of one division of the thought\nhas been completed, and that a new one is to be taken up, is in itself a great help in making\nthe outline clear. Quotations and conversation are indicated to the eye. These visual\naids to structure being lacking, the student must enumerate clearly the topics to be\ndiscussed, he must emphasize transitions and summarize frequently. The necessity for\nthis keeps his mind fastened upon the structure of the piece, upon its skeleton.\nHe is allowed to speak from notes and is directed to make these notes a brief but clear\noutline of his theme. The student who criticizes is expected to analyze the composition, ,\ntelling the number of paragraphs and the topic statements of each. The giving of each\ntheme thus becomes a double exercise in structure. The speaker goes thru the synthetic\nprocess of building up a composition upon the outline in hand, and each student analyzes\nthe theme as it is given. When the class fails to understand the plan, the speaker is asked\nto put his notes upon the board, and a special diagnosis is made. In almost every case\nthe trouble is found to rest in the outline itself. It pretends to be an outline, but it is not.\nInstead it is a series of jottings planned to jog a treacherous memory. The result of the\nexamination is not only to show up the defects in one piece of work, but also to emphasize\nthe essential relation between clear thinking and an outline.\nHaving aroused the interest of the students in spoken discourse, it became possible\nto extend analysis beyond the classroom. The day after Jacob Riis had spoken in the\ntown, there were half a dozen students in each of my classes who were anxious to discuss\nthe plan of his speech. After hearing Woodrow Wilson in a neighboring town, one student\ngave an excellent analysis of Mr. Wilson's speech and compared his general thoughts to\nthe similar ideas advanced by Samuel Crothers in an Atlantic essay which the class had\nanalyzed. Frequently, the students have naively remarked that they found it much\neasier to remember a speech if they listened analytically.\nI have also found oral themes helpful in developing the quality of interest. Students seem to be sensitive about boring their classmates when they are perfectly willing\nto inflict deadly dullness upon the teacher. It is no longer necessary to beg the students\nto imagine an audience which must be enlightened, convinced, or entertained. The\naudience is there in a receptive mood. The speaker is stimulated and pleased by the\nsigns of good attention. He discovers that the immediate, the personal, and the concrete\nmake better subject-matter than the far away. When oral themes dealing with current\nevents were assigned a day after Theodore Roosevelt had announced that his hat was in\nthe ring, it was a dull student who did not see the superiority of a discussion of the reply\nto the governors and the third term as compared with a detailed account of the ravages\nof the sleeping-sickness in Africa. The student can see the value of a concrete term, of a\ntouch of fantasy, or of a bit of sparkle.\nThese things I have found it possible to accomplish by means of oral themes, and the\nstudents have liked the work.\nMost of them agree that the assignment was the hardest\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATTEMPT\n\nTO MAKE\n\nORAL\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nEFFECTIVE\n\n721\n\none of the week, but the personal element involved, the feeling that the work was vitally\nconnected with everyday life, more than compensated for the extra effort necessary.\nToward the end of the term, by way of relaxation, I assigned the preparation of a\ntoast for the oral theme day. In two of the classes, the lesson was prepared in a way\nthat showed real enthusiasm for the work. The students chose a toastmaster and gave\na unified toast program centering about some fictitious event in school life which would\nhave been worthy of such a celebration. The students were delighted with the lesson,\nand the toasts, when one considered the limited background and lack of worldly experience\nof the students, were remarkably bright and apropos.\n\nB 2. AN ATTEMPT\nMARY\n\nE.\n\nCOURTENAY,\n\nTEACHER\n\nTO MAKE\n\nORAL\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nOF ENGLISH\nAND ORAL\nSCHOOL,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nEFFECTIVE\n\nEXPRESSION,\n\nENGLEWOOD\n\nHIGH\n\nIn these days of purposeful education, of manual training, household arts, domestic\nscience, and vocational courses, perhaps no subject in our high-school curriculum is of\nmore practical value to the individual student than oral composition. This is one study\nfor which the teacher has little difficulty in creating the situation or discovering a purpose,\nfor every hour in the day is a suitable opportunity for speech, and every interest and\nactivity of the pupil calls for it. Whether he be on the playground, or in the classroom,\nor at the club, or in his home, or in the shop, or in the office, he must know how to deal\neffectively with his fellows thru the medium of speech. Whether our boys be preparing\nto plead cases in our law courts, to preach from our pulpits, to practice medicine, to deal\nin real estate, to sell goods over the counter, or to nominate a presidential candidate at\na political convention, they must know how to speak. Whether our girls be expecting\nto teach in our schools, to occupy a position in an office, to sell hats and dress goods, or\nto take their place in the home and in society, they must know how to speak. And yet\nfor years we have been training our boys and girls to read, and write, and cipher, to draw,\nand to construct, to analyze, and criticize, and philosophize, and have somehow imagined\nthat \"just speaking\" would take care of itself. Since \"just speaking\" forms so important\na part of all the rest of our lives, it would seem that it should form an important part of\nour school curriculum.\nIt is this very real and natural basis of oral composition that I like to suggest first\nof all to my classes, and that I try to keep constantly before them. I find that many\nof them come to the oral expression classroom with the idea that this is a sort of private\nhothouse in the great educational conservatory where a specialty is made of such rare\nspecies as good composition, clear speaking, distinct enunciation, and direct dealing\nwith a group of listeners — things which apparently have little coni^ction with the rest\nof their lives. I generally spend the first class hour in developing with them the idea\nthat this is but a special practice period in which we attempt to build up and strengthen\nthat for which they find constant demand, the expression of self, the revealing of that\npersonality which all the rest of their study and experience is developing. Thus we discover that the special report which one pupil has given in the history class, the story\nwhich another has related for the entertainment of the English class, the explanation\nof an experiment performed in the science laboratory, and even the demonstration of\na proposition in geometry are all exercises in oral composition.\nWhen we have established this real and natural basis of work, the next problem\nwhich arises is how to get effective results. Is there any system, any code of principles\n— aside from the correction of a faulty sentence or an ungrammatical phrase — which\nwe may apply to the work? Let us return to our practical basis of gaining practical\nresults.\nI find that the first thing of which my students need to be made conscious is\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe objective nature of this work, the fact that they are immediately concerned with\nsomething outside of themselves, a group of listeners, whether it number one, ten, or\nfifty, and that the ultimate success of their speech depends upon how effectively they\nreach that audience in whatever way they propose. If the pupil fails to make his listeners understand the thing which he is trying to explain to them, feel the thing which he\nis endeavoring to impress upon them, believe the thing of which he is attempting to\nconvince them, do the thing of which he is anxious to persuade them, or enjoy the story\nor experience by which he hopes to entertain them, he has failed to accomplish his purpose and his composition is not effective, however clear and logical his sentences, or\nhowever eloquent his diction.\nBy setting up this definite aim, this working-out of a given purpose, we at once establish a standard of judgment and a working basis of criticism. Since the class themselves\nare the test, they can readily determine to what extent the speaker has been successful\nand quickly point out the weak spots in his speech. Moreover, I have found, as many\nothers have testified, that the criticism of the class is often far more impressive than that\nof the teacher. Johnnie may submit to my judgment, and respectfully accept my statement that his speech lacks force or his explanation was not clear; but these same facts\nassume a reality and added pointedness when his friend in the back row frankly declares,\n\"The speaker didn't seem to care whether we got what he said or not, and I didn't get\nhalf of it\"; or when he confronts a storm of protests and demands, as: \"What does\nelectroplating mean ? \" \"What is a galvanic cell ? \" \" Where was that battery supposed\nto be?\" By this rapid fire of question and criticism we also avoid the evil of flagging\nattention and interest which often accompanies work that is largely individual, for the\nproblem of the speaker becomes the problem of the class.\nAn illustration out of my own classroom may make this clear. Early last semester\nI gave the following assignment to a group of Sophomore boys and girls: I asked them\nto prepare a three-minute piece of oral composition whose purpose should be explanation.\nThey might explain for us anything they had seen or made, or any process with which\nthey were familiar. When I called upon one boy, he rose to his feet with a readiness which\ngenerally bespeaks preparation, went down to the front of the room, and gave us, in\nclear, easy sentences, the explanation of a little mechanical device which he himself had\ninvented and constructed. When he had finished and retiumed to his seat with the\nsense of a task well done, I turned to the class and said, \"That was a piece of explanation.\nHow many of you understand perfectly the device which the speaker has described ? \"\nTwo pupils raised their hands, both boys. One of them soon confessed that he had had\na part in the experiment, so we eliminated his judgment as being prejudiced. Then\nI turned to the speaker. \"Well,\" I said, \"you do not seem to have gained very satisfactory results.\" The boy looked decidedly puzzled, and he answered, \"I have told you\nall the parts, and how they were put together, and what it was for. I do not see what\nmore I could do.\" Again I referred the matter to the class, and he was confronted with\na sea of waving hands and vigorous protest. \"I do not know what this means,\" and, \"I\ndo not know what that means,\" and, \"I never heard that word before.\" The speaker\nsaw at once that he had been using a technical vocabulary which was beyond the limited\nexperience of his listeners. \"Well,\" he said, \"I can define the terms\"; and he proceeded\nto restate them in simple words with which we were familiar. This helped a great deal,\nbut there were still some puzzled expressions and puckered brows. The stumbUngblock in the way of our understanding was the propelling power of the little device, a\nconstruction of cross blades that revolved with rotary motion. The boy decided that\nif he could make a diagram he might be able to make this clear. We cheerfully offered\nhim the hospitality of the blackboard and the chalk, and he made his sketch. This was\na decided help, but still a few remained obstinately perplexed. By this time the speaker\nwas becoming desperate, and likewise determined to solve his own problem. After a\nminute's thought he exclaimed, \"Well, you have all seen an electric fan in a drug-store\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATTEMPT\n\nTO MAKE\n\nORAL\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nEFFECTIVE\n\n723\n\nor a theater, or a hotel!\" We heaved a sigh of relief. Yes, we had all seen an electric\nfan, and from that time on the explanation was clear sailing. We had pointed out to the\nboy and demonstrated to the rest of the class the most important psychological principle in the whole field of effective speaking — the necessity of getting directly within\nthe scope of the experience of one's listeners, of comparing the unknown to the known, of\ngaining acceptance for the new by likening it to that which is already accepted.\nLet me cite another instance to show the application of this principle to a different\nsituation. For some years we have had no school paper in our high school. Last year\na group of enthusiastic and energetic lads decided to establish one, and a few weeks before\nthe appearance of the first issue one of them asked permission to make an announcement\nin my division room. I gladly acquiesced, and his announcement was something like\nthis:\nIt's a long time since we've had a paper in this school. Every big high school in\nthe city has a school paper, and we ought to have one. Now, a bunch of us fellows are\nstarting one, but we can't keep it goin' unless you help. The paper can't live without\nsupport, and it is up to you to support it. Now I'm goin' to put a subscription list on the\nwall, and I want everyone in this room to sign it.\nHe pinned his sheet to the wall, and there it hung, blankly expectant, for several\ndays. At the end of the week I met the same boy in a class, and I casually inquired as\nto the success of his enterprise. He confessed that he had not been as successful as he\nhad hoped: the subscription list was not filling up very rapidly, and he did not believe\nthe students were very enthusiastic over the school paper. Then, with perfect frankness, we laid his problem on the dissection table for the diagnosis of the class. His purpose was obvious: he was attempting to get action, to persuade those to whom he spoke\nto add their names to the list. Thru a series of questions and suggestions we discovered\nthat the fault lay, not in the students or their lack of enthusiasm over a school publication, but rather in his own failure to appeal to their tastes and interests. As one boy\naptly put it:\nHe spoke a great deal about the paper needing them, but he didn't say a word\nabout their needing the paper. It seems to me if I was going to buy a thing I'd want to\nknow what I was going to get out of it.\nWe further found that there was not a pupil in the school for whom the paper had\nnot some special interest. There was the athletic page with its schedule and reports of\ngames and events; the society column; the column of student activities, with the bulletin\nof class and club affairs; the personal column; the joke column; and the possible publication of original essays, stories, and poems. When we had completed our discussion\nthe speaker asked the privilege of repeating his announcement the following morning.\nAnd he did — with such directness and force of appeal that at the end of five minutes he\nhad more than twenty names on his subscription list.\nThis was an ideal, tho not unusual, exercise in oral composition. The boy's own\nexperience called for it: it rose out of his immediate needs. Moreover, he had a practical\nmethod of measuring his results and proving the principles which we had been working\nout and illustrating in the classroom.\nWe must not think, however, that when we have taught the boy the purpose of his\nspeech, to state it clearly for himself that he may know whither he is steering, and to keep\nconstantly in mind his listeners and the limited scope of their experience, we have taught\nhim to present his thoughts effectively to other people. He may still lack the power\nof development, the ability to amplify his thought and drive it home with suflBcient force\nto achieve his purpose. His speech may be suggestive, but fragmentary and therefore\nnot convincing. He may state clearly that which he wishes you to believe, find two or\nthree good reasons why you should believe it, string these together, and think he has\ndone an effective piece of work along the lines of belief. He may gain passive consent,\nor fail to arouse opposition, but such a speech will not overcome opposition or produce\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nvigorous belief. He needs to be taught the necessity of restating his thought in other\nwords, that every one of his listeners may be assured of that which he is going on to prove\nor explain. He needs to be shown the importance of the specific instance, the significance\nof the definite illustration in supporting his statements. He needs to appreciate the\nvalue of testimony, of quoting someone whose authority in this case carries more weight\nthan his own.\nLet me fall back on Johnnie again for an illustration. He comes to class to convince\nus that the school is in need of a new manual-training shop, and he proceeds in this\nmanner:\nWe need a new manual-training shop in our school, because the present one is too\nsmall and too poorly equipped to allow of good work. The room in which we work is\nnot suited for manual training. Everyone who wants to take this study cannot, because\nthe classes are too crowded. We haven't tools enough with which to work. The instructor does not get round often enough to supervise what we are doing. We are not doing\nas much as other schools are', and I think we ought to have a new shop.\nObviously, Johnnie knows the purpose of his speech, and he has selected some good\nmaterial for his accomplishment, but he has not developed and supported his statements\nsufficiently to make them really effective. Gradually we draw out of his own experience\nthe following facts: The room is unsuitable, because it is located in the basement. The\nwindows are too high and too small, and do not give proper light. The pipes that heat\nthe rest of the building pass thru it : as a consequence it is always too damp and, generally, too hot. Tables that should accommodate four boys are made to accommodate\nsix, and the consequent jostling of elbows and rulers interferes with or spoils good work.\nJohnnie remembers here how the chart which he made so accurately and painstakingly\nwas ruined just at the time of its completion by a catastrophe with an ink bottle, caused\nby the sudden movement of his neighbor's elbow. He remembers too that he had to\nwait so long for the tools he needed in order to finish the tabouret he was working on\nbefore Christmas, that he finally gave up in despair, took it home, finished it up hastily,\nand, as a result, it has never been what it was intended to be. He cites the repeated statements of his instructor, that much valuable and interesting work has had to be omitted\nfrom the course because of the lack of proper space and equipment. When he has\nbrought this wealth of amplification of specific instances and definite facts to bear upon\nhis statements, we are ready to agree with Johnnie that the school is in need of a new\nshop, and he has learned that one must not only present good reasons for belief, but\nsupport them sufficiently to convince one's listeners of their truth. Moreover, this\ncritical attitude which he has established toward his own work he will readily transfer\nto what he sees; and many a local celebrity who addresses a school assembly, and whose\nspeech is poorly developed and is beyond the interest and experience of his listeners, is\nsubjected to rigid criticism by his youthful hearers.\nA college professor recently said: \"Give a boy good training in oral composition,\nand you have given him a liberal education.\" And surely*it is a comprehensive field,\nfull of possibilities of growth and helpfulness. Does it not demand training in keen\nobservation, clear thinking, and sound judgment in the collection of material for a given\npurpose, the selection of that which is most effective with relation to a definite situation\nand a particular audience, and the organization of the material selected into a unified,\nlogical, and effective whole — virtues which the public have long deposited in the credit\ncolumn of the sciences? Are not we, as teachers of English, just beginning to realize\nthe scope, and the importance, and the possibilities of this great field of work ? Let us\nunite our efforts in applying to the everyday needs and experiences of our pupils, thruout\nthe whole routine of work and play, that practical help which is offered in a sound and\nlive teaching of oral composition.\nI would refer those who are interested in this subject to Professor Phillips' Effective\nSpeaking, a textbook which is used widely thruout the colleges of our country, and which\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAN\n\nTO REDUCE\n\nFAILURES\n\nIN LATIN\n\n725\n\nhas recently been adopted in several of our high schools. The principles which I have\nfound most effective for use in my classroom are well set forth here and will, I am sure,\nprove a source of help to those desiring further information.\n\nARTHUR\n\nB.\n\nANCIENT\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nA PLAN\n\nTO REDUCE\n\nFAILURES\n\nS. CHENOWETH,\n\nOAK\n\nPARK AND RIVER FOREST\nOAK PARK, ILL.\n\nIN LATIN\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIt is the purpose of this paper to suggest a plan which will provide for and save some\nof those students who now constitute the \"wreckage\" in Latin.\nA teacher often hesitates to decide whether a certain boy or girl has \"failed\" or\n\"passed\" in the year's work. In the present discussion let us apply the word fail to all\nthose who do not prove to the teacher's satisfaction that they possess a knowledge of the\nlanguage sufficient for the needs of the class, and that they will carry away from the classroom some little understanding and appreciation of Latin literature. The boy who, at the\nend of the year after barely passing, throws away his Cicero with a \"Thank Heaven! I\nwon't need you anymore,\" has failed in Latin. And so has the boy who names his new\nmotor boat \"Brutus,\" when he discovers by mere accident that a certain Brutus killed\nCaesar.\nWhat is the point of view of such students ? Many of them took Latin against their\nwill, they got a poor start in the first year's work, and now they do not understand what it\nis all about. They do not know their forms, they guess at constructions, they translate,\nif at all, with the aid of a \"pony\" — they hate Latin and will bring up their children to hate\nit and avoid it.\nThe causes of failures in Latin are numerous: a bad start, insufficient preparation in\nEnglish, laziness, lack of encouragement at home, a poor teacher, ill-health, etc. But\nwhatever the reason of their inability to do as well as the others in the class, these boys and\ngirls are deriving little benefit from the study of Latin. Some of them are painfully conscious of their inferiority and do their best to succeed; others boast that they are going to\n\"flimk.\" All, nevertheless, deserve consideration — it is our duty to devise some scheme\nwhich will save them.\nThe problem, then, is to secure for the weak students more of the benefits which accrue\nto the strong from the study of Latin, without lowering the standard. The plan about to\nbe suggested is not new in that it involves the formation of a separate class. Its chief\nfeature is the adoption of a separate course of study.\nIt is not proposed to interfere with the first year's work, Latin I, as now taught. At\nthe end of the year, however, two classes are organized: first the regular Caesar class (let\nus call it Latin II A) ; second, a special class for those who have less than average ability —\nLatin II B. Again, at the end of the second year, those students who have done well in\nLatin II A pass into Latin III A, the regular Cicero course ; the others who take Latin during\ntheir third year enter Latin III B. Similarly we have two fourth-year classes — Latin IV A\nand Latin IV B.\nWe have thus established three new classes, or rather courses, in the second, third, and\nfourth years along side of the courses already existing.\nLet us examine each.\nIn Latin II B a thoro review of forms and syntax is essential and this is accomplished\nin connection with the translation work in Caesar. Very short easy passages are assigned,\nwhich are explained and reviewed until every student clearly understands them. A part\nof each recitation period is devoted to a discussion of general topics, so that the pupils\ngradually become familiar with Caesar's place in history and in literature.\n\nThe amount\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof Latin read depends on the ability of the class. The teacher reads and explains many\nchapters and the students are held responsible for the subject-matter of all the work covered\nin this way. Some time during the year two or three weeks are given over to reading selections from Ovid, affording an introduction to poetry and mythology which forms a pleasant\nbreak in the year's work. The chief merit of the course lies in the fact that the teacher is\nat liberty to proceed as slowly as is necessary. A definite goal is aimed at and attained, since\na single sentence or paragraph may be dwelt on for days until even the poorest student in the\nclass really masters it.\nLatin III B is a similar course based on Cicero. Forms are again carefully reviewed in\nconnection with short passages assigned for translation. Great accuracy is demanded on\nthe review lessons and no chapter is left before it is mastered. Part of each period is\ndevoted to a discussion of the many topics of interest with which Cicero abounds, the purpose being not only to acquaint the student with the orator's importance in history and in\nliterature, but also to train him to see the similarity between our own political institutions\nand conditions and those of the Roman Republic. During the spring Ovid is taken up for\ntwo or three weeks, when an effort is made to arouse interest in Latin poetry. The amount\nof Cicero read during the year is small, but the teacher reads several orations to the class\nand a summary of all the orations is kept in a notebook by each student.\nLatin IV B is based on Vergil. The work begins with another review of forms. Only\nselections are read by the class, but the teacher translates the other parts and insists on a\ncoherent knowledge of the whole Aeneas story, together with ability to comment on the\nmore important mythological references. An attempt is made to bring Latin poetry into\nclose touch with English poetry by calling attention to the parallel passages. Moreover,\nduring the latter part of the year for one month at least, a brief introduction to the greater\nnames in Latin literature is given and a few interesting quotations are cited from each\nauthor. It is hoped that this will lead at least a few students to read for themselves some\nof the masterpieces in ancient and modem literature.\nIn each of the three courses, Latin 11 B, Latin III B, and Latin IV B, prose work based\non the text is given at regular intervals. Each student also is required to keep a notebook\nwhich contains a summary of all that is read during the year, together with assigned topics\nand notes given by the teacher.\nThe plan for the new courses as here briefly outlined is not intended to be final or rigid.\nEach teacher must improve it for himself and adapt it to the needs of his particular class.\nVarious changes are possible. For example, it may be found wise to divide the beginning\nclass during the year and establish a Latin I B. Again, there may be no demand for a\nLatin IV B class.\nPerhaps the first objection that will be raised is that the colleges will not recognize\nsuch courses toward admission. It must be remembered, however, that the students in\nthese classes are not preparing for college — from the high school they go forth into the business world. If a student in Latin III B suddenly decides that he wants to go to college, he\ncan receive credit for the regular course by making up the required work which has been\nomitted. But the courses are intended primarily for those who do not and should not plan\nto take advanced studies. The high schools will give full credit for these coiurses, and it is\nquite certain that the colleges will accept them when convinced that the students are deriving real benefit.\nWell then, you say, new teachers will be necessary. The objection holds true in sinall\nhigh schools where there is only one Latin teacher, but here perhaps the need of this suggested change is felt least. In larger schools where there are several instructors in the\nLatin department no increase is necessary in the number either of teachers or classes. One\nof the old Latin II classes is transformed into Latin II B and the students are rearranged\naccording to their ability.\nThis rearrangement may appear to involve serious difficulties. Those students who\ndesire to take the regular work must be permitted to do so if they show sufficient ability.\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAN\n\nTO REDUCE\n\nFAILURES\n\nIN LATIN\n\n727\n\nA certain number, of course, will have to be transferred from Latin II A to Latin 11 B during\nthe year. Such problems, however, can be solved in a manner satisfactory to all by an\nexperienced and sympathetic teacher.\nIt may be objected that students capable of taking Latin II A will enter Latin HE on\nthe assumption that the latter is a \"snap\" course. Latin II B does not require as much\ntranslating as the regular Caesar course, but it does require a carefully kept notebook, so that\nin general it will be found to demand as much time for preparation as Latin II A. The\nthree courses are intended to run parallel with the courses now existing. It is hardly\nnecessary to point out that the regular classes will be much improved when the weaker\nstudents are withdrawn. The standard of each class will be higher, the work more interesting for students and teacher alike. Again, a boy who has sufficient ability to remain in\nLatin III A will not be so lazy as to be demoted to Latin IIIB. Yet at the same time the\nstudents in Latin III B will look upon that as a distinct course and one which is better\nadapted to their needs than the regular Cicero course.\nNo change in textbooks is called for. The ordinary editions of Caesar, Cicero, and\nVergil contain material for most of the work of the three courses as outlined, provided they\nare in the hands of a capable teacher. Selections from Ovid are to be had at small cost.\nThe school library contains valuable reference books. Any teacher who deserves the\nname and has any real love of the Muses easily can add the rest.\nTo sum up, it is proposed to establish three new courses for those boys and girls who\nfor one reason or another at present derive little benefit from the study of Latin. The main\nfeatures of these courses are:\nI. A small amount of Latin is read and the teacher is free to proceed as slowly as\nnecessary.\nII. The forms and constructions in common use are taught by patient daily drill.\nIII. All the students attain a fair degree of skill in translating.\nIV. Each course is made interesting by daily discussions of topics related to the text\nor author, which gradually open the students' eyes to a small portion at least of Latin\nliterature.\nV. A notebook is kept as evidence of serious work.\nWe do not maintain that this plan is a cure-all applicable to every ill in Latin classrooms. In many secondary schools no serious problem confronts the classical departments;\nin others such difficulties as exist can be remedied by less radical means. There are high\nschools, however; in which the number of those failing in Latin each year is quite large.\nThe majority of these students cannot be saved by \"better teaching\" or \" frequent consultations with the teacher.\" They simply are unable to read the amount of Latin required\nin the regular Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil courses. The colleges, no doubt rightly, insist\nupon four books of Caesar, six orations of Cicero, and six books of Vergil. Very well. Let\nour good students read- this much Latin.\nBut what, meanwhile, is to become of those who cannot keep up ? Are we to drag them\nalong with the class as best we can, or shall we deny them the privilege of studying Latin ?\nThe eminent Latin scholars to whom we naturally turn for guidance deserve our respect,\nbut we must feel that very often they do not understand the high-school boy's limitations.\nWe cannot afford to neglect the weaker students who do not go to college. Surely it is\nworth while for them to acquire accuracy of judgment thru translating and to be touched\neven in the smallest degree by the spirit of the classics which pervades modern literature.\nAnd will not the colleges pardon us if we break with tradition by organizing new courses,\ntho perhaps we seem to encroach upon their fields, while we endeavor to give these boys\nand girls something they will never get if not in the high school — ^a love for knowledge ?\nEven if the plan which we have outlined is adopted we shall find students occasionally\nwho cannot pass, but if we eliminate those who are clearly unable to do anything with Latin,\nthe number of failures will be very small indeed while the teacher can feel that those marked\n\"passed\" are taking something of real value from his classroom.\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNATIONAL\n\nC.\nA.\n\nMETHODS\nAMALIE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMODERN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nOF TEACHING GERMAN AND\nOF THE TEACHER\n\nNIX, PRESIDENT,\n\n[Secondary\n\nGERM.\\N\nPEDAGOGICAL\nST. PAUL, MINN.\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIETY\n\nPERSONALITY\nOF\n\nMINNESOTA,\n\nThere still exists a vast difiference of opinion among educators with regard to the\nmethods of teaching a modem language. The first part of my subject, \"Methods of\nTeaching the German Language,\" has been exhaustively and admirably treated by\nother language teachers. Permit me today to compare antiquated methods with those\nof the progressive language teacher. However, efficient instruction is not entirely based\non method. The discipline of minds, the acquisition of knowledge, should go hand in\nhand with the spiritual uplift, with the culture of souls. It is evident that the personality\nof the teacher is inseparable from the forms of instruction. Pedagogical leaders like\nPestalozzi, Froebel, Herbart, Ziller, and Rein emphatically declare that methods of teaching, correctly applied, psychologically and pedagogically, are of little value if the teacher\nis not endowed with the loftiest ideals, the noblest aims, in the development of citizenship. Ziller says: \"Die Personlichkeit des Lehrers iibt die grosste Macht auf seinen\nSchiiler aus; unbewusst nimmt dieser die Geistesrichtung des Erziehers an.\"\nThree essential factors enter into all methods of instruction: (i) the pupil, (2) the\nsubject-matter, and (3) the teacher. In order to succeed in the teaching profession all\nmethods must be based on psychology — the science of the mind — and on pedagogy — •\nthe science of teaching. In the teaching of a language it is of the utmost importance that\nthe teacher should be thoroly familiar with both of these sciences. Methods based on a\npsychological foundation must take into consideration the age of the pupil, conditions of\nhome life and educational advantages, inheritance, and, in general, the reasons of retardation and acceleration.\nUnlike those of Germany, there are very few school systems in our Union which\nhave introduced German as a second language in the elementary grades. Therefore our\nattention is drawn mainly to the high schools, where German is generally begun in the\nfirst j'ear. In accordance with my observations in the German departments of various\nhigh schools, I cannot ignore the fact that there still are many persistent adherents to the\ntranslation method, perhaps more than you and I suspect. These teachers hold that the\nachievement of linguistic efficiency is directly dependent on grammar and translation\ninstruction.\nWTienever I hear English used exclusively in German classrooms by teachers and\npupils, notice that grammar is treated as all-important, I am forcibly impressed with the\nidea that the teacher's linguistic difficulties are embodied in the spoken language, which\naccounts for the lack of a German atmosphere in the German classroom. And fvirthermore, Goethe and Schiller could have hardly recognized some of their works in the translation offerings presented on various occasions.\nThe pupil should not study the literary language before the spoken, because his\nassociations are with the latter. In an army of disconnected and grammatical riiles\nthe pupil does not leam to think in German and consequently lacks power of expression.\nThe unfortunate victim of the translation method can rarely describe the simplest action\nin German after graduating from a four-year course.\nIn classes where advocates of a superannuated method reign supreme, a lack of\ninterest, of inspiration, and, in general, an atmosphere of rest are perceptible.\nTwice I have complied with the request of conductors of university summer schools in\nGermany to lecture on \"The American School System.\" While there, trying to convey\nto my audiences the prominent place we occupy in the civilized world's system of elemen-\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGERMAN\n\nAND\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nOF THE\n\nTEACHER\n\n729\n\ntary and secondary schools, my pride was considerably hurt when substantiated facts\nwere revealed by scholarly professors of noted German universities, that there were\nample proofs of an absence of definite knowledge in numerous graduates of universities\nand colleges of standing, who had gone abroad to continue their studies in Germany.\nAmong the subjects mentioned, none were criticized more rigidly than the teaching of\nGerman; many students from our Union were said to possess not even a \"smattering\"\nof the spoken language.\nProfessor Hugo Miinsterberg, of Harvard, has told us frankly that our students\ndo not master anything completely, accurately, that they do not possess the habit of\nstrict mental discipline, and that intellectual disorderliness consequently becomes a\nhabit with them. Can we doubt the absolute correctness of his assertions ? Are we not\ndigging too deep theoretically without placing emphatic stress on the practical issues of\nour theories?\nStill, I claim that the future must necessarily bring an all-around change, a thoro\nreform in modern-language methods. Let Schiller's \"Glocke\" and the genuine bell at\nSchaffhausen resound their inscription vividly and impressively into our souls for professional improvement: \"Vivos voco, mortuos plango; fulgura frango.\"\nThat I am not a radical reformer, one who would strictly adhere to a certain method\nto the exclusion of all others, I might state right here. On the other hand, I believe that\nthe phonetic method should be used in conjunction with the direct method, supplemented\nby the translation method.\nIt has been my good fortune to have had among an audience, while lecturing at the\nUniversity of Marburg, the founder of the phonetic method, Professor Victor, and to\nhave made his personal acquaintance.\nThat the German language is acquired as a spoken language, by following the\nphonetic method, is a well-established fact. Still, critics inform us that the literary\nlanguage is sacrificed by teachers who adhere strictly to the phonetic method, great\nstress being laid on sense-perception. Besides mastering pronunciation and enunciation,\nthe spoken language is taught by means of object-lessons. This method is certainly\nperfectly in harmony with our demands for efficient results in the teaching of German.\nBut again we are told'that our course should then cover at least eight years in high-school\nGerman, if we wish to familiarize the pupils with the literary language, with some of the\ngems of German literature. That our school curriculum does not admit of such a plan\nin secondary education is self-evident. As a moderate, reformer, I, therefore, believe in\nthe reform method, which we style the direct method, and by means of which we secure\nthe speaking power in our pupils of German, and later a ready understanding of some\nof the works of our classics.\nI maintain, further, that interpretation by means of the translation method, together\nwith the teaching of German grammar inductively, basing the spoken language on the\nreading-matter, is correct, when chosen with wisdom. Translation from the German\ninto the English, or vice versa, is to be occasionally recommended.\nHowever, the pupil's translation should, if possible, be followed by that of an authority on translation, be it the teacher or an author; e. g., if pupils have comprehended,\nmemorized, and recited in class, or have sung a lyrical poem, like Goethe's \"Wanderer's\nNachtlied,\" I do not hesitate to proceed to Longfellow's translation, which they enjoy\nalmost as much as the original German:\nO'er all the hill-tops\nIs quiet now.\nIn all the tree-tops\nHearest thou\nHardly a breath;\nThe birds are asleep in the trees;\nWait, soon like these\nThou, too, shalt rest.\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "730\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAmong translations from the English into the German I select similarly that of\n\"Home, Sweet Home\" by Robert Nix, proceeding in the same manner as before:\nRuht auch auf Palasten und Marmor der Blick,\nDas Herz sehnt sich immer zur Heimat zuriick.\nDer Zauber des Gliickes umstrickt uns nur dort,\nDie Heimat ersetzt vms kein anderer Ort.\nHeimat, trautes Gliick!\nDas Herz sehnt sich immer zur Heimat zuriick.\nAus der Heimat verbannt, lockt nicht fremdland'sche Pracht,\nMich zieht's zu der Hiitte mit Stroh uberdacht;\nDort sangen die Voglein and flogen mir zu;\nGieb diese mir wieder und Frieden und Ruh!\nHeimat, trautes Gliick !\nDas Herz sehnt sich immer zur Heimat zuriick.\nMany other German and English poems and songs can be treated likewise. I am convinced that the spiritual influence, the development of das Gemiil are of vital importance in\nthe teaching of German; therefore I make an ardent plea for the teaching of good poetry,\nand the singing of German songs.\nTo me it appears unwise to prescribe a beginning lesson formally in accordance with\nthe direct method. Is it not better to have the teacher look at the pupils carefully, consider\nthe number and their apparent degree of intelligence, and then base the subject-matter on\nthese conditions ?\nSometimes I have successfully aroused the interest of my beginners in German by\nteaching the first steps in courtesy, as: \"Guten Tag, Fraulein\"; \"Guten Morgen, Herr\nSchmidt\"; \"Guten Abend, Frau Miiller.\" \"Der Vater, die Mutter, der Bruder, die\nSchwester, der Grossvater, die Grossmutter, der Onkel, die Tante,\" were taught in connection with these forms of greeting. Then followed: \"Adieu,\" \"Auf Wiedersehen !\" \"Danke\nsehr,\" \"Bitte sehr.\" Carefully I explained the meaning of the articles, drilled them in\nphonetics, and let them apply all they had learned in the first lesson.\nBefore leaving the classroom I feel that a German atmosphere has been created, as the\npupils delight in conversing with one another. At the close of the first week, they ask\nquestions in German, calling on their classmates for an answer.\nThe process of learning a foreign language is mainly that of forming associations. In\nlearning our own language we associate words and sentences with thoughts, ideas, actions,\nand events.\nEasy prose writings, such as Storm's Immensee, von Hillern's Hoher als die Kirche,\nas well as simple plays, WiUielmi's Einer muss heiraten, Benedix's Nein, etc., can follow the\nfirst year's work. Compositions, mainly reproductions of the texts read, and letter-writing\nin connection with the same work, are also profitable.\nThe Junior and Senior years should introduce the classics to the students of German.\nSchiller's Das Lied von der Glocke and his most popular drama Wilhelm Tell can be studied;\nfurthermore Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm, Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea, Sesenheim»\nand Iphigenie auf Tauris.\nI am fully convinced that by a happy combination of the various methods of teaching\nGerman, with the direct method prominently in the foreground, our teaching of the German\nlanguage can be brought to a degree of efficiency to be equaled alone by the results obtained\nin Germany in modern-language instruction. Furthermore, we should remember that the\nfield of activity in the teaching of German is plowed and cultivated by the teachers of\nGerman. Our methods, our successful aims in developing das Sprachgefuhl in our pupils,\nin creating a German atmosphere, will eventually lead to a proper esteem of the German\nlanguage.\nAs a finishing touch to the little information I have given you, I shall dwell briefly on\nthe personality of the teacher. We all know that a noble character in the teacher is essential\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGERMAN\n\nAND\n\nPERSONALITY\n\nOF THE\n\nTEACHER\n\n731\n\nto success. The higher the ideals of the teacher, the more can be expected in this direction\nfrom the pupils.\nThe teacher who has taken up his residence in Germany will not alone be aided with\nthe acquisition of the German language and German literature, but he will recognize that\nlaws are not merely created, but enforced, also that the German teacher is occupying a lofty\nposition.\nIn our own country our pursuits in life are more and more approaching the practical.\nMoney-making is the chief aim toward which the youth is directed, often at the sacrifice\nof his soul. And how does this apply to the teaching force ? Is it not a fact that there are\nstill teachers appointed on the strength of being somebody's political friend, that no law is\nrecognized, that no law prevents their appointment ?\nIs it indifiference alone, or lack of courage, that we, as teachers, do not protest when\nwe know of conditions that prevent the growth of the good and the noble in our pupils?\nCan a teacher be filled with pedagogical enthusiasm if he runs a real estate office in the afternoon, his office hours being from two to six ? Should he not be forced to remain in this\nreal estate office all day?\nIt is my own personal belief that great teachers can be trained, that will-power may\nhelp to create enthusiasm, and that enthusiasm leads to success. \"Great teachers never\ndie, their very names are an inspiration.\"\nDISCUSSION\nEdA D. Ohrenstein, Hyde Park High School, Chicago, 111. — Whatever arguments Ishall be able to present for the direct method will have to be based on commonsense and actual experience. Miss Nix has just stated that the advocates of the translation method insist that linguistic achievement depends upon translation and grammar:\nthat the pupil must have a thoro understanding of grammar before he is ready to speak:\nand that he must translate or he will not be able to comprehend a foreign text or recitation\nconducted in the foreign tongue. Nothing in the world could be more arrant nonsense.\nAU of us have at some time or other watched some small boy instructed in the art of\nwhistling. He is told just what to do with his tongue, his lips, his breath, etc. However, none of us ever expects a small boy to whistle that way. Any sane person says,\n'Look.\" The boy looks on, then tries, and presto, the little boy whistles all alone.\nYou wouldn't teach a person swimming by taking him to the water's edge and explaining\nby means of elaborate charts the various motions. Of course not. No half-sensible\nlayman would doubt the idiocy of such instruction, and yet the taxpayers the country\nover send their sons and daughters to our high schools and allow teachers to practice\njust this sort of nonsense, not only once for a joke, but often thru four consecutive\nyears. You and I would be horrified if upon entering a mathematics class, we should be\ntreated to a dissertation upon the origin of Arabic numerals, and yet daily and hourly,\nin the largest and richest cities of the world, you and I not only can hear, but have heard,\nmodern language classes where not a single word was uttered except in the mothertongue. How long would it take you to master mathematics after you had learned the\ncomplete history of the numerals ? The adage that the only way to learn to do a thing\nis to do it holds as true here as it does in politics. The old fallacy that you cannot learn\na foreign language this side of the Atlantic is true only if you are willing to accept the\natrocious translation method as pedagogically correct. I would not condemn translation\nas such. Translation is an art second to none except literary creation; as such it can be\npracticed only after a good speaking knowledge has been acquired and the essentials of\ngrammar fully mastered. Miss Nix has told you that translation soon turns the vivacious\nteacher into a lifeless one. She is needlessly alarmed. No vivacious teacher would ever\ncontinue in the translation method.\nShe might begin so, particularly if her knowledge\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nof her subject were not exhaustive, but she would gradually leave the dead shell behind\nher. All right things grow from day to day and the fact that the teacher teaching the\ndirect method learns with her classes is proof that her method is right; the fact that no\nprogressive teacher ever goes back to the translation method is proof positive that the\ntranslation method is not right. Hugo Munsterberg tells us we Americans are mentally\ndisorderly. No doubt we are. It is our national shortcoming, and it is a great misfortune,\nbut misfortune or no, we must accept the fact. We are a business nation. We want\nreturns for everything we -do, and we want to know why we do things. In Europe the\nschool-teacher says, \"Johnny, write that sentence one hundred times,\" and Johnny does.\nHere in America if you and I should, say the same thing, Johnny's first piping note would\nbe, \"What is it for?\" and Johnny is right. The Johnnies all over the country are forming a monster choral society, only unfortunately what they are singing is, \"We won't have\nany more useless foreign languages.\" Now if you and I love a language and its literature\nand believe in its utility we must give it to Johnny in the form in which he can use it,\nand when Johnny comes to class, we must talk German about German books, we must\ntalk about the weather, and about our neighbors, and about anything else that happens to\nsuggest itself. Then Johnny will like to come to class. He will feel that he is getting\nmore than when he studies by himself. If he is to come to class and merely recite the\ntranslation he prepared at home he had better stay at home and study some more.\nFurthermore, if you read classics in your classes, never cease dwelling upon the vital\nbeauties of the text, never cease impressing upon your pupils that the broad principles\nthat were true in the days of Genesis persist today. Unless you make your text vital,\nyour pupil will have no sympathy with your classics. His natural sympathy is with the\npresent hour; but when he is made to feel that what was written a century or more ago\nis applicable to conditions today and can be used in argument in the family discussions,\nhe will read his classic eagerly. The text is just the starting-point. Its applicability will\nbe determined by the culture, the breadth of vision, and the personality of the teacher.\nMiss Nix has, further, told us of our inferiority in command of German and of the\nGerman's superiority in English. Yearly we see thousands of Germans who studied\nEnglish abroad. Do they speak English so very well after a residence of a year among\nus ? Do those we meet in Europe understand us when we speak to them in English, and\ncan we understand them when they speak to us ? Ask any large business house about\nthe foreign letters it receives, and you will be told that the foreigner's meaning is always\nclear provided you have the original text side by side with his translation. The same\nfact is attested to by Americans who attend Enghsh classes in foreign schools. The\ntranslation crime is our heritage from the days when Latin and Greek were supreme in\nthe curriculum and even in Latin and Greek that method is downright wrong. If\npupils heard the Latin and Greek text daily instead of just seeing it, they would master\ninfinitely larger vocabularies and those languages would not be forgotten as soon as the\nstudy was conlpleted.\nLastly, the personality. We have been told that the personality of the teacher\nshould live. It does. We live in caricature, in fiction unpleasantly, and in the play of\nchildren. Watch them and you will see why in literature there is thus far not one single\nsympathetic portrayal. They show us our weakness. All they do when they play\nschool is \"boss.\" Isn't it time that we gave that up? A feeling of fellowship, of\nhumanity, is what we need. If we have worth, our pupils will find it out on the floor\nlevel.\n\nThere is no real value in trying to make a pedestal of the teacher's platform.\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nB.\nEDUARD\n\nPHONETICS\n\nTHE PLACE\nPROKOSCH,\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nOF PHONETICS\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nIN THE\n\nGERMAN\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\ntJNIVERSITY\n\nOF WISCONSIN,\n\n733\n\nGERMAN\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\nWe Americans claim to be practical people, and so we are — ^in some respects. But\nin certain matters, especially in the way in which many of us still are teaching and studying foreign languages, we display an unpractical romanticism that would put to shame\nany mediaeval philosopher or alchemist.\nThere are two ways of studying languages: to study them, and to study about\nthem. The second, the study and comparison of the structure and development of\nlanguages, if carried on along scientific lines, is one of the finest pursuits of intellectual\nendeavor. But to make it an important part of elementary language teaching in secondary schools, by laying emphasis on grammar and by the use of translation, is, in this\n\"practical\" twentieth century, and in this \"practical\" American country, either fantastical romanticism or an intellectual crime.\nIf we teach high-school pupils a language, we do it, or ought to do it, with the purpose that they should learn to use it— whether that use be for reading only, or for reading and speaking, has little to do with the first steps in teaching. For either purpose, the\nlanguage will not be ready for use until it has become a living thing that is heard and\nspoken. Even for the acquisition of a mere reading knowledge the pedagogical saying\nthat we learn to do a thing by doing it is not true. We do not learn how to read a foreign\nlanguage by reading it; thousands of pages of mere reading and translating would not\ngive us a reading knowledge if that reading were not, at least unconsciously, coupled\nwith an acoustic reproduction, an actual or a subconscious transposition of the printed\nsigns into living words. Even the legendary race of \"visualizers\" is compelled to make\nuse of such reproduction, even tho it is claimed that printer's ink is to them a marvelous\naid in this effort.\nWhether the method be direct or indirect, natural or unnatural, visual or oral: to\nteach a foreign language without pronouncing it constantly, carefully, consciously, is a\nchildish undertaking. Theoretically, the question of correct or incorrect pronunciation\nis of secondary importance; the pronunciation must, first of all, be easy, fluent, sure;\nof course, it goes without saying that a faultless pronunciation is preferable to a faulty\none; but one may have nearly complete mastery of a foreign tongue and mispronounce\nit; no one, however, can acquire any command of foreign languages, for reading, speaking,\nor writing them, without being able to pronounce them easily and fluently.\nGifted people can attain an excellent, correct, and fluent pronunciation of a foreign\nlanguage without any instruction in phonetics. No one can doubt that. But only\nfew are gifted in that direction; every high-school teacher's experience will bear that out.\nWith the majority, endless repetition and correction on the part of the patient teacher\nare necessary to make at least a decent pronunciation possible. But that very necessity\nof unceasing correction will for a long time be a source of uncertainty and confusion to\nthe pupil if the teacher limits himself to correction without stating the reason. To state\nreasons in pronunciation, however, means to teach phonetics. Left to himself, the\nstudent would gradually acquire a fairly fluent but incorrect pronunciation; hampered\nby an unphonetic teacher's correction, his pronunciation becomes faltering, without,\nin most cases, becoming correct. In our grammar teaching we often exaggerate the\ndesirability of stating our reasons for corrections; in matters of pronunciation, many of\nus are apt not to state any reasons at all.\nIf phonetics is to be made use of in teaching, it should be taught at the very outset—\nsimply, but systematically and carefully. Even tho the speaker believes that in the\nfirst year of language teaching the mother-tongue should not be used in the classroom,\nhe would except from this the first four weeks, which ought to be devoted to phonetics.\nIn these four weeks the pupil should not be spared tiie difficult information that he\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\npossesses a tongue, two lips and rows of teeth, a palate, and even two vocal chords; he\nshould become familiar with their chief functions in speaking so that he may not \"remain\na stranger in the magic world that is concealed in man's oral cavity\"; it is not even a\ngrave misfortune if, perchance, he should learn about four phonetic terms: stop and\nspirant, voiced and voiceless. Together with systematic drill in pronunciation, this\nwill be suflScient for the first four weeks. After that, during the whole remainder of\nGerman instruction, corrections of pronunciation need no longer be mere statements\nof facts, but the pupils can justly be expected to make the necessary corrections themselves. The great value of Victor's wall maps in this direction is too well known to\nneed description.\nIn the elementary classes of the University of Wisconsin, in addition to Victor's\ncharts, wall maps are in use that show in diagrams the organs of speech and the most\nimportant differences in the production of German and English speech sounds. It\nwould be of great value if some American publisher could be induced to publish such\nmaps for general use in high schools.\nThe use of Victor's charts necessitates, of course, that the pupils be acquainted with\nphonetic writing, and as only three or four new characters are needed for that purpose,\nthis is hardly asking too much as long as only a passive knowledge, an ability to recognize\nphonetic signs, is expected. It is a valuable aid to quick and effective teaching if the\npupil who mispronounced English w for the German letter w can silently and impressively be referred to the phonetic sign v on the chart or the blackboard. Rare, occasional\nuse of active phonetic writing might be at least permissible, but general conditions in\nmost of our secondary schools (lack of time not being the least consideration, and lack\nof accuracy one of the foremost) do not let it seem advisable to make such wide use of\nit as is successfully done in European schools.\nDISCUSSION\nLeonard Bloomfield, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. — ^Professor Prokosch\nhas shown us one regard in which school foreign-language work may profit from scientific\nlinguistics. There can be no doubt that the poor results of modern-language teaching\nin America are primarily due to our neglect of the facts and principles ascertained by the\nscientific theoretical study of language. I shall mention two other directions in which\nour school language work usually fails by ignoring certain fundamental characteristics\nof speech.\nJust as the sounds of French or German cannot be taught in terms of English sounds,\nbut are in each case incommensurably different, so the value of a foreign word cannot\nbe stated in English words. Even such concrete names as German Tisch and English\ntable do not match; in this case, for instance, the German word cannot, like the English,\nbe used of a diagram of figures. Similarly German reiien is used only, German fahren\nnever, of riding on the back of an animal, French has no verbs correspwnding to our\nsit and stand, and so on thru every word in these languages.\nEven if it were pedagogically possible to present, with a little explanatory comment, such equations as German reiten : English ride, they would still be grammatically\nuntrue, for the English word is used also in the imperative and in the first person, / ride —\nthe German form reiten in the imperative only with a following Sie, in the first person\nnever. Teachers who have dealt with pupils taught by the translation method will here\nrecognize the source of two of the commonest mistakes.\nIn short, the attempt to teach foreign sounds, words, and constructions in terms of\nEnglish is shown by linguistic science to be hopeless, and it is unnecessary for each teacher\nto make the attempt all over again for himself. Methods based on translation or otherwise depending on the pupil's native language, in our case English, as a classroom instru*\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nCOURSE\n\nAND\n\nMANUAI^TRAINING\n\nCOURSE\n\n73$\n\nment, are even in the hands of the best teacher foredoomed to poor results. Those who\ncare to follow up these remarks, for instance by reading such books as Jespersen's How to\nTeach a Foreign Language or Bahlsen's The Teaching of Modern Languages, will find\nthat the only form of teaching in accord with the scientifically ascertained facts about\nlanguage is some form of the method known as direct.\nJ. N. Lenker, of Minneapolis, Minn. — ^I read with interest everything written on the\nteaching of modern languages according to the new, modern, direct, natural method\nwhich has worked a change in European countries and is fast being introduced into\nAmerica. I am a Pennsylvania German. When my father was of age he spoke only\nGerman, and when I was of age I spoke only English. I went to Germany to learn\nGerman and learned it. Then I traveled thru Denmark, Norway, and Sweden and\nlearned Scandinavian. I can assure you that anyone who has learned to speak a second\nmodern language will soon acquire a third. In fact the study of a third and a fourth\nlanguage will be a pleasure. Did you ever think that about one-half of all our study is\ndevoted to language, the science of human speech, our native tongue, ancient and modern\nlanguages? It is English, English, and English; Latin, Latin, and Latin; German,\nGerman, and German; Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian. Why do we not have the\nsatisfactory results, as in Europe? Is it not because of our round-about, unnatural\nmethods ? Can we not get down to simple, fundamental, natural principles ? Is it not\na fact that every child has been six years to school before entering the public school\nwhere nature provided the parent as teacher, the kindergarten of the home which is the\nfoundation of the kindergarten of the school ? Now what does the child study in those\nsix formative and most important years for discipline ? It studies no mathematics, no\nscience, no history, the only one subject taught and learned in those six years is language\n—not an ancient but a modern language. And as to the method, no textbook is used, no\nink and paper to appeal to the eye. It is the modern, natural, direct method of an appeal\nto only the ear and the tongue. I believe in building the education of the child in school\non that of the home, bringing the school and home, teacher and parent nearer together.\nThe Americans are the best linguists in the world. Coming here with the dialects\nof all countries, twenty of the twenty-nine million immigrants to our shores learned\nEnglish after their arrival. Their children would be as good linguists if taught by the\nuse of the direct, natural method. We should raise our standard to a three-language\neducation: first, English, the language of the nation; second, the language of the home\nor immigrant settlement, regardless of what that may be; and third, the language of the\nmost profit to the cultural and business interests of the child in later life.\n\nD.\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE\n\nMATHEMATICS\nSUGGESTED\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\nR.\n\nH.\n\nJORDAN,\n\nCOURSE\n\nGEOMETRY\nIN HIGH\n\nMINNEAPOLIS,\n\nCOURSE\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\n■\n\nMINN.\n\nThe Final Report of the Committee of Fifteen on the Geometry Syllabus is so\nadmirably done, and is so evidently framed with the idea of providing a common ground\non which all secondary teachers may unite, that it would be presumptuous to pick out\nany single phase of the report for criticism, in view of the broad general issues involved.\nAnd so this paper is not presented in a spirit of criticism but rather in the hope that the\nwork in geometry may be made more attractive to a certain large class of our students,\nwith corresponding gain in prevention of failure and in better equipment of the student.\nAccordingly, your attention is called to that portion of the report headed Section C,\nSpecial Courses.\nParagraph (a) recommends that there be no attempt to outline differ-\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nent courses for various classes of students in the high schools, but that in special cases\nomissions and increased emphasis upon theorems retained may be advisable. In view\nof the great number of courses now offered, it is very clear that this recommendation is\nthe only practical solution of what otherwise would be an interminable task, if carried to\nits logical conclusion. However, the needs of that large and constantly increasing body\nof students carrying manual and industrial subjects are so manifestly different from those\nof any other groups, that it may not be amiss to consider them for a few minutes and\nattempt to reach some conclusion as to whether they may not be deserving of some distinct mention or recommendation.\nBefore proceeding, the speaker wishes it definitely understood that he is in complete\naccord with the statement given in the report, regarding the purpose of the study of\ngeometry. And also, in general, he is in agreement with the syllabus recommended in\nSection E; so that it will not be necessary to enter upon the phases of the subject which\nwould touch these portions of the report.\nBut it is the feehng of many teachers, both of geometry and of manual branches and\ndrawing, that the manual student should be differentiated from the other classes of pupils.\nSome of the reasons leading to this conclusion are:\no) Whatever may be the purpose in placing manual and industrial branches in the\ncurriculum, from the point of view of the educator, it is very evident that 99 per cent of\nthe boys who elect these subjects make the choice on the basis of future career, and are\ndefinitely directing their aim toward mechanical and technical life-work, as distinguished\nfrom their brothers who are working, with greater or less definite purpose, toward commercial and professional careers. They and their parents estimate their course directly from\nits bread-winning value and will inevitably put more and more stress upon this phase,\nas they are recruited in increasing numbers from the classes not now patrons of the high\nschool. And to increase these recruits, we must make our appeal to them along the practical content of our courses.\nh) Accordingly, the lad's mental trend is toward the immediately practical, and\nhe is naturally impatient of those subjects whose treatment does not demonstrate such\npractical value. Now, of course, we are not justified in pandering to his whims to the\nextent of eliminating from his course all subjects which, in his phraseology, \"don't do\nme no good.\" But if we are to hold him, and bring more of his t>-pe into our sphere of\ninfluence, we must endeavor to shape the work which we do compel him to take so that\nit may meet his objection, and bring him to see the practical good in things which he now\npasses over as trivial and without caring whether he succeeds or fails, a state of mind\nwhich almost inevitably induces dismal failure. It is safe to say that 50 per cent of our\npresent failures could be avoided if we could bring our students to feel that the work\ncontained a direct means for increasing money-earning power.\nc) The nature of his industrial courses demands that allied branches giving him more\npower in his practical aims be introduced as early in his course as is consistent with his\nmental development. Mathematics and physics, especially, should be made working\nfactors toward this end and should be placed within his grasp in a practical form as early\nas is possible.\nd) The time element is an appreciable factor. Both for the lad who is anxious to\nget into his life-work as soon as possible and for the boy who hopes to go into higher fields\nof technical training, it is important that nonessentials be eliminated to as great an\nextent as possible: for the first, that he may be enabled to get returns for his effort in a\nfinancial way as soon as he finds himself really prepared, and for the second, that he may\nbroaden his preparation by the addition of more culture subjects than are usually permissible as the manual side of the work more and more encroaches upon the time set\naside for such branches. It is very clear, then, that if any of the allied work can be condensed or abbreviated as the report suggests may be done, it will result in decided\nadvantage.\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nCOURSE\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nCOURSE\n\n737\n\ne) There is a lack of sympathy with the present course on the part of the manual\nteachers themselves. Most manual teachers feel that the course taught with the general\npurposes outlined in the syllabus does not assist in any material way the effectiveness of\ntheir students, and, worse than that, if there is to be any real correlation, in many cases\nthe manual teacher must adjust his course to present the necessary work, rather than the\nreverse, which is certainly the natural order. It is certainly an anomaly for the drawing teacher to be required to recast the logical order of his outlines in an effort to work\nout some illustrative problems for his students who are also in geometry. And yet there\nare schools in which this very thing is being done. The general objections raised by the\nmanual teachers, however, are that the subject is usually placed too late in the course to\nhelp materially, and that the presentation ordinarily followed does not bring before the\nboy the facts necessary for ready application to manual work.\n/) This lack of sympathy on the part of the manual teacher is naturally reflected\nin the attitude of his students toward the geometry class. It is almost sure to belittle in\nthe mind of the student the importance of vigorous attempt to conquer the difficulties,\nand so we have another cause for lax attention, slack preparation, and resulting failure.\nNow, to meet these difficulties, we must either arrange our entire course with reference\nto the manual work, a thing which is not desirable in the ordinary combination school,\nor we must group our manual students apart mathematically. The latter, of course,\ncan be done only in schools whose enrollment permits. In the smaller schools the only\nremedy is to recast the entire treatment of the subject, so that some middle ground may\nbe held. But in the schools large enough to support two beginning classes in geometry,\none of these should be confined to students in the manual subjects, and a special course\nworked out. This course should be made up for the first year of combination work in\narithmetic, algebra, and geometry, reviewing the common arithmetical computations,\nwith definite drill in decimals, and giving an introduction to algebra, at least thru factoring. The general facts of geometry would be taken up, special stress being placed upon the\ntheorems which would be of immediate advantage in the drawing, cabinet, and metal work,\nwith much construction practice, covering as much of the ground outlined in the syllabus as\nwould be possible in the time allotted. This would result, as indicated in the report, \"in\nreducing the course to about ©ne-half the traditional length.\" It would be likely that it\nwould be found desirable to take up the work in geometry simultaneously with that in the\nalgebra, dividing the time equally between the two subjects. But where this would be\nthought confusing to the pupil, the geometry might be left to the second semester of the\nyear.\n\nThe second year would be given to the completion of the essential algebra, and to\ndeveloping the remaining geometry work for the benefit of those students who might plan\nhigher technical careers. In any case, not more than two and one-half years would be\nrequired to bring the student up to the highest point of efficiency to attack the higher mathematical branches, and it is certain that in two years all that the average student would\nneed could be developed; the continuation of the work in geometry for these students, it\nseems hardly necessary to say, would be dependent on the further needs of the course,\nspecial reference being made to architecture and industrial design in most cases, altho\nthe development would of necessity vary with the particular direction given to the manual\nwork in each individual school.\nTo sum up the advantages of this proposed segregation, it may b'e said, first, that the\nmathematics would be of direct advantage to the mastery of the manual work, which is not\nnow the case; second, the continual application of the geometrical principles would bring\nthe practical value of the subject so clearly before the student that it would stimulate him\nto closer application, and would reduce the chances of failure to a minimum (if there were no\nother reason for the change, this is certainly sufficient) ; third, it would be a stimulus to\nadvanced mathematical study and investigation, for from the very beginning it would\nimpress the pupil with the close relation of mathematics to industry and science, a relation-\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nship which he is now required to accept on faith, with the calm assurance that \"some day\"\nhe will see where the algebra and geometry are really practical — a day which does not\narrive usually until he gets into trigonometr>' or possibly physics; fourth, as a specialized\ncourse, it would enable the instructor to put a premium upon accuracy, and to stress \" loo per\ncent efficiency,\" in addition to creating a spirit among the pupils which would bring better\napplication from the pride in a course which is actually getting practical results; and fifth,\nit would make absolutely necessary close correlation of the right sort between the two\ndepartments, instead of the aimless and desultory co-operation now existing in many, if\nnot most schools.\nIt may be thought that much of this advantage would result if the committee's recommendation with regard to preliminary courses in graded schools be followed, and this is\ntrue, to a certain extent. But we all know that, no matter how well the graded work is\ndone, we need more or less review when the pupil comes to high school; and just as when\nhe has already had manual work in the grades, we find that a certain amount of this work\nmust be repeated more intensively in high school, so by this very fact, a more intensive\ntreatment is also necessary for the accompanying geometrical work.\nTherefore, it has seemed worth while to make this plea for the manual-training students,\nand if there be any general agreement with the proposition that their needs are of sufficient\nimportance, may we not ask that the conmiittee make some exception in their behalf ? If\nit is not desirable to do this by amending the report, a thing which is not particularly essential, may we not go on record by resolution as favoring such segregation as has been indicated ?\n\nE.\nA. THE HIGH-SCHOOL\nv. G. BARNES,\n\nSCIENCE\nCOURSE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIN GENERAL\nMADISON,\n\nSCIENCE\n\nWIS.\n\nIn this paper on general science, I have two objects in piind: first, to show the faultiness of our present science course; and second, to show how these faults may be remedied.\nScience teachers have realized that something is wrong, and have been working for the last\nfew years to find the cause.\nIn my study of conditions I find at least two elements that tend to make the teaching\nof science in the secondary schools inefficient, for if our students fail to grasp the great\nunderlying principles of the laws of nature that control our existence, then ovx teaching\nhas not been aU that it should be. If they fail to realize that aU life is but a struggle between\nthe upbuilding and disintegrating forces of nature, and that our ver>' existence and present\nmode of life is but the result of man's efforts to harness and control the natural forces that\nsurround him, then we have not reached the highest goal possible in our work.\nThe first of these elements that lead to poor results in science teaching is the teacher.\nWe come to the secondary school fresh from college and university, where we have had to\ndeal with the students of \"mature minds, and with a more or less complete fund of personal\nexperience. We are apt to carry our impressions of the higher school into the high-school\nclassroom, and expest oiu: pupils to master complicated statements of laws and formulae\nas readily as we ourselves could do. We expect them to see back of the mere law all its\nmany applications. We forget that the formula which to us is a simple statement of existing conditions, may be to them a mere algebraic equation with no meaning whatever.\nThe teacher of physics or chemistry or any science who tries to get out of a subject any more\nthan the fundamental principles is making a big mistake. The average high-school pupil\nhas no organized fund of personal experience to fall back on. From the day when he was a\nlittle \"tad,\" to the present time, he has met with things that have puzzled him.\n\nHe has\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN GENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\n739\n\nrather a large assortment of observations, but he doesn't know it. He hasn't his experience labeled and ready to hand out the moment he meets the law governing the phenomenon.\nHe needs to be questioned and worked with before he can see the connection between his\nobservations, and the law under discussion. Yet we, as science teachers, go blindly ahead,\ncalmly shooting over the heads of our classes, ignoring the simple, fundamental principles\nof our subject, and teaching, or attempting to teach, a vast number of complicated unessentials.\nWe teach that kinetic energy is equal to \\mv'^; or that the period of a pendulum is\nequal to IT ^/-, unconscious of the fact that the average boy has no conception of mass, or\nthe meaning of g.\nWe, as teachers of science, are beginning to see our mistakes in this line, and are revising our methods of teaching accordingly. This is true especially with teachers of physics\nand chemistry. In the last few years great changes have taken place in the content of the\nsubject-matter taught in these two subjects. Subjects and laws once thought indispensable\nare now thrown out bodily.\nIn a physics text just published, nearly the whole subject of static electricity is omitted,\nand other equally startling changes have been made. The whole tone of the book shows\nthat the author has been striving for simplicity. Perhaps succeeding years will see some\nof this cast-off material being brought back into use. But we may be sure of this: it will\nbe taught in a way that will attract rather than repel the pupil. While these changes are\ntaking place in physics and chemistry, the other sciences in the high school are practically\nat a standstill. Take physical geography, for instance. It is still being taught in the old\nslipshod way in most schools. It is taught by teachers with no special training for the\nwork, who are consequently the slaves of their textbook. It is taught by teachers who\ndislike it, but who are forced to teach it by short-sighted principals and superintendents.\nIt has been slighted and neglected for so many years, and considered a bore both by teachers\nand pupils for so long, that it is a wonder that it exists at all.\nThe department is usually poorly equipped. There is a sad lack of maps, pictures, rock\nspecimens, apparatus, etc., all of which are necessary to make the subject real. Is it any\nwonder that physical geography fails to accomplish its end ? Is it surprising that pupils\nget very little that stays by them, or that is of lasting value from its study ?\nIn a great many schools it is required of all Freshmen. In these schools classes are\nbound to be filled. But in most schools where physical geography is offered as an elective\nstudy, it goes begging. In Madison, before physical geography was taken out of the first\nyear, it was an elective, and out of a class of 290 Freshmen, only 40 elected physical geography. Other schools report the same state of affairs. Physical geography, as it is being\ntaught, is dead.\nIt is as lifeless and cold as the rocks with which it deals.\nThe second element that leads to inefficiency in our science work is the course itself, for\nI wonder sometimes if physical geography can ever be made to live even with the best of\nteachers and the most complete equipment if it is to be continued as a first-year subject.\nPhysical geography is not a basic science. It does not deal with the fundamental\nlaws of nature, but with their applications. Take, for instance, such topics as winds, ocean\ncurrents, mountain formation, volcanoes, glaciers, etc. Every one of these depends upon\nsome law of physics or chemistry for its explanation, and that law must be understood\nbefore any one of the above topics can be satisfactorily discussed.\nHow can we ever expect first-year pupils to understand rock disintegration, or the\naction of ground-water, without first understanding something of expansion and contraction, chemical action, solution, and capillary action ? How many pupils know of what\nthey are talking when they say that air is composed mainly of oxygen and nitrogen ? Do\nthey know anything of gases, or the properties of gases ? Do they know anything of oxygen,\nCan they understand how an insoluble substance\nand its action on various substances?\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmay become soluble? Do they really know that a heated substance expands, ard that\nwhen it cools, it contracts ? Do they see any reason for an underground water, other than\nthat it is water that soaked into the ground after a rain ? We take it for granted that they\ndo know most of these things. Consequently, the pupil is handicapped by lack of sufficient\nbasic knowledge on which to build the facts of physical geography.\nIf we are to keep this subject in the first year, we must first give the student a brief\ninsight into the chemical and physical laws which underlie it.\nLet me quote a passage taken from one of the best physical geography texts — remember the pupil is a Freshman, just out of the eighth grade: \"Underground water finds\nmany mineral substances which it is able to take away in solution. Its power of solution\nis greatly increased by oxygen and CEirbon dioxide, and other substances which it obtains\nfrom the air and from decaying vegetation.\" This is perhaps enough to show what I am\ntrjnng to get at. What does the above statement mean to the pupil-? How does he know\nthat air contains oxygen and carbon dioxide ? Or, if he does know this, does he know\nanything of their chemical or physical properties?\nThe pupil ought to have the two gases before him. He ought to be allowed to see\noxidation taking place. He ought to witness the effect of carbon dioxide on lime water.\nIn other words, the teacher should take time from the study of physical geography proper,\nto develop the ideas necessary for the pupil to have, to enable him clearly to understand\nthe subject-matter of physical geography.\nField trips, lantern slides, maps, etc., all help to make the work more interesting. But\nin addition to these there should be the foundation work.\nNow see where this leads us. We teach a little physics and chemistry to clear up physical geography. Then when we teach physiology, a little chemistry and physics is necessary\nfor the proper understanding of that subject. , Then after we are thru with all these applied\nsciences, we teach the basic science in the third year. WTiat a wonderful example of what\nnot to do this is!\nSchool men are beginning to realize that something is wrong with the way sciences are\nbeing presented. Hence the new demand for an elementary general science in the fiirst\nyear. To my mind an elementar>' course in physics and chemistry should be offered. Isn't\nit true that the subject-matter dealt with in these two subjects is at the base of all our other\nsciences ? Then why should we teach physical geographj', botany, and physiology, which\nhave their foundation in physics and chemistry, before we teach the fundamentals in these\ntwo? Think how much more simple the teaching of any one of the above-mentioned\nsciences would be if the pupil had even the slightest knowledge of physics and chemistry.\nWith all our science leading back to physics and chemistry, and with physics and\nchemistry coming last in the school course, where could we arrive but in confusion ?\nSuppose we make the plunge, and depart radically from our present system! The\nquestion of \"What to teach?\" arises immediately. In physics the subjects of gravity,\npressure in fluids, water-power, heat, optics, and radiation could all be treated in an elementary way in the first half of the Freshman course.\nIn chemistry a study of the gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, chlorine, their\npreparation and properties; a study of a few important elements such as carbon, sulphur,\nphosphorus; and the common metals, such as zinc, iron, lead, aluminum, copper, etc.,\ncould be made in the second half of the first year.\nThe nature of such a course should be such that the main laws underljing these subjects would be taught. In many schools where a course in so-called elementary science\nexists the principles and laws are lost sight of because the writer of the text and the teacher\nseem to feel that the course should be intensely practical. It is true that enough work\nin applied physics and chemistry should be given to keep up the interest of the student\nand to clinch the principles. But it seems to me that the underlying principle is the thing\nto be. emphasized, and not the application.\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN GENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\n741\n\nThe first work in any science should be the teaching of the pure science. Think of\nthe age of the student: his mind is not mature — -he cannot take the general law and make\nspecific applications of that general law to concrete conditions. His mind works the other\nway. When I advocate the teachirg of physics and chemistry to first-year people, I do not\nadvocate teaching the physics and chemistry of the third and fourth years. What we want\nto do is to lay a foundation in science upon which the teachers of geography, biology, and\napplied physics and chemistry may build.\nNo other branch of science can be taught so easily to Freshmen as these two, for the\nmethod of teaching them is purely inductive. The student is led easily from the observed\nphenomenon to the underlying principle. The only time the student loses interest in the\nsubject is when the teacher gets into the deep waters of theoretical discussion. This very\nease with which the student accepts the principle leads the teacher astray into a labyrinth\nof practical applications and theory which so confuses the student that the principle is lost\nfrom sight and mind, that he is left with nothing definite to which his mind may cling.\nDo not misunderstand me in this, and think that I am advocating the doing-away with\npractical physics and chemistry, for I am not. These have their place in high-school work.\nI would make the present courses offered by most schools even more practical than they are\nnow. They should be courses in applied physics and chemistry. I am talking of a firstyear science course, and I will say again that such a course must be elementary. It must\ndeal with the first principles, it must be pure science.\nOne great difficulty that stands in the way of teaching such a course is the lack of\nteachers who are capable of so modifying their ideas as to be able to present the work in\nsimple enough form. In our own school we realized the need of a basic science on which to\nbuild the work of the succeeding years, but when we came to the point where a definite\nstep in that direction was necessary, the lack of teachers capable of presenting such a course\nas we wanted stood in our way. We found that the average college graduate is not fitted for\nthis kind of work. Our observation of the work in other schools where a first-year science\nwas attempted proved to us that the time has not yet come when we could safely take so\ndecisive a step. In our case a compromise course was taken. Physical geography was taken\nout of the first year and in its stead we offer next year as a second-year study a course in\nwhat we call geography. In this course we plan to give only enough of the physical side of\ngeography to help the student to understand the economic and social side of the subject.\nIn other words, we are to give a course in physical, economic, and political geography. In\nthe first year we offer a course of elementary biology and civic hygiene. This may seem\nat first thought a step away from our ideal. Perhaps it is— but we surround this firstyear study with such a chemical and physical atmosphere that the student comes out of\nthe course with a fair knowledge of the first principles of chemical action and a lack of fear\nof scientific terms that will at least be an aid to him in his future studies. Further than\nthis, he has a well-laid foundation for the study of botany, zoology, and physiology.\nIn presenting this course we found that it was too long, and that if we continued it as\ngiven, there was great danger of taking the zest and life out of our courses in botany and\nphysiology. To prevent this we are going to shorten the course to one semester and offer\na semester of civics for the remainder of the year. So our course in general science next\nyear will be a half-year study of biology and civic hygiene with only enough biology to\nmake the problems of civic hygiene real.\nThis is at least a step in the right direction for we have taught all the physics and\nchemistry necessary for the study of botany and agricultural botany, zoology, and physiology.\nIn these subjects the teacher is now free to present his own work without the necessary\nwaste of time in securing the proper background. With physical geography robbed of its\npresent terrors to the student, and with botany and agricultural botany, zoology, and physiology, physics, and chemistry placed as electives in the third and fourth years, we feel that\nour science course is in such shape that we can afford to wait until we feel safe in taking the\nfull steps outlined above.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nAda L. Weckel, Oak Park and River Forest Township High School, Oak Park, 111. —\nThe excellent paper which Mr. Barnes has just given us opens for discussion the whole\nquestion of science in the high school. Certainly the present period of great unrest\namong many of our best science teachers indicates that we are not satisfied with science\nas it is now taught.\nMr. Barnes has given us three reasons for inefficient and poor results in our first-year\nscience teaching: first, the teacher; second, the equipment; and, third, the course itself.\nAt this time, let us confine ourselves to a discussion of the third of these reasons, namely,\nthe course itself.\nIt is certain that there is great dissatisfaction with our present first-year science\ncourse. We are coming to be pretty well agreed that there should be an elementary\ncourse in general science given in the first year. The content of such an elementary\ncourse is, however, the principal problem now before us. The only solution for this\nproblem is by experiment. In Mr. Barnes' experiments thus far, I judge that he would\nmake this general course largely, if not entirely, physics and chemistry.\nMy own ideas as to the content of a first general course are best expressed in the\ncourse which is being given at the Oak Park High School. This course is the outcome of\ntwelve years of experimenting. During this time it has undergone many changes. The\nmaterials for the course are drawn from physics, chemistry, physiology, and botany.\nPhysiology is used as the fundamental and unifying science.\nThis course is required of all first-year pupils. It runs thruout the year, occupying\ntwo double periods per week. It is entirely a laboratory course. With few exceptions\nthe experiments are performed by the pupils.'\nThe criticism of the course, which, no doubt, first enters the mind of many of you is\nthis: the experiments are isolated, not unified; and must leave the child with a smattering of physics, chemistry, physiology, and botany.\nI am sure you would not be left with that opinion if you should follow the entire\ncourse in the classroom. It would then be apparent that the entire course, altho developing principles and presenting facts of several of the sciences, shows clearly the correlation\nand interrelation of all the sciences.\nA course in general science for the first year is, I think, here to stay. The content\nof such a course will, no doubt, always vary considerably with the teacher and the kind\nof community.\n\nB.\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN THE\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nJOHN G. COULTER, BLOOMINGTON,\n\nCOURSE\n\nILL.\n\n[Abstract]\nThere is an ideal of science in education which was established long ago. More\nthan forty years have passed since Huxley and Spencer wrote of that ideal and more than\ntwenty years have passed since. American high schools began the pursuit of it. In the\nname of that ideal many courses have been established, have been altered, and have\npassed into history. But even those which have survived appear to have shortcomings.\nFor one thing it appears to be the ideas of science they have taught rather than those\nideals in whose name they were created.\nToday we are considering the latest comer into this company of coiirses, and we are\nhoping great things for it. It is the newest as well as perhaps the oldest device for disseminating insociety the benefits of science — this course in general science. Will it fare\nbetter than its predecessors ? Will it bring us nearer to that ideal of which they have\n'An outline of this course can be obtained on application to Miss Weckel. — Editor.\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN THE\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nCOURSE\n\n743\n\ncome short ? If it does, that will depend more, we may rest assured, upon its method\nthan upon its content, and so my subject impresses me as important; important enough\neven to excuse the use of a few minutes for the consideration merely of this importance.\nAny method which applies to the general science course appears to apply also to any\nfirst-year science course. So in my title substitute for the moment for the word \" general \"\nthe word \"required.\" At once the importance of the subject is multiplied. And why\nnot make this substitution ? Is not the first year of required science generally \"general \" ?\nIs not physiography, for example, often a science of the first year required of all ? And\nis it not such chiefly because it is regarded a general sort of science — a good introduction\nto more special sciences ? . . . .\nThe method of the course depends upon the aims of the course. Recently I have\ninterviewed a score or more of teachers of this course both as to its aims and as to its\ncontent, and I am not sure whether it is the content or whether it is the aims whose\nvariety is more striking. Certainly variety is an impressive feature of both. As to\ncontent, we may expect this variety to persist, but as to aims and as to methods designed\nto fulfill these aims, we may expect variety to diminish and similarity to increase. This\nassumption rests upon the larger assumption that there is to be a science of education —\nat least a science of science education. Of best subjects to be taught there may be many,\nfar more than any one course can include, but of best methods there appear to be but\nfew. These we shall find. We shall establish their validity, and they will become\ncommon to the introductory course whatever its content may be.\nFour principal aims of the course have impressed others besides myself as especially\nuseful in organizing a plan for method. Under this plan the lessons which comprise\nthe course fall into four categories, the category into which any particular lesson or exercise falls depending upon what aim is uppermost in that lesson or exercise. This means\nof course that lessons are to be planned for a particular aim rather than for four or more\naims at once; tho more than one end may be served by a certain lesson, one end, not\nseveral, is to dominate the plan.\nThe classification of the course upon this basis is as follows:\n1. Lessons whose aim is appreciation of science.\n2. Lessons whose aim is information.\n3. Lessons whose aim is training; science-experience.\n4. Lessons whose aim is the application of science-method to non-science problems.\nAs to the relative amounts of time to be given to these four types of lessons or exercises, the following is submitted: To lessons for appreciation 10 per cent, to lessons for\ninformation 60, to lessons for science-experience 20, and to lessons for application to\nnon-science problems the remaining 10. It is also submitted that no one of these kinds\nof lessons should be completed before the next kind is taken up; better results will come,\nit is believed, from their interspersal, the nature of such interspersal being properly\ndetermined by what is most convenient on account of the content.\nAnother and a most important qualification needs to be made, namely, that this\nis a plan only for classes numbering twenty-four or less. For classes larger than twentyfoiu- the plan would need alteration. But it is believed that there should be no laboratory classes larger than twenty-four. If the elementary science divisions which now run\nfrom thirty to forty in large high schools could be reduced to twenty-four as a maximum,\nit is believed that the good of the work might be doubled. Also it is believed that no\npoint is in more need of united insistence on the part of science teachers than the point\nthat it is not fair to judge of the value of our work when laboratory divisions exceed\na certain number. Only with twenty-four or fewer can the best outcomes of our work\nbe reasonably expected. Only with that number or fewer can a teacher be reasonably\nexpected to give that attention to individuals which is peculiarly requisite in the science\nstudies. Large numbers call for machine methods, and a machine-made science course\ncan never be what a science course ought to be. . ..\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nApplication. — Finally we come to that lo per cent of lessons to be devoted to the\napplication of science-method to non-science problems. To the writer, this seems the\nmost important part of the paper. The ground we have been traversing has been traversed before, but now we are getting onto rather new ground. It is surprising that this\nground is new. With all that has been claimed as to the value of science in developing\nthe scientific habit of thought-, is it not surprising that there have been no lessons applying this habit of thought to other things than laboratory experiments? Surely our\npedagogy indicates that we can hardly expect young people to use science-method in\nsettling everyday questions until we give them some practice in using it. There is need\nfor teaching it in connection with conduct as well as in connection with physics, chemistry,\nor biology. Some of our exercises might well be exercises in the application of the method\nof science to matters which are commonly not considered science at all.\nThe first year of the high school is not too soon for the effort to rationalize conduct.\nThe life of our young people is then filled with questions of behavior toward which it\nwould be far better for them to have the science attitude than to have the merely acquiescent attitude which usually obtains. They are observing, and drawing conclusions, and\nacting thereon in matters which determine the whole character of their lives, and that\nfactor which is influencing them most is not authority, it is not good advice, it is not\nknowledge of consequences, and it is not sound reasoning on their own part. It is, of\ncourse, the example of their fellows, the example of unreasoning young creatures like\nthemselves. They are investigating life and making now in the plastic years adjustments which will quickly become permanent. Are we doing what we might to equip\nthem with that mental method which seems the best-known insurance of rational conclusions and rational behavior? We teach them how to judge in the laboratory and\nwe should teach them how to judge outside of it. They should find by specific experience\nhow valuable the method of the laboratory is as a method in life. There is in science\nthat which, it is claimed, may be as important in the navigation of life as compass and\nsextant are important in the navigation of the ocean. On account of this claim science\ncame into the schools and science teachers came into existence. Both have served good\nends, but not yet, we think, has their greatest function been fulfilled — that function\nwhose possibility brought them into being. It will be fulfilled only when the means are\nfound and the opportunity allowed for them to teach science as a general method of\nmental operation. It will be fulfilled only when this method, working in the light of\nthose other necessary endowments which other courses give, shall come to have large\nplace in youth's interpretation of life and in man's behavior.\nWe need to make the scientific habit of thought a generalized habit of thought, we\nneed to show the advantages which this habit of thought possesses, we need to arouse\ninterest in the method as an ideal. I do not mean that this ideal should govern all conduct, Ido not mean that spontaneity should be deprecated, I mean only that if we can\nprovide our pupils with this method as a tool ready to hand when needed we shall be doing\na great thing.\nA class of teachers bought at a university bookstore some books which by mistake\nhad been marked forty cents instead of a dollar. The attention of the class was called\nto the error. Only one out of fifteen made good the loss, and these were teachers! Could\nthe scientific attitude permit such a confusion of values as must be involved in sacrificing\nself-respect so cheaply! The decision of the majority was surely determined by the\nthought of personal advantage; truth would have compelled a different course.\nHow many boys will not take advantage of a street-car conductor's oversight in\ncollecting fares ? You think I am getting away from my subject? But I say that\nwhat science may point out as the truth in such a matter may be more potent than\nany of the dictates of authority. We show how to use the science-method in deciding\nwhether air occupies space or not. I see no impropriety in shovring how to use it in\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nCOURSE\n\n745\n\ndeciding whether to pay carfare or not, and it seems to me possible to discern even\ngreater usefulness in the latter type of demonstration.\nIt may seem that the thing proposed to be taught is too abstract and complex for\nyouth of this age. I have been surprised to find evidence to the contrary. The thing\nproposed to be taught is self-detachment from problems of conduct and attitude whose\ntrue answer is not obvious; it is the art to judge without the bias of immediate selfinterest. The point that we serve self best by leaving self out of such matters is a point\ndesirable to make clear, and the fact that strong feeling fogs the truth is a fact to be\ndriven home. The skill which we wish to develop is skill in sizing up a situation, skill\nin recognizing values; the ideal which we wish to implant is an ideal of the truth as the\nthing best worth striving for in any situation.\nNow if a thing is impracticable in education because it has not been seriously tried,\nthen this specific proposal as to lessons for application may be impracticable, but as yet\nI have found no better reason than the one just stated for so regarding them. More\nthan forty teachers, experienced in first-year modern science, have expressed confidence\nin the capacity of their pupils for this work. As to the capacity of the teacher — I leave\nthat to you.\nA science class of boys was engaged in exercises of the kind we are discussing. The\nsubject-matter was chosen from suggest iors made by the class. Preference was given\nto matters concerning which strong opinions were already held. Local matters, especially certain rather unpopular school regulations, were considered. The question was\nformulated and then all pertinent facts, pro and con, were set down as elicited. Each\nstudent prepared a paper setting forth his conclusions. To the teacher's surprise the\nclass seemed to develop a positive pleasure in \"showing up\" the falsity of their own previous views. The boys appeared to compete with each other in demonstrating the\nabsurdity of views previously accepted without question, and the invalidity of behavior\nhaving all the approval that fashion can give. Questions of food and clothing, of manners\nand friendship, of work and play, of honesty and deceit, of the spending of money and the\nspending of time— these were some of the questions considered. One morning the head\nof the school announced the abolition of football for the season. At once the school\nwas in an uproar. The science class began as an indignation meeting. The opportunity was obvious. Football abolition was made the subject of that morning's paper.\nMembers of the team and their supporters explained the idiocy of the faculty. The local\nand general facts upon which the idiotic faculty had acted were also set forth. Unsigned\npapers were prepared. The fact that eighteen out of twenty-four approved the act of\nthe faculty — -at least by their laboratory decision— was interesting, but the fact that the\npapers showed the suppression of strong personal desires and independence of judgment\nwas even more interesting. The game was to get at the trOth whatever your feelings\nmight be, and the boys played it.\nIt is a method of getting at the truth, whatever the field may be, which concerns us\nas a national need. What profits the will to abide by truth if we cannot perceive the\ntruth ? The ethics of our politics and of our business — of our whole national life — will\nnever be better, that is to say truer, than the ethics of the average citizen in his everyday\naffairs. For all our schools seem now to do, new generations will succeed into the\ninsincerities and accommodations of this one. But the influence of science in this day\nmay be more potent than any other influence to make widespread an ideal of truth and\na scorn of untruth, and if science teaching is a means to that end we have therein more\nthan its best defense; we have therein imperative demand that it shall not be neglected.\nYet an ideal of truth serves but feebly when means to judge clearly what truth is, is\nlacking. We as teachers of science are more advantageously situated than our fellowteachers of other subjects for teaching a method of getting at the truth, and if we can\nteach this in a way to make it effective it is the most important single thing we can do.\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nScience as achievement is the marvel of today; as achievement it has spread over\nthe world, and as such we have largely taught it. But science as a way of solving problems remains a thing secluded.\nIn the fulfillment of their minds men are the masters of all time and wisdom, but in\nmaking up their minds they remain as children. They are filled with science in their\ndoing, but wonderfully empty of it in their thinking.\nScience as a method of thought remains as yet a thing of the laboratory, a thing almost\nwholly apart from humanity in the aggregate which it might so tremendously serve.\nThis is no exaggeration — this suggestion that its contribution to human progress might\nbe tremendous. Our science research goes forward by leaps and bounds, for all that is\nnot founded on established fact is eliminated from it. But in the great human affairs\nof government and education and of social relations and of the everyday conduct of the\naverage individual — in these there is no going forward by leaps and bounds. Sometimes\nwe doubt whether there is any going forward at all. For in these affairs authority and\nprejudice, ignorance and greed, sentiment and passion are the rulers. We as science\nteachers are concerned with a rebellion against these rulers. They stir up in untrained\nminds that which parades as truth and determines what happens. Our hope is to provide society each year with thousands of young minds that it will be hard so to hoodwink.\nRecently I have visited nearly a score of large cities to investigate the teaching of\nscience in the high schools. A particular interest lay in discovering how the courses are\ndevised to serve in this spreading-out of science as method into other human affairs.\nAs a result of the inquiry I say that science courses quite generally do not serve this end\nat all. Yet on my journey I interviewed as to the importance of this matter many\nschool superintendents and for good measure a few editors and preachers, and not one\nof them hesitated to concur with certain propositions which indicate the fundamental\nimportance of this neglected matter.\nThese propositions are:\n1. That permanent social reforms can be accomplished only by a certain sort of\ngeneral education.\n2. That this certain sort is an education which will lead to discernment between\ntruth and error, clear thinking, and rational conclusions and behavior.\n3. That our present system of public education, being almost exclusively devoted\nto the acquirement of information and skill, is almost wholly not this sort of education.\n4. That of all the subjects entering into our present system of education, the science\nsubjects are best qualified to provide this sort of education, and that in the science courses\ndefinite effort should be made to teach science as a method of universal application.\nSurely it is significant that we find in our course no specific provisions at all for that\nvery feature of science which impresses the general student of education as its most valuable feature. Thus Dewey wrote in his famous address on \"Science as Subject-Matter\nand as Method\":\nI do not mean that our schools should be expected to send forth their students equipped\nas judges of truth and falsity in specialized scientific matters. But that the great majority of those who leave school should have some idea of the kind of evidence required to\nsubstantiate given types of belief does not seem unreasonable. Nor is it absurd to\nexpect that they should go forth with a lively interest in the ways in which knowledge\nis improved, and a marked distaste for all conclusions reached in disharmony with the\nmethods of scientific inquiry.\nElsewhere he writes:\nThe formation of scientific habits of mind should be the primary aim of the science\nteacher in the high schools. The methods which give intellectual integrity, sincerity,\nand power in all fields, rather than those which are peculiar to his specialty, are what\nhe should bear in mind.\nI paraphrase part of a recent letter from Professor Galloway as follows:\nThe psychologists have punctured the complacent doctrine that we can train in the\nscientific spirit in the artificial realm of the laboratory and then expect this training to\nbe carried over into the practical relations of successful living.\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABOR\n\nAND\n\nCOST\n\nOF COMPOSITION\n\nTEACHING\n\n747\n\nIt is specific lessons in carrying over that we propose to insert in the course. We\npropose to teach science-method as an ideal of general application rather than as a\nspecific kind of skill, and there is more to be said for the transfer of ideals than for the\ntransfer of skills. Herein we are admitting that the education of the schools must be\nmore and more an education in morals. We are saying that right living is scientific\nliving and we are urging the use of science as a means to that end. We are urging that\nthe application of the inductive method to the formation of the choices of social life is a\nlong step toward social morality, and we are urging teachers of science to have a part in\nthe taking of that step.\nIt is only by such use of the science-method, by applying it directly in school to\nthe study of life-problems, that we may hope to secure for youth a scientific approach\nto the sex relations, the home relations, and to the larger economic and civic relations\nfor which we are supposed to fit him.\nWere I to act as critic of my own paper it would come to mind at once to challenge\nthe workable qualities of at least the last part of the plan proposed; it would come to\nmind to say, as some principals have already said, that teachers will find difficulty in\nchoosing those extra-laboratory problems which it is proposed to attack by the laboratory method. But remember that it is proposed to give only one-tenth of the time to\nthis matter, and the capability of the teacher is, I think, in this matter a thing for the\nteacher himself to determine; to determine by trial and error. Surely the end in view\nis large enough to justify a little experimentation, to justify a little scrutiny of our main\nsubject (which is adolescent life), to determine what things in it need the scientific\nmethod for their betterment, and to justify finally whatever departure from traditional\nmethods may prove to bring us a little nearer than before to those high ideals which\nwere set up long ago, and which our older methods still keep remote.\n\nJOINT ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE OF THE DEPARTMENTS\nOF HIGHER EDUCATION, NORMAL SCHOOLS, AND\nSECONDARY EDUCATION\nTOPIC:\n\nTHE\n\nSIGNIFICANCE OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS\nFIELD OF ENGLISH\n\nA I.\n\nTHE\n\nLABOR\n\nEDWIN\n\nM.\n\nHOPKINS,\n\nLAWRENCE,\nMODERN\n\nAND COST OF COMPOSITION\nPRESENT CONDITIONS\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nKANS., CHAIRMAN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nOF\n\nRHETORIC\n\nOF A COMMITTEE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nTEACHING:\n\nTHE ;\n\nTXNIVERSITY\n\nOF KANSAS,\n\nENGLISH,\n\nACTING\n\nUNDER\n\nNATIONAL\n\nIN THE\n\nTHE DIRECTION\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF\n\nOF THE\n\nTEACHERS\n\nOF\n\nENGLISH\n\nFor two and a haK years an investigation has been in progress to ascertain what are\nthe proper laboratory requirements for the efficient teaching of English expression.\nEnglish composition has been described as a \"laboratory subject\" for a fairly long time,\nand for an equally long time attempts have been made to teach it as such; but not even\nthe teachers themsdves seem to have fully realized that in undertaking to teach an old\nsubject in a new way, it was, for success, necessary to establish an entirely new set of\nconditions. Of course, therefore, the general results of the new effort have been unsatisfactory, but it is not true that the laboratory teaching of English expression is a proved\nfailure.\nAs a matter of fact, adequate laboratory facilities for the teaching of English expression have apparently never in any accurate scientific way been ascertained and provided\nfor; if they have existed at all anywhere it has been as the result of a fortunate chance .\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nI doubt whether anyone has ever heard of such a thing, in fixing the conditions of English\nteaching, as the employment of a trained scientific expert in the subject to define those\nconditions. I question whether there is any other subject in the schools as to which it is\nso common for the ignorant and the untrained to assume to speak with authority, and\nwhat is worse, to impose their authority upon unfortunate teachers and still more unfortunate pupils. This is not wholly, I regret to say, owing to the survival of a few educational\nantiques, reared under the tradition that \"everybody knows English,\" and therefore\n\"anybody can teach it.\" There seem to be no small number of live, energetic, and\nefficient practical administrators, young in years and strikingly successful in their proper\nfield, and no small number of teachers of other subjects than English, who assume that\nknowledge of English subjects and English teaching is a matter of intuition, and the\nnatural intellectual heritage of any person of average common-sense provided that he\ndoes not happen to be an English scholar or an English teacher. The conditions of the\nteaching of English expression have therefore been determined partly by the traditions\nof a former age, in which there existed a now wholly outworn analogy with other familiar\nsubjects, and partly by that sort of intuition known as guesswork. Some of the guessing\nhas been done by English teachers themselves, but often their guesses have been based\nupon insufficient practical experience.\nNow at last a national movement is under way to substitute for some of the guesses\na body of carefully ascertained and incontrovertible fact. One thing is supremely\nimportant toward accomplishing the ultimate end — to bring about an ideal efficiency in the\nteaching of English. That is that every proposed or practiced means toward that end,\nevery plan and arrangement and method relating to curriculum or subject or recitation,\nor to the individual work of the individual pupil, be subjected with the utmost possible\ncare and accuracy to measurement by the calendar and the multiplication table, merely\nto ascertain how much teaching time it takes, or will take, to carry it into full effect.\nSimple as this seems, it is a thing that seldom has been done, by any committee or individual, from the Committee of Ten to the present time. A course is determined in terms\nof number of recitations and of points or pages to be covered, so that it may not impose\nupon an individual pupil more than a fair share of work; and that is as it should be. But\nthere the mathematical process commonly ends; to ascertain the demand of the individual\npupil upon the teacher's time, and to multiply that by the nxunber of pupils, has not often\nbeen done; and when individual teachers have worked the problem out to its unhappy\nmathematical conclusion, they have not felt certain that their results held good in other\ncases than their own, and have accepted, or been compelled to accept, the dicta of their\nsuperiors, that the fault was not in the system, but in individual lack of skiU. The\nstudy of efficiency of method in vocational teaching, as in boiler-making, must take\naccount not simply of the quality of results, but of the time and labor necessary to secure\na definite quantity as well as a definite quality of output. Is there any good reason why\na teacher more than any other workman, or any other public servant, should \"throw in\"\ntwice as much time as he is paid for, except that his interest in keeping up the quality\nof his output has led him into the habit of doing so, and that his employers are, of course,\nperfectly willing to let him keep on, even when they do not insist that he must ?\nThe first undertaking of the Committee on Composition Teaching was to ascertain\nby the familiar method of averaging a large number of instances the time necessary to\nperform some of the most familiar operations. Incidentally, an equally large nimiber of\nopinions of expert teachers with reference to the best methods of securing high efficiency\nwere gathered, averaged, and tabulated. The results of this part of the investigation\nare set forth in detail in the committee's preliminary report; but some of the more important or interesting of them may be summarized as follows:\nFirst of all, everybody agrees that English expression is a laboratory subject, or, as\nsome now prefer to call it, a vocational subject; and that no vocational subject exceeds,\nif indeed any equal it in importance.\nIts two sides, training in writing, and training in\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABOR\n\nAND\n\nCOST\n\nOF COMPOSITION\n\nTEACHING\n\n749\n\nspeaking, should have equal attention; tho in the past, writing has had the precedence.\nIt is found that class hours do not afford sufficient opportunity for the inspection of work\ndone. Such inspection of written work, if carefully made under average conditions,\nwould require five or six hours a day of a teacher's time, in addition to a full assignment of\nteaching and of other duties.\nSome, who perhaps do not wish to admit the truth, dispute this statement, but it can\nbe disputed only by refusing to consider facts and figures. Others content themselves\nwith saying, \"Well, what difference does it make ? The work is easy and it can be done\nat home, or at odd times when the teacher has nothing else on hand.\" The mistake\nthat such persons make cannot unfortunately be confuted with figures, but only by actual\nexperiment in doing this so-called easy work during hours that should be devoted to\nimprovement or recreation. In advance of experimental tests devised for the purpose,\nsuch as may in time be made, the reports of the experience of thousands of teachers show\nthat two hours a day of such work is the limit of full efficiency, and that three hours a\nday of it is beyond the limit of physical endurance for more than a few weeks. Under\naverage conditions, therefore, a teacher seeking to conform to a recognized standard of\nmethod would have to load himself to two and one-half times his physical capacity.\nOthers say that nobody wishes any teacher to do more than a fair day's work, altho\nthe average teacher is made responsible each day for the results of two and a half times a\nfair day's work. But if the work stops when the time is up, what becomes of the results ?\nEverybody knows the answer to that question, and everybody likewise knows that until\nall the facts and conditions become public property, the teacher will be held responsible.\nThe teacher also knows, and will be governed accordingly. What happens in various\ninstances is set forth in the report.\nOthers make the pertinent but time-worn suggestion that the teacher should find a\nway of accomplishing two and a half days' work in one by some change or improvement\nof method. After more than thirty-five years of effort, nobody has yet succeeded in\ndoing this. Much trouble and annoyance might have been saved if the comparative\nrequirements of various methods and the comparative value of their results had always\nbeen accurately tested and recorded instead of confidently guessed at in the good old\nfashion.\nA popular proposition of the present year is that the problem shall be solved by\nsubstituting oral for written training. As to this, there is need of further experimental\ntest; but a considerable body of data is already in hand. First of all, oral training\ncannot entirely replace written training until the prophesied time when everybody shall\ndictate to a stenographer: the two kinds of practice should be, by common consent,\nequal. If made equal, half the load of theme-reading will be removed, in cases in which\ntraining has been wholly written; but the other half will still be more than the teacher\nis able to endure. Further, oral training seems to make a somewhat greater demand\nupon a teacher's time than written training does; and moreover it cannot be conveniently\ncarried on at home and at night, or during recreation periods. Pending further investigation and experiment, it appears that even if training could be wholly oral, the teacher\nunder average conditions must still do more than two days' work in one, or suffer\nthe consequences.\nUp to this time, therefore, the situation seems pretty nearly hopeless; especially to\nthose who without being actual teachers of English are interested in the problem. These\nincline to pronounce a direct solution impossible, even if there were no limit to the number\nor physical capacity of English teachers; for the reason, as they say, that entirely apart\nfrom the teaching side of the problem, the average pupil cannot possibly spend a sufficient\nproportion of his time in English work to overcome the unfortunate influences to which\nhe is subject all the rest of his time: in other classes, on street and playground, and in\nthe home. The only remedy that these hopeless ones can suggest is that English expression shall be taught incidentally in all classes by all teachers of all subjects all the time.\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "7SO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThey say that while it is obviously absurd to suppose that a pupil can be taught English\nexpression in a five-minute private weekly interview with his teacher, in addition to his\nclass time, which is all the time that he can have under present average conditions, it is\nequally absurd to suppose that he would be any better off with the time that he could\nhave if there were two or three\" times as many English teachers; and that to have two or\nthree times as many English teachers as at present is an obvious impossibility because\nof added cost.\nBut as a matter of mathematics, two or three times as many teachers would give the\npupil five or six times the present individual drill, and that is not an absurd amount.\nMoreover, in written training such an increase in teaching force would make a certain\npart of the work almost seven times as efficient as it now is; a total gain of perhaps\nthirty-five times the efficiency, with only two points considered. We might, of course,\nassume failure, give up direct English teaching altogether, and thus save all the time and\nmoney now spent on it— for what better or more important purpose we need not discuss.\nBut if, instead of giving up English teaching, we decide to keep what we have, and to\nsupplement it by asking other teachers to help the English teacher out — or if under either\nsupposition we ask other teachers to take all or part of the responsibility of teaching\nEnglish — it will be necessary to provide competent and willing teachers, and to provide\nthem also with time for the performance of this additional duty, and estimates indicate\nthat it will cost just about as much to have the work done this way as to have it done\nexclusively and equally well by English teachers. Experiment may prove the contrary.\nSome hasty exp>eriments already tried have failed to do so; but fair experiments will be\nwelcomed by all English teachers; not so, I fear, by those who may be assigned to help\nthem teach.\nThe crux of the general situation, from which up to the present time, after some\ngenerations of study, no way of escape by improvement of method has offered, is simply\nthis: Under present average conditions, English teachers are assigned more than twice as\nmuch work as they can do. Some of them try to do it by working more than twice as\nmuch as other teachers do. This is wrong, because it disables them. Others do only\nwhat they reasonably can and let the rest go. This is wrong in another way, because it\nis an injustice to the pupil and a waste of his time, whether he is given less work to do, or\nwhether he is required to go thru with a full performance without the aid and advice of\nthe teacher. The committee report shows why this is true; it shows that under present\naverage conditions of teaching English expression, workmen must choose between overwork and bad work; between spoiling their material or killing themselves; and the end\nfor which the committee is striving is to place these painfully simple facts before the\npublic so that the responsibility for the continuance of present conditions, if they must\ncontinue, may rest where it belongs.\nIt is, of course, natural to ask the question why, if there is more English work than\nEnglish teachers can do, there should not be more English teachers. But the instant\nreply is that such a thing is absolutely and hopelessly impossible, because it would cost\ntoo much.\nPerhaps so, but just what does English cost now, and what is the actual value of it,\nin relation to other subjects and the number of pupils concerned? The second question\nhas received the answer that English is by all means the most important subject taught\nin the schools. But nobody has yet undertaken to ascertain, or to state just how much\ngreater the importance is. If it is at the same time the most expensive subject, and the\nratio of excess in cost is the same as the ratio of excess in imp>ortance, then it would\nseem to be reasonably certain that we cannot afford to spend any more money on English.\nBut clearly there is here another field for statistical inquiry, and in this field also the\ncommittee has made investigation.\nOf course, relative cost may mean either relative total cost, or relative pro rata cost\nfor each pupil, or, as in business, some combination of the two, corresponding to fixed\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nAMELIORATION\n\n751\n\ncharges and cost of materials; the latter varying with the quantity of the output. But of\nEnglish expression as of no other vocational or laboratory subject, it seems to be true that\nthe fixed charges are negligible; that there is no cost to be incurred until the pupils come;\nand that the cost therefore always bears a fixed relation to the size and quality of the\noutput. The cost investigation is now far enough advanced to make the character of the\nresults reasonably certain, tho subject to minor modification. It seems already established that the pupil-year cost of English is less than half that of any other vocational or\nlaboratory subject, and indeed less than that of almost any other subject taught in the\nschools. Viewed from the other side, its total cost seems less than that of any other\nvocational or laboratory subject, tho apparently it registers twice as many pupils as any\nof the rest of them.\nIf, then, the pupil-year expenditure for the teaching of English expression were made\nequal to that of other subjects in its class, the English problem would apparently be\nsolved. Present standards of cost were established before English became a vocational\nsubject, and when it comes to a choice of sacrificing our English work, our English teachers,\nor a senseless tradition, and if it is true that English is the most essential and valuable of\nall vocational subjects, can anyone doubt what the choice must ultimately be, even if\ndictated only by the principles which govern any ordinary business investment ?\nA 2.\nJOHN\n\nM.\n\nCLAPP,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nMETHODS\nOF\n\nENGLISH,\n\nOF AMELIORATION\nLAKE\n\nFOREST\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nLAKE\n\nFOREST,\n\nILL.\n\nThis report is one of the most important developments in the history of English\nteaching. The committee has earned the gratitude of every teacher of English in the\ncountry. As this document comes to be studied by school authorities, it will prove to\nhave far-reaching consequences. We may be glad that it reaches public attention just\nat the time when the formation of the National Council has given English teachers an\neffective means of expressing their professional opinion.\nThe committee says that the instruction in English composition in colleges and\nschools is sadly deficient, because the teachers are required to attempt far more than\nthey can do. If the schools are to do satisfactorily what they are now attempting, the\nnumber of teachers of composition must be doubled, at the least.\nNow before our numbers can be doubled, we must convince a vast number of persons: presidents and principals; teachers of other subjects; trustees and school boards — a\nprocess which will take a long time, no matter how good our case. It is desirable, therefore, to find some means of amelioration under present conditions. Perhaps we can\nfind ways of doing our work more efficiently with less labor than at present. In that\ncase we shall be better off at once and permanently, and what demands we have still\nto make on the school boards will not be so great and will be granted sooner,\nI believe that a substitution of oral exercises for at least half the written exercises\nnow attempted in high schools would give real amelioration. (I shall consider merely\nthe high school, today, because it is there, according to the committee, that conditions\nare most distressing.) I do not propose this substitution of oral for written composition\nas a mere makeshift, to be dropped as soon as the school boards see their duty. I urge\nit as a positive improvement of the work in composition. And the report of Professor\nHopkins' committee is in no way more important than in this, that it demonstrates the\nfutility of trying to teach composition by correcting themes. By forcing us to realize\nthe disproportionate costliness of our exclusive reliance on writing, it will lead us all to\nremember what we have for a generation forgotten — the cheaper, more natural, more\neffective way of speech.\nEnglish composition holds a unique place in the curriculum. It has the right of\nway. All people agree that children must be trained to use their own language\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "752\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[Secondary\n\nadequately for the purposes of life. We English teachers have insisted for a generation\nthat in the high schools courses in writing form the essential part of such training. We\nhave lost sight of the fact that thruout life the demands for oral composition of an\neffective, coherent sort are at least one hundred times as frequent as the demands for\nwritten composition. We have taken for granted either that writing is the more important for the boys and girls, or else, what is even more amazing, that by teaching them\nto write we were teaching them also to speak. Now we find that we are not even teaching them to write.\nBut let us assume for the present that the purpose of high-school courses in composition isto train pupils to write. My point is that our instruction in writing will be\nmore effective, and less expensive, if we make large use of oral exercises.\nLet us consider the expense of effective instruction in writing by means of themecorrection. According to this report a high-school pupil should submit each week some\n4CO words of manuscript — I presume in two or three themes of loo to 200 words each —\nwhich the teacher can correct at the rate of 2,000 \"words per hour. That is, the teacher\ncan correct five themes per hour, spending twelve minutes on a 400-word theme. Now\nif composition is to be regarded as a \"laboratory subject,\" as I believe it should be,\nisn't that taking a good deal of the teacher's time, in proportion to the benefit to the\nstudent? Should we not regard the director of a scientific laboratory who attended\nto only five students per hour as pretty slow? And what is the result to the pupil,\neven in well-equipped schools, of the teacher's toil over themes? Too often, even to\nthose of us who have not been swamped by numbers, the results seem almost negligible.\nThe same mistakes corrected day after day — ^blunders in spelling, punctuation, and\nidiom — and utter blindness, with all but the happy few, to the rhetorical principles of unity,\nemphasis, coherence, clearness, energy, which are discussed carefully in the textbooks,\nand explained day after day by the teacher in class. Progress in work which is so complex as the right expression of thought in language must of course be slow and gradual;\nthe formation of habits is a tedious business. But the present rate of progress is unduly\nslow.\nIt is because the method, the exclusive reliance on theme-correcting, is unsuited\nto young minds. For one thing, there is too long an interval between the writing of the\ntheme and its correction. WTien the paper comes back it is as cold, to the ordinary\nboy and girl, as yesterday's shortcake, and the teacher's corrections — no matter how\ncareful — make little impression. In a class in oral composition the mistakes can be\ncorrected on the spot, while the student is still warm from the effort of composition, and\nin the presence of his classmates.\nMoreover, for the ordinary boy or girl, writing a theme is an unnatural exercise.\nThey never do anything like it out of school. They hate to do it for us, even the good\nstudents. They go about it doggedly, or docilely, but nearly always passively; they\nhave rarely any active wish to do it better. Do not misunderstand me. We must not\ngive up the written composition. The boys and girls must learn to write, as they must\nlearn the multiplication table. But we must find a better approach to the exercise;\nwe must stir their will. Real composition, in life, is an active, eager process. The\nletters, reports, lectures, which these ordinary young people will have to write, later,\nwhen they write at all, will be matters of keen, perhaps oppressive interest, for which\nthe languid theme-writing of school days gives no sort of preparation.\nThat oral composition does rouse an active interest in high-school students needs\nlittle argument here. Anyone who has tried it, with the same earnestness and care\nwhich is expended on written composition, knows the fact. In the first place, connected talking is less unnatural for young boys and girls than connected writing. They\nargue, narrate, describe, and expound fluently enough among themselves, out of school.\nThey have been accustomed thruout their school life, even the timid ones, to recite their\nlessons orally. To talk 300 or 400 words coherently, on a subject familiar to them, is\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF AMELIORATION\n\n753\n\nfar less of a task than to fit together the 200 words of a written theme. In the second\nplace — and this is the main point — oral composition utilizes the influence which is most\npotent with boys and girls, the social spirit, the influence of the class.\nWhen they have to talk to their classmates, even the dullards are excited. At this\ntime the teacher's criticisms make an impression. More powerful still are the criticisms\nof their classmates, which form a most beneficial part of the class-exercise. Even tho,\nin crowded classes, there is not time for much oral criticism, there is the powerful influence,\nfelt by the hardened spellbinder as well as by these young people, of the silent but immediate response of the audience, alike to poor work and to good work. Boys and girls\nwho go on making the same mistakes, so long as only the teacher knows, are humiliated\nand spurred to improvement by public disgrace.\nAnd the stimulus is not merely negative. Many who have never been able to do\nthemselves justice in the strange exercise of writing get their first realization of what\ncomposition means when they have — quite unexpectedly perhaps— made a hit with their\nclassmates with their wit or their shrewd sense. Thereafter the world is changed for\nthem. Young people like to do stunts. The tactful teacher can get her pupils to practicing outside, trying to overcome bad habits of speech, enlarging their vocabulary, rearranging their material so as to use to the limit the three or four minutes on the floor. Once\nthe class is started there is little difficulty in keeping them going, if the teacher is wide\nawake. The range of topics is practically as broad as for written composition: narration,\ndescription, exposition, composite narratives in which several students work out a story\ntogether, little debates, with teams of three or four on a side — the teacher can use them\nall. And instead of the docile creatures who take their medicine civilly she has a band of\nlively youngsters who like their work.\nThe point to be noted is that such oral exercises do not merely develop fluency of\nspeech. These children are learning composition, practicing the art of putting words\ntogether to produce certain effects. The principles of unity, emphasis, and coherence,\nthe qualities of clearness and energy, which mean so little in relation to the written theme,\nare very definitely realized when the theme is prepared for oral delivery to their classmates. Directness of statement, so hard to get in written themes, comes almost as a\nmatter of course when the theme is prepared in oral practice by young people who are\ntrying to say what they mean. And with directness comes also the feeling for style,\nthe appreciation of the striking phrase which springs to the lips when the speaker is\nexcited.\nI do not wish to exaggerate. Boys and girls have not a great deal to say, either in\nwriting or in speech. But they will come nearer self-expression, the ordinary boy and\ngirl, when they speak than when they write.\nNow it is in connection with the oral exercises that our young people can be got to\nwriting. After the oral theme has been delivered let the student write it out, or write\nan addition, or an answer. When these written themes come in the teacher's task will\nbe much less— she will not need twelve minutes for every 400 words of manuscript.\nOral work alone, of course, will not teach composition, any more than will written work\nalone. Spelling, punctuation, variety of sentence-structure, some phases of paragraphing— these must be learned mainly thru writing. But they will be learned more easily,\nand more fully, if the students have come to feel a pride in doing well.\nThe transference of interest from oral to written work I have seen over and over\nagain, among my own students, alike in college and in preparatory classes. By putting\nour chief emphasis on oral exercises, and having some of the oral themes written out,\nsometimes after delivery, sometimes before, we shall not only obtain good three-minute\noral themes, 300 to 500 words in length, but written themes, not so many as at present\nbut more valuable as studies in composition, because longer and better in form and\ncontent.\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nNow the immediate bearing of these remarks is that oral composition, well taught,\ntakes much less time from the teacher than does written composition, well taught. In\nwritten composition the teacher must go over every pupil's work separately — twelve,\nminutes, we are told, to every 400 words. A high-school teacher who has 120 students\nin written composition has of tourse twice as many as she can care for, even tho much\nof her work is as unconstructive as dishwashing, mere nagging, it seems to her pupils\nand to herself. But if she makes large use of oral exercises she can do something, even\nwith as many as 120 pupils. In oral composition it is not necessary for the teacher to\ncorrect every theme in private. The students learn from each other. If the teacher gives\nevery one of the 120 pupils a ten-minute private conference once a fortnight it will take\nonly 600 minutes — ten hours — per week. That time can be employed sometimes in\nhearing the students rehearse in private speeches which they are preparing for the class,\nor which they have given, or for the special advice needed by each pupil, or in looking\nover with them the written papers, based on oral themes, which they have handed in\nduring the fortnight. The teacher can economize upon the conference time, after the\nclass is well started. Often two, three, or four students can be taken together, the group\nwhich is working on a composite story, or exposition, or argument. As the year advances\nmore of this time can be used for discussion of the written themes.\nThe teacher cannot hope to be relieved of all theme-correction. But the number\nof papers will be reduced. Instead of 400 words of manuscript weekly from every student,\nlet half the class write themes each week and half of them merely prepare the oral exercises. Moreover, let the teacher limit herself to five minutes for every 400 words, instead\nof twelve minutes, considering mainly points not covered in connection with the oral\nexercises. Five minutes apiece, for 60 themes, would fill 300 minutes, or five hours per\nweek. Remember, I am considering not ideal conditions, but actual, what can be done\nright now, before the school boards have been made to see the need of increasing our\nworking force. The overworked teacher, with ten hours of oral conference, and five\nhours of theme-correcting, would still be overworked, but her burden would be lighter.\nThe ten hours' lively conversation with her boys and girls, no matter how fragmentary,\nhow unsatisfactory, would be more stimulating to her pupils, and less nerve-racking\nfor herself, than the long vigils with piles of hopeless manuscript.\nMoreover, full relief would not then be impossible. The fifteen hours of oral conference and theme-correcting combined amount to not much more than three school\nperiods per day. Six periods are usually required of a high-school teacher. If the\nschool boards can be persuaded to increase the number of English teachers by 50 per\ncent — and that is not an impossible hope when this report of Professor Hopkins' committee has been generally studied — particularly when the good results of the oral work\nbegin to appear — the strain on our high-school departments of English will be practically\nrelieved.\nThe plan of amelioration here suggested does, it is true, increase certain demands\nupon the teacher. She must work out and maintain a careful schedule for appointments.\nShe must be fertile in topics for the oral exercises, alert and sympathetic in using the\nbrief time she has for criticism, in the class and outside. The administrative difficulties\nlessen, however, after the first year. And the alertness, the tact, the sympathy — these\nqualities she has already. She will be able to use them to better advantage when she\nno longer has to spend her nights correcting manuscript.\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\nA 3.\n\nHARRY\n\nG. PAUL,\n\nOF AMELIORATION\n\nMETHODS\n\nASSISTANT\n\n755\n\nOF AMELIORATION\n\nPROFESSOR OF ENGLISH,\nURBANA, ILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF ILLINOIS,\n\nThe investigation of the committee appointed by the Central Division of the Modern\nLanguage Association has emphasized and made more definite certain startling facts. Most\nof us had believed that teachers of composition are cruelly overworked; but each could\nsupport his contention with only comparatively limited evidence. Professor Hopkins\nhas shown clearly from the testimony of thousands of men and women in all kinds of schools\nscattered from Maine to California how utterly inadequate are the present facilities for\nteaching composition, and how thoroly dangerous to the health, if not life itself, of the\nteacher of English is the superhuman task he is bearing. The startling facts of the case\nbefore us at once suggest the old but pertinent question, \"What are we going to do about\nit ? \" Tho no one definite and entirely satisfactory answer, perhaps, may be given to this\nquestion, some suggestions may not come amiss as to how the teaching of composition may\nbe made more efifective and at the same time the instructor relieved of a part of his burden .\nAmong such possible suggestions the first and perhaps the most fundamental is that,\nbefore asking aid from others, teachers of composition should examine their own present\nmethods of instruction, to see whether they are working with a minimtmi of friction and\nloss and with a maximum of efficiency and economy. We may well take to heart the\ndecision of the Interstate Commerce Commission which some two years ago refused the\npetition of the railways for an increase in freight rates on the ground that the latter were not\nexercising all possible economy in their administration. As a thoroly desirable retrenchment in the teaching of composition I would urge that we re-examine our programs to see\nwhether they need simplification. Many of us are overambitious, forgetting that it is\nbetter to do a few things effectively than a larger number indifferently. Before me are lying\nthe programs in composition of several secondary schools, whose reach, it would seem, must\nfar exceed their grasp. One of these programs outlines a course which if fully mastered\nwould prepare students for teaching advanced composition in college. Let us welcome\nthese ambitious programs when the schools have the ways and means for carrying them\ninto effect; but let us not forget that for most of us the first and perhaps the last task is\nto teach our boys and girls to express themselves in simple but effective English, well\nenunciated or well spelled and well punctuated.\nMy second suggestion is that we disburden ourselves of some of our rhetorical fetishes\ndear as they may have grown thru long association. Book-makers and their traditions have\nloaded the teaching of composition with much lumber and junk. To illustrate this point,\nlet us recaU the venerable distinction between as— as and so — as, John is as tall as James,\nand John is not so tall as James. To teach a child such a distinction, which, so far as I\nfind, is based simply upon a hypercritical tradition, is to rob him of time and energy needed\nfor things more vital. A similar criticism is equally applicable to much of our teaching of\nthe subject of usage. Far be it from me to disparage the careful study of the nice and\neffective use of language; but teachers sometimes forget that language is a growth, that\nfrequently idiom may disregard sweet logic, and that we may waste precious time upon the\nstudy of usage.\nAgain, and this suggestion is especially applicable to conditions in those larger schools\nwhere the load of the teachers of composition is unusually heavy, we must recognize that all\nstudents in any given class do not require exactly the same treatment. I have in mind\nseveral large schools in each of which from one to three hundred entering students receive\nthe same dose of rhetorical treacle and sulphur, regardless of their particular needs. Such\na treatment, which results in an appaUing waste of the teachers' time and is intellectually\ncriminal toward the student, must give way to a careful classification of students, with\nspecial sections both for those who need little of this elementary drill and also for those\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "756\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwho prove either dull or illiterate. The training of these poorer students, I personally\nbelieve, should be intrusted to especially competent teachers.\nFurthermore, we may make our teaching more effective by impressing upon students\nsomewhat more forcefully than we have in the past the importance of their work in composition, in relation both to their other studies and to their future life. When a student has\nbeen brought to realize that he uses composition a hundred times a day, he has taken a long\nstride toward rhetorical righteousness. Pupils are surprisingly like their teachers in that\nthey are perfectly willing to work and work hard at anything which seems to pay good\ndividends on the energ>' invested. This increased interest in the work is no less beneficial\nto the instructor than to the pupils, for the teaching of composition, like the handling of\nschool discipline, grows incalculably easier and more effective when the master has secured\nthe co-operation of his pupils. Many instructors might lighten their task very materially\nby striving more sedulously to cultivate in their students an appreciation of the immense\npractical value of this work in composition.\nAnother means of increasing the efficiency of the student in composition and consequently ofdiminishing the labor of the teacher, lies in the exercise of greater care in the\nassignment of theme subjects. More than once I have heard teachers shout three or four\nsubjects for compositions just as the class was leaving the recitation room. It is easy to\nfancy how many of the pupils in such classes afterward went to the task of writing on these\nhurriedly assigned topics. Many of these pupils, it is fair to surmise, recalled a few hours\nbefore the next recitation that they would soon be asked to stand and deliver a theme.\nAfter a more or less prolonged search they discovered the assignment, scanned the list for the\neasiest subject, seized paper, then, like the housewife whose husband brings an unexpected\nguest for lunch on wash day, began to scurry about, seeking for almost anything that would\nsatisfy their immediate necessities. They jumbled together whatever they had collected\nin their search, called the resulting mess a theme, and prayed that their offering might\nfind favor in the eyes of the teacher. Such a picture of the way in which many a student\nprepares no small number of his themes is, unfortunately, all too near the truth. Fifteen\nminutes of careful preparation for writing a theme may save an hour of correction and\nbe of infinitely greater value to the students themselves. \" Out of the abundance of the\nheart the mouth speaketh.\" The first requisite of good work in composition lies just\nhere — 'the student must have something he wishes to say. Time spent in discussing and\ndeveloping with a class the topics for the next theme assignment pays large returns in\nincreased interest in the subject-matter, in clearer thinking, and in more logical planning\nand more effective writing; and it also saves the theme-reader the drudgery inevitably\nfollowing these haphazard plans of assignment, which encourage students to think once\nand write twice.\nAs a last suggestion toward greater economy of effort on the part of the teacher of\ncomposition I may suggest that we should insist more vigorously than some of us have\ndone in the past that students shovild profit more promptly from our suggestions. In the\nteaching of composition, as elsewhere, we must of course recognize that \"repetition is the\nmother of studies\"; but my blood has boiled more than once as I have visited classes and\nwatched students glance over carefully corrected themes, crumple them up, and consign\nthem to the waste-basket. T have known teachers to go along week after week, correcting\nfor students the same errors, even to the same misspelled words and obvious examples of\ncareless grammar. The \"cub-reporter\" method of teaching composition, of which we hav^e\nbeen hearing of late, may not be practical in most schools; but it affords good illustrations\nof the value of sharp, definite criticism which the young writer must make his own at once.\nSuch are some of the things which teachers of composition must lay closer to heart and\npractice more diligently; but when all these are said and done, our present force cannot\nhope to meet adequately the task of training students in composition. There must be\nadditional help; but where shall we look for it? An old answer comes trippingly on the\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF AMELIORATION\n\n757\n\ntongue: \"Every teacher should make every lesson an English lesson.\" To this proposal\nProfessor Hopkins has summarized the following objections:'\nThis suggestion evidently rests upon the following assumptions:\nThat other teachers may fairly be required to add this labor and responsibility to\nwhat they already carry; in other words that they are not, like English teachers, already\noverworked; an assumption that is very doubtful.\nThat other teachers are competent to teach English; an assumption that has in familiar\nways been often acted upon with unfortunate results.\nThat other teachers are willing to teach English in addition to their own special duties;\nan assumption that is in general contrary to fact.\nWe may grant, I believe, the pertinency of all these objections and still maintain, as\nProfessor Hopkins himself later argues, that the situation might be much improved thru\na more vital co-operation between the teacher of composition and his fellow-instructors.\nOne of the first requisites of good composition is a respect for the decencies of grammar and\nfor good spelling. Surely it is not too much to ask that school authorities insist that all\nteachers should strive to train their students in these fundamentals or yield place to other\ninstructors who will. The teacher who fails to cultivate in his students this reSpect for\nlanguage helps in accustoming them to regard good English as a mere Sunday dress, to be\nworn only in the composition class and to be exchanged for the customary negligee as\nsoon as they have left the sanctum of the vernacular. But this matter of composition\nstretches far beyond the borders of grammatical correctness; it is fundamentally concerned\nwith clear thinking, orderly arrangement of material, and accurate expression of the thought\nin mind. \"What you need,\" I once heard an exasperated scientist say to a muddy-brained\nstudent, \"what you need is a good, stiff course in composition.\" Possibly it would have\nbeen better for all concerned if by some process or other the student might have been supplied\nwith a better brain; but the teacher was right — the boy did need a course in composition.\nHe was wrong, however, in assuming that such a student should be turned over to the\nteacher in English, and that he himself had little or no responsibility in this case. Too\nfrequently, indeed, English teachers have shown themselves all too willing to shoulder the\nentire responsibility of dealing with such cases. Let us remember, however, that much\nmay be done by bringing home to all teachers a realization of their common responsibiUty\nand by meeting the complaint that students cannot write and talk well by asking what the\ncritic himself is doing to improve conditions. Toward creating this sentiment of common\nresponsibility for better English the teacher of composition may do much; but, be it added,\nthe principal and superintendent may do even more.\nBut viewing from a somewhat broader outlook this whole matter of teaching the\nvernacular, I am tempted to call composition a habit rather than a school subject. To\nthe majority of our students there comes almost as a shock the novel idea that ever since they\ncould talk they have made use of composition hundreds of times every day. Many of\nthese pupils have never realized that years before they entered the high school they were\nforming habits of composition. This very fact of the early formation of habits of composition is, I beheve, a vital one that all too frequently has been overlooked or slighted by\nthose intent upon improving the teaching of English. Most of us realize how thoroly\ningrained are certain careless and slovenly habits of speech which come to the surface when\nwe are off our guard. The best place for overcoming these defects is not in the high school\nbut in the grades, when children are much more susceptible to training in language, when\ntheir habits of speech are much more plastic. The student who is captured in these early\nand more impressionable years of the grades can be more thoroly trained and with much\nsmaller expenditure of time and effort than can his older brother in the high school. This\ncontention is not a new one; nor is it an untried and impracticable theory. \"The proof of\nthe pudding lieth in the eating thereof and not in the chewing of the string.\" Thruout this\ncountry we may find a number of school systems that are spending much time and money\n' Preliminary Report on English Composition Teaching, ninth edition, 1912.\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin giving the students of their elementary grades effective training in English, especially\nin oral composition. Such training seems to me of inestimable value, for the students are\nnot simply taking a course in English composition but rather are forming right habits of\nspeech at a time when such habits may be best acquired. This contention for more effective\ntraining in English in the elementary grades does not in the least invalidate Professor\nHopkins' plea for more instructors in the subject, but if anything goes even a step farther\nin the same direction; for to give such training requires a very material increase in the\nnumber and eflSciency of the army of elementary teachers. 1 believe, however, that those\nwho have gained this increased efficiency in their schools wiU agree with me that the results\nhave more than justified the increased cost of instruction.\nIndeed, twist and turn as we will this matter of gaining greater efficiency in the teaching\nof composition, one fact constantly recurs: better training in English demands a greater\nexpenditure of money. This contention is strengthened when we consider another factor\nin the situation — the short term of service of most of our teachers of composition. We\nknow that the average length of service among the English teachers of Illinois is not over\ntwo years and a half, a period scarcely long enough to be called a decent apprenticeship in\nthe work. WTiat statistics I have been able to get for other states indicate that conditions\nin Illinois, appalling as they seem, are better than those in very many other parts of the\nUnited States. Such a deplorable state of affairs, however, is not likely to be remedied\ntill thru stiffer requirements for appointment and the consequent increase in pay fewer of\nour teachers shall regard their work as a makeshift for bridging over the time between the\ndiploma and the wedding-ring.\nIn conclusion, I believe there is no one great panacea for ameliorating the condition\nof teachers of composition, tho much may be accomplished, I am confident, thru the\nmeans suggested above — thru a more careful and efficient organization and administration\nof our work in English; thru a rigprous insistence by those in authority that all teachers of\nall subjects shall be held more strictly to account for the composition in their classes; and,\nmost important of all, thru greater attention to English in the elementary grades. In aU\nprobability none nor all of these methods would entirely solve the problem; but if they were\nefficiently carried out, they would undoubtedly do much good. What can we do to put\nthem into practice ? A great deal. The public and their representative the school board\nare perfectly willing to pay for things educational when they feel that the proposed training\nis worth while. It is for us to assist in bringing the facts before the public and the school\nboards and to help them to understand the situation. Before wise old Ben Franklin proposed to his fellow-citizens any of his numerous schemes for improving Philadelphia, he was\nwont to discourse with his neighbors on the bad condition of affairs, and to print articles\nin the local papers suggesting the need of certain improvements; in a word, he tried to arouse\npublic sentiment. We may be lacking Ben's shrewd sagacity and may be destitute of his\ntact and cunning in handling a situation; but surely we have a good cause, and by our\nunited efforts certainly can accomplish much toward ameliorating the conditions of the\nteaching of English composition.\n\nB.\nVINCIL\n\nDESIRABLE\n\nC. COULTER,\n\nHEAD\n\nOF\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nFOR\n\nENGLISH\n\nTHE ENGLISH\nDEPARTME^fT,\nWARRENSBURG, MO.\n\nSTATE\n\nWORK\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPerhaps the fundamental formula in education is the classic equation, \"Mark Hopkins\nplus a boy on a log equals a school.\" The elaboration of this equation in the actual practice\nof the schools by the substitution of the average American school-teacher for Mark Hopkins\nand forty young savages for the one earnest boy has perhaps not been to the advantage of\nthe schools, and, ki order to preserve the equation, it has been necessary to increase the\nfunction of the log. The elaboration of this academic log into the modem school building\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDESIRABLE\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nFOR ENGLISH\n\nWORK\n\n759\n\nand its equipment has been a haphazard process, and the result is a surprise even to those\nwho have been busiest in its accomplishment.\nThe one condition that has had most influence on the development of the knots on this\nlog has been the almost universal adoption of the departmental plan of instruction in the\nsecondary schools. The many obvious advantages of this plan have somewhat blinded us\nto its possible and actual disadvantages. One of these is that the division of the race lore\nwhich each child should learn into what may be taught in the somewhat technical classes\nin English, history, science, language, and mathematics, even with the addition of courses\nin cooking, typewriting, and millinery, leaves yet a remnant of valuable social heritage which\nno departmental teacher feels called upon to present; and, as a result, our students are like\nto fall between the stools. This observation would have no pertinence here were it not\nthat it falls to the English teacher perhaps more than anyone else to meet the situation\nwith saving counsel, and this fact must somehow affect the aim of English teaching and, so,\nany discussion of English equipment.\nAnother result of the departmental plan has been a demand for more highly trained\nteachers. This has been a gain for the schools, and it would perhaps seem wholly a gain.\nBut, unfortunately, this \"higher training \" has too often taken the form of advanced training\nin special lines and has given us teachers who present their material from the standpoint\nof specialists in history, or science, or literature, rather than from the standpoint of specialists in the education of children. Specialization in English in our universities in the form\nof the preparation of a \" contribution to knowledge,\" known as a Master's thesis or a Doctor's\ndissertation, usually has no relation to the preparation for efficient teaching in the schools.\nIn fact, this specialization too frequently results in just so much useless lumber which the\nunfortunate possessor must get rid of before effective work can be done. This inadequacy\nin the training of the teachers for the schools brings them to their work unprepared to meet\nthe actual problem of teaching and unable to take active steps toward the building-up of a\nworking equipment of method and material. The actual work of the English teacher in the\nschool seems to me to be further removed from the special work he has taken in the university by way of training than that of any other teacher.\nAnother result of the departmental plan has been the gravitation of the men to the\ndepartments of mathematics and of science. These men usually get larger salaries than the\nwomen who teach English, and they have more to do with the policy of the schools. When\nthe principal of a small high school teaches a part or all of his time, he very seldom teaches\nEnglish, but usually science. As a result, when there is money to be spent for equipment\nit goes for the science work. This is shown by some statistics presented before the first\nmeeting of the National Council of Teachers of English and printed in the English Journal,\nJanuary, 1912. Reports from 119 high schools show an equipment value of $26.41 per\npupil studying chemistry as contrasted with $1 . 28 per English pupil. In 1910 these same\nschools spent $1.42 per pupil for science equipment and $0.17 per pupil for English\nequipment.\nThese figures are from a small group of schools. Statistics are not now at hand to\npermit a general statement of the conditions in the schools of the country as a whole. A\njoint committee of the Modern Language Association of America and the National Council\nof Teachers of English, of which Professor Hopkins of the University of Kansas is chairman,\nis attempting to collect data from a much larger group of schools, and, when these figures\nare in, a more significant statement can be made. But even if the preliminary statement\nbe found to hold good for the larger group, the small equipment cost for each English\npupil as compared with that of the science pupil is not in itself an indictment of the present\ndistribution of funds. Such an indictment can be made only after it is shown that the\ncomparatively liberal expenditure for science has resulted in a very inadequate provision of\nteaching force and equipment for English. In order that a definite authoritative statement'\ncan be made, I think it is pertinent here to urge the co-operation of each teacher present\nin the matter of getting returns from the schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "760\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nBut whatever the facts and whatever the conclusions deduced from them as to the\ncomparative expenditure for the departments, it is certainly true that many schools at\npresent are inadequately equipped for effective English work. Here let the addition be\nhastened that this paper is not written with a view to the large school with a well-equipped\nEnglish department under the direction of an experienced man or woman, but rather with\na view to the thousands of earnest teachers in the thousands of small schools who have the\ntraining of the great mass of the American people. These teachers need that you give\nthem your experience, that you show them how to do their work more effectively, that you\ngive them your moral support in their effort to get more adequate equipment. To this\nend a committee has been appointed from the English Council to draw up a report on\n\"Equipment for School and College Work in English.\" It is hoped that this report may\nserve as a kind of manual to which teachers may refer for information as to cost and makers\nof useful material. According to a tentative outline the report will offer suggestions as to\n(a) exercise material for grammar and composition, and means of rapid duplication, (6)\nlantern and lantern equipment, (c) maps, charts, and pictures, and {d) library.\nIt would be of little value to the teachers if this committee should merely present a\nlist of possible apparatus. Such equipment as is suggested should be for the piupose of\nmeeting definite needs, and these needs have their basis in the aims of English teaching and\nthe pedagogical problems involved.\nThe most insistent and, at present, most fully recognized need which the English\nteacher must try to meet is that for a knowledge and a workmanlike command of the\nmechanics of correct and effective expression. In order to meet this need a certain amount\nof rigid drill is necessary. Every English department, imder the direction of its head or\nof the principal of the school, should accumulate a large amoimt of well-classified illustrative\nmaterial for such drill. The average English course demands of the pupik entirely too much\nclerical work. For instance, the work in grammar and sentence structure requires a great\ndeal of illustrative material. Many teachers spend a great deal of time dictating this to\nthe class or writing it on the board to be copied. The pupils usually have to make two\ndrafts in order to have it in form to present to the teacher with the required exercise. None\nof this has any value. It would be just as reasonable to send the class in wood-turning\nto the woods to fell a tree and get the timber and season it in order to teach them the use\nof the tools and the lathe. The vague feeling that the work required of themselves and\ntheir pupils is out of all proportion to the results leads some teachers to omit the needed\ndrill. If, on the other hand, the teacher has printed lists of sentences illustrating the facts\nto be presented, he can hand them to the class, ask for markings, and look over the uniform\nprinted pages with very much less work to himself and his pupils, and with better results.\nA second generally recognized aim of English work is ethical, the presentation of ideals\nof conduct and character and the formation of correct habits of thought. This aim has\nbeen or may be met thru the medium of the classic literature usually read in the schools.\nBut there is a third class of aims, important but not so generally recognized. These\nare social and cultural. It is peculiarly the province of the English course to bridge the\ngaps in the curriculvun, to unify the experience of the pupil, and to give him power to orient\nhimself with reference to all his school work and the life around him. To accomplish these\naims an equipment much more elaborate than the usual is demanded. And the second,\nthird, and fourth divisions of the report have to do specially with this equipment.\nAs for the lantern, I was recently told of an English department with an equipment of\ntwo or three thousand slides which the teachers used to vitalize the work of the pupils and\nincrease their range of ideas of men and events. But many teachers have not taken advantage of this useful ally, and when they desire something of the kind they do not know where\nto turn for it. The old covurse in literature which dealt almost exclusively with subjective\nmaterial felt no need for such help, indeed could not use it, but with the coming of the muchto-be-desired emphasis upon the objective forms of literature it is indispensable.\nAnd\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nARTICULATING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nENGLISH\n\n761\n\nwhat may be said of the use of the lantern may also be said of the use of charts, maps, and\npictures.\nThe most important element of the equipment for English work is, of course, the\nlibrary, and the task of the committee in this connection is difficult. It is obviously impossible to present a list of books and ask that every school conform. It is also impossible\nto present an extensive list from which choice may be made. But the deplorable condition\nof many school libraries makes some kind of suggestion necessary. A few years ago I made\nsome investigation of the reading done in a number of high schools. At that time it seemed\nto be the custom to read in class about four \" classics\" each year and require, as one principal\nexpressed it, outside reading of between one and two books. Miss McNary, State Normal\nSchool, Trenton, N.J., reports that 227 students from 47 schools read, during their course,\nfrom 12 to 33 classics. Four years of the best reading periods of the pupil's life, and\ntwenty or twenty-five books read under the supervision of the English teacher!\nA recent investigation of the reading done during the year by 230 young men and\nwomen, of high-school age and older, showed that they had averaged more than five books\noutside of their school work. Two-thirds of these books were fiction. There was some\nreading of science and biography, and a very little of books of travel and essays on\ncontemporary educational and social conditions. And among students from good Christian\nhomes, yotmg men and women who are active in church work, there were only two or three\nbooks of a religious nature reported. These students had unusual advantages in the way\nof library, but among their favorites occurred frequently such titles as. Lavender and Old\nLace, Freckles, The Rosary, Maurine, and St. Elmo. Sixty reported among the books most\nenjoyed something from Wright. These students also read liberally from the Cosmopolitan,\nMcClure, Everybody's, Harper, and The Ladies' Home Journal, but very little from the serious\nreviews, or the scientific and technical magazines. The reason given by one young woman\nfor naming as the book she had enjoyed most a sentimental hero story was \"because the\nboy was very poor and had a very hard time and took everything with a smile and\nfinally got rich. \"\nTo meet this situation, to enable the student to carry over to his general reading the\nstandards and methods of judgment acquired in the classroom, to develop a sense of social\nresponsibility, to give some knowledge of the world in which he is to live on leaving school,\nand in a way to meet the present demand for vocational guidance — this requires a library\nequipment that goes beyond the classics of the old course. It demands a choice among\nbooks of travel, of contemporary biography, of social discussion, of description of the manner\nof life of all classes of people. And the English teacher is the one who must, for the most\npart, accumulate these books and guide the student in their use. For these reasons the\nreport of the committee will try to make suggestions along these lines.\n\nC.\n\nPROGRESS\n\nJAMES\n\nFLEMING\n\nIN ARTICULATING\n\nHOSIC, HEAD\n\nOF THE\nCOLLEGE,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nDEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nENGLISH\n\nCHICAGO\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe problem of articulation between school and college is the result of (i) the growth\nof free public educational institutions, and (2) the development of the practical as opposed\nto the traditional in English instruction. Formerly few went to college, and they were\nprepared wholly in schools which were conducted for the purpose. Little special instruction in English was demanded for entrance to college. But with the spread of higher\neducation and the rapid development of public secondary schools, there came more\npressing need of English training and a general demand on the part of the colleges that\nentering students satisfy certain requirements, which, unfortunately, were so varied as\nto make it impossible for any one school to prepare candidates for several colleges.\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn this way it came about that various commissions and conferences were organized\nto secure greater uniformity. The oldest of these was the Commission of New England\nColleges, which originated the plan of prescribing a list of English classics upon which\nentering students should be examined. In 1892 the conference on Enghsh of the Committee of Ten, which was appointed by the National Education Association, enlarged\nupon the work of the New England Commission. This conference had a good deal to\nsay about training in composition but retained the required list of books as the basis\nof the examination. The following year, the Association of Colleges and Preparatory\nSchools of the Middle States and Maryland, at the request of the preparatory schools,\norganized a conference on college-entrance requirements in English and invited two other\nsimilar associations to join it in securing uniformity of examinations. The conference\nand its complement, the College Entrance Examination Board, have continued to the\npresent and have practically dominated the field. The last National Conference contained delegates from seven associations, every part of the country east of the Rocky\nMountains being represented, altho more than two-thirds were from New England and\nthe Middle States. One other important commission remains to be mentioned, namely,\nthe National Education Association committee which reported in 1899. This committee\nurged that literature and composition be closely related, and it offered a list of forty\nbooks for each high-school year from which teachers were to be allowed to select at will.\nBoth these features seem to have had marked influence on school practice.\nAt present about 90 per cent of the colleges print the reports of the National Conference as their admission requirements in English, tho a large number will permit substitution. Many colleges make special mention of grammar or composition or both,\nand a few prescribe a list of books of their own or even demand all those named by the\nConference. There is distinct lack of agreement as to credits. It is reported that about\none-third of the colleges require four years of English in preparation; another third will\naccept three but will credit four; while the remainder allow only three units of credit.\nThe last revision of the Uniform Entrance Requirements in Enghsh was made May\n30 last. Considerable advance was made toward meeting the demands of the public\nhigh schools as indicated in many recent articles and addresses, in resolutions, and in\nbold ignoring of the Uniform Requirements. The report of the committee of the English\nRound Table of the National Education Association, which was placed in the hands\nof each member of the Conference, doubtless had considerable influence in shaping their\ncourse of action.\nThe principal changes made by the Conference may be summarized as follows:\n(i) The requirement and examination in literature were definitely separated from\nthe requirement and examination in grammar and composition. (2) The lists of books\nfor reading and study were lengthened. High-school teachers will have more freedom\nof choice. (3) It was recommended that colleges set examinations which do not require\ncertain specified books. (4) Pupils will submit certificates from their principals as to\nthe books they have read in their high-school course. (5) Colleges are asked to provide\nmeans of testing candidates for entrance as to their preparation in oral Enghsh.\n(6) High schools are urged to maintain four-year courses in Enghsh. (7) The new\nrequirements are put into force at once and will stand for five years.\nIt will be noted that the shorter list for \"study\" is retained, but with the pressure\nof public opinion will come, no doubt, the freer form of examination recommended, which\nis substantially that suggested by the New York teachers and which is now in use at\nHarvard. And with the standardization of secondary English will come ultimately the\nuniversal practice of certification and the elimination of entrance requirements in English\naltogether.\nThere is good prospect of marked advance in standardizing secondary Enghsh. The\nnewly organized National Council of Teachers of English, which is already representative\nof the whole country, and of high schools, normal schools, and colleges in due proportion ,\nhas a committee actively engaged in gathering data for the preparation of a syllabus of\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDIZING\n\nTHE MEASUREMENT\n\nOF COMPOSITION\n\n763\n\nthe secondary English course. With this committee are now to be associated three others.\nThese are the committee of the EngUsh Round Table of the National Education Association, the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements of the Public Speaking Conference of the New England and the North Atlantic States, and a subcommittee of\nthe National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English. A body thus\nconstituted would seem to be perfectly qualified to formulate the best practice of American high schools in teaching English, and its report, which will be made available to all\nthru the office of the national commissioner of education, ought to command wide\nattention because of its intrinsic authority. By a proper interpretation of the conditions\nout of which the recommended courses have grown, it will be possible to assist high schools\nin organizing activities adapted to the needs of individual schools and, at the same time,\nto set up standards of attainment which colleges can accept in lieu of all other prescriptions and requirements.\nD.\nERNEST\n\nPROGRESS\n\nC. NOYES,\n\nTEACHER\n\nIN STANDARDIZING THE\nOF COMPOSITION\nOF ENGLISH,\n\nFIFTH\n\nAVENUE\n\nMEASUREMENT\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPITTSBURGH,\n\nPA.\n\nAt the suggestion of Mr. Hosic, I wish to call your attention to another recent\ninvestigation, which has for its purpose, \"to establish standards of composition that will\nmake it possible to compare the work done in one school with that done elsewhere and\nto make it difficult for mere opinion to control so much of our schoolroom practice.\"\nI refer to the attempt of Professor Thorndike and Mr. Hillegas of Columbia to construct\na concrete scale of measurement for composition.\nIn nearly every form of human effort except teaching the efficiency of different\nmethods of procedure can be and is tested by results. That school of medicine whose\npractitioners cure the greatest proportion of their patients quickly becomes the most\npopular. Comparison of the results gained by automobile delivery with those gained\nby horse and wagon is driving the horse from our streets. Even in the humble field\nof poultry-raising comparison of the number of eggs laid in a month by the same number\nof hens under different systems of feeding has proved what kind of food will produce\nthe greatest results in eggs. It is only in teaching, and this is especially true of the\nteaching of English, that when our favorite theory is subjected to the test of pragmatism,\n\"Does it work?\" we must answer, \"We don't know positively, but we hope it does,\nor we think it ought to work.\"\nNow just as the study of methods of business has produced the new application of\nscience to industry known as scientific management, so the demand of the age for the\nmeasurement of results is bringing forth a new science of education, based upon exact\nmeasurement and judgment by ascertained facts. As Professor Thorndike has said:\n. It is fruitless to keep only the debit account of time and money expended, of courses\nof study and methods of teaching, if we leave the credit account of results achieved,\nthe products of education, vague and uncertain.\nThe need of measuring our results requires no demonstration; but the keeping of an\naccurate account presents a problem of peculiar difficulty. If education has lagged behind\nbusiness in testing theories by results, it has been because there have existed no adequate means of gauging skill in solving arithmetical problems, knowledge of Latin, or\nability to write English.\nTo be sure, we have for decades attempted to measure composition by percentages\nor letters, or by vague adjectives like good, fair, or excellent. But can any teacher tell\njust where a composition ceases to be worth 90 and is worth only 85, or when it rises to\n95 ? And will any teacher assert that the difference between 50 and 60 is the same as\nthat between 90 and 100? Yet in any valid scale ten units should represent the same\nstep in whatever part of the scale they be taken. If we abandon the percentage system\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfor letters and mark A for excellent, B for good, C for fair, and so on, we find it equally\nhard to draw a line and say that all paragraphs on one side of this line are fair and that\nall on the other are poor. In addition, we are compelled with the letter system to give\nthe same mark to compositions varying greatly in merit. This inaccuracy has caused\nmany schools to add + an(J — signs to the letters, but who can state the point at\nwhich a composition falls below B— in merit and yet is worth C+? Furthermore,\nwhatever system is used, all of us know that teachers working independently will\nscarcely ever grade a set of compositions alike.\nIn estimating the merit of specimens of composition, teachers probably show greater\ndifferences in judgment than they exhibit in grading pupils' performances in any other\nsubject. Tho the extraordinary complexity of the facts to be observed and estimated\nin forming any judgment, together with the variable emphasis placed by individuals\nupon vocabulary, sentences, paragraphing, thought, etc., makes uniformity of judgment\ndifficult, it is not impossible. Differences in the rating of the same paper exist not because\nteachers disagree about what constitutes merit in composition. On essentials there is\nsubstantial agreement in theory. The chief difficulty is the vagueness with which\nstandards have been defined. When we say of a boy's composition that the sentences,\nparagraphing, and progress of thought are good, we are as inaccurate as we are when we\nsay it was hot here yesterday. If we say the thermometer stood at 90° here yesterday,\nwe have measured the heat by a scientific standard which has the same meaning in\nBoston as in Chicago and by which we can compare the heat in one place with that in\nanother. On the other hand, if we say that the composition is worth 90 per cent, tho\nwe have measured it after a fashion, the standard does not have the same meaning in\nBoston as in Chicago. It is not the same with any two teachers, and it is more worthless\nfor purposes of comparison than 90° Fahrenheit and 80° Centigrade would be; for the\ntwo temperature scales can be reduced to a common basis, but no two percentage scales\nhave any common basis. Our present methods of measuring compositions are controlled\ntoo much by personal opinion, which varies with the individual. What is wanted is a\nclear-cut, concrete standard of measurement which will mean the same thing to all\npeople in aU places and is not dependent upon the opinion of any individual.\nThis want, Professor Thorndike and Mr. Hillegas have attempted to supply by the\nconstruction of a series of samples of composition with which specimens to be measured\nmay be compared. This series of samples, each differing from the preceding by an\nequal degree of merit, makes a uniform scale of measurement applicable universally. In\napplying this scale a specimen of composition to be valued is compared with one sample\nafter another till a sample is found precisely equal in merit, just as in determining the\nnote sounded by a tuning fork we had found, we might compare it with one note after\nanother of the musical scale sounded on a piano till we could fix its proper place.\nTho at first thought it may seem impossible to construct such a scale for composition,\nthe means by which it has been done is as simple as it is sound, namely, the opinion of a\nconsiderable number of competent judges. Certainly, the test that has determined what\nbooks are classics and that lies behind the principle of good use in language is the best\nthat could be devised for determining a scale of measurement for composition. Mr, Hillegas' scale represents the rankings of several hundred carefvdly selected judges, who were\nasked to arrange a large number of samples of young people's composition in order of\nmerit. From their rankings of this large set, the scale of ten samples, ranging in value\nby equal steps from o to 937 units, was derived by applying the theory that \"differences\nequally often noticed are equal, unless the differences are either always or never noticed.\"\nThat is, if 75 per cent of the judges noticed that sample A was better than sample B and\nthe same number noticed that B was better than C, it was assimied that the difference\nin merit between A and B was exactly the same as that between B and C, or that the\ndifference between A and C was exactly twice the difference between B and C or B and\nA, In fact, when two samples were foimd such that 75 per cent of the judges agreed\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARDIZING\n\nTHE MEASUREMENT\n\nOF COMPOSITION\n\n765\n\nin calling one better than the other, the difference in merit between them is just the\ndifference used as the unit in this scale. The zero point is shown by an artificial sample\nproduced by an adult who tried to write very poor English.\nOf course, such a scale is open to some objections, notably that the samples it contains, which vary in length from five to ten printed lines, are too short to test sustained\npower or skill in arrangement of the larger units of composition. Some may say that\njudgment of composition by the use of such a scale is too mechanical. Still, what is\nessentially the same method, comparison with samples of fixed value, was recommended\nby no less sensitive a critic than Matthew Arnold when he advised the committing to\nmemory of fine passages of poetry that they might serve as touchstones by which to\ntest the value of unfamiliar verse.\nThis scale marks a great advance toward precision in the rating of composition.\nIt will enable any teacher to correct his individual judgment by reference to the combined\nopinions of many good judges. It will afford him a ready means of determining the relative progress of pupils under different systems of instruction so that when asked, \"Does\nthis theory work?\" he can say, \"Yes\" or \"No\" with conviction. Even mental standards will gain in precision as teachers become accustomed to a uniform standard. Composition equivalent to 6 on Hillegas' scale will be a much more accurate description than\nfair; just as our familiarity with the thermometer has made 60° a more precise\ndescription than chilly.\nIt is to supervisors, however, that this scale will be of the most value. By it they\nwill be able to compare classes of the same grade in different schools, in different cities,\nor under different teachers. Such a scheme for measurement will also afford accurate\ndefinitions of the standards required for promotion. Employers will find in it an accurate\nmeans of defining the degree of excellence expected in an applicant for a position. Even\nthe pupil may profit by studying such a scale, for it will show him just what he is expected\nto accomplish and enable him to measure his own progress.\nIn short, Mr. Hillegas has shown that it is possible to standardize our measurement\nof composition and to make it precise. Soon we shall think it as ridiculous to measure\ncompositions by \"excellent,\" \"good,\" and \"fair,\" as to measure distance by units like\n\"as far as a man can jump.\" This investigation signifies the dawn of the day when the\nincapable teacher shall be unable to take refuge in the belief that no one can measure\nthe results of his work; when the thoughtful teacher may be able to tell by accurate\ntests whether his theories are true or false; and when all teachers may feel that their\ngradings are just and uniform because based on a definite, fixed standard.\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nHIGHER\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Sauuel Avery, chancellor, University of Nebraska\nVice-President — J. H. T. Main, president of Grinnell College\nSecretary — Arthur R. Mead, University of Minnesota\n\nLincoln, Nebr.\nGrinnell, Iowa\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 191 2\nThe meeting of the department was called to order at 2:30 p.m. by the president,\nSamuel Avery, chancellor of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr., at Mandel\nHall, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nIn the unavoidable absence of the secretary, Arthur R. Mead, Edward C.\nRosseter, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., was made secretary pro\ntempore.\nJames R. Angell, dean in the University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., read a paper on\n\"A Suggestion of a Method for Improving the Relations of Colleges and Secondary\nSchools,\" which was followed by a discussion by Charles A. Blanchard, president of\nWheaton College, Wheaton, 111.; R. B. von Klein Smid, professor of psychology and\neducation, De Pauw University, Greencastle, Ind.; and John A. Wood, superintendent\nof city schools, South Bend, Ind.\nThe second paper was presented by Charles W. Dabney, president of the University\nof Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, and was entitled \"The Municipal University and Its\nWork.\"\nW. W. Boyd, dean of the College of Education, Ohio State University, Coliunbus,\nOhio, discussed this paper.\nGeorge F. James, dean of the College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn., read the following paper: \"The Relation of the State University to\nOther Parts of the System of Public Instruction.\"\nThis paper was followed by a discussion by Edward C. Elliott, professor of education,\nUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nOn motion, the chairman was authorized to appoint a committee of five on nominations to report at the next meeting.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nEdward C. Rosseter, Secretary pro tempore\n\nSj:COND SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July ii, 1912\nThe department was called to order in Mandel Hall, University of Chicago, at\n2:40 P.M., President Avery in the chair. R. B. von Klein Smid, professor of psychology\nand education, De Pauw University, Greencastle, Ind., was appointed secretary pro\ntempore.\nSamuel Avery, chancellor of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr., delivered\nan address on \"How to Reach the Individual Student in Our Colleges and Universities.\"\nThis was followed by a report by the secretary, Arthur R. Mead, De Pauw\nUniversity, Greencastle, Ind., on \"How Our Colleges and Universities Maintain Personal\n767\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nRelations with the Individual Students: A Report of an Investigation under the\nAuspices of the Department of Higher Education of the National Education Association.\"\nThis report was discussed by Thomas A. Clark, dean of men, University of Illinois,\nUrbana, 111.; R. B. von Klein Smid, professor of psychology and education, De Pauw\nUniversity, Greencastle, Ind.; and Raymond M. Hughes, acting-president of Miami\nUniversity, Oxford, Ohio.\nUpon a call by the president for general discussion. President Blanchard, of Wheaton\nCollege, spoke in behalf of a greater care for the moral welfare of students.\n\"The Report of the Committee on Policy of the Department of Higher Education\"\nwas presented thru the chairman of the committee, G. W. A. Luckey, professor of education. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. This committee was first appointed in\n1911.\nOn motion, the committee was continued thru the year 19 12 to carry on further\ninvestigations.\nThe Conunittee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President — W. O. Thompson, president, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President — Guy Potter Benton, president. University of Vermont,\nBurlington, Vt.\nFor Secretary — C. A. DtJNiWAY, president. University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.\nOn motion, the report was imanimously adopted.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nR. B. VON Klein Smid, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nA SUGGESTION OF A METHOD FOR IMPROVING THE RELATIONS OF COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS\nJAMES\n\nR.\n\nANGELL,\n\nDEAN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nWe have survived several critical stages in the development of the\nrelations between colleges and secondary schools, and compared with some\nof the periods thru which we have passed, the present is a time of calm and\npeace. As we look back, we recognize the period of imdisputed collegiate\nascendency, the schools figtiring as feudal dependencies. We remember\nvividly the more recent period of school rebellion and open warfare upon\nthe domination of the college — a period to which there is occasional\nreversion. We are, in many parts of the country, just passing out of the\nera of armed neutrality into one of mutual confidence and respect. This\npaper has as its aim to present the contention that in those sections of the\ncountry where most progress has been made in the estabUshment of cordial\nrelations, we have come substantially to the end of merely mechanical\nadjustments and that our next forward movement must be on the basis of\nmore intimate personal contact on the part of the men actually conducting\nthe work in the two classes of institutions concerned.\nI violate no confidences in telling you that for many years the colleges\nconceived it to be their function to dictate to the schools not only what\nthey should do, but also how they should do it. Some colleges have not\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF COLLEGES\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n769\n\neven yet awakened from this dream. Many private schools do not wish\nthem to be awakened. They exist for no other purpose than to supply\ngrist for the collegiate hopper, and to be told that they must, themselves,\ndecide in large measure what quality of grist to offer is to affront the very\nlogic of their being. On the other hand, the overwhelming majority of\nschools have very definite ideas of what they wish to accomplish and\nequally specific impressions as to the desirable methods for attaining their\nresults. To have the colleges tell them that they must do thus and so is\nto precipitate a very unphilosophical state of mind in their managers.\nAs a result of this situation, the last few years have witnessed a very\ninteresting process of adjustment, as a result of which the progressive\ncolleges have attempted to make their entrance requirements more flexible,\nthus enabling the schools to meet the demands of the colleges without\nserious invasion of their other obligations.\nViewed from the outside, the history of this movement might appear to\nrecord a mere surrender on the part of the colleges to the obstinate demands\nof the schools, and not a few college men have so viewed it, to say nothing\nof an occasional bellicose school man, whose sensibilities have been jarred\nat one time or another by a careless expression of collegiate complacency.\nBut, fundamentally, the movement has represented a much deeper process.\nIt has arisen from an increasing consciousness of the inevitably unitary\nnature of the educational situation. No institution is so isolated that it\nmay wholly disregard the educational currents flowing all about it and\ncertainly no college which receives its students from any considerable\nnumber of schools, as is now universally the case in our influential colleges,\ncan possibly entertain longer a view of its functions which makes it sole\narbiter of the work to be done in the schools. Even if the view be entertained, itis flagrantly at variance with the facts.\nThus far, however, progress has for the most part consisted in a modification ofthe specific requirements put upon the school or in a change of\nthe means by which students pass from the school to the college. Thus,\nwe have eliminated Greek and modified the amount of Latin, we have\ndevised a system of certification, and various other ameliorations of the\nentrance examination system. And still a very real problem exists and one\nwhich in the writer's opinion calls for quite a different kind of adjustment,\nat all events for a distinctly different type of treatment in its solution.\nIt is entirely possible for the authorities of a school to agree with those\nof a college that the graduates of the school shall bring to the college such\nand such preparation as described by title and amount. The school may\nsupply competent instructors and attempt to carry out its part of the\nprogram with scrupulous fidelity. Nevertheless, when its graduates appear\nin the college classes, they may fall considerably short of the attainments\nwhich the instructor in charge believes that they ought to possess. This\nsituation commonly leads to exasperation and mutual recriminations, in\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwhich students and instructors participate with equal fervor. Such\nsituations, I am convinced, often originate from the almost inevitable\ndisparity between a program as laid down on paper and the same program\nas embodied in the actual practice of a school or college. The writer has\namused himself of late in checking up with the prospectus of the school the\nresults actually attained by the boys and girls on completing the several\ngrades. The disparity has often been grotesque and has never failed to be\nat least noticeable. If this be true in the elementary branches, where the\ndesiderata are simple and easily formulated, what may we not expect when\nwe come to more advanced work? Naturally, one does not allege nor\nassume that serious failure to articulate is a universal feature of school and\ncollege adjustment, but simply that it often occurs and under present\nconditions may reasonably be expected.\nThe immediate steps necessary to initiate a remedy consist in a more\nintimate acquaintance between the teachers of the two types of institution,\nand a more accurate insight on the part of the officers of each type into the\nactual conditions surrounding the other. The ignorance on the part of\ncollege teachers of the real conditions in the schools from which their pupils\ncome is often both dense and ludicrous. They tend to assume that the\nschools of today are like those in which they themselves were educated\nten, fifteen, or twenty years before. They tend to overlook or forget the\ngreat variations in the conditions which different schools have to meet.\nThey are oblivious to the peculiarities of the small town school as compared\nwith the city school, the public school as compared with the private\nacademy. They tend to magnify the significance of their own methods\nand educational prejudices in partial or total disregard of the reasonable\nclaims of other ideals. All this makes for friction, for educational provincialism, for a decadent t>pe of conservatism.\nSchool men on their part are guilty of equally serious sins and shortcomings. If a boy goes to a college and fails in some of his work, they\nforthwith accuse the college of having put the boy under incompetent\ninstruction — which is sometimes undoubtedly the fact; or they charge\nthat the administration has been lax in not pursuing the lad more energetically and thus preventing his failure; or they charge that impossible\ndemands were made upon him. Now, one or all of these charges may be\nwell founded, but often they are quite baseless. Despite the most conscientious efforts of the college authorities, the boy may have been lacking\nin sufficient moral stamina to withstand the temptations presented by a first\nremoval from home supervision, or he may have fallen heir to an instructor\nwho rode a hobby of a different habit from that mounted by his high-school\nteacher, and as the animals were bound in different directions, the result\nhas been, in consequence, disastrous. I regret to add that I have met\ncollege men who evidently entertain as a fundamental element of their\nworking creed a belief in their own imqualified superiority to school men of\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATIONS\n\nOF COLLEGES\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n771\n\nwhatever variety; and conversely, I have met school men who not only\nregard college teachers as generically conceited jackanapes, but also as\npettifogging incompetents, in all that concerns school work. Now, these\nsentiments, as far as they exist, do not contribute irt any vitally helpful way\nto solve the difficulties of adjusting school and college relations.\nThere is no doubt a measure of truth in the old saw that familiarity\nbreeds contempt. So far as concerns things worthy of contempt, it is\nfortunate that this is so. But the formula fails to add the supplementary\ntruth, that familiarity also breeds confidence and sympathy and mutual\nunderstanding. It is the serious belief of the speaker, based partly upon\nactual experience at the University of Chicago, that few more valuable\nsteps can be taken at this juncture than the devising of systematic methods\nfor insuring the exchange of visits of inspection by the teachers and administrative ofiicers of schools and colleges.\nThe deans and instructors in charge of college Freshmen ought to be\nobliged to visit every year, at least every other year, a certain number of\nsecondary schools from which their students come. These visits should\ninvolve a stay of sufficient duration to allow full and frank discussion with\nthe school men of the exact conditions faced by the school, and a thoro\nappreciation of the ideals and methods represented in its conduct, especially\nthat part of it in which are being laid the immediate foundations of the\ncollege teachers' own personal work. Such visits should not be made\nprimarily in the spirit of critical inspection. Many collegiate institutions\nhave their special inspector, whose duty it is to pass critically on the school\nand its work. These visits of the teaching staff should be conceived in\nquite a different spirit. They should be informational in purpose, should\nserve to put the college instructor or the dean in immediate personal contact\nwith the problem faced by the school-teacher who is training students for\nthe work of the college.\nNo doubt the immediate results of such visitation on the mind of the\ncollege visitor frequently would be one of despair. But more often it would\nbe one of vastly increased respect for the success attained by the school\nand it would with rarest exception be one of widened knowledge, sympathy,\nand appreciation.\nOn the other hand, the schools ought to send some of their teachers at\nleast once a year into the college classes which continue the work begun in\nthe schools. It would do the principals and even the superintendents no\nharm to come too. Indeed, teachers ought to go now and then into other\ngood high schools and academies to observe how their own problems are met\nelsewhere. If they do not see things worthy of imitation, they are fairly\ncertain to see some things which ought to be avoided, and in any event they\nwill appreciate, with an accuracy that no other method affords, just where\ndifficulties are most likely to be encountered by their own pupils.\nInasmuch as practically all high-school teachers are college graduates.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\n,.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwe might suppose such visitation of colleges would be egregiously superfluous. But there are at least two highly important reasons — to mention\nno others — ^why this is not the case. In the first place, even college methods\nof teaching change, and in some departments the changes in the last halfdozen years have been little short of revolutionary. In the second place,\nand much more important, is the fact that the work of a class viewed as a\nmember of the class going over it for the first time is an absolutely and\nutterly different thing from the same work viewed as a spectator engaged\nin teaching related, or even identical, material. Here, again, the visit\nshould be long enough to enable the securing of satisfactory interviews with\nthe instructors and an adequate estimate of the general conditions maintaining inthe institution.\nTwo practical difficulties may suggest themselves in the execution of a\nprogram of this character. One is geographical. Some colleges are\nrelatively remote from the important schools and some schools might find\nit difficult to reach more than one collegiate institution. The other difficulty\nis administrative and fiscal. To induce the college and school authorities\nto grant the necessary absences, and much more to foot the bills, is likely\nto be difficult. But very few things which are worth while are available\nwithout some struggle. The question is whether the results gained would\njustify the cost. The speaker has absolutely no question as to this.\nDuring the past year the University of Chicago has had as its guests in\nthe elementary classes a large number of teachers from the secondary\nschools. They were invited to come whenever they could, to stay as long\nas they wished, and to report to their principals and to our annual conference\nany criticisms or suggestions which they had to make on our methods.\nThe university enjoyed their presence, and found such criticism as they\nwere willing to offer both useful and just. We believe that in almost every\ncase they went back strengthened for their own work and certainly more\naccurately informed as regards ours.\nNext year we are planning to return the compliment on their invitation\nand send our men to visit the schools. We have no doubt that we shall\nprofit in a great many ways by this interchange. This type of visiting has\nbeen done on a small and impromptu scale for a long time, but we hope, by\ndoing it more systematically and regularly, to build up a reliable body of\ninformation by means of which the schools and the university may understand one another better.\nIn the great commonwealths where strong state universities are found,\nthe possibilities of this intimate personal interchange ougit to be very large.\nBut there is nothing to prevent the essential features of the plan from being\nput into operation in all parts of the coimtry, and the speaker repeats that\nin the direction of this more immediate personal contact and intercourse on\nthe part of the schools and the colleges is in his judgment to be sought the\nnext important step forward in the cementing of their common interests.\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMUNICIPAL\n\nTHE MUNICIPAL\nCHARLES\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nWILLIAM DABNEY,\nCINCINNATI,\n\nAND\n\nITS WORK\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE\nCINCINNATI,\nOHIO\n\n773\n\nITS WORK\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nIt has frequently been said that the city is the imsolved problem of the\ndemocracy. This is true, in a measure, but we should not be discouraged,\nfor Americans have only recently taken up seriously this problem of the\ncity. In the past we have attended to our private business and let the\nsaloon-keepers and the bosses run our cities for us.\nThere was, of course, an explanation for this attitude. In their struggle\nto conquer a new continent, our pioneer fathers, who by themselves established homes in the forests or on the prairies, developed individualism to a\npoint that has made it difl&cult for their children to learn to co-operate\nwith their fellows, as city dwellers must do. The citizenship of our towns,\nmade up largely of country people trained in these individualistic methods,\nis naturally opposed to co-operative plans of living and working. It has\ntaken them several generations to find out that the methods of the pioneer\nin the forest are not the methods to be followed by his grandson in the city.\nThus it has come to pass that, outside of a few eastern cities, we have almost\nno experienced city residents or trained leaders in municipal affairs. All\nthe original laws, for town as well as country, were made to fit these primitive rural conditions. Thru the legislatures our cities are to a great extent\nstill governed by the rural districts in accordance with the individualistic\nprinciples and ideas of country people. City people are only just beginning\nto assert themselves and contend for home-rule.\nAnd still few citizens of the cities possess the civic mind. With many\ncity dwellers the curbstones around their home lots still seem to mark the\nlimit of their civic interests. Where organized at all, they work only\nthru neighborhood associations for little local improvements. As a whole,\nthe citizenship of our cities has not yet developed the larger mind which\nsees the city as one great co-operative society. From the civic point of\nview, the first problem of the schools is to teach people how to live and work\ntogether, that is, to co-operate in local, political, and economic matters as\nthey do in business. Thru the public schools this is now being done to\na greater degree than heretofore, and the people are gradually being educated to solve their own problems in accordance with the necessities of city\nlife as opposed to country life. The universities also are beginning to\ntrain men to study the city's problems and to do the city's work. Upon\nthem rests the more serious part oE this task, the training of the administrators, economists, engineers, and sanitarians.\nSince the applications of science to government and industrial life\nhave become so extensive, it is now necessary to educate men for service\nin an increasing number of new professions. Fifty years ago there were\nfive learned professions; now there are more than fifty and new ones are\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ndeveloping every day. Especially in the cities is this demand for trained\nmen and women growing at a rapid rate. The city now needs hmidreds\nof trained persons for its higher scientific and social professions where the\ncoimtry needs ten. Most of these must necessarily be educated in their\nhome cities. Thus it has come to pass that the city must have its own\nuniversity, and that the university of the city must be a different kind of\ninstitution from the private or state university. The municipal university\nis justified by the needs of the city itself.\nHow then shall the city train its public servants ? Shall it rely upon\nstate and private institutions for this service ? If it does, only the sons\nand daughters of the well-to-do will be benefited. To exclude the poor\nfrom the opportunities of this higher education, or to train them at the\nboimty of the wealthy, is repugnant to our democratic ideals. It is well\nenough for private institutions to give scholarships to promising poor\nscholars, but it is more American to provide the means of instruction and\ntraining at public expense, and so enable all qualified youth to use them\nfreely. If equality of opportunity is the fimdamental principle of our\ninstitutions, we must provide opportunity for the poor, as well as for the\nrich, to get the higher, as well as the lower, education. Experience shows\nthat the city must look to its own young men and women to do its work, for\nonly thus can it get all the workers it requires.\nThe mimicipal university should thus be the head of the city's system\nof schools and its entire intellectual, scientific, industrial, and social life.\nAs the brain commands and ministers to all the organs of the body, so\nthe city university should supply stimulation and direction to all parts\nof the body poUtic.\nWhile the first duty of the municipal university is to train men, its\npeculiar relations to its supporting people create for it a rare opportunity for active institutional service. If city problems are still the greatest\nproblems of the democracy, where, if not to its own university, shall the\ncity turn for help in the solution? Indeed, is not our entire system of\nhigher education on trial, when thus hauled out of its isolation and set\nover against the needs of a busy, swarming center of population like\nthe modem city ? Are not universities for the promotion of better living\nas well as for learning and research ? The imiversity should not be a thing\napart any more than the common school. Like the common school, it\nexists to promote the life of the common people. Twenty years ago\n\"university extension\" was the fashion. The very name \"extension\"\nimplied that the university was confined and needed to be set free to serve.\nHas \"university extension\" extended the imiversities ? Not very much,\nI fear, but the service of the people is rapidly extending some of them.\nSome of the great state universities especially have manifested recently a\ngrowing consciousness of their duty to the public. The services of the\nUniversity of Wisconsin, and others of that type, are splendid illustrations\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMUNICIPAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nITS WORK\n\n775\n\nof what can be done by such institutions to promote the agricultural,\nindustrial, and political, as well as the educational interests of their states.\nThe municipal university, owing to the closeness of its relations with its\nconstituency, can perform similar kinds of public service, which would\nbe impracticable for state and private institutions. Perhaps, after all,\nit is the fires of our modern city life which shall remove the dross of our\ntraditional academic inheritance, leaving the pure gold of truth to enrich\nour social democracy.\nCo-operation, the characteristic method of the democracy, becomes,\nthus, the working plan of the city university. By reason of its proximity\nit has a rare opportunity by co-operating with the various local establishments, the public schools, libraries, museums, social settlements, hospitals,\nand factories, to train men to serve the practical needs of the community.\nThe educational principle involved, the mutual helpfulness of theory and\npractice, is the only sound one on which to build any institution for human\nbetterment.\nIn putting emphasis on this phase of the municipal university's work,\nwe do not, however, overlook the other side. Professor Tawney has well\nsaid:\nAs the city does not exist for the sake of the university, so the university does not\nexist merely for the sake of the city. Neither of these formulations of the matter conveys\nthe whole truth of this vital relation between city and college. The underlying presup osition ofthe city university is not a municipal theory of university values, but\nrather an educational theory of all municipal values. The ultimate apology for the\nexistence of the city is the education of men and women. The ultimate criterion of values\nin city institutions, city customs, and city affairs is the educational criterion. The\nimportant question to be asked in any municipality is not, \"Are you growing more populous and more wealthy?\" but rather, \"Are you producing men?\" The city really is,\nand actually ought to be, one vast educational institution, in which no man can live and\nnot know with what great destinies knowledge has come into the world, in which every\nlife shall be touched by the torch from the altar of truth, and in which no laws, customs,\nor institutions will be possible which are inconsistent with this, the city's chief business.\n\nThis we believe to be the foremost methodological principle of the\ncity university, that the city, as a whole, exists with the university as a\npart of it for no other ultimate reason than that all men who dwell in her\ncorporate limits and influence may be strong and true. The purpose of the\ncity university is to teach men the truth that they may be effectively free.\nHaving been requested by the committee to discuss this subject, and\nthere being no other municipal university with which to illustrate the\nprinciples and proposals here made, I am compelled to draw my illustrations from the University of Cincinnati.\nThis company of school men will at least be interested in the system\nof training teachers and promoting the schools carried on by the Board\nof Education and the University of Cincinnati in co-operation. The\nCollege for Teachers is under the joint management of these two institu-\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ntions, which work thru an executive committee consisting of the superintendent of schools, the president of the university, and one member from\neach board. The college receives financial support from both. The\nCollege of Liberal Arts of the university, the Kindergarten Training\nSchool — ^an independent institution — and the Art Academy supply a\nlarge part of the instruction for the several programs of the College for\nTeachers. The Board of Education gives the use of four of its schools,\nchanged each year, for practice, and also the assistance of its supervisors,\nwho co-operate with the professors of the college in training the candidates.\nThe plan has been in harmonious and successful operation for seven years\nand has the hearty support of the teachers and the people.\nHigh-school graduation, with sixteen approved units, is required for\nadmission to the four years' course, which leads to the degree of bachelor\nof arts in education and a license to teach in Cincinnati schools. The\nfirst two years are taken up with the study of the subjects required in the\nCollege of Arts and the last two years are devoted to specialization in\nsubjects selected by the student and to professional study and practice.\nThis practice work is largely confined to the Senior year and runs parallel\nwith the courses in methods begun in the Junior year. Out of the one\nhundred and twenty-four credits required for the bachelor of arts degree,\nthe College of Liberal Arts allows twenty-four in education. The tendency,\nhowever, is to take the regular bachelor of arts degree first and to devote\na fifth year to professional studies and training for the bachelor of arts in\neducation.\nThese graduates are then placed on a preferred list for appointment\nwithout further examination, except on professional work, and at a salary\nof $150 more a year than that paid other new teachers. Until the supply\nof these graduates is sufficient, a few persons will still be appointed from\nthe outside, or from a list of those examined in the old way. The time is\nrapidly approaching, however, when all the vacancies will be filled from\nthis preferred list of graduates in education.\nThe professors and supervisors continue to look after the newly\nappointed teacher for some time, and it is only after this further test of\nher work that she receives permanent appointment in the schools. The\nTeachers College also co-operates with the superintendent in examining\nother teachers and in recommending for promotion in the schools. It\nwill be seen, thus, that this plan makes the faculty of the college an authority\nin relation to all the educational work in the schools.\nIn the College for Teachers, a similar department, in charge of the\nprofessor of secondary education, performs corresponding service for the\nsecondary schools. An interesting plan has been worked out whereby\nthis department is made the center of all the university's influence and\nservice to secondary education. The professor of secondary education,\nwho is the supervisor of the city high schools for the Board of Education,\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nMUNICIPAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nITS WORK\n\n777\n\nis also the director of affiliated schools for the university and secretary\nof its board of admission. This plan concentrates in one office the direction\nand supervision of all the courses of study and professional work in the\nsecondary schools, not only of the city, but of the accredited list as well.\nIt is evident that this complete and effective organization is only possible\nwhere the city and the university are in position to co-operate. Under\nthe unique conditions in Cincinnati, the plan is working successfully, to\nthe great benefit of both the high schools and the imiversity.\nIn addition to the four years' course, described above, the College\nfor Teachers and the College of Liberal Arts give many courses for the\nbenefit of the teachers in the afternoons and on Saturdays. In order to\nmake them as convenient as possible, external classes in college subjects\nare held in the public-school and library buildings in different parts of the\ncity. The college also holds grade conferences for the discussion of the\nsubject-matter and methods of teaching in the different grades. Under\nthe rules of the Board of Education, a teacher applying for promotion, or\nfor appointment as principal, must first qualify by getting certain college\ncredits, which may be obtained in this way in our university, or by summer\nwork in other universities of corresponding grade. This encourages the\nteacher to improve these various opportunities for study and advancement.\nIt is impossible to convey in words all the benefits to our schools and\nteachers which have come from these efforts, but every principal and\nsuperintendent will appreciate the value of this service in preparing better\nteachers and in stimulating and improving those already in the schools.\nThe appreciation of Cincinnati teachers is best shown by the fact that\nout of the 1,076 teachers in our public schools in a recent year, 623 had\ntaken some courses in the university. One hundred and fifty-nine were\ngraduates of the university. In one of the intermediate schools, out of\na total of 27 teachers, 17 have taken courses in the university and six\nare graduates. Of the 22 teachers in one of the best equipped grade schools,\n18 have taken university courses and two are graduates. Of the 128\nteachers in the high schools of Cincinnati, 79 have taken work in this\nuniversity and 45 are graduates.\nThe faculty of the College for Teachers also act as a board of experts\nwhenever called upon. They have helped in the preparation of building\nplans, in the arrangement of laboratories, in laying out courses of study,\nand in organizing new schools. The dean and faculty of the College of\nEngineering have rendered assistance also in planning industrial education\nand working out plans for continuation schools and technical high schools.\nThe university furnished the directors and workers for the Schmidlapp\nBureau for the investigation of the condition and preparation of working\ngirls. An interesting development is the bureau for the physical, psychological, and social examination of the children who apply to the superintendent's office for permits to go to work. The child and his environment\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Highe.\n\nare here carefully studied by experts before permission is given; and,\nwhen it has been, he is followed for a nimiber of years, for the purpose\nof studying his development and caring for his every interest. These\nare only a few of the things that have grown out of this service of the\nuniversity to the schools.\nThru the Department of Political Science, the university has co-operated\nwith the city government in many ways. Plans for a municipal reference\nlibrary are now being made. The Department of Social Science and the\nUniversity Settlement have co-operated with the various philanthropies\nand charities in the effort to eliminate duplications and to bring the many\nexcellent institutions into harmonious relations. Out of this have already\ncome great improvements in parks and playgrounds and a strong movement\nto make social centers of the schoolhouses.\nThe several proprietary medical schools of Cinciimati were imited\nand brought into the university and made into a University Medical\nCollege of high grade. One result of this has been the erection of a great\nnew city hospital near. the university. The laboratory of the hospital\nis under the control of the College of Medicine and the medical service is\nperformed by its professors. The health board is also organized in intimate\nrelations with the Medical College and provides practical instruction in\ndisinfection and in the inspection of milk, meat, markets, etc., for the\nmedical students, who work under the direction of the health officers on a\nco-operative plan similar to that in the College of Engineering.\nThis co-operative course in the Engineering College of the University\nof Cincinnati has been so fully described in the press that I need only\nrecall it to your memories. It is sufficient to say that, after a trial of\nsix years, it has been found a successful method of training a superior\ntype of engineer.\nTime is lacking to mention other co-operative services of this university. Ican only say in conclusion that eight years' experience in Cincinnati has not only convinced us of the thoro practicability of these methods\nof co-operadon in education, but also has taught us that this is the best\nway we can help to solve the problem of the American city.\nDISCUSSION\nW. W. Boyd, dean of the College of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus,\nOhio. — ^The excellent paper to which we have just listened bristles with suggestions\nregarding the opportunity which is offered the municipal university to assist the city.\nInasmuch as cities generally have not availed themselves of this form of assistance, it was\nnot thought by the speaker that the question proposed for this discussion was meant to\nlimit it to the mimicipal university. Indeed, if it were, it might be very proper to consider the biurden of maintenance of such assistance in trying to discover the value of\nco-operation. The experience of Toledo in its effort to found a city university, if it does\nnot now present an educational comedy, may soon develop an educational tragedy. In a\nletter written a few days ago by a citizen of Toledo, he says:\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMUNICIPAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nITS WORK\n\n779\n\n. I beg to draw your attention to the diversion of public funds from more needed public\nutilities. Our Board of Education, as you well know, is making every effort to give our\npublic-school system the highest degree of efl&ciency. This can be secured only by large\nfinancial resources. We are confronted by a pending danger that the Board of Education\nmust reduce its annual levy in order to make way for a university scheme.\nBut it was not supposed that the discussion was meant to develop the merits of the\nmunicipal university. The very certain testimony given by Dr, Dabney, which might\nbe corroborated in many ways, leaves little room to doubt the efficiency of the University\nof Cincinnati in aiding the city of Cincinnati, especially thru its public-school system.\nBut every university has the opportunity to make itself serviceable to the city, and\nthe city in turn in which is located a university can do much to aid that university. To\ndevelop in our thoughts the methods of co-operation is one of the objects of this discussion.\nDr. Dabney begins his paper with a statement which has become common among students\nof political science, viz., that the problem of democracy is the government of the city.\nTo the solution of that problem, every university should lend itself. Most of the graduates of our universities will become residents in cities. They will be leaders of thought\nand action and, therefore, should be informed regarding municipal civic questions and\nshould be inspired to enter into movements for the realization of the highest civic ideals.\nTo that end, our departments of political science need to descend from a pedestal of\nscholastic attainments in theories of government and teach some methods of reforming\npresent-day conditions. Where a university is located in a city, the city affords to such\na department, usually with the willing assistance of its officials, the laboratory opportunities for study and research. The practical problems of city government come within\nthe easy and direct reach of the department. Both instructors and students can make such\na study with leisurely deductions from facts discerned as the busy official engaged in the\nroutine of office and enmeshed in the web of ward politics cannot make. This opportunity\nof study develops in the university student that mental activity and perspicacity which\nmake him powerful for service. Moreover, it develops a clear observation of a practical\nuse for his power. If immediate suggestion for improvement in the city service is not\nfollowed, at least the future is brightened by the assurance that a newer and more\nenlightened service will be rendered by the practically educated young man when he\nenters upon life's duties. Here is co-operation.\nIt takes only a casual observer to notice the development in the university departments of sociology and economics due to the use made by these departments of city\norganizations such as associated charities, police courts, juvenile courts, jails, social\nworkers' clubs and guilds, and due also to the study of tenement districts, methods of\nhousing, hospitals, etc. Such study has enlarged the field of knowledge, modified the\nmethods of teaching, and given a new interest to the Second Great Commandment: this\nhas been the city's contribution to the university. In turn, the university thru these\ndepartments has offered suggestions and theories for social betterment, and has furnished\nin students and teachers many earnest and enthusiastic social workers.\nThere is probably no one here who is not acquainted with many schemes of cooperation now in practice between our universities and cities. It seems to be especially\ntrue that state universities are being linked rapidly to the cities of their states in\nco-operative movements. The university expert is called for constant consultation. A\nshort time ago one city wanting to improve its water system sent to the state university\nfor chemical and civil engineers in order to survey a river system which was supplying the\ncity. In another city, where a controversy had arisen between a city council and a fuelgas company regarding the supply of natural gas, experts were sought from the state\nuniversity to make an investigation of the gas fields, supply, pressure, transference, cost,\netc. In still another city, where the pottery industries prevail, there is a close relation\nmaintained with the ceramic departments of the state university. Dr. Dabney lays\nespecial emphasis upon the complete and effective plans of co-operation between the\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "780\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nUniversity of Cincinnati and the public schools of Cincinnati. The splendid results in\nprofessional training and efficiency of service upon the teaching corps of Cincinnati cannot\nbe doubted by anyone acquainted with the facts.\nSo we might multiply instances of co-operation. Yet these are only a beginning\nsuggesting to us how the university is to get away from the old conception of a service\nfor the individual, how it is to use its organization for a direct service to society, and how\ncenters of population are to lend themselves to the university in a service for increasing\nknowledge and inspiring men and women to a zeal in the solution of one of the modern\nproblems.\n\nTHE RELATION OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY TO OTHER\nPARTS OF THE SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION\nGEORGE\n\nr. JAMES,\n\nDEAN OF THE\nOF MINNESOTA,\n\nCOLLEGE OF EDUCATION,\nMINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe relation of the state university to other parts of the system of\npublic instruction has been practically worked out in this coiuitry with a\nfair degree of efficiency and without very much friction. The state university has responded to the demands of public opinion in vitalizing the\nvarious grades of schools in the system of which it is the head and has\nsought out and improved opportunities of usefulness. The relation which\nit should bear to the great series of rural, graded, and high schools within\neach commonwealth offers still many problems difficult of solution but\nthe purpose of this paper is not to consider these questions in detail, but\nrather to suggest a kind of administrative machinery under which efforts\nat frictionless co-operation may most easily prove successful.\nIn very few states has public education been so organized as to secure\ncentralized authority and responsibility capable of unifying and harmonizing all educational energy of a public t>Tpe. For many reasons, the greatest\nneed in public education, in the United States today, appears to be for a\nstate board of education which shall have complete direction of elementary\nand secondary schooling and which shall formulate the policy and determine the relationships between the various institutions which do not\ncome within the field so described. The policy of a separate controlling\nboard of regents or trustees for a state university seems to be justified\nfully by experience, and no argument whether of economy or unity appears\neither in theory or in practice to justify the inclusion of the highest educational agency of the state, namely, the state university, in a scheme of\nundifferentiated control of public education together with the lower schools\nof various grades and other educational and so-called charitable institutions supported by public taxation. A separate board of supervision and\ndirection for state normal schools has also worked well in practice and may\nwell enough be continued. The mutual relations, however, of these schools\nto the imiversity and other educational institutions of various types which\nnow exist or may hereafter be established should be determined not merely\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nin outline by legislation but in continuous\ncentralized authority.\nThe plan developed here includes:\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nadministration\n\n781\n\nby more\n\nc) A state board of education with a small membership appointed, for as long a\nterm as may prove practicable, by the governor of the state, this board to be composed\nof no ex officio members, but of intelligent and public-spirited laymen who will serve\nwithout pay and who will devote the time necessary to carry on a policy of education\naffirmed by public opinion and crystallized by legislation.\nb) A state superintendent of public instruction elected by the board of education for\na term of not less than six years at an adequate salary, with powers and responsibilities\nprecisely indicated and safeguarded by legislative enactment, which shall aim to secure\nthe highest type of executive ability with a guaranty of general culture and professional\ntraining and proof of successful teaching and supervisory experience.\nc) A department of public instruction with sufficient assistants, supervisors, and\ndirectors to act with the state superintendent as a cabinet and to organize and administer\nthe various kinds of schools of elementary and secondary grade with the special types\nof instruction now included in public education.\nd) An examining and supervisory board whose duty it shall be to license for pubHcschool teaching on the basis of legislative provisions which shall establish a high minimum\nof general studies and professional training, and to maintain impartially and with the\nmost careful scrutiny the single principle of efficiency as the condition of admission to\nthe work of teaching.\ne) Such other agencies for the extension of educational opportunity as the state\nmay decide to affirm under the form of reading-circles, teachers' institutes, summer schools,\nschool libraries, all of these to be systematized and directed as part of the work of the\nstate department of public instruction.\n\nThe proposals here made contain absolutely nothing that is novel\nor that has not in one form or another already been put into practice by\nvarious states. In only one instance does it appear that as complete a\nsystem as this has been organized in any commonwealth and there is reason\nto conclude that the men and women most directly concerned with public\neducation can with advantage focus much of their thought and energy\non the general establishment of this kind of a plan for centralized\nadministration of educational interests.\nDISCUSSION\nEdward C. Elliott, professor of education. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n— My own analysis of the relation of the state university to the other parts of the system\nof public instruction will, I fear, be somewhat sketchy and incomplete when compared\nwith the detailed, comprehensive presentation of Dean James; furthermore, the absence\nof any previous opportunity to familiarize myself with the direction and content of his\nargument has resulted in a certain amount of repetition • in my defining of the\nfundamental issues involved.\nThe relation that the modern state university bears to the other parts of the educational system of the state has at least six forms. The several individual forms of this\nrelation may be distinguished as: (i) professional; (2) academic; (3) serviential; (4)\nscientific; (5) civic; (6) reciprocating.\nEach may be defined briefly in order.\nI. The professional relation. — By this is meant the proper professional preparation of\ncompetent teachers — especially teachers for public secondary schools — and supervisors\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nand directors of public-school work. The responsibilities inhering in this relation cannot\nbe evaded or neglected. The public high school, as a potent factor in our educational\neconomy, is today in the balance. It will remain in the balance just so long as the great\nmajority of the teachers in this school possess the prevailing abbreviated and inadequate\ntraining. Our present standards, of education for secondary-school teachers will have to\nbe raised uncounted degrees before the typical high-school teacher will be fitly qualified for\nservice. While the state universities have offended no more in this respect than other\ninstitutions of higher rank, state and non-state, it may, nevertheless, be charged that\nyearly they place their stamp of approval and their mark of promise of meritorious performance upon so many of their graduates having abilities too commonplace and an\nequipment for teaching too mediocre, that they cannot avoid the suspicion of having\nfailed to carry out the obligation of their professional relationship to the lower schools.\nThe oft-repeated statement that these teachers are as good as the schools pay for is but\na platitudinous apology. The truth is that the state universities need to devote as much\nenergy and time and ability to convincing the people of their commonwealths of the value\nof the teacher in the public school as they have already devoted to convincing the\nagricultural population of the worth of pure-bred stock. The former problem is no\nmore difficult than the latter.\n2. The academic relation. — This is a new name for an old problem; nevertheless, no\nstate imiversity can hope to contribute to the establishment and development of educational standards thruout the school system ualess it meets justly and firmly the questions\nof the proper preparation of those who seek to enter it and to acquire its benefits, whether\nthese benefits be intellectual, moral, or economic. If domination is the conventional\nterm to apply to this relationship of responsibility, then there must inevitably be domination oflower schools by higher schools. Yet, this domination must be characterized by\na justice, a skill, and a foresight that measure future benefits to student and to state.\n3. The serviential relation. — In spite of the idealism, the enthusiasm, the faith, each\nAmerican community presents complicated educational situations. That effective\nresponses to the situations may be assured there should be, at some point in the educational organization, at least one place to which individuals and communities may freely\nturn for guidance, advice, and assistance. Whether it be the construction and arrangement of a new school building, the modification and adaptation of the program of study,\nthe selection of books, the form and methods for proper statistical records and fiscal\naccounts, or the establishment of new forms of educational activity, this direct personal\nservice must be accessible.\nMoreover, in the rendering of these many varieties of service the university that has\nnot relinquished its claim upon the confidence and support of the people cannot afford to\ndelay until appeal is made. It must make itself familiar with these situations, local and\nstate. For only as the men of the university know the schools outside of the walls of\nthe university will they be able to render rightful ser\\'ice within the walls of the university.\nThis relationship does not signify any assumption of duty or any usurpation of\nauthority of the existing constituted governmental agencies. On the other hand, it\nmeans an unearned increment of advantage to these agencies.\n4. The scientific relation. — Every child, every schoolroom, every school system,\npresents a multitude of educational problems which have not yet been scientifically\nattacked. These problems demand study and investigation. If the university does not\nimdertake this form of research, it will not be undertaken. It must pioneer today on a\nscientific frontier where there are but few settlers. The scientific problems of education\ncannot be solved in the political forum, nor can they be dismissed by frequent oracular\nutterances of the self-inspired.\nS- The civic relation. — Public education is our most important public undertaking.\nAt this point, more than at any other, democracy must demonstrate its potency. The\nlargest contribution of our public higher institutions of learning must be thru the increase\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO REACH\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENT\n\n783\n\nof civic leadership. To inspire all those who come within its walls, seeking either the\ngeneral culture of our civilization or the technique of professional education, with the\nideals that underlie the public school, and the fundamentals, political, social, and moral,\nthat must obtain in order that the school may realize its end, constitutes one of the main\navenues of the university's influence. In every graduate the university should be able\nto see a potential public servant of the school.\n6. The reciprocating relation. — It is assumed that the public-school system purposes to be an organic whole. No one of its organized units is independent of the other\norganized units. No one of its special institutions can be maintained independently of\nother special institutions or of the organized units.\nThe old-time educational ladder is disappearing. New forms of secondary education\nare appearing. Toward the resulting institutions as well as toward other higher institutions— ^normal schools and non-state institutions — the university must hold an open\ndoor. And the academic price of admission must not be above that which educational\ncomity requires.\nTo maintain these six relations the university must have means and men. The\nuniversity is neither the head nor the heart of the educational system; but carrying out a\nwhimsical figure of speech, the university is the soul of the public-school system. As in\nthe world of men, the soul cannot disassociate itself from the body and the living body\nremain, so the university cannot disassociate itself from the educational body and leave\nthat body vitalized.\n\nHOW\nSAMUEL\n\nTO REACH THE INDIVIDUAL STUDENT\nCOLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\nAVERY,\n\nCHANCELLOR\nOF THE UNIVERSITY\nLINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nOF\n\nIN OUR\nNEBRASKA,\n\nI shall admit at the outset that I have no general panacea for the\ndifficulties I wish to discuss. No one will be more pleased than I if the\ndiscussion and the paper to follow throw new light on this vexing problem.\nIn fact, after the meeting this afternoon I hope to revise my thoughts on\nthe subject and to incorporate among them the wisdom of my colleagues.\nI am outlining the problem for your consideration, rather than proposing\nnew or startling remedies.\nThe magnitude of the problem. — All of our educators agree that our\neducational development has forced the problem upon us. The old college, with students and faculty equally poverty stricken, had in it certain\nelements of the home life and certain elements of the monastic life. For\nits existence it depended largely upon student tuition and gifts from the\nreligious. It contained two groups, democratic within themselves — the\nfaculty group, with a president whose position was but slightly differentiated from that of the faculty over which he presided, and the student\ngroup, in which, to be sure, there were differences in wealth and social\nstatus, but where these differences were not sufficiently pronounced to\ncause very exact lines of demarkation. Everyone in the institution was\npersonally acquainted with everyone else. Matters of discipline were\nthreshed out in faculty meetings. Such university officials as registrars,\ntreasurers, superintendents of grounds and buildings, and so forth, were\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\npractically unknown. Their functions were exercised by chairmen of\nfaculty committees. I speak of this phase of college development from\npersonal experience, not that my own student days are so far back in the\nhoary past, but because my first college was a frontier school, representing\nthis primitive type, which, once universal, has survived to comparatively\nrecent times. I received my first diploma from a president whose college\nfamily — faculty, students, and all — numbered only about a quarter as\nmany names as the present pay-roll of the University of Nebraska. Today,\nas a general rule, a student must be either very brilliant or very troublesome before the college president becomes personally acquainted with\nhim at all.\nBetween 1830 and 1890 the population of the United States increased\nfour and one-half times, but the number of college students increased\nmore than ten times. During the last twenty years our population has\nincreased approximately one-half, while the niunber of college students\nhas practically quadrupled. Today there are over 200,000 students in\nAmerican institutions of higher learning, as against some 4,000 in 1830.\nOne hundred years ago there was probably not one student to 5,000\nof population. Today, in the state of Nebraska, every community of\n300 has a student in the state university alone, or in one of the university's\nsecondary schools or extension departments. Probably, all told, there\nare about as many more who go outside the state or to denominational\ncolleges.\nDuring the last twenty years the attendance at Harvard has practically\ndoubled. Columbia is, roughly speaking, five times as great, Yale, three\ntimes, Illinois, eleven times, Minnesota and Wisconsin, six times, California, nine times, Cornell, four times, and Michigan, twice as great in\nnumbers as they were twenty years ago. In other institutions the increase\nhas been no less stupendous. It follows inevitably that this enormous\ninflux of students has changed the general character of the student body.\nI think I am safe in saying that in the early days practically all college\nstudents came from cultured homes, or from homes animated by a burning\naspiration for higher things. The students were a selected group — not\nalways selected by the most rational means, but nevertheless vastly different in character, training, antecedents, and ideals from the student\nbodies of today. In the early days the college might say that some of\nits alimini were true, and some were false, \"yet all were stamped with the\nimage of the king.\" Of the graduates of today some of them are true,\nand some are false, but the college die has become so worn that we can\nscarcely find its impress on any of them.\nThe cause of the increase. — I do not agree with those who lament the\ndecline of the cultural and the development of the vocational and technical\ncourses. As a matter of fact, the function of the old college was to train\nmen for \"the learned professions.\"\n\nThe result was that the students were\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO REACH\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENT\n\n785\n\nlargely from the professional, the wealthy, and the conservative classes.\nIf the son of an artisan or a farmer went to college, his object was thereby\nto escape from the sphere in which he was born, to lift himself out of a\n\"lower\" into a ''higher\" class. The college was, in short, a professional\nschool, maintained by and for the professional classes. Now, since the\nperiod of expansion has come, the college has among its numbers many\nwho are not imbued with the professional spirit. In every arts college — at\nleast, in those situated in large cities — ^we find matiu-e students whose\nlife-careers have begun, and who are doing college work simply for the\npleasure of the work. In spite of the pessimists, we have some students\npursuing culture for culture's own sake; and they are not only with us\nin larger mmibers, but also form a larger percentage of the whole than in\nthe older college.\nAnother cause of the influx of students has been the development of\nthe technical and vocational courses. When President Lincoln, in the\ndarkest hours of the Civil War, signed the bill providing for the landgrant colleges, he little realized how it was destined to modify our entire\neducational system. I suspect that the persons who led the movement\nfor the land-grant colleges hardly comprehended what would be the outcome of the cause they were promoting. I sometimes wonder what would\nhave been the result had they provided for strictly trade schools, in the\nmechanic arts and in agriculture, and had not tried to place these institutions on the same academic footing as the older colleges. But such speculations are idle. The word \"college\" was written in the land-grant act,\nand we have interpreted a college to mean an institution with a four-year\ncourse, superimposed upon a four-year high-school course. With the\nexception of a few business and barbers' colleges under private control,\nalmost all the institutions of the country have accepted this definition;\nhence the invasion of the college world by an industrial army.\nAnother cause of the increase in the number of college students is the\nsocial element. The current periodicals are full of discussion of the social\nusurpation of our colleges. The unrestrained life of American young\npeople — a life more buoyant, more exuberant, and more uncontrolled\nthan exists anywhere else in the world — finds its social expression in our\nschools. The favorite ready-made clothing advertisement is a picture of\na supposed group of college men. Other events in the world of sport are\nentirely eclipsed by the annual football games between certain institutions.\nThe annual \"proms\" of some organizations in certain schools are reported\nto cost the students one hundred dollars each for the expenses of a single\nevening. Girls in danger of \"a nervous breakdown from overstudy\"\nsometimes dance until three o'clock in the morning. One-fourth of a\nstudent's entire yearly expenses may go to help the organization to which\nhe belongs to outshine its rivals. Is it any wonder, then, that in the\nso-called cultural colleges there is universal complaint of lack of student\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Higher\n\nseriousness, while, generally speaking, those in charge of the technical\nschools find their problem much simpler? I^Tor is it strange that this\nmighty increase in numbers should have introduced into our colleges new\nand bafiling elements, such as to demand our most earnest thought and\nchallenge our highest abilities.\nThe effect on college life. — I have made some incidental reference to\nthe effect which this influx must inevitably have. Critics of the college\nare too apt to emphasize what seems blameworthy, without any very\ncareful consideration of the college problem as a whole. Broadly speaking,\nthe increase in the numbers of those who seek knowledge for its own sake\nis wholesome. Their point of view is likely to be sane, their view of life\nserious. In fact, my personal experience leads me to think him the ideal\nstudent who blends the desire for culture with the desire for efficiency, who\ndesires financial success in order to benefit his community both as a scholar\nand as a citizen. Every college has many of this type.\nOn the other hand, the technical students are frequently those who\nsupport themselves, who receive from the college very little but technical\ninstruction, who acquire little college spirit, and whose ideals of life are\nnot much modified by their stay on the campus.\nThe social element of college life should not be condemned; the condemnation should fall on its excesses. Many an awkward boy or girl\nhas thru its influence become fitted to perform in society a higher work\nthan would otherwise have been possible. It has eliminated crudities,\nremoved rough corners, and made the unsocial student a social being.\nNevertheless, the influx of those whom the social element attracts has\nbrought into college life many of the things which we must deplore.\nThe popular statement that \"\nCollege is a mighty good winter\nresort for a man if one has the price,\" does not fairly characterize one of\nthe most honored of American institutions, but it does show the attitude\nof certain students there. Where even part of its students live in such an\natmosphere, we could hardly expect an institution to be free from corrupting influences. Every college president knows, and if he is frank will\nadmit, that there is some truth in the strictures of the late Mr. Crane.\nOf course, by using Mr. Crane's methods one could condemn any hmnan\ninstitution. The fact, however, that the college is becoming a more and\nmore potent factor in American life makes stuSent morals and student\nestimation of ethical principles of supreme importance. The story widely\ncirculated and commonly believed, tho emphatically denied by some who\nhave looked into the matter, that in the destruction by fire of a fraternity house at one institution the students lost their lives because they\nwere too intoxicated to escape, and the other story of the drunken student\nwho blundered into the wrong apartment and was shot as a burglar, are\nsufficiently well known to make every college president wonder whether\nconditions having a tendency to cause such things are not present in his\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO REACH\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENT\n\n787\n\nown institution. One hesitates to make sweeping charges, and prefers\nto quote, so that the first author may bear the responsibility; hence I\nquote from Birdseye:\nIn many of our larger colleges and universities, and in too many of our smaller ones,\na very considerable part of the college home life is rotten — terribly so. Some of the\nsmaller and older colleges, with grand records in the past, have as low a standard in student morals as the larger universities. Some of the worst conditions prevail in minor\ndenominational institutions which are presumed to be ultra-religious and to be the chief\nplaces for furnishing clergymen for such denominations. Lest these statements be too\nsweeping, let me again caution the reader that each institution must be judged by itself,\nand stand or fall alone, and at the particular period under review.\n\nWhenever we feel sure that student morals in any of our schools are\nas they should be, let us rejoice; but let us never for a moment relax the\nvigilance of our watchfulness for wrong tendencies, and our opposition to\nanything that will lower the moral or ethical tone of our institutions of\nhigher learning.\nThe ultra-social element in our colleges has meant a marked lowering\nof standards for certain groups of college young women. In my own college days most of the \"co-eds\" were more or less of the school-ma'am\ntype. There was some frivolous courtship, I admit, but relatively little\nsocial frivolity. No young women of that day would tolerate the semiflirtatiousness, the near-profanity, the easy-going use of first names on\nshort acquaintance, and the other almost intangible things which make\nup an atmosphere lower in tone, but common enough nowadays to pass\nalmost unnoticed in certain social sets. The difiiculty in combating\nthese and other tendencies is that the young people in each institution\nfeel that they should be allowed to go just a little farther than would be\ntolerated anywhere else. If the publications of other colleges contain\nnaughty pictures, the local institution certainly is bigoted if it will not\n\"stand for\" dirty ones, and anyone attempting to uphold the standard\nof decency followed in the better Christian, Mohammedan, or Shinto\nhomes is accused of trying to run a university on a Sunday-school basis.\nNevertheless, the public makes a mistake in assuming that these things\nneed be tolerated in student life. A college is like a community: it contains the careful and the careless, the thoughtful and the thoughtless, the\nPuritan and the liberal. The administration may be compared to the\ngovernment of a city: it may stand for wide-open conditions — in other\nwords, it may tolerate those things which degrade — or it may exert itself\nto make it easy for the students to do right and diflficult for them to do\nwrong.\nThe problem of dishonesty has existed ever since human relations\nbegan. Naturally it was simpler in the old college, where examinations\nwere to a considerable extent oral, where classes were small, and where\npersonal relations between professors and students were close. I cannot\nbelieve that this evil ha^ been growing faster than present conditions\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(Higher\n\nmight lead us to expect. The system of handing in written work has been\nthe source of an enormous amount of dishonesty. A written exercise\nseems so impersonal to the student that he is very much inclined to go\nthru the motions of preparing it along the line of least resistance. Tho\nI would be the last person to try to dictate to my colleagues in departmental\nmatters, I often wish every university professor could read Kipling's\nJungle Book, where the old German forester, speaking of his official reports,\nprotests against having to do' so much \"paper chewing\" when he ought\nto be about his work. Having spent three semesters in a German university where no written work whatever was required, I cannot but feel\nthat our faculties are somewhat responsible for the growth of \"cribbing.\"\nBut whatever may be the cause, dishonesty is one of our most serious\nproblems, because unless surrounded by an atmosphere of intense honesty,\neven classical culture may produce such leaders as Abe Ruef.\nWhat is to he done? — We have very generally given up the old idea\nthat college men and women should be allowed to lead their own lives and\ndevelop in their own way, faculty supervision stopping with the curriculum.\nBoys and girls of seventeen, fresh from the high school, are not college men\nor college women. To be sure, they have reached the age at which, even\nhad they remained at home, close family control would have been relaxed.\nNo one would expect the college to exercise the supervision necessary in\nthe secondary schools, yet in some way the college must see to it that its\natmosphere is not poisonous to the better things in young life. Of course,\nduring this period the student resents any pressure or disciplinary authority.\nAnd yet students accept certain phases of discipline without complaint.\nIn no school of any standing is there any complaint over the elimination\nof those who do not make passing grades. In some schools expulsions\nfor cheating meet with student approval. On the other hand, in nearly\nall schools opposition is encoimtered in disciplining students for drunkenness, inmioral suggestion, or riotous conduct. Even in the endowed institution discipline of any such sort is almost always followed by violent\nnewspaper attacks on the college officials, and even, sometimes, by sensational lawsuits. After all, the ideal supervision is a preventive remedy.\nOur colleges and universities need more, rather than less of it. Harsher\ndiscipline is surgery, to be used only when necessary to save life.\nA teacher's professional duties fall into three relatively distinct\ndivisions: first, his duty to his subject; second, his duty to his students;\nthird, his duty to the community. The three overlap, and to divide his\ntime equitably is a serious problem. The greatest scholars are frequently\nthe poorest teachers; occasionally they are leaders in public thought\noutside their special line of activity. I am inclined to believe, however,\nthat if many narrow specialists could only feel what in religious parlance\nis called \"a passion for souls,\" their new emotions would benefit not only\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO REACH\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENT\n\n789\n\ntheir students, but would be to their own advantage as specialists. Even\nthe specialist suffers when he becomes analytical, critical, and cynical\nrather than constructive and sympathetic. But even at the risk of a\nlittle loss in intellectual attainment among college professors, we need a\nrevival of interest in students as human beings. No matter how great\nhis intellectual attainments, the professor who looks upon them merely\nas units in the glory of his department is more or less of a failure in an\nundergraduate college. In addition to an active personal interest on the\npart of the professors, every institution should require certain courses\nin such subjects as hygiene, public health, public and private ethics. These\ncourses should be taught by broad, liberal, and sympathetic men, inspired\nby the more charitable view of student life which must precede any real\nethical progress in American colleges.\nThe college authorities must do more than they have heretofore done\nin properly umpiring — ^if I may use the term — student activities. College\nofficials must see to the elimination of graft in student organizations;\nmust see to it that favors and promotions are not passed out as matters\nof social or organization favor; must prevent the existence of societies\nwhose memberships are concealed. In the student state students should\ncontrol; they must have freedom, but nevertheless in every case a faculty\nor administrative officer should have authority to see that everything is\ndone honorably, fairly, and on a high ethical plane.\nIn many institutions there is already a dean of men whose business it\nis to keep in touch with the students, to know them personally and socially,\nto sympathize with them, to be their friend and adviser. In our larger\nuniversities it would not be out of place to divide the student body into\ngroups, and assign to each group an official with no other duties than to\ngive all possible assistance to the students in his group.\nAs I said in the beginning, however, I am merely outlining the importance and the magnitude of the task. I have attempted to state only\nin a very general way some of the things which might be done. I realize,\nof course, that we shall never have absolutely ideal conditions in student\nlife. But unless we cherish our ideals, we shall never even reach and\nmaintain a standard satisfactory to those who are not idealists. The\nideal university has as its standard not only that intellectual efficiency\neverywhere recognized as desirable; it is an institution without snobbishness or aristocratic tendencies, without idleness, without dishonesty,\nwithout vice. It is permeated with an atmosphere of freedom, unselfishness, frankness, and good will, in which faculty and students by their\nunited efforts train the future leaders of thought and action, and work\ntogether for the betterment of their country and the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\n790\n\nHOW\n\nOUR\n\nCOLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES MAINTAIN PERSONAL RELATIONS WITH THE INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS:\nA REPORT OF AN INVESTIGATION UNDER THE A USPICES\nOF THE DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nARTHUR\n\nR. MEAD,\n\nDE PAUW\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nGREENCASTLE,\n\nIND.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nThe material here presented has been compiled from the returns of a\nquestionnaire. The questions were formulated by the secretary, submitted\nto several university instructors for criticism, and then mailed to 145\ndifferent higher educational institutions. The following is a copy of the\nquestions submitted:\n1. If your institution has a definite policy that members of the teaching force keep\nin close personal contact with the students under their instruction, what administrative\nmachinery is used by the institution to accomplish this purpose ?\n2. If members of your instructional force have supplementary devices for the same\npurpose, what are they ?\n3. If your institution has no definite machinery for this purpose, do the members of\nthe instructional force individually have such devices, and what are they ?\n4. How long has your institution made use of the administrative machinery mentioned inyour first answer ?\n5. If possible, give an estimate of the efficiency of the devices used by your institution\nand by the instructors.\n89\n\n14 of the 145 circulars is\nGeneral tabulation of returns. — ^The distribution\nas follows:\nType of Institution\n\nSectarian and endowed\nState institutions\nWomen's colleges\nMiscellaneous\n\nNo. Receiving\nList of Questions\n\n14s\n55\n\nReturns\n44\n9\n4\n\nTotals\n\nThe investigation is not exhaustive, but gives only descriptive material\n46\nabout typical institutions. While it is to be regretted that replies were not\nreceived from fifty-six institutions, the returns received are from the most\nimportant and largest institutions and are therefore all\nthe more valuable.\n30\n32\nFrom the nature of the returns, it was found impracticable to tabtilate\nthe\nresults upon the same plan as suggested in the questionnaire.\nMethod of handling returns. — ^The returns are tabulated and described\nupon the basis of the device used. This constitutes the larger part of the\nreport, which is followed by a presentation of a few well-organized plans\nnow in use. Lastly, some general facts are indicated in a brief summary.\nThus it is seen that the report does not attempt to deal with the question of\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nRELATIONS\n\nWITH\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n791\n\nsize of faculties, or class enrollment per instructor, altho it is intimately\nrelated to it. Descriptive material is given of the following devices: class\nadvisers; faculty advisers not on class basis; special faculty committee;\nprofessor in charge of major work as adviser; dean and assistant dean as\nadvisers; systems of reports on individual students to administrative\nofficers; required conferences between instructor and student; preceptorial\nsystem; and miscellaneous devices. For purposes of comparison, institutions of 500 and less enrollment are referred to as \"small,\" 500 to 1,500 as\n\"medium,\" and above 1,500 as \"large,\" basing this classification upon the\nenrollment reported to the United States Bureau of Education for 1908-9.\nCLASS\n\nAD\\1SERS\n\nTwenty-two institutions reported the use of the class adviser system in\nsome form. Seven are \"large,\" twelve \"medium,\" and three \"small.\"\nFour institutions of the medium group, Ohio University, Michigan Agricultural College, Pennsylvania State College, and Mt. Holyoke, report\nsatisfaction with the arrangement. All others of the three groups either\ngive no estimate of its efficiency or state that it is unsatisfactory. At Ohio\nUniversity it has been in use eleven years; at Michigan Agricultural and\nMt. Holyoke ten years.\nThe administration varies in almost every institution. At the University of Illinois, the adviser usually limits his work to aid in selection of\ncourses; the other and more personal matters are handled by the dean of\nmen. At Dickinson College, the advisers are known as class deans. At\nWashington University, Vassar College, Yale, California, Wellesley College,\nPennsylvania State, Purdue, Colby, Pennsylvania, and Mt. Holyoke, the\nsystem applies only to Freshmen. At De Pauw, Michigan, Montana, and\nMaine, the system applies to Freshmen and Sophomores. In such cases\nthe upper classmen are cared for by some additional device such as the dean\nor major professor. At Ohio University, Dickinson College, Michigan\nAgricultural College, and Miami University, there are advisers for each of\nthe four classes. Again, great variances are reported as to the number of\nadvisers and the number of students that one adviser has under his charge.\nAt Washington University, there is an adviser for each group of seven or\neight Freshmen; California has twenty-five advisers for the Freshman\nclass; Wellesley provides an adviser for each group of eight or ten Freshmen. At Michigan Agricultural College, the adviser has charge of all the\nmembers of one class in one department, e.g., the Freshmen in engineering.\nPennsylvania State provides an adviser for each group of thirty Freshmen.\nAt Montana, the groups are five to ten in number. Smith provides one\nadviser for each twenty students and Miami has two advisers for the\nFreshmen and one each for the other classes.\nThe system of Yale University is quite complete. Each adviser is\nknown as a division officer, and is selected from the instructors of Freshmen.\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nFor Sophomores, there is a special Board of Class Officers that meets for\ndiscussion of particular cases. After Freshman year, much supervision is\ncarried out by the dean's office. The entire system \"reduces the number\nof men who get into trouble, but is hardly productive of enthusiasm for\ncollege work.\" The system used at the University of California will be\nreferred to in detail later.\nThe selection of the adviser is more often made by the administration\nthan by the individual student.\nFACULTY\n\nADVISERS\n\nNOT\n\nON CLASS\n\nBASIS\n\nTwenty-one institutions report the use of this plan. Seven are \"large,\"\nnine \"medium,\" and five \"small.\" The character and efficiency of this\nplan will be indicated by groups of institutions, \"large,\" \"medium,\"\nand \"small.\"\nLarge. — The University of Nebraska has maintained a general system\nof faculty advisers for three years. It is helpful, but insufficient, because it\nis not always administered in the best spirit. At Minnesota, the system\nhas been in vogue for two years but is rendered inadequate by a very large\nenrollment of students. The College of the City of New York assigns students in groups of twenty to advisers, which plan has been in use for two\nor three years and is unsatisfactory. At New York University, each\nstudent is assigned to a special adviser under whose care he remains until\nthe end of the course. The arrangement \"works excellently.\" At Northwestern University, it has been in use ten years, and in connection with\nreports of delinquency each semester is fairly effective. At Harvard,\nsmall groups of four or less students are under the personal care of a member\nof the faculty.\nMedium.— At Ohio Wesleyan University, there is a system of faculty\nadvisers for fraternities, and, based upon some very pertinent facts, it is\nreported as being very efficient. At the University of Georgia, each\nstudent is provided with an adviser who continues that function during the\nentire course. It has been in vogue four years, and is used in connection\nwith a well-defined system of records and reports for each delinquent\nstudent. Brown University has used the plan ten years. President\nFaunce writes that it \"is a help, but not sufficient to solve the problem.\"\nArkansas reports the use of this means for seven years and that it is reasonably effective. The University of Washington uses this device until the\nstudent selects his major, when the professor in charge of major work\nbecomes the adviser. It has been in use five years. \" The system has had\nto be modified and will be changed further in its details, but in general it\nhas been efficient.\" Amherst reports the use of student advisers for five\nyears'with good results. Johns Hopkins provides an adviser for groups of\nsix students, which remains for the entire course. Reports of scholastic\nwork are sent the adviser five times during the year. This plan has been\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nRELATIONS\n\nWITH\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n793\n\nin use since 1876. \"The efficiency varies with that of the adviser. Some\nadvisers render great service to their students.\" Rensselaer Polytechnic\nInstitute has each group of twenty-five or thirty students under the charge\nof an adviser during the first two years of the course. The adviser reports\nall delinquency to the head of the school. It is reported that it works well.\nThe University of Colorado combines this plan with the major professor\nsystem. It has worked well, in that school, for two years.\nSmall. — Macalester College unites this plan with the major professor\nsystem. Each adviser is responsible for twenty to twenty-five students.\nThere are six advisers appointed by the Board of Trustees. The system\nhas been recently inaugurated, and no estimate can be given of its efficiency.\nAt Swarthmore, each student has a course adviser. Colby College places\nall Freshmen under the personal care of the president of the college, while\nthe upper classmen are divided into groups of ten or twelve, each group\nunder the supervision of a faculty member. This combined plan has\nworked well. The University of North Dakota for four years maintained\na system in which each student had an adviser from the time of matriculation, but which was abandoned because the faculty felt that the relation\nthus established between instructor and student was too artificial. President W. F. Foster, of the recently established Reed College, Portland, Ore.,\nreports that each student will select a counselor \"who will remain his friend\nand guide for his entire college course.\"\nSPECIAL\n\nFACULTY\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nFifteen institutions report the use of committees for this purpose.\nFour are \"large,\" six are \"medium,\" and five are \"small.\" The general\ncharacter of such committees and the names by which they are known vary\nconsiderably. The following list will indicate differences of name:\nDelinquent Students' Committee (Nebraska); Committee of Student Work (Minnesota); Freshman Advisory Committee (Cincinnati); Board of Advisers (Oberlin);\nCommittee on Standing of Students and Freshman Advisory Committee (Lehigh);\nSupervisory Committee (Vanderbilt) ; Committee on Student Welfare (Ohio); Delinquent Committee (Denison); Committee on Religious and Social Life of Students,\n(Wooster); Committee on Daily Class Work of Students (Wyoming); Committee on\nStudent Organizations (Vermont); Committee on Student Affairs and Special Aid to\nFreshmen (Swarthmore); Committee on Student Activities (Florida); Student Committee with Dean as Chairman (Radcliffe).\n\nThe functions of these various committees are indicated, in many cases,\nby their name. In the majority of cases, in each of the three groups of\ninstitutions, the function emphasized is that of rendering aid and service to\nthe delinquent student. In some cases, the committee does nothing except\nupon receipt of report of delinquency of some sort. William Jewell College\nhas recently established four committees — all to care for the delinquent\nstudent group. The Freshman Advisory Committee of the University of\nCincinnati does nothing but look after the details of registration.\nWooster\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nstands uniquely alone with a committee to look after the religious and\nsocial life of students.\nThe efficiency of the committee has been indicated in a few cases.\nWyoming (small) reports that it works well. Denison (medium) says:\n\"Has decidedly reduced tlie number of scholastic failures.\" Swarthmore\n(small) reports the use of committees and course adviser for ten years —\nmost effectively during the last two years — and states that together they\nare \"entirely adequate.\"\nJust why institutions have adopted the custom of using these committees, inmost cases, for the delinquent students, is not for this paper to\ndiscuss; but it seems possible that an extension of functions could be granted\nto these same committees that would make them worth more to their institutions, and perhaps in some cases actually transform an inactive committee\ninto one rendering valuable service. For example, why should a Freshman\nAdvisory Committee be limited to rendering service in registration?\nAgain, the type of committee suggested by Wooster ought to have valuable\npossibilities.\nPROFESSOR\n\nIN CHARGE\n\nOF\n\nMAJOR\n\nWORK\n\nAS\n\nADVISER\n\nThirteen colleges and universities report the use of this plan in some\nform. Four of these are \"large,\" seven are \"medium,\" and two are\n\"small.\" The \"large\" institutions are Leland Stanford Junior, Minnesota,\nWashington, and Pennsylvania. At Pennsylvania, near the end of the\nFreshman year, a student is assigned to a group adviser with whom he\nremains during the rest of his course. \"The Group Adviser is a member of\nthe department in which lies one of his groups or major subjects. The\nGroup Adviser has the additional duty of having planned for him such a\ncourse as seems specially suited to him.\" At Washington, as soon as \"the\nmajor subject is selected the major professor becomes the student's\nadviser.\" \"The system has had to be modified — ^but in general it has been\nefficient \" for five years. The plan is rendered very inefficient at Minnesota\nby a large and increasing enrollment. Leland Stanford provides that each\nstudent on entering register in a major department, in which he must take\n40 per cent of his work, and the professor in charge becomes his adviser.\nThe plan was first devised at the University of Indiana, and afterward\napplied to Leland Stanford by President Jordan in 1891. \"Its deficiencies\nare those of the adviser.\" When departments are large, several professors\nmay divide the advisory work. A full description of the plan and its\nworkings is given in one of the recent reports of President Jordan. The\n\"medium\" group is composed of Grinnell, Barnard, Tufts, Oregon,\nColorado, Denison, and the University of Maine. Tufts reports the use\nof the plan for eighteen years and adds that \"too much depends on the\npersonality of the adviser.\" Two institutions make up the \"small\"\ngroup — the University of Montana and the College of the Pacific.\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nTHE\n\nAS ADVISER;\n\nDEAN\n\nRELATIONS\nOR\n\nTHE\n\nWITH\n\nDEAN\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nAND\n\nASSISTANT\n\nSTUDENTS\nDEAN\n\n795\n\nAS ADVISERS\n\nThis practice is so universal that it is in use, beyond all doubt, in many\nmore institutions than those reporting it for such purpose. The \"large\"\ninstitutions are three in number, \"medium,\" six, and \"small,\" one that\nreports its use. At the University of Illinois, the dean of men of the Arts\nCollege exercises this function. This official begins to get into close relationship with the student before he matriculates as a Freshman, by correspondence with him during the preceding months. Personal conferences\nare held with students, who are called to the dean's office for no other purpose\nthan this. The dean, or his assistant, visits students who are ill. The plan\nworks very well, and will be considered in more detail later by the dean\nof men himself. Chicago reports that with the number of deans they\nhave, they are moderately successful in doing this kind of work. A number\nof institutions mention the dean of women; of the \"large\" group only the\nUniversity of Washington makes mention of such an officer, altho there are\ndeans of women at Minnesota and Chicago, and probably in many other\nuniversities.\nDickinson College has used a system of class deans for twenty-one\nyears. This officer is properly a class adviser, tho bearing a different title.\nThis combined with a system of monthly reports of delinquency gives good\nresults. The work of the students of Lehigh University \"is periodically\nand carefully examined by the heads of the various degree-giving departments, who constantly take occasion to encourage, advise, or warn as the\noccasion may demand.\" In addition, the university uses a system of\nmonthly reports, a Freshman Advisory Committee, and a Conference\nDepartment, the last of which was not described in the report. With a\nstudent body of six hundred and a faculty of sixty-eight, and with these\nadministrative devices, the institution is able to \"keep close watch over\nall the students of the University.\" Grinnell reports that the most efficient\nwork of this sort is done by the dean of men and the dean of women.\nAdelphi College reports a dean of men and a dean of women who exercise\nthis function. Miami University, one of the \"medimn\" group, has a dean\nof the Arts College, dean of the Normal College, and dean of women, all\nof whom exercise this function. At Barnard College, the dean is the\nadviser thruout the course, but especially during the first two years. The\none \"small\" institution, Florida State College for Women, makes the dean\nthe central factor in the advisory system and provides for close co-operation\nbetween dean and instructors for this purpose.\nSYSTEMS\n\nOF\n\nREPORTS\n\nON\n\nINDIVIDUAL\nSTUDENTS\nOFFICIALS\n\nTO\n\nADMINISTRATIVE\n\nSome form of reports regarding the character of scholastic work of\nstudents is in use in practically all institutions; in most cases it refers only\nto delinquency.\nSuch reports are sometimes made to the faculty in open\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ffigher\n\nmeeting, sometimes to the president when the college is small, and frequently\nto the dean, special committees, and advisers. It is really a part of practically all administrative devices for this purpose, and not one by itself, but\nis thought important enough to be given considerable emphasis. Ten\ninstitutions report the use of some form of report for this purpose. At\nNorthwestern, such reports are made once during each semester by all\ninstructors, but refer only to delinquent students. At Minnesota, such\nreports are called for by the registrar about three times during each semester,\nand refer only to delinquents. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute has used\nsuch a system for several years; Dickinson College for ten years. Ohio\nWesleyan reports that a system of delinquency reports has rendered valuable aid. Teachers College, Columbia, has a very simple and very efficient\nplan of individual reports, a copy of which follows:\nName\n\nCourse\n\nThis report is intended to inform the professor in charge of the student's major subject, the committee on instruction, and the appointment committee of your impressions\nof this student's strength or weakness. Details are desired rather than a mere rating of\nqualities. The following categories are suggested for your consideration. (It is not\nexpected that you will attempt to report under each.) (i) Health, vitality, temperament; (2) Initiative, progress, promise; (3) Sincerity, genuineness; (4) Judgment,\npoise; (5) Methods of work; (6) Causes of failure; (7) Expression, especially in English;\n(8) Social qualities — culture, refinement, executive ability.\nDate\nSignature\n\nDean Russell writes that the machinery is simple and that it works.\nThe University of Kansas has recently established a complete system of\nweekly reports dealing with the daily work of all students.\nREQUIRED\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nBETWEEN\n\nINSTRUCTORS\n\nAND\n\nSTUDENTS\n\nIt is a well-known fact that many instructors voluntarily attempt to\nprovide for such conferences. When classes are large, a definite schedule\nof conferences is announced. Sometimes administrative machinery\nindirectly compels such conferences, e.g., a report of delinquency sent by\ninstructor to registrar will cause a notice to be sent to the delinquent student to call on the instructor. The writer of this paper was confronted by\n180 new students in one class during the first semester of 1911-12. By\narranging a schedule of conferences, and by regular class work, a fair degree\nof acquaintance was established before the middle of the semester. The\nfollowing institutions report that such conferences are virtually required:\nWyoming (small); Dickinson, Me., William Jewell College, and Vassar\n(medium); Minnesota (large). At Dickinson, these conferences refer only\nto delinquents. Many institutions report that instructors are \"expected\"\nto hold such conferences. Where classes are large, it would seem an\nindispensable necessity; and where small, a valuable aid.\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nRELATIONS\nTHE\n\nWITH\n\nPRECEPTORIAL\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n797\n\nSYSTEM\n\nBut three institutions report the use of the preceptorial plan. They\nare Princeton, Bowdoin, and Miami. Two of these are \"medium,\" and\nthe last nearly large enough to be so classed. At Princeton, where this has\nbeen in vogue since 1905, there are more than 1,400 students, but the system\nseems to apply to only certain departments. At Miami, the conscious aim\nof the device is to render greater service to the student doing a high type\nof work, rather than to lift the delinquent to the level. As Princeton seems\nto be sponsor for this scheme, its workings there will be described somewhat\nin detail.* The preceptor is usually an assistant professor, who meets small\ngroups of three to six students at stated intervals for closer co-operation in\nwork. Birdseye calls this \"an interesting experiment in endeavoring to\nreach the individual in the larger university.\" The following is Birdseye's\ndescription of the system:\nThe Princeton preceptor is meant to be rather the guide, philosopher, and friend of\nthe student. That is, he is to counsel and work with the latter, rather than act merely\nas the representative of the faculty. The preceptor is to show the pupil how to study,\nbut not to do his work for him. He aims to increase the student's capacity for work,\nwith the result that the amount actually done is largely increased. Taking a concrete\nexample, we find the faculty of history, economics, and politics with seven professors,\nand thirteen preceptors who do duty in the department as a whole, and give aid to 230\nstudents who are taking some or all of the courses of the department. A professor gives\ntwo lectures a week and devotes in addition three to six hours a week to meeting his\nproportion of the class in preceptorial work, in squads of five or six. Outside reading is\nassigned, requiring from each student not less than two hours for every hour in which the\npreceptors meet the men in squads, for discussion of the week's reading. The Princeton\nauthorities claim that their preceptorial system has again made it possible to reach the\nindividual, even in a large institution, and it has worked well in at least four particulars:\n(i) an increase in the number of books taken from the library; (2) a change in the topics\nof students' conversations; (3) a change in the appearance of the campus at night, showing\nlights in almost every window, and indicating that men are in their rooms at work; (4)\na marked decrease in the number of students who come to college merely for fun or\nathletics or idling.\n\nThe fact that since 1907 there has been an actual decrease in the number\nof Freshmen who were dropped from college is quite largely attributed to\nthis system. The percentages dropped for these years are as follows:\n1907, 17 per cent; 1908, 17 per cent; 1909, 13 per cent; 1910, 8 per cent\n(estimated).' The report from Princeton states that the \"influence of\ncertain preceptors is very great.\" Dr. Hyde, president of Bowdoin, lends\nhis statement that the experience of that college also verifies the utility of\nthe preceptorial plan. Miami has just established this system.\nMISCELLANEOUS\n\nDEVICES\n\nMaryland Agricultural College has a special committee of faculty and\nrepresentative students, which has been in existence fotir years. Rebellion\n' This is practically the Oxford tutorial system.\n' C \"P. 'Bitiseyt, Individual Tfdiningin Out Cvttegts,^. 260. ■\n\n-i\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nmust have been quite common, for they report that it \"has practically put\nan end to all tendency to mutiny.\" However, it would seem that this\nplan had in it possibilities for great service, and that it is worthy of trial\nin other institutions.\nIn many institutions, there have developed in recent years forms of\nvoluntary co-operation between the administration and student organizations, such as clubs, fraternities, sororities, and non-fraternity clubs. This\nrelationship may assume several forms, but a very common one is a system\nof reports on scholarship of individuals of each organization. In all institutions, practically all instructors maintain office hours at stated times, so\nthat there is a possibility that students may see and confer with instructors.\nSocial functions given by instructors or participated in by instructors also\nserve to maintain personal relations between student and instructor.\nDepartmental clubs are of great value for the same purpose, but reach only\nthe small group having a special interest in the studies of the department.\nThe seminar is used in many graduate schools, perhaps most effectively in\nClark University. President Hall declares it to be the best device that he\nknows about, after trying many plans for the same purpose.\nINSTITUTIONS\n\nHAVING\n\nNO\n\nSPECIFIC PLAN\n\nThirteen institutions report that they have no definite plan for this\nwork; and five are now working upon the establishment of such plans.\nEight are \"small,\" four are \"medium,\" and one is \"large.\" They vary in\nsize from 134 students at Kansas Wesleyan to 1,861 at the University of\nTexas. Cincinnati and Texas of the \"large\" group are considering plans.\nIdaho and North Carolina of the \"medium\" group, and Washington and\nJefferson of the \"small\" group are organizing administrative devices to\nkeep in close personal contact with the student.\nSYSTEMS\n\nESPECIALLY\n\nNOTABLE\n\nAttention should be directed to the plans used in several institutions\nshowing the complete working machinery. Most institutions actually use\ntwo or more of the devices described in this report. Attention is called to\nthe complete system used by Lehigh University (684 students in 1909).\nThe various units in the system are:\n(i) The heads of the various degree-giving departments. (2) Monthly reports to the\ndean regarding work of Freshmen and Sophomores. (3) A Committee on Standing of\nStudents gives particular attention to members of all classes over whom it is desirable to\nkeep an extra close watch. (4) A Freshman Advisory Committee, made up of instructors\nof members of that class, at stated periods considers the work of the Freshmen and confers\nwith men needing advice and assistance. (5) A Conference Department originated for\nthe purpose of furnishing assistance to members of Freshmen and Sophomore classes\nneeding such help. A close relationship between student organizations and administration isfound to be of great value. It is possible, also, for instructors in class work to keep\nin close touch with students, for sections are small.\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nRELATIONS\n\nWITH\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n799\n\nAnother very important system is that used by the University of Illinois\n(4,783 students in 1909). Since the dean of men of that institution is to\nshare in the discussion, no detailed description of it will here be given.\nThe preceptorial system in use at Princeton, Bowdoin, and Miami\nshould commend itself for its simplicity and possibilities for real effectiveness. Attention is also called again to the very simple and efficient system\nof individual reports used at Teachers College, Columbia.\nA system in use at Yale and the University of California is one of particular importance to large institutions. That of California is described in\nthe following quotation from the report of the dean of the Lower Division\nof July I, 1910:\nA year ago, after two years' experience in the advisers' office, I made the suggestion\nthat the supervision of the work of the first-year students could be much more efficiently\ncarried out if the members of the Board of Advisers were formally appointed by the\nuniversity administration and granted a slight addition to their regular salaries. Up to\nthat time, the board had numbered forty men chosen by myself, and working voluntarily,\non my personal request. The placing of the work on a more business-like basis would\nsufficiently increase the efficiency of the system to cut down the number of advisers from\nforty to twenty-five. In selecting the twenty-five advisers the foremost consideration\nwas the personal interest of the men in boys as boys rather than as students. They must\npossess a real desire to get into human relations with the groups intrusted to them and\nmust have tact and adaptability in dealing with personal as contrasted with academic\nproblems. The advisers having been appointed, a list of them was sent to the 250 or\nmore secondary schools of the state with a request to each principal to talk with the boys\nof his school who were proposing to enter the university, explaining the plan to them, and\nassisting them to select an adviser, if they so wished. The principal was asked to report\nthe various selections to me, and to give each boy a letter of introduction to the adviser\nchosen. In addition, the principals were supplied with blanks on which to forward\nconfidential memoranda as to the boy's general character, interests, taste, etc.\n\nUpon arrival at the university, the second person for the student to\nfind was his adviser, who immediately began his part of the work. The\nadvisers have also given receptions for the members of their groups.\n\"Reports show that fully 60 per cent of the Freshmen have thus been\nreached in more than a perfunctory fashion.\" The report of the dean\nfurther states that the Board of Advisers must have the assistance of the\nupper classmen to make the scheme more effective. No more special\nsystems will be described, but attention will be called to\nA FEW\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nTHAT\n\nOUGHT\n\nNOT BE\n\n0\\^RLOOKED\n\nFirst, the effectiveness of any system depends more upon the efficiency of the one who\nhandles it than on the system.\nSecond, only few men have the characteristics which qualify them to be advisers.\nThird, efficiency depends upon the size of the enrollment, and upon the enrollment in\nclass sections.\nFourth, any system can be nullified by compelling the adviser to attempt to render\nthat service to a very large group of students.\nFifth, most institutions make quite ample provision to care for the delinquent student;\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwhile but few definitely try to render advice and assistance of a valuable nature to the\nordinary and to the exceptional student.\nSixth, there is a very great need for the majority of the higher educational institutions\nto make definite attempts to reach the individual student, and after having reached him,\nto maintain a personal relationship of such sort that there will result most effective cooperation.\nDISCUSSION\nThomas Arkle Cl.\\kk, dean of men, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. — However\ngood a system may be devised for developing and maintaining personal relations between\ncollege oflScials and individual students, it will fail utterly if it does not have behind it\nsomething more than a mere sj'stem. Systems and methods may seem admirable on\npaper, but the personality of the individual who runs the system is everything. Most\nsystems of class advisers have been ineffective. The man who wishes to develop personal\nrelations with students must like students, he must have infinite faith in them, even with\nslight foundation, and they must trust him absolutely. If he cannot get their confidence\nhe is in no position to advise or influence them personally. He can have no set office\nhours, tho he must always be in his office when he agrees to do so. The young fellow who\nhas screwed up his courage for a confidential talk will very likely never come again if he\nfinds his adviser out when he first calls. If one wishes to develop personal relations with\nstudents one must give oneself to it. The student must be seen when he is in the mood,\nwhether that be before breakfast or at midnight. To the adviser nothing may seem\ntrivial. The student's problem is to him a serious one, whether it has to do with his\nemotions, or his intellectual development, his social or his moral situation.\nThe student adviser must in some way have discovered the fountain of eternal youth;\nhe must be able to get the viewpoint of the student, and he must often be able to justify\nthis viewpoint. He will, therefore, need constantly to mingle with students in their\nsports, and in their social diversions. It will be unfortunate if he has no real love for\nbaseball, or football, or track athletics; it is not essential that he dance, smoke, or develop\nbad habits, but he must not be shocked or discouraged if his boys sometimes do. He will\nfind a well-developed backbone helpful, for he will at times need to give advice, and to\ninsist that it be taken; with all his patience and sympathy he will be forced often to rid\nthe college of unworthy and incorrigible hangers-on.\nThe method employed by the University of Illinois is relatively simple. That\nwhich has to do with purely educational matters — the choice or the changing of studies,\nmatters pertaining purely to scholarship — is left to the class adviser, or to the assistant\ndean of the college in which the student is registered. The dean of men (and the dean of\nwomen as regards the women students) has to do with matters of conduct, of attendance,\nwith all social or moral questions. Since I am personally responsible for these things I\nmay be pardoned, I hope, the personal reference in this paper. I begin early with the\nfreshman. As soon as he apphes for entrance to the University I write him a personal\nletter offering to give him any specific information he may desire, to help him in whatever\nway he may suggest, and inviting him to come and see me when he arrives at the University, ifonly for the purpose of getting acquainted. Hundreds take advantage of these\noffers. For the last three years I have given a series of six lectures on personal hygiene,\nwhich all freshmen are required to take. This fact has been invaluable in bringing me\ninto personal and confidential relations with large niunbers of new men. AU absences\nfrom class exercises are reported daily to my office, and students who seem to be unnecessarily absent are called to the office, interviewed, and advised. When the absences exceed\na prescribed limit the student is dropped from the course, and may not continue without\nthe consent of the instructor and a committee of which I am chairman. All student\norganizations and activities are in charge of a committee of which I am a member.\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERSONAL\n\nRELATIONS\n\nWITH\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n8oi\n\nReports on the work of all freshmen, and all special students, and on all other students\nwhose work is unsatisfactory, are made by instructors twice the first semester and once\nthe second. These reports come to my office, and a record is made on the attendance card\nof the student, so that when he is called for lax attendance his scholastic record is also\nbefore me. The scholarship records are, however, handled primarily by the class advisers,\nor by the assistant deans.\nI have made every effort to get personally acquainted with as many students as\npossible. I have called every day ten or a dozen for no purpose but to make their\nacquaintance. I visit all who are sick. I accept as many invitations as possible to\nstudent mass-meetings, smokers, parties, and dances, and I go regularly to the fraternity\nhouses to dinner. Mrs. Clark and I keep open house on Sunday afternoons, and all\nstudents are welcome. Sometimes we have something to eat, and often not. Occasionally we especially invite to supper all the members of an organization. I have cultivated\nall sorts of devices and associations to help me remember individuals, and would find it\npossible now, I am sure, to tell something about a large majority of the 3,500 individual\nmen registered last year at the University. I am the chairman of our Committee on\nDiscipline, and bring to this committee all matters that seem to demand formal action.\nAll others I settle myself. The eleven years that I have spent in this work have taught\nme that it demands a number of characteristics — interest in the individual, faith in human\nnature, a youthful spirit, and no nerves. If one has these qualities he will make his own\nsystem, and it will work.\nR. B. VON Klein Smid, professor of psychology and education, DePauw University,\nGreencastle, Ind. — The report of Secretary Mead shows, in the great majority of cases\nwhere replies have been received by the committee, that whatever machinery is employed\nby the institution to secure personal contact with the student the end of its operation is\nto look after scholastic matters only, with little or no regard for the many interests that\nevery normal college man possesses. Surely, no one of us in the work with broad ideals,\nserious purposes, and scientific understanding of the situation will contend for a moment\nthat the college does its whole duty when it succeeds in holding the students to scholastic\nstandards only.\nIn the matter of scholastic relationship it must be admitted that there is much yet\nto be desired. Too often have we as instructors, advisers, or deans taken hold of a case\ntoo late to be of the most valuable assistance. It is not enough that the student be urged\nor forcibly held up to make certain grades; long before the difficulty arises he should\nhave been advised what subjects to incorporate in his course. In view both of a unified\ncourse and of his future plans he should be told what to study, how to study, and where\nto secure most helpful assistance. After all, why is the student in this or that particular\nclassroom ? Is it because the subject is traditionally easy ? Is it because the instructor\nis popular ? Is it because the Phi Beta Kappa honor is most easily to be obtained thru\nit ? Is it a subject \"elected by some others of my set,\" or is it because its place upon the\nprogram \"best suits my convenience or pleasure\"? None of these reasons is sufficient.\nAnd yet the student who is honest in confessing is likely to give any one or more of them.\nHow few of the freshmen know how to study to any real advantage or, in previous training, ever have done any right serious and earnest work. And, too, it stands to reason\nthat in a strange environment the new student should be advised concerning equipment\non hand for his assistance, and taught how to use the same to greatest advantage. And\nyet, I again insist that the student has, and rightly has, numerous other interests that must\nbe recognized by those who have charge of his education.\nFrom the beginning of organized education, it has been conceded that the process is\na failure that does not develop the moral nature of the individual; and now with the\ngrowth of scientific insight, we have added to this doctrine the belief that the educative\nprocess falls far short of its opportunities that does not take into consideration the whole\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nnatiire of man and give both opportunity and encouragement as well as care and suggestion\nfor complete development. In fact today we do not stop short of converting this belief\ninto a positive demand.\nThere is the question of the religious life. I had a right to feel that someone had\nneglected his duty by not offering to the young man both the chance and the encouragement to consider with him the fellow's deepest interest when, after a brief talk at a religious\nmeeting of the men a short time ago, a fine specimen of manhood from the upper classes\nshpped his hand up over my shoulder and said:\nI wish you'd tell me how to be decent again. You think I'm straight and other\nfaculty men think I'm straight, some of the students beheve me morally sound, but I\nwant to say to you that I'm not and for some time haven't been. There are times tho\nwhen I have a genuine homesick feehng to be decent again.\nIt is a sad failure on the part of college authorities, I tell you, when the deepest\ninterests of the inner life of the students are neglected while we strive for intellectual\nattainment.\nThere is the matter of the student's social Ufe. It is true of course that many\nstudents have received fair training in the conventions of social intercourse and have\nnot lacked in opportunities for social contact before conaing to the campus. But of a\nvery considerable niunber this cannot be said. We may smile at a feUow who asks a\nsimple question so often to be found in the advice colimms of the Fireside Weekly; and\nyet the problem of using a fork or a spoon with peas or of walking before or behind the\nyoung lady whom he is attending when being shown to a seat at a public gathering is of\nvital importance to the fellow after all, and I contend that it is the business of the college\nto give some attention to these matters and to train the students in gentlemanly social\ncourtesies.\nThen there are the many outside interests closely connected with student life, among\nwhich is the problem of physical training. While some spend too much time on the\nathletic field and in the gymnasium, many spend far too little time there, to the serious\nweakening of physical power and vitality. In a recent student interview, it developed\nthat one chap had connected himself with five organized interests outside of the classroom, every one of a musical nature, while the same student had been excused from gjmanasium requirements on the ground of a lack of time.\nAnd so in concluding this brief discussion, I beg to suggest that we seek so to organize\nour colleges as to look after the whole man; and without beUttUng the splendid object of\nmental attainment, that we recognize that the adolescent has legitimate interests along\nthe line of a considerable list of instinctive tendencies of splendid possibilities.\n-Raymond M. Hughes, acting-president of Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. — While\nI can add very little to the excellent report of the secretary which I had the privilege of\nreading, I would like to emphasize some points which I think the report makes clear.\nFirst: Any effective personal relation established between faculty members and a\nlarge percentage of the students must be closely related to some of the work of the students. To assign a number of students arbitrarily to a man and ask him to become\nacquainted with them, advise, and guide them, puts him and the students in an imnatural\nrelation; in a relation in which the instructor of rare personality only will serve at all\neffectively. We all disUke being assigned socially; we dislike to have anyone avowedly\ntry to do us good; all such work for students must be done indirectly to be at all effecdve.\nWhere the personal acquaintance of instructor and student has been most effective is\nwhere they meet somewhat informally in the discharge of some college duty. The\nprofessor meeting very small classes; the preceptor at Princeton meeting his small groups;\nthe individual conference of the English instructor with his students; the dean of men at\nOberlin meeting all men who are absent from classes to hear the cause of their absence,\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOLICY\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n803\n\nand incidentally getting acquainted with them, hearing their troubles, and advising them\n— all of these may be made most effective means for establishing helpful personal relations.\nSecond : No one method, scheme, plan, for bringing about desirable personal acquaintance between faculty and students, can be effective and practical for all the members of\nany faculty. A college must deal with the individual. In scarcely any other institution\ndo we find individual personahty so highly differentiated and recognized as in a college\nfaculty, and yet we are rather prone to include all in a single plan. What is thoroly\npractical for one man, based on his subject, the methods of his work, the type of his students, etc., is entirely impractical with others. The seminar of President G. Stanley\nHall of Clark that so many men remember with satisfaction and pleasure is not practical\nwith most teachers, nor with college Freshmen and Sophomores. The professor of\nEnglish or history who spends hours each week in personal conference with his students\ncannot be asked to take part in another scheme for accomplishing what he is already doing.\nWhile some men have such rare personality and such social tact that they easily\nadapt themselves to carry out effectively any reasonable plan, others are rather non-social,\nnot greatly attractive in personahty, and lacking in ability to win a student's confidence\non their own initiative. These latter, if thrown in contact with students singly or in small\ngroups in their teaching work, will very probably form pleasant and helpful friendships\nwith students.\nIn my judgment it should be an important part of the duties of the dean to familiarize\nhimself with the work, methods, temperament, and students of each instructor and devise\nmeans to develop the personal relations effectively in each case.\nFinally, I believe the most effective scheme would involve two superimposed plans:\none, in which the men best adapted to the work, presumably the dean or deans, should\nadvise the students about the selection of their work and the arrangement of their courses.\nOne man cannot do this work most effectively for more than one hundred students. In\naddition to this there should be a variety of schemes, conferences, seminars, athletic\nsupervision, tutorial work, etc., directed by the dean, for effecting a closer and more\nfriendly relation between each instructor and those few of his students that he can best\nserve.\nI am convinced that every instructor can come in close and helpful relations with a\nreasonable number of his own students to the mutual satisfaction and pleasure of both\nparties, if the proper basis for the acquaintance is selected in each case.\nI also believe that only a small number of any faculty have the attitude toward the\ncollege work that makes them thoroly desirable advisers as to arranging courses. Such\nan adviser should take an intelligent, broad, and sympathetic view of all courses offered.\nHe should be familiar with the work of the entire college and with the needs of the student.\nSuch a man should be able to advise about one hundred students effectively as to their\ncourses.\nWith sixty to one hundred students only in the classes of each instructor; with a dean\nor assistant dean to each one hundred students, and with inteUigent suggestions to each\ninstructor from the dean, we could hope for such personal relations between students and\ninstructors as we desire for our own children.\n\nTHE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON POLICY\nDEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nTo the Department of Higher Education of the National Education Association:\nAt the business meeting of the Department of Higher Education a year\nago at San Francisco a committee of three was appointed to consider the\ntime and place of the annual meeting of the department and such modification of policy as seemed advisable.\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nThis committee met for conference during the superintendents' meeting\nat St. Louis, and instructed the chairman to formulate the thought of the\ncommittee in a report.\nIn order that the report might show more clearly the thought of those\ninterested in the department, the following letter was sent to 135 active\nmembers of the National Education Association prominent in college or\nuniversity administration:\nFor several years past there has been a feeling among the active members of the\nDepartment of Higher Education of the National Education Association that the department is not meeting with the success nor reaching as many people as its merits justify.\nWith able oflScers and excellent programs the meetings have been poorly attended. Last\nyear, at the San Francisco meeting, President James H. Baker deplored the poor attendance, and urggd a consideration of what could be done to make the department contribute\nmore to the work it represents. After some discussion the following committee was\nappointed to consider (a) the time and place of the meeting of the department, and (6)\nsuch other modifications of poUcy as seem desirable: G. W. A. Luckey, professor of education. University of Nebraska, Lincoln; Frank Strong, president. University of Kansas,\nLawrence; C. A. Duniway, president. University of Wyoming, Laramie.\nThe committee would appreciate yovu- thought concerning the above points and if\nyou are at the Chicago meeting we should like to have you attend the business session of\nthe department.\n\nReplies were received from nearly all to whom letters were sent. About\none-third of those to whom letters were sent had never attended the meetings of the department, were unfamiliar with its work, and could not give\nsuggestions. Another third, deeply interested in the work of the department, were rarely permitted to attend the meetings of the department on\naccount of conflicting interests. The final third are by no means regular\nin attendance, but they are deeply interested in the success of the department\nand are more regular in attendance than the average. The replies were all\ninteresting and most of them quite helpful. Their nature can be judged\nfrom the following quotations:\n\"The attendance has been poor because the program was weak. The program has\nbeen weak because the attendance was slim. Reorganization, in respect to time and\nplace, seems to me fundamental.\nThe colleges should meet with the superintendents.\"\n\"Too many diversions in July.\nChange to the meeting of superintendents.\"\n\"It interferes with the work of summer sessions. Change the time of meeting to\nthat of the superintendents, or to that of the Association of American Universities, or the\nAssociation of State Universities.\"\n\"I attend annually the Association of State Universities. The distance is too great\nto attend in addition the meeting of the National Education Association.\"\n\" Other meetings, such as the National Association of State Universities, Association\nof American Universities, the Colleges and Universities of the Middle West, etc., take the\nplace of the National Education Association meeting.\nChange to one of these meetings.\"\n\"The National Education Association is made up of public-school teachers — grade\nteachers. The Association of American Universities; National Association of State\nUniversities; the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations\ninterest more college and university people. More interest might be had to meet with\nthe superintendents.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOLICY\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n805\n\n\" My whole estimate of the summer session of the National Education Association is\nLittle good can be done,\"\n\"There are too many meetings, such as Southern Education Association; Southern\nConferences for Education; Southern Association of Schools and Colleges; teachers'\nassemblies, etc.\"\n\"Too many organizations absorb the time, energy, and money. Summer school also\ninterferes.\nMeet with the superintendents.\"\n\"The perfunctory reading of papers about any subject that happens along by anyone\nwho happens to be willing to function will not produce very important resvdts.\"\n\"The Department of Higher Education should meet with the superintendents.\"\n\"I have been prevented from attending the meetings for ten years on account of\nsummer-school work. Too many departments divide the interest. Dififerent institutions\nlow.\n\nshould be represented by delegates.\"\n\"Change time to the winter meeting. Send postal cards containing program and\nsuggestion of the higher interest involved to the professors of education and to professors\nwhose subject is related to the one on the program.\"\n\"Make a live program. Hold meeting when there is least conflict, on first days of\nthe National Education Association.\nHave colleges send delegates or representatives.\"\n\"Hold the meetings in connection with the meeting of superintendents. Probably\nwith the co-operation between the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and\nExperiment Stations or the Association of State Universities.\"\n\"Leave time and place of the meeting as now.\n1 will be at the meeting.\"\n\"Have not attended the National Education Association for several years and cannot\nsuggest remedies. Probably the small attendance is due to the number of other associations of colleges and universities.\"\n\" It cannot be a success while it meets in the summer, at the time when college men are\nengaged in the summer-school work. Have it meet with the superintendents.\"\n\" Change to the superintendents' meeting. Have a live subject with a study of\nthirty minutes.\nThen a few ten-minute papers, followed with five-minute discussions.\"\n\" Change to the meeting of superintendents. More will always be in attendance at\nthe latter meeting.\"\n\"The time of the year and the distance makes attendance impossible. There are\nother more vital meetings such as the North-Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools; the National Association of State Universities, etc. Change time to\nmid- winter.\"\n\"Change time of National Education Association to late in August or change the\nhigher department to the time of superintendents' meeting. The members are now in\nsummer schools.\"\n\" Change the meeting to that of superintendents because of work in summer school\nand the need of unbroken vacation for travel and rest.\"\n\"There are too many meetings. I attend the National Association of State Universities, the Ohio College Association, the Association of College Presidents and Deans, and\nat least a dozen other organizations of similar nature.\"\n\"Give education or pedagogy a proper place and an adequate development in higher\neducation.\"\n\" The disposition of the department is to settle problems rather than to discuss them.\"\n\"Unite with the many formed societies for the study of college and university\nadministration.\"\n\" There is not a permanent membership. The attendance changes almost completely\neach year. This destroys interest.\nTo meet with the superintendents would be better.\"\n\"A more suitable time for the meeting is in February with the superintendents. The\ngray matter of the brain works better then.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\n\"In summer, college men seek the country, not the city. Have the meeting come\nduring the college year.\"\n\" I find at the meetings little or nothing of value. The National Education Association is too large and unwieldy. It is not attractive to men who have real problems to\nsolve and work to do.\"\n\"Hold the meeting with the superintendents in February.\"\n\"I cannot attend.\nSummer session is in the way.\nMeet with the superintendents.\"\n\"There is need of a definite program dealing with college issues — a program running\nthru several years considering large and vital problems. Men tend to become fixated in\nmethods and thought and do not care to change or to know the new. Hence many are\nnot interested in the work of these meetings.\"\n\"The general meetings of the National Education Association are decorative rather\nthan informational.\nChange to the superintendents' meeting.\"\n\" Non-state schools are too largely ignored in making up the officers and programs.\nThere is no need of a new society of denominational colleges.\"\n\"Make a strong program well distributed both as to subjects and men.\"\n\"The National Education Association doesn't arouse my enthusiasm. I am not\ninterested in the squabbles they furnish and the unwholesome atmosphere for the right\nkind of work.\"\n\"It is a bad time of the year for college people. The crowds of the National Education Association are not conducive to comfort or pleasure. Other university societies\nand superintendents' meeting more attractive.\"\n\" Change to the February meeting and reduce the number of meetings.\"\n\"Change time to the meeting of superintendents. Put on program professional\ntraining of high-school teachers.\"\n\"Other meetings of more interest to college men. Association of University Presidents in November or Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations deal\nwith live problems.\"\n\"Keep politics out. Put educators and not wire-pullers on the program.\"\n\"Most college teachers plan definitely for their summer vacation. The meeting\nbreaks into the more important plans; travel in Europe, svunmer sessions, research work,\netc. Have the principal meeting come a few days before or a few days after the superintendents' meeting.\"\n\"Too many diverting interests. Association has grown too large.\"\n\"Time too important. Expense too great to attend two national meetings per year.\nIt interferes with summer session, summer rest, and foreign study. Change to February\nmeeting.\"\n\nSummarizing briefly:\n\nThree-fourths or more of those who replied mentioned the February meeting of the\nDepartment of Superintendence as being a more suitable time for holding the meeting of\nthe Department of Higher Education.\n1. A larger number of college men and women attend the winter meeting. The\ninterests of that meeting are more in common with the interests of higher education.\nThe distance is too great to justify many people in attending two annual meetings.\n2. Since the establishment of so many simmier sessions it is more difficult for college\nmen who are ahve and in demand to drop their work in July than in February.\n3. The Ufe of the ordinary college teacher is quite strenuous for at least ten months\nin the year. When not occupied in simimer sessions he needs his short vacation for rest,\ntravel, or study. In July his surplus energy is low and he naturally shrinks from entertaining crowds of grade teachers bent on having a good time.\n4. There are too many associations and departments with common purposes and\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOLICY\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n807\n\noverlapping interests. The enrichment of these thru combination and internal improvement is desirable.\n5. The Department of Higher Education suffers from the want of definite organization\nand permanent membership. It is too loosely jointed. Any active member of the\nNational Education Association may assist in electing the officers of the Department of\nHigher Education and in fixing its program. Its membership, if it has any, is not regular.\nBut few of its members have been in attendance at any two consecutive meetings. Hence\nit has been difficult if not impossible to build up a strong and attractive program, one that\nhas continuity and reaches over several years.\n6. Little interest has been taken in the business meeting. There has been no regular\nmembership list to draw from for officers. Hence the officers are not infrequently persons\nwho have not attended the meetings before and know but little of the work and purpose\nof the department.\n7. The tendency in late years has been to multiply associations rather than to\nenrich those we already have. Note the new organization of the society for the study of\ncollege and university administration formed at the St. Louis Meeting of Superintendence.\n8. Many would like to see the union of, or at least a closer correlation between, the\nDepartment of Higher Education; the National Association of State Universities; the\nAssociation of American Universities; the American Association of Agricultural Colleges\nand Experiment Stations.\n\nYour committee after due consideration desires to present the following\nrecommendations :\n1. We recommend that the Department of Higher Education of the National Education Association hereafter hold its annual meetings during the week of, and in connection\nwith, the Department of Superintendence.\n2. We recommend that the department be reorganized and strengthened, presenting\na declaration of principles and interests, affording opportunity for permanent membership\nof persons similarly interested.\n3. We recommend that a program committee of five be created, of which committee\nthe president and secretary shaU constitute members ex officio: the other three members to\nbe elected at the annual meetings for a term of three years, so arranged after the first\nelection that the term of one member will expire each year.\n4. We recommend that the program committee be instructed: (a) to give special\nopportunity on the program for outline reports of research, investigation, and study of\nsubjects of vital interest to students of higher education; (b) to provide for conferences\non special topics of academic and professional education and of college administration;\n(c) to encourage five- and ten-minute discussions of work in progress or on live topics\nconnected with the field of higher education.\n5. We recommend that a committee of five, appointed by the chair, of which the new\npresident is to be chairman, be constituted to confer with the other national organizations\nof kindred purpose regarding the advisability of closer union in time and place of meeting,\nif not in program.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n( G. W. A. LucKEY, Lincoln, Nebr.\nCommittee < Frank Strong, Lawrence, Kans.\n( C. A. DuNiWAY, Laramie, Wyo.\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINUTES\n\nST. LOUIS MEETING\nOFFICERS\nPresident — W. J. Hawkins, president, State Normal School\nVice-President — A. J. Matthews, president, Tempe Normal School\nSecretary — Miss Martha Buck, Southern Illinois State Normal School\n\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nTempe, Ariz.\nCarbondale, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION — ^Wednesday Afternoon, February 28, 191 2\nThe opening meeting of the special session of the Normal School Department was\nheld in the Planters Hotel Convention Hall, St. Louis, Mo., on Wednesday, February 28,\nat 2 : 30 P.M.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president, W. J. Hawkins, president of the\nState Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo.\nThe first address, \"The Attitude of the Normal Schools toward Education,\" was\ndelivered by W. J. Hawkins, Warrensburg, Mo.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"The Work of the Normal School in the Reorganization of the Elementary-School Curriculum,\" by Eugene W. Bohannon, president of\nthe State Normal School, Duluth, Minn.\nThis paper was discussed by C. A. Phillips, head of Department of Education, State\nNormal School, Warrensburg, Mo.\n\"The Place of the Normal School in Agricultural Education\" was presented by\nE. E. Balcomb, Department of Agricultural Education, State Normal and Industrial\nCollege, Greensboro, N.C.\nThis paper was discussed by the following: Augustus O. Thomas, president of State\nNormal School, Kearney, Nebr.; William M. Stewart, dean of the School of Education,\nUniversity of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah; Daniel B. Parkinson, president of Southern\nIllinois Normal University, Carbondale, 111.; and D. B. Johnson, president of Winthrop\nNormal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C.\nThe following resolution made at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence\non Wednesday morning, February 28, was offered for indorsement, and so voted:\nWhereas, The Page Bill, or Senate Bill Number Three, introduced by Senator Page\nin the Senate of the United States, seeks to accomplish the good purposes of the BurkettPollard and DoUiver-Davis bills and other good purposes not provided for in those bills,\nand has now been amended to suit the needs of all the states, and\nWhereas, It proposes to co-operate with the states in encouraging instruction in\nagriculture, the trades and industries, and home economics in secondary schools; in preparing teachers for these vocational courses in state colleges of agriculture and the mechanic\narts; in maintaining instruction in these vocational subjects in state normal schools;\nand in maintaining extension departments in state colleges of agriculture and mechanic\narts; therefore be it\nResolved, That we indorse the Page Bill, or Senate Bill Number Three, and call\nupon the members of the United States Senate and House of Representatives to pass it\n809\npromptly in the best interests of all the people.\nJohn W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, 111.,\nand Charles Evans, president of Central State Normal School, Edmond, Okla., made\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "8io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nremarks on the connection between the training department in normal schools and the\nlocal public schools.\nWilliam B. Owen, principal of the Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111., offered\nthe following resolution which was carried:\nResolved, That the officers of the Department of Normal Schools consider the advisability of making provision in its program for the consideration of the problems of city\nnormal or training schools.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — ^Thursday Forenoon, February 29, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Planters Hotel Convention Hall.\nPresident Hawkins presided.\nThe first paper, on \"Standards of Measuring the Efficiency of Normal-School\nStudents,\" was presented by Charles McKenny, president of the Michigan State Normal\nCollege, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nThe paper was discussed by the following: W. T. Carrington, president of State\nNormal School, Springfield, Mo.; J. W. Dinsmore, dean of the Normal School and professor of pedagogy, Berea College, Berea, Ky.; Charles W. Briles, president of East\nCentral State Normal School, Ada, Okla.; Edwin L. Rouse, dean of the State Normal\nSchool, Peru, Nebr.; E. L. Hendricks, professor of history. State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo.; W. M. Stewart, dean of the School of Education, University of Utah,\nSalt Lake City, Utah; and J. W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State Normal\nSchool, De Kalb, 111.\nThe chairman of the committee. Homer H. Seerley, president of Iowa State Teachers\nCollege, Cedar Falls, Iowa, read the \"Preliminary Report of the Committee of Eleven\non a Plan of Normal-School Statistics.\"\nThe motion that the committee be continued was then made and carried.\nSuggestions for the committee were offered by several members urging that reports\nasked of the schools contain less minutiae.\nD. B. Parkinson, president of State Normal School, Carbondale, 111., called attention to a recent call from Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction,\nSpringfield, HI., for a joint conference of the several boards of trustees and presidents\nof the state normal schools to discuss some matters of mutual interest, viz., \"Some Uniformities,\" \"Co-operation in Legislative Askings,\" \"Selection of Teachers,\" \"NormalSchool Extension Work,\" and \"The Sabbatical Year.\"\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nMartha Buck, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE ATTITUDE\nW.\n\nJ. HAWKINS,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE NORMAL\nEDUCATION\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE\nWARRENSBURG,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSTATE\nMO.\n\nNORMAL\n\nTOWARD\nSCHOOL,\n\nSince the organization of the Department of Normal Schools as a part\nof the National Education Association, it has been the national clearinghouse of normal-school thought. How much the department has contributed to the advancement of the standards of normal schools in this country\nwe have no means of showing.\nBut it is certain that without this means of\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATTITUDE\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTOWARD\n\nEDUCATION\n\n8ll\n\ncommunication and contact, the progress would have been more difficult\nand much slower than it has been. The gravest problems and the highest\nachievements have been brought to this common council.\nNot only has the department given itself to the free discussion of vital\nproblems, it has several times gone into investigations and endeavored to\ndetermine conditions and to formulate new policies therefrom. These\ninvestigations have probably been the most fruitful means of general progress in normal-school work.\nVery little -in the way of special investigation was undertaken prior\nto 1890. In 1892 a committee was appointed to report a plan for\nco-ordinating universities and normal schools in order to secure a university education to normal-school graduates, and a pedagogical training for\nuniversity graduates intending to teach; and thus supply the profession\nwith teachers who shall have had both a pedagogical and a university training. It required some courage in those days, when public sentiment was\nfavorable to university education and, in the main, ignorant of or antagonistic to normal schools, to imdertake a co-ordination of the products of\nthese two types of institutions. The committee made its report in 1894,\nafter a careful tabulation of courses of study in twenty-five leading normal\nschools and conferring with twenty- three universities. In 1895 a committee\nof five was appointed to present a report on topics that directly concerned\nthe department. In 1896 the committee presented a preliminary report\non the following topics:\n1. Control of normal schools\n2. Maintenance\n3. Variations that exist on account of geographical location\n4. Model and practice schools\n5. Recognition of diplomas\n\nOther reports were made in 1897 and 1898 and a final report in 1899.\nThe work of this committee was probably the most searching that has been\ndone by the department. It brought out the diversity of theories and\npractices in normal-school education. It found a provincialism not existing in any other class of schools. It found high standards of efficiency\nliberally supported and fully indorsed by the constituency; it also found\nconservatism and lack of standards that were appalling. The report was\nworth many times the efifort and doubtless was a leaven in the meal, tho\nit by no means leavened the whole lump.\nIn 1905 a committee was appointed to formulate a policy for the preparation and qualification of teachers for both elementary and secondary\nschools. The first report of this committee was made in 1907 and the final\nreport in 1908. In this report the standards of requirements of the normal\nschools were stated in no uncertain terms, some of which are as follows:\nI. That the state normal schools make high-school graduation, or the equivalent, a\nbasis for admission to the standard norpial school.\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\n2. That the normal schools prepare teachers for the entire pubHc service — elementary\nand secondary.\n3. That the normal schools establish well-organized departments of research work\nleading to the solution of problems affecting education and life.\n4. That while the normal school is not the only agent for the training of teachers, it is\nthe state's chief agent and as such it should set up standards of teaching, determine ideals,\nand train men and women whose call is to educational leadership.\n5. That the curriculum of the normal school should be broad enough in scope to touch\nall phases of special preparation demanded by the broadening curriculum of the public\nschools.\n\nIn the adoption of the report, Principal Francis J. Chaney, of the\nState Normal School, Cortland, N.Y., said:\nI heartily indorse the report. It formulates an educational policy which the normal\nschools can approve without apologizing to anybody. I believe that it is a policy that every\nnormal-school instructor on this floor beUeves in.\n\nI think he spoke the sentiment of a large majority of normal-school\npeople in this country. The report was heard gladly by many, but by\nsome with indifference. Its influence on some schools was immediate,\nespecially on entrance requirements and extension of courses for graduation.\nAs a result, the standards of normal schools thruout the country are now\nat greater variance than ever before. The national commissioner of\neducation in the report of 1910 says:\nRequirements for admission to the public normal schools in the different states vary\nso widely that close comparisons of courses of study are very difl&cult.\n\nIn the matter of entrance requirements, state normal schools now fall\ninto three groups: those requiring completion of the eight grades of the\nelementary school, those requiring the completion of the first two years\nof a high school, and those requiring the completion of a four-year highschool course. With considerable regularity the schools of each group\noffer two-year and four-year courses. Those of the lowest standard offer\nto graduates of elementary schools a four-year course that parallels the\nhigh-school course; and to those who have completed two years of highschool work, a two-year course. Those requiring two years of high-school\nwork for entrance offer two-year, four-year, and some of them six-year\ncourses. Schools that require for entrance graduation from a four-year\nhigh school offer two-year and four-year courses. It seems to me that this\nwide variation can hardly be justified. Certainly, it cannot be on the\nground of standards of preparation required for teachers, as the content\nof the curricula of elementary and secondary schools varies but slightly\nin the different states or in different parts of the same state.\nAgain, in the commissioner's report, Table 105, which is a tabulation\nof studies in manual arts, domestic economy, agriculture, and general science\nin the regular courses, it is shown that only about 150 of the 196 public\nnormal schools offer opportunities for specialization in these subjects; and\nof this 150, 16 offer sewing only. This is a condition difficult to account for\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATTITUDE\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTOWARD\n\nEDUCATION\n\n813\n\nwhen we consider the interest in vocational training in the schools and the\nconstantly increasing demand for especially prepared teachers for these subjects. Itis also difficult on the ground of public support of normal schools,\nwhen statistics show that in the last ten years the appropriations thruout\nthe states for maintenance of normal schools have more than doubled and\nthose for buildings and equipment have nearly quadrupled. From this it\nwould seem that the people believe in normal-school education; if so, it\nmust be that the conservatism of normal-school men is the real handicap to\nuniform provisions for the preparation of teachers for all phases of work\nrequired in the public schools.\nReferring to the findings read above, from the report to this department\nby its committee in 1908, 1 want to make a contention for the recommendation in Section 4 of that report; namely:\nThat the normal schools establish well-organized departments of research work leading\nto the solution of problems affecting education and life.\n\nI believe this recommendation has not been taken seriously by many\nnormal schools. Its meaning was not as apparent to all at that time as it\nmust be now. The framers of the recommendation saw the light in a way\nnot given to all of us to see; or they were prophetic in a prophecy that is\nbeing fulfilled with unmistakable certainty.\nThe attitude of the thinking mind toward education has undergone a\nremarkable change within the last few years. The scientific method of\napproach to problems of business and of life is becoming the method of\napproach to problems in education. A proposition to be accepted must be\nverified by the facts. President William P. Foster in Administration of\nthe College Curriculum says:\nThe chief movement in the history of the college curriculum in America is the breakdown of the prescribed program thru the evolution of the elective system.\n\nThen discussing the relation between college studies and success in\nlife, he establishes his conclusions by tabulating facts of groups of students\nwhile in college and thru a series of years after they were established in life.\nHis conclusions are based upon facts and not opinions. Dr. Snedden in an\narticle \"What of Liberal Education?\" in the January Atlantic Monthly,\nsays:\nOver a million boys and girls, under no legal compulsion, now pursue the traditional\ntypes of liberal learning in public secondary schools in America; and the men and women\nin the colleges are to be numbered by hundreds of thousands. But much of the work done\nin these institutions is without clear purpose, and therefore largely futile as regards the finer\nends of liberal education.\n\nDoubtless these statements are true; but there is no tabulation of facts\nto determine what work is done without clear purpose, or why it is largely\nfutile. Dr. Perry in his very recent work, Outlines of School Administration,\nuses numerous tabulations in making comparisons of the organization of\nschool systems in this country, and of our systems with systems in other\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ncountries. For example, in six large cities of this country he shows how\nmany minutes per week thru the eight grades are given to arithmetic, to\nEnglish, to geography, and so on thru all the subjects of the curriculum.\nThese tabulations are valuable in matters of organization. But what of\ntheir value in the solution of the real problem — what have the children to\nshow for the time spent ? In one city an average of 219 minutes per week\nfor eight years is devoted to arithmetic; in another city only 141 minutes\nper week. Education of today is not so much concerned about the time\nelement as it is about results — results that count in life after the graduation\nday is past. How teachers shall determine education values in the things\nthat are required, is the problem that most concerns teachers, most\nconcerns those who maintain the schools, and most of all, the children\nand youths who pursue the different studies not from any election or choice\nof their own.\nThe solution of this problem by research work, as the recommendation\nindicates, is not only the legitimate work of the normal schools, but a duty\nthat devolves upon them. It has been claimed that the normal schools\nare limited in their sphere of action to the preparation of teachers, profes ional y, for the public schools, and the elementary schools only; that\nthey are no part of a school system; that the elementary school, the secondary school, and the university make the completed system, and that the\nnormal school is simply a blind-alley that starts nowhere and leads nowhere.\nThe falsity of such a view is now well established. Many normal schools\nare doing the academic work of the college and are doing it well. One of\nthe graduates of the school which I represent, and now a student in Columbia University, said to me only a few weeks ago:\nI have a higher regard for my teachers in the normal school since I came here, for I\nhave had nothing to undo.\n\nThe same is the experience of normal-school graduates in general.\nResearch work can alone solve the problems in education. It is being\nbegun by the schools of education of the universities. These schools of\neducation are grappling with the real problems in education and life that\nthe normal schools have left wholly untouched.\nIt is my contention that the normal schools are now prepared to enter\nand should enter this field of work. They have in their faculties men and\nwomen who are capable of undertaking such work. The states can devote\nthe public funds to no purpose that more directly concerns the people.\nEveryone engaged directly or indirectly in the elementary or the secondary schools knows that much of the work is merely \"marking time.\" It\naffords neither discipline, information, nor knowledge. The schools of today\nhave in the main an intelligent constituency. They know that a large part\nof the work of the schools unfits rather than fits for life. Only a small percentage of the children can be held in school to complete the elementary\ncourse.\nIn our own state only a small fraction over 5 per cent ever enter a\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATTITUDE\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTOWARD\n\nEDUCATION\n\n815\n\nhigh school, and this percentage is not lower than in most other states.\nEducators know that there is great waste. The schools do not meet the\nneeds of the child in his relations to the times in which he is to live. The\nresults are deplored and criticized. The people do not know the remedy.\nEducators are expected to know it but they do not. They are getting\nanxious to find out. The people are pushing them on to find out.\nSome years ago, Dr. Rice made a severe arraignment of the public\nschools and gave in many cases expositions showing utter lack of value in\nthings they were doing. He could offer no remedy. Neither could we.\nEvery few months there appears in magazine or newspaper an article that\nis a severe criticism of present conditions. Many of the criticisms are only\ntoo true.\nThe attitude of the teacher toward education is changing. He is no\nlonger a mere theorist. He has passed that stage. He is becoming an\ninvestigator. He is no longer disposed to follow traditional ways or accept\nmere opinions. He wants facts. The entire program of every department\nfor this present meeting indicates in no mistakable terms such an attitude\non the part of the teacher. A few universities in this country, thru their\nschools of education, have brought into use the scientific method of relating\nthe facts of psychology and child study to things that are done in the schoolroom. They are measuring intensity of mental efforts scientifically and\ncomparing results. They are employing scientific research to determine\nreal values of things that have been supposed to have educative merit.\nWhy should not the universities apply their efforts of research in the\nfield of education as well as elsewhere ? No other field is of such importance\nor has such possibilities. Scientific investigation and research have\nmarked the way of progress in every other field. We have before us the\nrecent results in agriculture. Only a few years ago tradition and opinion\ndetermined everything in the process of the cultivation of the soil. Now\nwe accept only facts determined by experimentation. Farming is changing\nfrom blundering probabilities to scientific certainties. Conditions must\nbecome the same in education.\nWhat are the normal schools going to do about it ? In both elementary\nand secondary schools there must be elimination, integration, and correlation. These cannot be done at random or on mere opinion. Facts must\nbe determined. The state normal schools have the burden of this work\nupon them. The state normal schools are the servants of the people who\nmaintain them. They must meet the people's needs. They must lead\nrather than follow in the changes demanded in our public-school curriculum.\nThe state normal school is the only school at once in touch with the object\nand content of education as they effect public-school efficiency. One who\nhas given these problems careful study holds that, to enable the prospective\nteacher to know the value of a course of study, the state normal school will\nneed to support a department of research work. In this department and\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nunder the direction of a skilled investigator, the facts, laws, and principles\nof education and pedagogy will be discovered and rediscovered. Material\nin the character of investigators and instructors could be secured from the\neducational laboratories of our great universities and thus the normal\nschools would articulate with these institutions. Material in the shape\nof mental problems could be secured from the public schools and the\nresearch department would connect with the future field of the prospective\nteacher. Every state normal school maintains a training and model\nschool department which in a way is a pedagogical laboratory and might\nas well serve, in a degree at least, to demonstrate the scientific attitude and\nmethod of procedure in determining values of elementary- and secondaryschool problems.\nTo my mind such an enlargement of the services of the state normal\nschool is not only a possibility but is an obligation. The program for this\nmeeting has been arranged with a hope that this body may see its way to\nappoint a committee to consider ways and means of entering upon such work.\nI am aware that it is a work which will require many years, but I believe\nit should be undertaken. At the meeting of the department last summer,\nthe appointment of a committee was authorized to investigate and determine plans of compiling and presenting statistics that will be accurately\nauthoritative of what state normal schools are undertaking to do; also, of\nthe means and facilities at their command and the results that are being\nobtained. The committee's preliminary report follows in this program.\nOther topics of the program, namely: \" The Work of the Normal School in\nthe Reorganization of the Elementary-School Curriculum,\" \"Standards of\nMeasuring the Efficiency of Normal-School Students,\" and \"The Place of\nthe Normal School in Agricultural Education,\" have for their purpose the\nbringing-out of discussions that will indicate the attitude of the normal\nschools toward the problems which the people demand shall have a\nsolution, or at least an adjustment to present-day conditions. There can\nbe no question that there is an increasing demand on the part of the public\nfor a critical survey and evaluation of existing methods of child instruction.\nThe lack of mental development evidenced in the lack of information and\nknowledge on the part of children in elementary and secondary schools is\napparent to the mass of the people and they are giving expression to their\ndissatisfaction with existing conditions. The people are fully acquainted\nwith the progress that has been made within the past decade in every\ncondition of life: material, moral, and spiritual. They know they have a\nright to expect for their children conditions of mental development fully\nin keeping with the times in which they live. They believe that scientific\nprinciples applied in determining values in educative processes will insure\nthe desired conditions. Their confidence in the educators of today will\nnot be maintained unless this is done. The state normal schools are\nclosest of all schools to the public pulse and to them the public looks for a\nnew order of things.\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n817\n\nTHE WORK\n\nOF THE NORMAL SCHOOL IN THE REORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\nEUGENE\n\nBOHANNON,\n\nW.\n\nPRESIDENT\nDULUTH,\n\nOF\nTHE\nMINN.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe general inquiry involved in the consideration of this subject\nnaturally resolves itself into several inquiries of a more specific character.\nThese relate especially to the nature and extent of the reorganization\ncontemplated, the factors which will determine and accomplish it, the share\nthat the normal schools should have in this, and the means and methods\nto be employed by them in the accomplishment of such an object.\nA rather careful search of the reports of the proceedings of this department shows that this question is a new one in its deliberations. This and\nthe fact that it has been deemed worthy of special consideration at the\npresent time are either an evidence of neglect or an indication that the\nnormal schools are growing up to larger responsibilities and obligations,\nand among these the ones suggested by the statement of the present topic.\nIt will be safe to assume that in so far as you have thought about this\nquestion it has been with less definite reactions than result from the consideration ofnormal-school problems in general. This is due, no doubt, to\nthe fact that it relates to a sphere of influence which the normal schools\nhave not yet had time to appreciate clearly. There is a growing conviction\namong those engaged in the work of these institutions that they should\ncome to a clearer understanding of their duties and opportunities in respect\nto the curriculum of the elementary school, and that they should assume a\ngreater share of responsibility in that connection. It must be true that\nmost of you have had the experience of observing this conviction take more\ndefinite shape both in your own minds and in those of your associates\nwithin very recent years.\nThe responsibility and duty of normal schools in this respect are a\nnecessary result of their growing worth, and of their worthy growth. The\nsteady progress thay have made toward the realization of the purpose for\nwhich they have been established is proof of their fitness to render a larger\nmeasure of service than has been possible heretofore. They cannot make\nany substantial progress toward a fuller realization of their peculiar purpose\nwithout a coincident development of the capacity and obligation of being\nserviceable in new ways. The development of the ability properly to\nprepare teachers for the work of the elementary schools presupposes, and\nis largely dependent upon, an intelligent grasp of the problems of these\nschools, from every point of view.\nThe present attitude of the normal schools is more positive than it has\nbeen. They are not, so much as they have been, establishments which\ntake orders to turn out a product according to specifications written\nelsewhere.\nFortunately, both they and the public appreciate more fully\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nINormal\n\nthan ever before that it is not possible for either to accomplish its purpose\nso long as any such conception of the function of the normal school prevails.\nWe have entered on a period in their development which will require them\nto write some of the specifications for the public. They must know the\nconditions and make the interpretations upon which the determination of\nthe curriculum should be based.\nSuch demand for a reorganization of the curriculum as it exists is\nmainly in behalf of a more liberal recognition of the value of industrial\neducation and vocational training; a better grounding in the fundamentals\nof hygienic and sanitary living, and a better opportunity to develop a saner\nsocial life. As a preliminary to this there is, by implication, a demand\nfor the elimination of more or less useless features of existing curricula.\nThe modifications here suggested should be regarded as favoring the children\nwho will never have any other school experience than may be had in the\nelementary school, but as none the less desirable for those who expect to\nhave a more extended and varied school life. They will make it necessary\nto omit, add, and rearrange material, as well as to change the direction of\neffort, all in harmony with an enlarged and truer conception of both the\nend to be attained and the means to be employed in achieving it. In\nbrief, they will call for a new co-ordination of factors with a perspective to\nbe determined by a new focus, and those who grasp its full significance will\nnot fail to realize that it has its origin in that conception of the function\nof the school which regards it as an integral part of life rather than a\ndefinite attempt at preparation for it. This is not a distinction without a\ndifference. School experience should be an extension and an enlargement\nof other experience and, if possible, an improvement upon it. Its existence\ncannot be justified on any other ground. The best preparation for life is\nright living and this the school must foster, no matter what idols have to be\ncast down. The transition from the life of the school, or from life as\nmodified by the school, to life, no matter at what age made, should take\nplace with less friction and a smaller loss of time than is customary. The\nindividual should not have to make so many nor such important readjustments before finding his place in life. Any preparation for life which\ndepends upon serious derangement of it is not a good preparation for living\na life. There ought to be nothing cataclysmic about the change from the\nlife of the school to the business of earning a livelihood and of living a life.\nNeither should there be concessions to the spirit of rampant commercialism.\nThe life and the living are mutually dependent and, therefore, inseparable;\nbut the nature- of this relationship is of the utmost importance and it should\nnot be vitiated by sordid considerations. The school, especially the\nelementary school, should not become, more than it now is, an establishment for the outfitting of wage-earners, any more than it should be made\nto subserve the interests of other and higher schools. This does not\npreclude the possibility or probability of their being able to carry on their\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n819\n\nwork in such a way as to raise the wage-earner to a higher level of eflSciency\nand service and so of increasing his earning capacity. Neither does it\nmean that those who expect to enter the high school, college, or university\nwill be handicapped. These results, however, should be a consequence,\nrather than the main object, of the work done; and so they will be when\nthe school and other experience are properly integrated, when the completion of the work of the school is only nominally the commencement of life.\nIn the past the curriculum has taken shape in response to influences\nexerted by the colleges and universities, public opinion, the various supervising and administrative authorities, including state superintendents,\ninspectors, and boards of education, together with county and city superintendents, local boards of education, and the individual teacher. It is\nnot necessary to enter into a general consideration of the evils incident to\nuniversity domination. We all know how the influence of the university\nhas affected the elementary school. In order to meet university requirements the high schools have laid certain demands upon the elementary\nschools and we might as well admit that the evil results have not been\nunmixed with good, tho this has been mainly incidental. The interest of\nthe college and university has been more or less selfish and is responsible\nfor a rather serious perversion of the proper purpose and function of both\nthe elementary and the high school. Theoretically the college and the\nuniversity are an upgrowth from the elementary school and the high school.\nPractically the elementary school and the high school have been essentially\npreparatory schools. The work they have done has been determined too\nmuch by a consideration of the interests of the few who have found their\nway to thfe university. Therefore it has been inevitable that the lower\nschools should be diverted from their proper purpose. Happily the college\nand the university have come to a measurable appreciation of the situation\nand are making some effort to remedy it, but it is safe to say that there is\na limit beyond which they will not go, at least voluntarily. The modifications in practice already made are a result mainly of the rebellion of the\nlower schools. The primary concern of the colleges and universities has\nbeen for the very small percentage of children and youth who have become\ntheir students. In order to shape the work of this small number to that end\nthey have been too willing, thus far, to shape the work of all the children to\nthe same end, for the former could not be done very well without the latter.\nHowever, the day of bondage is passing, if not past, and a new dispensation impends. Confusion in views and imcertainty in practice have\nbeen inevitable results of the effort to make a readjustment and are still\nprevalent. It is needed that a new synthesis of the various elements be\nmade and this should be the most complete and rational expression possible\nof the proper work and purpose of the elementary school. It should be free\nfrom subserviency to ulterior motives and alien interests and should reflect\nthe best thought and experience available. At the same time it shoidd\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ntake form with a distinct realization of the fact that the course of study is\nonly a means to an end, and in no sense an end in itself.\nIf the proposed reorganization is to result in anything more than petty\nsystem-making it must be based upon convictions and motives that are\nabove suspicion. It should not furnish the opportunity for satisfying any\nunworthy ambition and those who are to participate in its accomplishment\nshould at no time lose sight of the fact that the only indispensable conditions for a good school are a good teacher and a willing pupil. The\nspecial character and arrangement of the subject-matter are in so far\nsecondary considerations, no matter how important they may be deemed\nin other relations, and any view of the whole situation that results in an exaggerated notion of the efficacy of the course of study is likely to cause those\nwho have it to overlook the more important consideration that no course\nof study can be any better, in practice, than the teacher using it. In our\nthinking about this problem we must always return to the overshadowing\ntruth that the solution for it cannot be considered apart from the solution\nof the problem of providing good teachers. It would be the merest foolishness todelude ourselves with the hope or belief that we can change this\nrelationship. It must not be assumed, however, that this is equivalent\nto an admission that the character of the curriculum is a matter of no consequence. On the other hand, a clear and well-defined conception of its\nproper character is indispensable. The distinction to be noted originates\nin the fact that the equipment of the teacher is the primary consideration.\nThe course of study must be an expression of her conception of the course\nto be pursued rather than that she be regarded as an instrument for the\nadministration of the course.\nBecause it is the special function of the normal schools to prepare\nteachers of all of the children in the elementary schools they must thoroly\nunderstand their needs. It should be an invariable requirement that those\nwho teach in them have that training and experience which combine to\nmake such knowledge a necessary result. It would be a mean and ignoble\nconception of the function of the normal school that would limit it to the\nduty of supplying teachers trained to meet a demand which the school had\nneither the ability to appreciate nor any share in defining and interpreting.\nFitness to serve as a teacher in a normal school presupposes such a background of knowledge and experience, and should carry with it the opportunity and duty of being a potent factor in the councils of those who\ndetermine the curriculum of the elementary school. Nevertheless, it must\nbe admitted that there are still those who seem to hold that the chief\nfunction of normal schools is to manufacture teachers to meet a demand\nwhich they have had no share in formulating and cannot sanction. The\nanomalous position of the normal schools, in respect to their relations to the\nother parts of the public-school system in the different states, has hindered\nthem very seriously in rendering the best service.\nIn reality they do not\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n821\n\nfunction as a part of the state school system except in a partial sense and\nin an indirect way.\nOf the several sources of influence which have been effective in determining the character of the curriculum of the elementary school the one which\nis closest to the normal schools is the elementary teacher herself. No\nmatter how limited her authority may be, her power of influence is predominant inso far as the real content of the work is concerned, and the\nnormal school, as the teacher of the teacher, is bound to be the most important factor in determining the character of the work done in the elementary\nschool. The normal schools are, or ought to be, intimately acquainted\nwith the problems of the elementary school. They have a keen appreciation\nof all its needs and of the means and methods appropriate to their realization. The attainment of the special purpose for which they exist depends\nprimarily on this and it is their paramount duty to conduct their work in\nsuch a way as to insure such a result in the training of their students.\nWhatever is essential to the accomplishment of this end is a proper part of\ntheir work, and when they do this as it should be done, they should be\naccorded a large measufe of influence in standardizing the work of the\nelementary school. Perhaps this is only another way of saying that the\nmost effective means at the disposal of the normal schools in respect to\nthe proposed reorganization are to be found in the quantity and quality\nof the scholarship of their students. Most of the professionally trained\nelementary teachers come from the normal schools and a yet larger percentage will come from the same source. Their knowledge, scholarship,\nand culture will determine the effectiveness of the normal school. So long,\nand in so far, as the normal schools shall be in any sense content to send\nout large niunbers of students with no greater concern than that they be\nable to find positions readily, so long, and to that extent, will they be\nimpotent factors in all matters relating to the determination of the\nelementary-school curriculum.\nIt does not matter so much as we sometimes think, whether the curriculum provides for this or that as it does that the teacher be a living\nembodiment of the things which should be included in the curriculum. If\nthey are in the teacher they will be in the school, and if they are not in\nthe teacher they will not be in the school, even tho they are in the course\nof study. If it were as easy to make reforms in the work as in the courses\nof study the solution would be easy enough. Unquestionably there is too\nmuch leaning on the course of study and not a sufficient amount of insistence\nupon scholarship, culture, and character in the teacher. To be sure, a clear\nconception of the nature and extent of the field of endeavor is requisite, but\nit will be present when there are teachers who have the qualities just\nmentioned. It makes much difference whether the curriculum is a proper\nand adequate expression of the reaction to duty as outlined in the thought\nand experience of the teachers who are to follow it in their work. Naturally,\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "82 2\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Normal\n\ntherefore, the normal schools should be institutions thru which prospective\nteachers could not pass without achieving a reasonable approximation to\nthis standard, and we should have the courage to admit it. If we are to\nset ourselves the task of assuming these new and heavier responsibilities\nwe shall have to force the roots of culture farther down and out in the soil\nwe cultivate. For that reason the curriculum of the normal school itself\nis of the greatest consequence. Its content and structure, and the spirit in\nwhich it is administered, should be determined in the light of the consideration that the ultimate object is the development of a teacher who will\ncarry with her, as a part of her equipment, an experience and insight which\nwill save her from slavery to a course of study, whether it be one of her\nown formulation or one of the ready-made sort.\nThis is an ambitious ideal but no other should guide us. The grades\nof the training schools should be, as they generally are, a concrete expression\nof the normal school's conception of the proper nature of the elementaryschool curriculum. The experience of the pupil teachers in them helps to\nnormalize their ideas and in that way the influence of the school extends\nitself to the elementary school at large. The printed outlines of courses of\nstudy in these departments serve the double purpose of guiding those who\nwork in them as well as those who teach in other schools of the same\ngrade. It has been my observation that there is a rather general demand\nfrom superintendents, principals, and teachers for these printed outlines\nand a rather gratifying disposition to accept them as normative. This\nsuggests the desirability of rather frequent revision and points to an\nobligation on the part of the normal schools. It is an obligation which\nthey ought to assume, if only for the sake of the beneficial reaction on their\nown special work.\nThe very general acceptance, by certificating authorities, of the normal\nschool diploma as a standard of qualification lends sanction to the suggestion that they should extend their influence as a standardizing agency.\nProgress in that direction should be desired and sought only as a means of\nincreasing their efficiency and of extending their usefulness, and mainly by\nmeans of the character of the preparation given their students.\nWhat has been said herein refers almost entirely to the realization of\nthe conditions upon which the recognition of our fitness for, and the\nadmission of our right to, a larger measure of influence depends, rather than\nto specific ways and means of exercising it. These are important, of course,\nbut at the present time they appear to me to be secondary to the former\nconsideration. It may be that more normal schools than I think have\nalready convinced the public of their right to assimie a more authoritative\nposition in this respect. Nevertheless I am willing to hazard the assertion\nthat there are many which have not, and will not until they shall have had\nsome experience in using richer and more extended courses of study in their\nown work, even tho it be admitted that the makeshift character of many\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n823\n\nof the existing courses in normal schools is an unwilling concession to a\ndemand which they do not approve. However these courses may be\ndesignated or described, they can provide but a thin veneer, a mere brushcoat of professional training, so-called, and those who administer them\nfrom year to year cannot well escape their circumscribing influence.\nAltho the public schools are generally eager to employ teachers with a\nnormal-school training there is a general disposition to express a certain\ndegree of dissatisfaction with their preparation. On the other hand, the\nnormal schools are generally inclined to be dissatisfied with the standard\nfor criticism. Whatever the truth may be as to the justice of both views,\nand it will hardly be claimed that either is wholly justifiable or wholly\nunjustifiable, one thing is clearly evident — there is an imperative need for\na better understanding of their mutual interests and for thoro co-operation\nin effort. It is incumbent upon us to devise more effective ways and means\nfor co-operating with the several agencies which prescribe the work in the\nelementary school. These vary with the states and are too well known to\nrequire mention. They are not generally adequate to the accomplishment\nof the end proposed but others that shall be will follow as a consequence\nof the demonstration of our fitness to use them.\nThe problem of supplying properly trained teachers for the rural school\nstill presses for solution, and while normal schools are more or less helpless\nin respect to it they are not without responsibility. It is to be hoped that\nthey will be able soon to make more important contributions in that\ndirection. At present the superior attractions offered by positions in city\nand graded schools lead to the absorption of our graduates by them and\nmake it necessary for us to devote the greater part of our attention to the\nrequirements for such work. If we are to continue the attempt to meet\nthis demand, as we must; if we are to assume the still more difficult\nobligation of supplying well-prepared teachers for the rural schools, together\nwith that of participating more liberally in the effort to reorganize the\ncurricula of both, then most, if not all, of us face the necessity for a\nradical extension and diversification of our interests and activities.\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nE. E, BALCOMB,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL SCHOOL\nEDUCATION\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, STATE\nAND INDUSTRIAL\nCOLLEGE,\nGREENSBORO,\nN.C.\n\nNORMAL\n\nThe movement for agricultural education is broader and more comprehensive than the mere adding of a recitation once a day from a textbook\ntelling in a brief way how soil is formed, how plants should be raised, and\ngiving a few pictures of fancy poultry and high-bred stock. The children\nleave all they have read about these things — this textbook knowledge —\nin the schoolroom between the pages of the textbook, as they have been\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ntaught to do, and as their fathers did before them. They never for a\nmoment think, as they wend their way homeward, that the dirt they are\nwalking on is soil, and that the farmer is sowing his wheat in soil farmed\nin the same way they have been reading about in the textbook at school.\nIt never dawns on them that illustrations far more eloquent than those\nthey have been reading about, and seeing pictures of in the textbook, are\nbefore them in the pastures they pass on their homeward journey; that\nthe cow, whose milk they drink, has a far more vital connection with stockraising, and with their own lives, than the printed page and all the pictures\nthey can find in their books. They never dream that the chickens they\nscatter corn for, night and morning, are living examples of the abstract facts\nthey have been studying about.\n. Wherever the above is true, the children are missing the real mission\nof the movement for agricultural education. They are very much like\nthe little boy whom Commissioner Claxton tells about. The doctor\nvisited a school one day when a little boy, in response to the teacher's\nquestion as to what the world was, responded very glibly that it was \"a\ngreat round ball spinning thru space,\" etc. Commissioner Claxton asked\nthe boy if he had ever seen this great ball that was spinning thru space.\nThe boy replied that he had not. Then Dr. Claxton asked him if he\nthought he could see it if he went out of doors and looked around. The\nboy said that he did not know, so Dr. Claxton asked him to go out and see.\nThe boy returned presently and reported that he had looked in every\ndirection but \"could not find the slightest trace of the world anywhere.\"\nCHILD\n\nEMPHASIZES\n\nTHE\n\nTEXTBOOK\n\nTo the child studying agriculture, the most necessary thing, as he considers it,is committing to memory the statements he sees in the textbook.\nWhy should he not so consider it ? His class standing, his grade, or his\nmark depends upon what he can tell and what he can remember of the\ntextbook in agriculture, the same as in arithmetic, grammar, and geography.\nDISCOUNTED\n\nBY\n\nTIME-HONORED\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIf the subject of agriculture is mentioned at all among the older and\nmore time-honored studies of the curriculum, it is in a slighting and apologetic way. Emphasis is laid on studying, not on thinking and observing\n— especially outside of the schoolhouse. Knowledge must be something\nthat can be measured by the textbooks. It reminds one of the little boy,\nwho, tho usually very studious, one day happened to glance up from his\nbook and saw a bright spot on the wall where a sunbeam was reflected.\nHe noticed that the sunbeam was moving, and he became interested in\nwatching it. In his simple way he began to ask himself why this was so.\nPresently his teacher spoke rather sharply to him and said, \"Johnnie,\nwhat are you doing?\"\nThe boy, somewhat embarrassed, said, \"I wag\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN ARGICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n825\n\nthinking.\" The teacher said emphatically, \"Quit your thinking and go\nto studying.\" It is the studying, and not the thinking which makes the\nmarks, which helps the boy to pass from one grade to another. Agricultural education is more than a collection of uninteresting facts. It is an\nattitude, it is a feeling, it is a different point of view, a new method of\npresentation.\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nRESPONSIBLE\n\nThe normal schools are to blame in this matter, or at least, they are\npartly responsible for this point of view. They grind all the material thru\nthe same mill, and it must reach a certain fineness regardless of the original\ntexture. Or they might be compared to a farmer who should sow all the\nseed that he has in his granary (provided it has passed thru the fanning\nmill of the high schools, if it has been blown about sufficiently and survived\nthe hot air blast of examinations), in the same way, in the same kind of\nsoil, regardless of its native property, the kind of seed it is, or the soil to\nwhich it is adapted. The grading of the seed as poor, good, excellent,\netc., depends mostly upon the marks left by the sieves of Latin, higher\nmathematics, and other theoretical subjects. In other words, the farther\nthe student is removed from doing anything with his hands or thinking\nanything connected with his present-day surroundings, the farther from\nsolving the social problems of the day, the better prepared he is to be sown\nas seed among the elementary schools preparing the children for the citizenship of tomorrow. That is, the more he walks backward, with eyes fixed\non the past, the better guide is he for the children who are tobogganing for\nthe future with the speed of an automobile.\nNormal teachers, who actually think that to teach in the elementary\nschools Latin and geometry is far more important than vital touch with the\nchild and its home environment, actually deaden enthusiasm and initiative\non the part of the young normal student who is preparing for teaching.\nThe enthusiasm gone, the reverence for the textbook is increased. In the\nabstract studies, the textbook is absolute. There is no other way to get\nthe knowledge of the dead languages and mathematics and some other\nsubjeicts than from the textbooks. Any new life, and a vital way of getting\nat this information are absolutely impossible. It is claimed by such\nteachers that the study of the ancient languages and higher mathematics\ndevelop power, and that this power can then be used for any other subject which the child may wish to pursue, or any calling which he wishes to\nundertake. Modern psychology has long since proved that this statement\nhas no foundation upon fact.\nWhich student actually gets the best report card to take home to his\nparents at the end of the month, or the term ? The student who remembers most from the textbooks. Who would be recommended by the normal\nfaculty for a good position as teacher? The girl who during her college\ncourse has remembered the most names in science, the most Latin grammar,\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nand the most of her textbooks in every way. In preference to this, it\nshould be the girl- who has the most power to do things, who possesses the\nmost enthusiasm and ability to get hold of children.\nEvery graduate should be required to make her own graduating gown;\nshe should be able to conduct a public meeting; she should be able to cook\nand serve a good meal of victuals ; she should have some acquaintance with\nthe characters in literature; she should know something of the political\nproblems of the day; she should be able to stand on her feet and tell what\nshe thinks and why she thinks so; she should be able to know a dairy cow\nwhen she sees it, and a cabbage head from a pumpkin. She should have\nsome knowledge of the laws governing the development of child life; she\nshould be able to deal with the school child as a living, growing, developing human being. She should have these qualifications no matter where\nshe teaches. I do not mean to exclude the ordinary studies which she\nwill expect to teach. Every normal-school student should have a brief\nreview of these common subjects to give her the teacher's point of view.\nMost of the strong normal schools are giving these, and I am emphasizing\nonly those things which I feel are neglected.\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSHOULD\n\nSELECT\n\nMATERIAL\n\nADAPTED\n\nTO\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\nEvery normal school should have a sharp lookout for teachers who are\ndoing excellent work in the rural schools: those teachers who are not\nmerely doing good teaching, but who are really getting hold of the people\nand raising the standard of living in the community where they teach.\nThere are a number of agencies by which this may be done.\nFirst, a letter should be sent to the county superintendent (every\nnormal school should be on the most friendly and mutually helpful terms\nwith the county superintendents of its state) asking what teachers in his\ncounty are making an exceptional success of rural work. This should be\ndone twice a year, once near the close of the year, and once about the first\nof December. The county superintendents should be urged to see these\nteachers and lay the advantages of better preparation before them. The\nnormal school should write to them, saying they had heard good reports\nof their work, and suggesting that the normal school would be glad to do\nanything it could to assist them in the matter of better preparation.\n(If there is a lack of available finances, the normal school should have a fund\navailable for loaning to deserving students who agree to return to the rural\nschools.) The normal school should make it clear that they will help\nprepare for rural work. One objection to helping these teachers is that\nthe normal school usually urges them after they have finished to seek a\nposition in some city school, rather than return to the rural districts.\nThe county superintendents and the normal schools should encourage\nthe rural schools to contract with deserving teachers for their services\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n827\n\nafter returning from taking advanced work at an educational institution.\nWith such a guaranty as this, the rural school teachers would have no\ndifficulty in borrowing \"funds to invest in themselves.\" The normal\nschool should make it clear that no laurel is too green to form a crown for\nthe head of the teacher who can inspire the lives of a rural community.\nThe second field from which the normal school should seek to obtain\nmaterial for suitable teachers to train for rural schools is the teachers'\ntraining class in the city high schools, and the rural and township high\nschools. A state visitor of high schools would be of great service in suggesting suitable candidates from these high schools. \"\nA third source for material is offered by the exhibits of corn, tomato,\nand potato clubs, especially of schools in domestic science and domestic\nart. Wherever a good exhibit is displayed, inquiry should be made concerning the teacher who had charge of the class or school making the\nexhibit. Every normal school should have a large and ever-increasing\narmy of loyal alumni to keep it in touch with the teaching affairs of the\nstate. This would be a most excellent avenue thru which to discover\nworthy teachers for the rural schools.\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDISCOURAGE\nTEACHERS\nIN RURAL\nSCHOOLS\n\nFROM\n\nACCEPTING\n\nPOSITIONS\n\nThere is no reason why proper selection and encouragement in the\nfield of teaching should not give us many more excellent teachers of agriculture and rural life in general. Teachers who come from rural schools\nshould take training in normal schools which have an environment that\nwill encourage them and stimulate their ambition for this kind of teaching.\nOne difficulty is that most normal schools have an atmosphere which not\nonly does not encourage teaching in this field, but makes teachers feel that\nit is a matter of social standing as well as finance to teach in the city schools.\nIt is like a very large state university which I know, where all the students\nin the agricultural departments are referred to as being in the \"cow college.\" The result is that while many students enter this department,\nmostx)f them before finishing the four years' course have transferred to\nsome other department.\nThe work that Miss Jessie Field, as the \"Corn Lady,\" has done for the\nrural schools cannot be overestimated. The influence of such books as\nJean Mitchell's School, The Little School-Mistress, etc., have already sown\nthe seed, which should elevate the teaching of the rural schools to something\nmore than it has been in the past. All educators should encourage young\nteachers to read these books.\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe agricultural education for schools is more than the getting of new\nfacts, more than the adding of a new study to the curriculum. Agriculture\nas studied in the agricultural colleges has three objects: first, that of dis-\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonmd\n\ncovering new truths and new methods of attack on old problems; second,\nthat of presenting these in such a way that farmers (the adult individuals\nin the rural communities) will be induced to heed them; it includes, of\ncourse, training -for the wives and mothers; third, that of spending much\ntime and effort in making the farmer familiar with the facts and methods\nthat are already well established. The chief battle is against ignorance.\nThis battle, the teacher and the normal school should be prepared to help\nprevent in the next generation. The children they train should be able\nand anxious to apply all knowledge of common methods of farming as\nfast as the agricultural college puts its stamp of approval on them.\nAgricultural education for schools differs from that of the agricultural\ncollege in that it does not attempt to discover new truths, does not try\nto add to the sum total of human knowledge, but only endeavors to teach\nthe young people the things that have been demonstrated, and how to\napply this knowledge. This knowledge is intended for the children, the\nimmature, and not for the adults. Agricultural education is preventive\nmedicine, while agricultural college work is curative. If agricultural\neducation can be properly taught in all public schools, there will be a dearth\nin the crop of ignorant farmers. The agricultural colleges can then devote\ntheir energies to discovering new truths, putting the frontier of knowledge\nfarther into the vast wilderness of the imknown, well knowing that they\nwill have an army of scientific farmers behind them eager to apply each\nnew discovery and hold every foot of advance ground the colleges have\nbeen able to take.\nBut how can the students of the normal schools be prepared to do this,\nimless they have some means of getting this knowledge at first hand?\nThis calls for equipment, and fearless, well-prepared teachers in the normal\nschools. A few are doing this, but behold the lack of equipment and the\ninfantile efforts of the vast majority of the normal schools. They have\nfour brick walls, the common desks, children saturated with the old ideas\nof education, a textbook written by a college professor who never taught\na day in the rural schools, and a teacher who does not know a Duroc from\na Plymouth Rock. In striking contrast to this is the equipment and work\nof such normal schools as the Kirksville Missouri Normal.\nBut agricultural education as it should be presented by the normal\nschools, and as it is taught by the best teachers, is a point of view, a method\nof attack, an attitude toward life. It means that all studies should be\ntaught in a different manner. It should enable the children to live a fuller,\nricher, nobler life. It should show them that mastering problems of\nraising crops, baking bread, and sewing garments is just as truly educational as the solving of a problem in algebra, or learning a conjugation in\ngrammar. In addition to having an equal educational and cultural value,\nit also has a body of facts that possesses a utilitarian value, which will\nenable the children of the rural communities to live a life on a higher\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n829\n\nmaterialistic plane. They will as a result of this knowledge get better\nreturns from the soil, have more time for culture and self-improvement,\nwill be better prepared to compete with the other classes, and get a \"square\ndeal.\"\nThese points I would emphasize:\nfirst: selection\nA portion of the students of a state normal school that is preparing\nteachers of agriculture should be selected from teachers who have a natural liking and aptitude for rural life. The matter of book-learning must\nnot be allowed to overshadow their natural genius for reaching the \"farmfolks\" on their \"native heath.\" Among birds those of the most gaudy\nplumage are not always the sweetest singers; the hen of the brightest\nfeathers does not always lay the most eggs. The city student with the\nmost gaudy apparel seldom inspires a rural school, and thru it, a farm\ncommunity.\nsecond: aptitude\nWhatever material the normal school has for making rural teachers,\nit should not proceed in the time-honored way, which President Kirk\npoints out when he says:\nIt is quite clear that heretofore the school tended to draw the sympathy of the\nchildren away from their homes and to awaken the ambition of the country boy for\nvillage life, of the village boy for city life, and of the city boy for the professions and\nthe more leisurely ways of life.\n\nBut they should wake up to the other fact which Dr. Kirk points out:\nWe see the traditional idea of scholarship in science for the sake of science is untenable. The teaching of dead languages and the deeds of dead monarchs for the sake of\nculture belongs to the past ages. Science, language, history, and literature that do not\naffect the minds and habits of childcen in youth, so as to send them back into their homes\nwith increased disposition for service and enlarged resources for rendering service, are\nno longer defensible. Moreover, it is now quite clear, and generally conceded that the\nstudies of immediate value in human service are also as good as any other studies for\nmentahdiscipline and for culture.\n\nthird: reorganization and equipment\nEvery normal school which essays to teach agriculture should follow\nthe reorganization which is taking place in our most advanced institutions.\nThey should adopt President Kirk's motto when he says:\nIt is proposed to curtail in this normal school the old courses in botany for botany's\nsake, in chemistry for chemistry's sake, in physiology for physiology's sake, and in\nzoology for zoology's sake. Botany for practical purposes becomes a division of farm\nand garden crops. Chemistry takes practical form in a study of commercial products,\npermanent soil fertility, and food values. Biology turns itself into a concrete study of\npractical bacteriology. It reaches all the way from the yeast in the bread to the diseasebreeding germ in the well-water and the food. It is thought that a half-dozen departments can be combined under the one enlarged utilitarian department of \"Farm and\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nHousehold Economics.\" Ours is a farming community, pre-eminently so. Thru trips\nto the garden and the school farm and experiments and observations participated in,\nour students are securing knowledge and experience and working skiU in some new things\nthat are worth while. We will furnish our own hot luncheon on stormy days and other\ndays and learn by our own experiences how to connect our own indoor laboratories with\nthe larger laboratories, i.e., the farm, the garden, the pasture, the poultry yard, the\ndairy, the orchard, and the grain field.\n\nTo my mind the place of the normal school in agricultural education is\nbest exemplified by the work being done by such educational leaders as\nJohn Kirk, Dr. David Felmley, and a few others. They have some of the\ngreat normal schools of the United States, and have good farms of real\nsoil where future teachers do real work under real farm conditions. They\nare learning in a natural way the lessons that every successful teacher of\nagriculture must learn.\nfourth: devote\n\nless time to dead languages and more\nparation FOR practical LIVING\n\nto pre-\n\nIt is a sad commentary on our normal schools that our girls who are\npreparing to teach domestic science and domestic art are too busy learning\nthe dead languages and the deader deeds of dead monarchs to take a practical hand in preparing their own food, and their own wearing-apparel.\nfifth:\n\nnormal\n\nschools\n\nshould\ngive\nTRAINING\nRURAL AFFAIRS\n\nFOR\n\nLEADERSHIP\n\nIN\n\nIn order that the teacher may become more fully acquainted with the\nneeds and members of rural life, she should meet them at their gatherings\nand there learn how to become a leader in making their lives happier, more\nenjoyable, and that of the children more serviceable in their homes. In\n,this work normal schools should take the lead and give their pupils an\nopportunity to get this training. At \"the Kirksville Normal School they\nhold such meetings and have stock-judging, corn-judging, poultry- judging,\netc., so that the students may be prepared as leaders in these subjects.\nSome may think that this normal school is going too far in this direction.\nTo all such, President Kirk makes answer for all of us by this question :\nWhat is this normal school for? Do you have any idea that your law requiring\nagricultural instruction in the public schools means anything, or is it mere verbiage ?\nsixth:\n\nmust\n\nhave\n\nrural\n\npractice\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEvery state normal school that attempts to prepare teachers of agriculture must have a rural practice school. The proper preparation of\nteachers in agriculture without first-hand experience in a rural school is\nimpossible. The problem of the rural school is an unsolved one. I know\nof no one who is making a more earnest and intelligent effort at its solution than President D. B. Johnson, of the Winthrop Normal and Industrial\nCollege, at Rock Hill, South Carolina. As he told me one day, they have\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n831\n\nwiped the slate clean and are building a course of study without any reference to tradition. They take the children, the soil, and the natural rural\nsurroundings, and with these build a course for the best interests of the\nfuture citizens. The course they work out will be a real contribution to\nthe solution of this much-discussed problem. Every normal school is\nvitally interested in and should give its students an opportunity to share\nin the solution of this problem.\nAn important addition to the country schoolhouse was made when\nits attic was discovered. This discovery alone should entitle Mr. Kirk's\nname to be handed down to posterity as a benefactor to the rural communities of the world.\nIn the training of teachers of agriculture at a state normal school, I\nwould emphasize these points:\nFirst: Candidates should be selected who have a natural liking and aptitude for\nrural life.\nSecond: The attitude of mind which the normal students should be taught to impart\nto their future pupils is that of contentment with rural life, rather than a desire for urban\nlife. Moreover, they must be brought to realize that the studies of immediate value\nin human service are as good as any other studies for mental discipline and for culture.\nThird: In teaching the sciences entering into a study of agriculture, the normal\nschool should not give the subject for its own sake, but for the sake of its bearing on the\ncourse. Thus, for practical purposes botany becomes a division of farm and garden\ncrops, and biology turns itself into a concrete study of practical bacteriology.\nFourth: Less time should be devoted to the dead languages and more to preparation\nfor practical living.\nFifth: Training should be given for leadership in rural affairs.\nSixth: A rural practice school is necessary.\nSeventh: The entrance requirements should be so adjusted that those with rural\ntastes and training may have an opportunity to pass equal to that of the city-bred girl.\nseventh: allowing city-bred girls to crowd\nrural tastes and training\n\nout those with\n\nThe authorities who control our public normal schools and limit their\nattendance to those only who are prepared with a mass of dead material,\nthereby excluding ambitious young people who are otherwise qualified\nto develop into excellent teachers — the more especially when they exclude\nthose who have demonstrated by actual work that they can enthuse a\nrural community — are guilty of a worse monopoly than that of the Standard Oil Company, or the Tobacco Trust. These corporations seek to control only the so-called private capital they have acquired, while the normal\nschool is founded and supported directly by the people. These monopolies\ncan add a tenth of a cent to the cost of a gallon of oil, or make it\nthe hundredth part of a cent more expensive to fill one's mouth with tobacco,\nbut there are other means of making a light, and one might fill his mouth\nwith something besides tobacco, so that these monopolies are not prohibitive. But the authority who turns away hundreds of ambitious young\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\npeople who are praying for the opportunity to prepare for service in the\nrural schools must answer a serious charge — the more serious since it\nrefuses them simply because they do not have the technical preparation,\nand gives their places to those city students who have learned to read\nglibly a few incorrect sentences of such poor Latin that Caesar himself\ncould not understand it. This artificial limitation has not only deprived\nthese young people of their rightful inheritance, but, what is more serious\nand far-reaching, has sent these city-bred girls to teach a year or two in\nthe country until they could get their political appointment in the city\nschools; while in the country, they either did not reach their pupils at all,\nor they filled them with longings for the city and its gilded civilization.\nI should like to ask these authorities a simple question : Are you nmning\na private monopoly at public expense, a monopoly in which you have never\ninvested a cent and from which you draw a few thousand a year ?\nDISCUSSION\nW. M. Stewart, dean of the School of Education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City,\nUtah. — ^The point of view of social efficiency as the end of education has brought about a\nreconstruction of the school curriculum. Disciplinary subjects are replaced by the practical. Industrial education is rapidly pushing its way into the curriculum. The doctrine\nof Herbert Spencer, \"things of most worth,\" is the keynote to the selection of educational material. Traditional education is giving way to an education based upon present\nindustrial and social needs. Ideas are being measured and weighed in the balance of their\nefficiency to meet the real needs and situations of life as determined by the ideals of society\nas now constructed. Even a fact to be taught in history is selected from the point of\nview of its value in helping the learner to understand the various social institutions which\nmake up oiu^ present complex life. The function of the school is determined by the needs\nof society in the process of its evolutionary adjustment. WTiat society and the individual\nneed that can be best done in the school must be done there, no matter what may be the\ntraditions of the past. The teacher must be a sociologist looking out upon the complex\nlife of society, and measuring the various forces operating in civilization with a view of\ndetermining the true relationship of the school to the other educational agencies in civilization. This point of view has led to the construction of the school as a life-laboratory\nthru which the evolutionary forces of civilization are economically adjusted to the embryonic citizen. In response to this ideal, the school today, as never before, is studying its\nown particular social setting with the \\dew of its own individual adjustment; so the\nschool for the first time in history is assuming a really scientific attitude.\nThe problem under discussion is to find the place of agriculture in the new scheme\nof education and especially with respect to the professional training of the teacher.\nIf agriculture has an important place in the school curriculum, it follows without\nfurther argument that it has a similar importance in the curriculum of the normal school\nor teachers' college.\nUsing agriculture in its broadest sense as embracing, especially in the elementary\ncurriculum, natiu-e-study, I am ready to make the assertion that, with its practical\nactivities, it is fundamental and hence extremely rich in educational resource. Our\ncivilization has grown out of the soil, which has furnished us the fundamentals — food,\nclothing, shelter, and the most varied industrial activities. Even the formal subjects\nare so connected with agric\\iltiu-e that it furnishes the best possible motive for their\nacquisition. On the social side it is equally rich. The home and family first found\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n833\n\nstability in agricultural occupation and no douljt, even today, the most stable home is\nin the agricultural community. Even such cultural subjects as literature, music, art, etc.,\nhave their setting in country life and agricultural activity.\nThe sociological expert tells us that the present-day menace to our civilization,\nwhich seriously impedes our progress and perhaps threatens our downfall, is the instability\nof the family. I am ready to make the assertion that no subject can do more for the\nstability of the home than agriculture in the schools. I do not mean the rural schools\nalone, but also those of the city. 1 regard agricultural training as fundamental in the\ncommon schools and needed by every child. Then, if my contention is correct, and I\nchallenge proof of the contrary, it is the special and necessary function of the school that\nis training teachers to teach this subject, in some of its phases, to every prospective\nteacher.\nI am ready to concede that there are difficulties in the way, which may make it, for\nthe present, impracticable to teach agriculture in some normal schools and teachers'\ncolleges, and that probably the agricultural colleges will need temporarily to train teachers\nof agriculture. This, however, will be necessary only in the training of high-school\nteachers of agriculture, domestic science, and domestic art. But ultimately and ideally,\nthe agricultural teachers as well as all others must be trained in a professional school for\nteachers. It was once held by many, and especially by high-school and university\npeople, that to know a subject was to be able to teach it; but this idea is now only a\ntradition. The constantly increasing complexity of education, the social function of the\nschool, and its relation to the complex problems of our civilization, make the professional\ntraining of the teacher imperative; no amateur can be trusted to do so important and\ndifficult a work.\nThe suggestion that agricultural colleges must, for economic reasons, train the special\nteachers in agriculture can apply only as a brief expedient. Of course a university which\nhas both a teachers' college and a college of agriculture has a great economic advantage\nover the institution which is not so fortunately situated; but no school for the training\nof elementary teachers can afford to leave agriculture out of its curriculum. In the case\nof preparing high-school teachers of agriculture, the situation is somewhat different, as\neconomic conditions always play an important part in the work of the normal school.\nIf agricultural colleges were to undertake the work of training special teachers in\nagriculture, it would mean, to do it right, a duplication of the inevitable work of the normal\nschool; even then it could not be so well done as in a teachers' college, for the reason that\na teacher thus trained would lack the organic, pedagogical unity so essential in the\nworking-out of a system of education which demands such organic and co-operative work.\nFor a person to be turned out simply as a special teacher in agriculture would doom to\nutter failure the promotion of agricultural education in the public schools. I take it\nalso that the state agricultural college would not desire to be burdened with such a task\nexcept temporarily; for, when this scheme of agricultural teaching has been placed in all\nthe public schools, the agricultural colleges will be swamped by the enormous legitimate\ndemand which will be made upon them from the purely agricultural interests of the\ncountry.\nThe dean of the School of Agriculture in the University of Missouri says:\nIn reference to teaching agriculture in the normal schools, it has always seemed to\nme that there exists today a splendid opportunity which is wide open to the normal\nschools of Missouri for training teachers of agriculture for primary and secondary schools.\nThe resolution to teach agriculture is not sufficient. A determination to appoint\nprofessors of agriculture in normal schools is a short step in the right direction. The whole\nproblem of the subject-matter to be taught, methods of teaching, and correlation with\nother subjects is a pedagogical problem from start to finish.\nIt may readily be shown that it will be vastly more economical to place in the teachers'\ncollege the agricultural subjects necessary for the training of teachers than to duplicate\nthe normal schools in agricultural colleges.\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nThe head of the Department of Agriculture of the Missouri State Normal School at\nKirksville gives the following statement of the cost of the teaching of agriculture:\nFarm investment of $25,000 at 6 per cent\nLive stock and machinery $3,200 at 6 per cent\nAgriculture supplies for laboratory\nFour boys to run farm,. $10 per month\nOne professor of agriculture\n\nFarm's annual income\n\n$1,500.00\n192.00\n250.00\n480.00\n2,000.00\n\n500 . 00\n$4,422.00\n$3,922 .00\n\nTotal cost of school\n\nIf I group my students as one term students I would have as my year's attendance\n700 students for 60 days.\nTherefore 700 students 60 days expense\n$3,922.00\nI student 60 days expense\n5 . 60\nI student\ni day expense\n9.3 cents\nHaving the farm and department of agriculture for the general culture of the schools,\nFor each school day for all students\n$16 . 35\nOr per student per school day\n2.7 cents\nNOTES\n\nON THE SCHOOL\n\nG.A.RDEN AND FARM\n\nTeaching can be made more efficient only by teaching in terms of the child's life and\ninterests. We are coming to realize that education should grow out of the lives of the\npeople and back into their lives. Prarri al na'.ure-study aims to place the child in a\nsympathetic relation with his environment and give him a broader basis of knowledge\nwhereby he may interpret all his actions. Nature-study should create a sympathy for\nthe industrial activities of the country. The tendency today seems to be to get away from\nthe occupations of our forefathers. Especially is this true in Utah, where the strength and\nsinew of our people, in the past, has lain in the development of natural resources. We\nare anxious that our children develop these traits of character which come from learning\nearly to perform some useful activity. We believe in a right balance between physical\nand mental work. Gymnasium work, while it possesses many advantages, lacks the\nincentive that work upon the school farm or about the home can give. In the spring of\nthe year, boys frequently ask to be excused from the gymnasium work that they may\nspend their time in the garden. If a class is at work in the garden during the period\nbefore recess, few of the children will leave the garden to join the other pupils in their\nrecess sports. A further evidence of the interest shown is seen during the summer months,\nwhen many children spend no small amount of time with the instructor looking after the\ngeneral garden.\nMOTIVES\n\nWe try to bring forward as many motives as possible to induce children to take an\ninterest in their garden — winning the approval of the instructor, taking responsibility,\nand lastly the economic motive. While the economic motive is not the highest, it makes\nthe strongest appeal to the children and should be utilized until a higher one can be inculcated. We are not, however, afraid to introduce a child to the meaning of making a\ndollar and how to spend it. Many a child has gratified a long-felt wish thru the money\nhe has made by raising chickens or selling garden products. Whenever it is necessary\nto hire help about the school farm, children are employed. More and better work is done\nby them than can be obtained from older help. The personal interest plays an important\npart.\n\nOPPORTUNITIES\n\nFOR\n\nBROAD\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nNo school is better fitted to give instruction in all phases of agriculture and naturestudy than ours. We have .seven and a half acres that actually belong to the normal\nschool, besides a large campus which can be used for studying landscape gardening.\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n835\n\nhorticulture, methods of irrigation, entomology, care of domestic animals. We have an\norchard of 280 fruit trees, consisting of apples, peaches, pears, quinces, cherries, plums,\nEnglish walnuts, mulberries, etc. ; a stock of nursery trees from which 40 were transplanted\nlast spring; grape vines, rhubarb, asparagus, dewberries, blackberries, red and black\nraspberries, currants, gooseberries, and half an acre of strawberries. The school farm is\nlocated only a few rods from the school building, where it is possible to take a grade out\nat any time to illustrate work done in the schoolroom.\nPLAN\n\nOF THE\n\nGARDEN\n\nThe first six grades have gardens of their own. The seventh and eighth grades devote\nthemselves to experimental work and in assisting in the larger problems of the orchard,\nc%reals, grasses, methods of irrigation, dry farming, etc. The different grade gardens\ninclude a variety of garden crops sufficiently large to cover the practice of the ordinary\nhome vegetable garden. These varieties are arranged in an ascending sequence of difficulty by assigning those requiring least care to the lower grades. While the lower grades\nhave no responsibility in looking after the upper-grade gardens, they have the opportunity\nof observing all the work and frequently take part in their cultivation.\nThe seventh-grade children this past fall pruned 280 fruit trees. They were taken\nout in groups of five at first until the instructor was sure that each boy thoroly understood\nhow to prune a tree. Later the whole grade was put at work. The pride shown in doing\nexcellent work was most gratifying. During the time the trees were being pruned, the\nchildren were carefully studying a United States bulletin on Pruning. These facts were\ndiscussed by the instructor and pupils. Later many of the children turned their knowledge to a practical value by pruning the trees at home.\nIRRIGATION\n\nAs early as May i, it is necessary to irrigate the garden. Both boys and girls above\nthe fourth grade are taught how to irrigate their gardens. The boys in the upper grades\ntake charge of the orchard and field crops. The value of irrigation and the best methods\nof irrigating different crops are discussed. Even the smaller children soon learn that\ndifferent crops require different amounts of water.\nDRY\n\nFARMING\n\nMETHODS\n\nInstruction along these lines commences with the first grade, when the children are\ntaught to press the soil about the seeds as they are planted but to leave the soil on top\nloose and dry. After each shower the soil between the rows is raked or cultivated. In\ngrain-growing, the ground is raked frequently during the early stages of the plant. The\ngarden is plowed in the fall to conserve moisture. This past fall two boys from the eighth\ngrade assisted in this work.\nHOME\n\nGARDENS\n\nThe question of ownership, which forms such an important factor in the school\ngarden, is solved thru the home garden. It is not an easy task to inculcate a feeling of\npersonal responsibility in a garden in which many children have an interest. We have\nfound that when a child has a garden at home he is interested in the school garden for\nthe purpose of finding out facts that he can use at home. A child likes to do his particular work in the school garden a little better than some other child. This motive is\nappealed to. Last year 320 children under the- direction of the instructor planted home\ngardens. The school supplied the seeds, and when other seeds not given by the school\nwere desired, special arrangement was made with one of the local seed houses to supply\nthem at a reduction in price. Normal students who had had special instruction along\nthe lines of school gardens assisted the director of nature-study in supervising these\ngardens. These students made two visits and reported what each child was doing.\nSpecial care was taken that their parents were seen and our purpose very carefully\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nexplained. A spirit of hearty co-operation was established.\nhouses ofifered prizes as large as $25 this past year.\n\n[Noimal\n\nSeveral of the business\n\nAfter receiving seeds each child was required to report when and how he planted his\ngarden, and to draw a careful plan of it. Two weeks later another report was called for.\nThree reports were made in the spring and one in the fall, each report calling for new\ndata. These reports kept the instructor informed and encouraged the children. The\nhome garden is the most vital part of our work. It interests the parents, gives the child\nwork at home, satisfies an economic feeling, and lastly brings the school into the home.\nPRODUCTS\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDEN\n\n..^\n\nFrequent sales by the children, soliciting orders from people near the schools, and\neven selhng to local dealers, dispose of aU produce. Last year after each grade had had\nits sales, $74 was turned over to the imiversity. Expenses had been deducted and did\nnot include fruit from the orchard which was frozen by a late frost.\nSTATE\n\nFAIR\n\nLast fall the Department of Nature-Study and Agriculture made an exhibit at the\nstate fair which won the commendation of the state and city papers as well as educators.\nIt consisted of grains, grasses, fiber plants, potatoes, fruits, squash, small vegetables,\nchickens, pigeons, and samples of laboratory work, such as drawings, mounted specimens,\ncollections, and lastly an actual demonstration of class work. Classes from the different\ngrades were conducted from 10:00 to 12:00 a.m. and from 2:00 to 4:00 p.m. each day.\nTeachers from all parts of the state visited the exhibit and took home suggestions which\ncan be worked out in their own schools. Next year we expect a building in which every\nphase of our work can be demonstrated.\nCHICKEN RAISING\nIn our state the poultry industry is one of the most profitable. The seasons are long\nand winters not cold. Chickens hatched in March will lay in August, and if given the\nproper care will continue to lay all winter. The price of eggs varies from thirty to sixty\ncents a dozen. Last year our seventh-grade boys built a Philo coop, cared for seventy\nchickens from the time they came from the egg in March until the middle of June.\nFourth- and fifth-grade children assisted the instructor in caring for two hundred more.\nThe instructor's home is just off the campus where it is possible to take the children for\nlessons. We have succeeded in interesting upward of 200 children in raising chickens at\nhome. After they have had instruction in running an incubator, a brooder, and in caring\nfor chickens, they are able to make a success at home. Last year a boy in the third grade\nopened an account with his father and before the summer was over he had paid for his\nchickens, feed, etc., and had five dollars in cash. This was done with less than a dozen\nhens. This year he starts out with a larger flock and with better prospects of success.\nThe school publishes bulletins on chicken-raising, which are given to the children. The\nprofit which parents derive from these is shown by the frequent calls for advice from the\ninstructor. It might be added here that bulletins along other lines are pubUshed and we\nfind this a profitable way of reaching the parents.\nTHE FUTURE\nThe results of the past warrant our looking forward to a future in which many more\nlife-activities shall be brought to the child. We have demonstrated that this can be\ndone without any loss to those branches which are known as the fundamentals. In fact\nwe are convinced that these branches take on a deeper meaning and become more vital to\nthe child when associated with some problem which he will meet later in life. When the\nproblems of arithmetic teach a child facts that are worth knowing, arithmetic is truly\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n837\n\na practical subject. Geography is no longer associated with past forces or agencies, but\nwith phenomena taking place about us every day. Landscape gardening will be carried\ninto the home with an efifort to induce every child to make his home surroundings as\nbeautiful as possible. Last year this work was started when a local firm gave to each child\nan elm and a maple tree which were to be planted in the home yard under the direction of the\nschool. This year Arbor Day will include not only the planting of trees and ornamental\nshrubs, but the laying-out of walks, flower beds, transplanting of trees, application of\npaint, and various other methods of making the home beautiful. Fruit trees can be\npurchased at a reasonable price. We shall be able to supply a number of children with\napple and plum trees. Thru an appeal to the parents we hope to see a large number of\nback yards growing fruit trees where now rubbish and scrub poplar are found. The\nprincipal of the school has recently been collecting data regarding the cost of living with\nthe idea of giving children in the upper grades a knowledge of purchasing and selling. A\ncorrelation with the domestic science department will make this possible. As in the past\nwe have succeeded in inducing parents to consult us regarding problems of chickenraising, the garden, and orchard, so in the future we hope to extend this co-operation to\nfurther economic problems of the home. Parents are not averse to their children's remaining in school when they feel that the school is giving the child something which is of value\nto the home and will be of value to the child in later life. Many a boy wastes his entire\nsummer vacation on the excuse that he is unable to find employment. This spring we\nshall ascertain just what each boy has been doing previous summers, what kind of service\nhe has given, and what he would like to do this coming summer. With this record before\nus, we shall endeavor to locate him with some firm where his services will receive ample\nremuneration and the work will be to his liking. For example, we have three or four\neighth-grade boys who have considerable efficiency in electricity. Local electrical houses\nare frequently able and glad to secure such boys. Office and errand boys, besides assisting the parents in the way of three or four dollars a week, are able to learn much that will\nbe of service to them later.\nOn the campus today we have four or five Jersey cows and two horses. We are\norganizing our work in such a way that it will be possible to have a small flock of sheep,\nseveral varieties of chickens, and from time to time to add other domestic animals. The\nwater rights which are under negotiation will make this a possibility in the very near\nfuture. Our farm machinery today is about what the ordinary farmer has, but with\nthe addition of several new pieces we shall be able to teach our children the best methods\nof cultivation. The introduction of more domestic animals and farm machinery will mean\nthat buildings must be constructed. The work in manual training is of such a nature\nthat but- little or no outside labor will be required. The eighth-grade boys have just\ninstalled a system of bells in our school building and are now engaged in running gas\npipes to different rooms. No phase of school work is of more interest to our boys than\nelectricity. An instructor in the electrical department of the university gives two hours\na week to practical instruction in electricity. We believe it is possible to give an eighthgrade boy a training along these lines which will fit him to make more than an ordinary\nliving when he leaves us. Reading meters, fixing steam pipes, electric lights, and heaters\nare a part of our present work. Results in the past justify us in furthering this work.\nIn brief, our sole aim is to give a child a training which will fit him for life in its broadest\nsense. We are not believers in the trade school; but we do believe that this practical\nwork cannot only be done along with the fundamentals but that it will strengthen them.\nD. B. Parkinson, president of Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale, 111.\nI. An increased demand for agricultural education:\n1. In tilling and preserving the virgin soil.\n2. In restoring depleted soil to its former fertihty.\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\niNonnal\n\n3. In spreading a knowledge of a more rational and scientific use of farm land, farm\nlabor, and farm interests generally.\n4. In securing the conservation of nature's material and forces as applied to farm\nresources of all kinds, including poultry, bee-culture, and stock-raising in all its phases.\n5. In showing the relative value of rural conditions and environment as compared\nwith other vocations.\nII. The province of the agricultural college in meeting the above demand:\n1. In conducting the more advanced forms of experimentation along all agricultural\nand horticultural lines.\n2. In the more elaborate and exhaustive research work and the compilation of\nvaluable data for general distribution in the form of reports and bulletins.\n3. In setting forth the comparative values of farm products, farm life, and farm\ninvestments.\n4. The place above all others where those who are interested in agricultural problems\nmay go to set their watches, and keep in step with the progress of the time.\nIII. The place of the state normal school in this great field:\n1. To train young people in the processes of instructing and directing the children and\nyouth of our land in the things most conducive to their wisest development, touching\ntheir present and future needs.\n2. To aid in establishing rational courses of study for the public schools, especially\nin rural and village schools.\n.\n3. To instill into the minds of their students the many attractions and advantages\nof farm life, emphasizing the dignity, independence, and remunerative vocation of the\ntiller of the soil, and the breeder of domestic animals.\n4. To offer courses of study for those who are to teach in the communities that they\nmay possess a body of knowledge peculiar to these regions, and become able to teach\nand direct the activities of the children of these favored regions.\n5. So to broaden and modify its field of instruction and training that these interests\nmay receive their due consideration.\n6. To modify its courses, especially in biology, zoology, botany, chemistry, and\nphysics, that these may bear more directly on the preparation of these teachers that they\nmay be of maximum service to the rural community in which they labor.\n7. To offer courses in farm management as well as in school management, including\nmany details peculiar to the successful manipulation of farm affairs.\n8. To offer short courses in stock-rearing, the care of stock, the improvement of stock,\nand the marketing of stock.\n(See courses of study.)\nrV. To meet this demand the normal school should broaden its field so as to have a\nwell-equipped agricultural department including a school farm:\n1. For the purpose of giving concrete instruction to prospective rural teachers in\nthe treatment and fertilization of soils, the propagation of plants and nursery stock, the\nplanting of farm crops with the culture thereof; the rearing and care of poultry, bees, and\nblooded farm animals, not, however, as comprehensively as in the state agricultural\ncollege.\n2. Providing a complete laboratory for the purpose of studying soil-chemistry and\nsoil-physics in their simpler forms, besides the various forms of fertilization that may be\npracticed for these shorter courses. The wise use of demonstration plots on the school\nfarm.\n3. To analyze specimens of soil obtained from the homes of students taking these\ncourses, thus furnishing a practical phase of the work that will appeal to everyone taking\nthe course.\nV. In addition, the state normal school would do well to have on its farm an ideal\ncountry home, not too expensive, where may be seen the various features of a modem\nfarm house, having all the conveniences, comforts, and equipment that may be seen in a\ntypical rural home. This home should be in charge of the director of the farm, while\nmuch of the care thereof may be given to representatives of the agricultural and household arts departments, who for the time may occupy this home.\nVI. And last, but not least, there should be an ideal riu-al school building on this\nfarm, sufficiently removed from the environment of the school proper that it may represent, as far as possible, the conditions of the actual rural school, and offer opportunity\nfor training in rural school teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMEASURING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n839\n\nTo the late normal-school president, Alfred Bayliss, we in Illinois, are indebted for\nthe first attempt in Illinois to have such a school. However, his school was removed\nseveral miles from the normal school, which in some respects was more ideal than to have\nit on the school grounds.\nVII. Allow me to state in conclusion that a state normal school having courses of\nstudy especially for rural teachers, a typical farm home, and a tjT^ical rural school, as\ndescribed above, would add immensely to the establishing of a public sentiment in favor\nof farm life and farm industry, commensurate with their value to the state and the\nnation in conserving their resources and their opportunities for service.\n\nSTANDARDS\nCHARLES\n\nOF MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY\nSCHOOL STUDENTS\n\nMC KENNY,\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nMICHIGAN\nYPSILANTI,\nMICH.\n\nSTATE\n\nOF NORMAL-\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe question which I am to discuss is a thoroly practical one. It does\nnot admit of much fine phrasing or emotional oratory. It is a simple,\ndirect, and practical problem which every normal school has to face. The\npurpose of the normal schools is to fit teachers. The public so understands it. The efiiciency with which they do their work will measure to a\nvery large degree the progress of public education.\nThere are three parties deeply concerned in the standards which the\nnormal school sets up as a measure of efficiency of its students. The\nschools to which the teachers go are concerned. A low standard of efficiency\nin the normal schools means a constant stream of relatively inefficient\nteachers pouring into the public schools. A high standard of efficiency\nmeans that new life and vigor are injected into public education at every\ngraduating season at the normal schools. But the schools are not alone\ninterested. Every normal-school student is also an interested party. A\nlow standard of efficiency in a normal school results in the stamp of approval\nbeing put upon candidates who are unqualified for public-school service.\nThey are recommended to positions, find themselves unequal to the situations, and are consequently disappointed, humiliated, and perhaps\nutterly disheartened. Finally, the welfare of the normal school is involved\nin its standard of efficiency. A school that does not set a high standard\nof qualification for its students soon makes for itself an unenviable reputation in the community which it serves. Its recommendations are discounted by superintendents and school boards, and its graduates are\npassed by. Such a school brings reproach upon professional training and\noffers no incentive to prospective teachers to enter its halls to prepare for\ntheir future work. The worst possible educational influence in any state\nor community is a normal school with low standards of scholarship and\nprofessional training. It is, then, of prime importance that normal schools\nsee to it that their standard of efficiency is the highest that is consistent\nwith the community which they serve and the conditions under which\nthey work.\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nAccepting, then, that the standard of efl&ciency should be high, we come\nto the question of the sources from which such a standard can be derived\nand the elements which compose it. In short, by what standard shall\nnormal-school students be measured? Clearly, this standard should be\nthe result of the adjustment of the professional ideals of the normal school\nto the practical situations to be met in the public school which it serves.\nThe normal school is an institution supposedly filled with men and\nwomen teachers of professional insight and standing. These teachers have\nworked out their conceptions of educational principles and methods.\nThese principles and methods are supposedly exemplified in the training\nschool, and in this training school students are required to teach in harmony with the professional ideals and standards of the school.\nWithin limits, all this is right and proper. Individuals and schools\nmust have ideals, and, to a reasonable degree, must stand by them, but it\nis just as important to keep in mind that indi\\dduals and institutions do not\nlive for themselves. They live for society. Their ideals are of little social\nvalue imless they work out into social consciousness and procediu\"e.\nIt is especially true that a normal school does not exist for itself, but for\nthe state, and since it must articulate with public education, it must know\nwhat public education is. The great danger with normal schools is the\ntendency to live within themselves, and to measure themselves by themselves rather than by social conditions in the state at large. For this\nreason, it is necessary for normal-school teachers and administrators to\nvisit public schools, and, from first-hand knowledge, know the condirions\nwhich prevail, the standards which are set up, and the demands which are\nmade. I realize from experience the difficulty of getting normal-school\nteachers to do such \\-isitation. Normal-school teachers are not wholly to\nblame if they do not care to take money out of their limited salaries to pay\ntraveling expenses involved in visiting schools. It must also be remembered that their interest in the school work which they are doing, and its\npressing necessity, often make them feel that they cannot spare the time\nfor school visitation. Realizing the value of such visitation, both for the\nschools visited and for the normal school itself, the Normal School Regents\nof Wisconsin this year authorized the president and five members of the\nfaculty of each school to visit public schools at the expense of the board.\nEach teacher was requested to spend a week in such visitation, and the\npresident two weeks. The results were so gratifying that for the second\nsemester of this year seven members of the faculty are authorized to spend\na week each in visiting schools. By this system of visitation, the normal\nschools of Wisconsin hope to evolve a standard of efficiency which shall be\nthe resultant of the professional insight and principles of the normal school\nand the practical school conditions to which the graduates of the normal\nschools go.\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMEASURING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n841\n\nBut what should be the elements in a standard of efficiency by which\nnormal-school pupils are to be measured? Is it possible to draw up\nspecifications which shall in any adequate way measure the probable success\nof a student-in-training when she goes out into actual school work ? Many\nattempts have been made to do so. All such standards have their elements\nof strength and of weakness. I shall venture to present such a standard\nto this department. In formulating a standard by which students are to\nbe judged, several important considerations must be observed.\nFirst, the standard should include only the fundamental requisites of a\nsuccessful teacher. Overanalyses and refinements are both useless and\ndangerous. Second, the fundamentals should be strongly stressed, altho\nthey may be associated with minor defects. Third, it seems likely that no\nattempt should be made to put relative mathematical values upon the\ndifferent qualifications constituting the standard. I have seen standards\nfor measuring the efficiency of teachers which gave relative value to the\nseveral elements of character constituting the standard, the sum of values\ntotaling one hundred. For example, sympathy was given a rating of two,\nhealth two, voice two, professional attitudes and interests two. One defect\nof such a standard lies in the fact that the final or total percentage is of little\nor no value in determining the rank of the teacher. On the standard\nreferred to, with a zero rating in sympathy, tact, judicial mindedness,\nhealth, and self-control, a teacher might still have a final average of ninety\nwhich, mathematically considered, would put her in class A, and yet,\nlacking the qualities named, she would be unworthy of consideration for a\nschool position. It would seem wiser to mark each item in the standard\non the scale of one hundred, or by the commonly used letters, E, G, F,\nand P. A student falling below seventy-five or receiving a grade of\n\"poor\" in any essential quality of a teacher would certainly be in the\ndoubtful class. An examination of a student's card so marked would\nenable one to form a reasonably accurate judgment as to the fitness of the\nstudent to enter upon the work of teaching.\nThe following standard has been constructed in harmony with the\nprinciples suggested:\nA\n\nSTANDARD\n\nFOR\n\nMEASURING\n\nTHE\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPhysical factors —\nPersonal appearance\nHealth\nVoice\nPhysical defects\nPersonal habits\n\nMoral factors —\nIntegrity\nSelf-control\nJudicial sense\nSense of responsibility\nLoyalty\n\nIntellectual factorsNative ability\nScholarship\nInteUectual habits\nCapacity for growth\n\nTemperamental factorsEnthusiasm\nOptimism\nSympathy\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nExecutive factors—\nTeaching factors —\nEnergy\nInsight into child nature and school\nResourcefulness\nproblems\nDispatch\nPreparatfon of lessons:\nCo-operation: ability to co-operate and\nGeneral\nto secure co-operation\nDaily\nTact\nTechnique of presentation\nClass- and schoolroom management\nSkill in questioning\nPertinacity\nParticipation of pupils in recitation\nc, • 1 X ,\nPractical application of lessons\nSocial\n^,\nc •factors\n1 J- —\nv\nThoroness ^^\nSocial disposition\n, , ,\n„ z.\nMethod of assignment\n\nScope of interests (narrow or broad ?)\n\nInterest of\nProgress\nof pupUs\npupils\nUse of language\n\nThe aim has been to chart under the fewest headings those essential\nqualities which unite in a good teacher. Undoubtedly, it has imperfections.\nSuch a standard is to some degree, an individual matter. Each supervisor\nor superintendent here would be quick to suggest modifications. I am not\ncontending for this particular standard, but for some standard.\nA standard like the one here presented would have at least four practical\nuses in the normal school:\nFirst, it would make a good basis for discussion in the pedagogy classes. It would\nbe worth while to both teacher and class to go over, in a searching way, the elements in\ncharacter suggested in such a standard. In the second place, it would give the student a\ngood basis for judging the efficiency of the teaching seen in the normal school, on the part\nof both the normal department and the training school. Third, if placed in the hands of\na student teacher, it would constitute a detailed standard by which she could estimate\nher own teaching, and it would also furnish a basis for the criticisms by critics and supervisors of practice teaching. Fourth, carefully filled out by proper persons, it could be\nplaced on file as a part of the student's record. Probably no single member of a faculty\nwould have all the information necessary to fill out the card intelligently and justly. It\nshould be the duty of someone connected with the administrative department to get the\ninformation from those who possess it, and make the record clear and trustworthy.\nFewer normal-school graduates would be recommended to wrong places if such a card\nwere in the possession of the committee on appointments.\n\nHaving settled upon a standard of judging, the next difficulty which\nthe normal school faces is to give the student sufficient opportunity for\ntesting her ability to measure up to the standard. The matter is relatively\neasy until we come to the question of leadership and actual teaching skill.\nThese can be tested nowhere so well as in the schoolroom — ^in the actual\nwork of school management and class teaching; in fact, they can be rightly\ntested nowhere else. It is just here where the average normal school is\nweakest. I in no sense minimize the importance of the model school or\ntraining school of the normal school. It is an indispensable adjunct, and\nmuch of the value of normal-school training is derived from it. The great\nmisfortune is that our practice schools are inadequate to the work which\nthey are called upon to do. They are, at best, attended by a few hundred\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMEASURING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nPUPILS\n\n843\n\nchildren — too often very few. The limited attendance in the practice\nschool and the large number of students needing practice teaching leads to\nthe subdivision of classes, and the assignment of a student to a group of\nten to fifteen children, at the most, whom he teaches in a small recitation\nroom, in only a single subject, which he has carefully prepared under the\ndirection of a supervisor. Almost every element of public-school teaching\nis lacking. Under such conditions, it is absolutely impossible to test the\nmost essential qualification of a young teacher, namely, leadership.\nNormal-school graduates do not fail from lack of knowledge or of method.\nTheir failures come from a lack of ability to control a school, a quality\nwhich I have called leadership. They are not resourceful, and are often\nhelpless before a room full of children.\nI am aware that in most cases the normal school is unable to better\nthis condition. It is quite impossible for most of them to increase the\nattendance of the training school. This is especially true in the smaller\ntowns, where so many normal schools are located. Some schools, however,\nfortunately situated, have adopted courses which give extensive practice\nopportunities to their skidents. Schools located in large cities are sometimes able to make arrangements by which a part of the practice teaching\nis done in the city system. This is certainly a great advantage to the school\nand to the student teachers. It makes it possible for the practice teacher\nto work with large classes of children under actual school conditions, and it\ngives the school an opportunity to judge of its students not only with\nrespect to the preparation of subject-matter, but also with respect to class\nmethods and school management.\nTo be sure, there are disadvantages in such a plan. The normal-school\nsupervisors necessarily have not the freedom in dealing with the curriculum\nand methods of instruction that they have in their own practice schools.\nThey are bound by the courses of study of the system in which they work,\nand they are not free to criticize the methods used by the teachers in the\nschools, tho they may be faulty. A practice teacher is sure to see some\npoor teaching, concerning which the supervisor is obliged to be silent.\nNevertheless, these disadvantages are more than offset by the value which\ncomes to the student from working under conditions such as he will meet\nafter leaving the school. From nearly fifteen years of experience with\npractice teachers working in city systems, as well as in the practice school\nof the normal school, I can speak with some confidence of the great benefit\nthat it would be to any normal school to establish such relations with a\ncity system.\nIt has been our experience that the best results in practice teaching are\nobtained by assigning students to at least half-day practice, rather than to\na few minutes or an hour per day, which is the too common custom. A\nstudent who drops into a grade for an hour to teach a class and immediately\nleaves when her class is over to report to some recitation or do some other\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nschool duty, cannot get into the spirit of the work; she cannot sense the\natmosphere of the school, nor establish that relationship between herself\nand the children which is necessary to good teaching. It is the custom at\nMilwaukee to assign students to practice teaching for a half-day. They\nreport at the same time as the regular teacher, remain during the half-day\nsession, and teach three or four different classes. The responsibility of\nmaintaining discipline is thrown upon them as much as they are able to\nstand, and in all respects the conditions are made like regular school\nconditions to the extent that the inexperienced teacher is able to meet them.\nBy this means, we test a student teacher by the most severe of all tests, the\nability to control a room and, at the same time, do successful teaching.\nHaving spoken of the conditions under which students should be tested,\nit remains to say a word concerning the character of the supervisor who is\nto pass judgment upon the pedagogical fledgeling. Nowhere in the normalschool economy is there needed more breadth of view, sanity of judgment,\nkeenness, insight, and firmness of decision coupled with kindness of\nheart, than in the office of critic teacher or supervisor of practice. Such\na supervisor must be broad enough to see that there is more than one\nway of doing a thing. He must be liberal enough to welcome ingenuity,\ninitiative, and resourcefulness on the part of practice teachers. He must\nnot be overinsistent that a thing shall be done his particular way, provided,\nof course, that the thing is done in a good way. He must be free from\nsentimentality and soft sympathy, which would keep him from giving the\nneedful criticism, tho severe. He should have the courage to tell students\nthe facts that they need to know. At the same time, he must have that\nkindness of heart which will not bruise the broken reed, and the tact\nwhich will enable him to give the needed help, without undue hurting.\nHe should have the rare ability of distinguishing between the minor defects,\nor the minor virtues as well, and the great essential qualities which make\nfor good teaching. We all have known critic teachers who, because of\nsome mote in the mind's eye, were unable to see the splendid possibilities\nwrapped up in a young man or woman. Above all, the supervisor must\nhave what we may call the prophetic imagination; that is, he must have\nthe ability to see a student at work under ordinary school conditions; he\nmust see her in a room of her own with forty children to control, with her\nplans to make, the seat work to organize, the discipline to maintain, the\nenthusiasm to kindle, and the intellectual results to secure. Only as he\nin his imagination can project this student into the future, under normal\nconditions of school work, is he qualified to pass upon her qualifications for\ngraduation and teaching. This gift of prophecy is a rare gift. It involves\nso much knowledge of school conditions, such a knowledge of how former\nstudents have turned out, such careful discrimination between the less\nsignificant and the -fundamental traits of character.' Fortunate is the\nnormal school which has such a person at the head of the practice depart-\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nPLAN\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n845\n\nment, and manifoldly fortunate is the one which has, in addition, such a\ncritic in each grade.\nLet me briefly sum up what I have attempted to say :\nThe normal school must set up a standard of efficiency for its students.\nThe welfare of the community, of the student, and of the school demands\nit. That standard must be the resultant of the theoretical ideals of the\nschool, toned and subdued by the practical conditions of pubhc-school\nteaching. The standard should lay emphasis upon those fundamental\nqualifications — ^physical, moral, intellectual, and social — which are essential\nin a teacher, and should minimize those minor traits of character which,\ntho they subtract from, do not overbalance the more important qualifications. The normal schools must give suitable and ample opportunity for\nthe practice teacher to try himself out, and, lastly, the one who passes\nupon the qualifications must possess sanity of mind, breadth of view,\ntenderness of heart, courage, and prophetic vision.\n\nPRELIMINARY\nREPORT\nOF THE COMMITTEE\nOF ELEVEN\nON A PLAN OF NORMAL-SCHOOL STATISTICS\nHOMER\n\nH.\n\nSEERLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT,\nCEDAR\n\nIOWA\nFALLS,\n\nSTATE\nIOWA\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nPreliminary work. — This committee was organized by President W. J.\nHawkins following the meeting of the Department of Normal Schools at\nSan Francisco in July, 191 1. The states were divided into nine districts\nat the time of the appointment and each member was requested to study\nthe entire question from the standpoint of the states assigned to him,\nendeavoring to determine the opinions and conclusions of all the normal\nschools in that district regarding the points that ought to be selected as a\nbasis of reasonable and comparative statistics. The chairman of the\ncommittee drew up a preliminary plan that was to be a partial basis of the\nproblems to be investigated. Copies of these were sent to each member\nin sufficient numbers to supply every normal school in his district, hoping\nthereby to secure, at an early day, as complete an agreement as the difficulties undertaken would permit. This plan was an attempt to include\nin the outline all the different items that seemed possible to be desired by\nany normal school in the United States, if it sought information regarding\nthe organization, support, management, or development of all the others.\nIt was recognized at the outset that there were large variations in the\nstandards and ideals of this class of schools, but six months' study and consideration have magnified the complexity of the problems undertaken, have\nshown to what a remarkable degree many of these schools are specifically\nprovincial, and have emphasized the fact that they have not developed\neither institutional spirit or national ideas of service. As long as their\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nfunction is assumed to be local and state rather than universal and national,\nas long as their standards are minified rather than magnified, as long as\ntheir work is conceived to be absolutely individual rather than institutional,\nit is hardly to be expected that they would care to be measured or to be\nestimated by any system of statistics.\nClassification and standards. — When the members of the committee\nbegan to hear from their districts they soon ascertained that there were\ndecided differences of opinion regarding the importance, the value, the\nneed, the character, and the utility of such statistics. This information,\nhaving come to the chairman in such potent ways and with such evidently\nsincere motives, has brought him to the conclusion that a uniform system\nof statistics for all state normal schools is probably impossible and that\nthe first undertaking must include a system of classification of these schools\nwhereby their salient features may be recognized and their standards and\nideals accepted as bases of comprehending and of measuring them.\nState normal schools are now more numerous and probably more\nessential and more appreciated than any other kinds of state educational\ninstitutions. They deal with vital problems, they return immediate results,\nand they are more definitely responsible to public opinion than other educational movements can be. Their organization is simple, their support\nis direct, their management is executive in most instances, and their conception of their province is definite and distinct. They seem to be prevented from having an institutional conception of education despite\ntheir standards of excellence, and they are not likely to have a national\nstatus or to seek national recognition. With all their popularity, with\nall their practicability, with all their success, with all their prospects and\nprivileges, the majority of them do not seem to seek to enlarge their importance as public, organized efforts for improving civilization, and they are,\ntherefore, not aiming to develop their field of activity or to increase their\nusefulness, or to demand their part in the national and state opportimities\nthat all other higher education inherits.\nThese facts have been very prominent in the efforts that have been put\nforth the past few years endeavoring to secure attention from the Congress\nof the United States to the efficiency of the state normal schools in hastening the day of a sensible, effective vocational education for public-school\nteachers so that they may be qualified to bring this kind of education to\nthe masses thru the public schools. The efforts that have been made\nto pass Senate Bill Number 3 (the Page Bill) and its predecessors, so as to\ninclude the state normal schools as a factor in this great national movement, have not been as productive of results as would have been the case\nwere these schools as national as are the state universities and the state\nagricultural and mechanical colleges.\nA proper study of statistics, a proper classification of organized efforts,\na proper conception of what is being done everywhere in the endeavor to\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nPLAN\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n847\n\ntrain and to educate teachers must enlarge the horizon of these schools, must\ncompel them to recognize their chances, must urge them to enlarge their\nfield of usefulness and power, and must enable them to enter upon activities\nand possibilities that would make it possible for them to participate in the\nremarkable development that the United States is receiving. They would\nthus keep pace with the progress and the largeness that these days of intense\nthought and application permit, and continuous development and improvement would be the result. Without this view of conditions and undertakings, without this knowledge of what is actually going on elsewhere,\nwithout this touch with comparative standards and undertakings, without\nthis chance to keep abreast with the times, this kind of educational work\nwill remain provincial, theoretical, and indeterminate, when its very opportunities indicate that it ought to be the broadest, the largest, and the best\nthat the age affords.\nGroups of state normal schools. — With these reflections in mind, and with\nthe hope of advancing the greater interests of all, there is here proposed a\nscheme of classification that may roughly provide for a better understanding and may enable the different states to ascertain just where they stand\nregarding their plans for teacher education. This scheme, if adopted, will\nnot attempt to decide which kind of normal school is the best; it will not\nundertake to rank schools as regards importance, or size, or expenditure,\nor course of study, tho these facts may be each ascertained; it will simply\nrecognize the fact that there are varieties of state normal schools and will\nundertake the work of setting out in a plain way these differentiations so\nthey may be understood by the legislator, the publicist, and the educator.\nWith this explanation, the following\" classes of schools appear to exist under\nthe statutory title of state normal schools:\n1. State normal schools that could be properly named state normal training schools because they interpret their function to be the preparation of\nteachers for the elementary public schools. They receive high-school graduates as students and the work to be done includes two years of intensive\npreparation involving (i) instruction in the theory of the processes of\nelementary teaching, and (2) a notable and extensive development of\nquantitative experience in teaching by a broad and continuous training\nthru practice under a moderate system of supervisors and critic teachers.\n2. State normal schools that could be properly designated as state\nnormal schools in general because they undertake to give (i) academic\ninstruction in the subjects of study deemed essential to a public-school\nelementary teacher, (2) theoretical and method instruction in professional\nlines considered necessary for a teacher to know, and (3) a limited, definite,\nqualitative amount of training in teaching in a carefully organized and\nthoroly conducted training school where there is constant intensive\ndirection by supervisors and critic teachers. These normal schools may\nor may not limit themselves to students that are high-school graduates\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nand they may assume the opportunity to prepare both city and country\nteachers.\n3. State normal schools that admit other students besides those desiring to be teachers and which could be properly classified as state normal and\nacademic institutions. Their work includes both secondary and higher\nphases of instruction, having as its object more of education for life than\nof training for vocation. To these normal schools comes any student of\nany grade of qualification with any purpose in mind. Here is found class\nwork in psychology, theory and philosophy of education, and methods of\ninstruction for those who wish to prepare to be teachers, and also a wellorganized training school where a limited amount of practice in teaching\nis obtainable. In many of this class of schools, academic, scientific, literary,\nand commercial studies have more patronage than the so-called teacher\ncourses.\n4. State normal schools that are of such a grade in their scholastic work\nand in their organization that they may be properly called state teachers^\ncolleges. They do not plan their courses for other students than those who\ndesire to enter education as a vocation and they have faculties organized\ninto departments with the ranks and the distinctions commonly found in\ncolleges and universities. They give as their highest honor a degree\nequivalent to Bachelor of Arts, and as their lowest honor a diploma for a\ntwo-year course beyond high-school graduation. The higher diploma indicates the qualifications demanded of superintendents, principals, and highschool teachers, and the lower diploma indicates preparation for elementary\nand special teacher work in public schools. These colleges have at times\na real state normal-school department for the preparation of persons of\nmaturity, not high-school graduates, for elementary and country school\nwork in public schools. In these colleges the training school consists of high\nschool, grammar-grade school, primary school, and kindergarten with all\nthe equipment that such an organization would require, and the amount\nof practice in teaching depends upon the attainments and the success of the\nstudent, the same as would be required in satisfying the requirements of\nthe department of English or the department of mathematics. Each student prepares to be some kind of a special teacher rather than to accept\nany kind of general teaching, and hence the work done in practice is qualitative and intensive in all its characteristics.\nThe plan of statistics proposed. — In the original outline submitted to the\nstate normal schools of the United States thru the members of the Committee of Eleven the following were the points emphasized with numerous\nsubdivisions and opportunities for additional subdivisions if they were\ndeemed desirable:\nI. Income Statistics\na) Sources of income for support\nh) Sources of income for building\nc) Variety of funds required by the state system\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON PLAN\n\nOF NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n849\n\n2. Expenditure Statistics\na) Instruction\nb) Maintenance\nc) Repairs and improvements\nd) Building\ne) Equipment\n/) Library, etc.\n3. Faculty Statistics\nc) Number and distribution as to department of work\nb) Other officers and employees in the service\nc) Summer-term faculty, number and distribution\n4. Student Statistics\na) College graduates\nh) High-school graduates\nc) Other grades studying to be teachers\nd) The kind of teacher that these students are desirous of becoming — ^kindergartner,\nprimary, etc.\n5. Training Department Statistics\na) High school\nb) Grammar school\nc) Primary school\nd) Kindergarten\n6. Graduating Class Statistics\nc) High-school teachers\nh) Grammar-school teachers\nc) Primary teachers\nd) Kindergarten teachers\ne) Other special teachers such as music teachers, domestic science teachers, etc.\n7. Expense of instruction per capita for each branch taught and each kind of work\nrequired — on the basis of one-third of a year. (This was due to the fact that\nsome schools had the year plan, some the semester plan, and some the term plan\nof organization.)\n8. Course of Study Statistics\na) Variety of courses\nb) Length of courses\nc) Adpiission to courses\nd) Diplomas offered as to variety and kind\n9. Library Statistics\na) Volumes\nb) Periodicals\nc) Pamphlets\nd) Employees\n10. Plant and Equipment Statistics\na) Grounds\nb) Plant\nc) Furniture\nd) Apparatus\ne) Museums\n1 1 . Economic use of the Plant Statistics\na) Schoolrooms\nb) Hours used per day\nc) Laboratories\nd) Hours used per day\ne) Regular assignment for each teacher\n/) Regular assignment for officers, employees, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nConclusion. — It can be seen that these points for statistical information would not be considered as applying very satisfactorily or generically\nto all the different classes of state normal schools already mentioned.\nThere remain, therefore, several solutions to the problems involved if the\nwork proposed is at all worth doing.\nA few of these are suggested:\n1. Classify the state normal schools on some acceptable basis of differentiation and\nthen work out a system of suitable and reasonable statistics for each of the classes designated.\n2. Adopt a very few points that seem to be in common and be satisfied with the\nvery meager information thus given as all that can be deservedly said and recorded\nconcerning this kind of state education.\n3. Drop the entire proposition as of not sufficient importance and value to deserve\neither attention or interest, let alone the large amount of committee and personal work\nthat such an investigation must regularly and systematically demand of this department.\n\nRespectfully submitted.\nHomer H. Seerley, Chairman, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C.\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nDa\\^d Felmley, Normal, 111.\nWashington S. Dearmont, Cape Girardeau, Mo.\nCommittee { Waite A. Shoemaker, St. Cloud, Minn.\nj4lARRY F. Estill, Huntsville, Tex.\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N.J.\nErnest L. Silver, Plymouth, N.H.\n\nSECRETARY'S\nCHICAGO\n\nMINUTES\n\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— W. J. Hawkins, president, State Normal School\nVice-President — A. J. Matthews, president. State Normal School\nSecretary — Martha Buck, Southern Illinois State Normal School\n\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nTempe, Ariz.\nCarbondale, HI.\n\nFIRST SESSION— TtJESDAY Afternoon, July 9, 191 2\nThe opening session of the Department of Normal Schools was held in the Florentine\nRoom, Congress Hotel, Chicago, 111., on Tuesday, July 9.\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 p.m. by W. J. Hawkins, president of the State\nNormal School, Warrensburg, Mo. In the absence of the secretary, Miss Martha Buck,\nthe president appointed D. B. Parkinson, president of the Southern Illinois Normal\nUniversity, Carbondale, 111., secretary pro tempore.\nThe following committees w^ere appointed by the president to report at the meeting\non Thursday.\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nMINUTES\n\n851\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nGuy E. Maxwell, president, State Normal School, Winona, Minn.\nW. S. Dearmont, president. State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo.\nJoseph H. Hill, president. State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nD. W. Hayes, president, Peru State Normal School, Peru, Nebr.\nG. W. Nash, president. State Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S.Dak.\nJ. G. Crabbe, president. Eastern Kentucky State Normal School, Richmond, Ky.\nD. B. Parkinson, president. Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale, 111.\nAfter the above appointments, the president called for each subtopic under the\ngeneral topic, \"The Function of the Normal School.\" The speakers were all present\nexcept President Snyder, of Colorado.\nA. \"In Academic Education,\" by John A. H. Keith, president of the State Normal\nSchool, Oshkosh, Wis.\nB. \"In the Special Training of Teachers for the Rural Schools,\" by D. W. Hayes,\npresident of the State Normal School, Peru, Nebr.\nC. \"In Relating Theory and Practice Teaching so as to Secure Teaching Efficiency,\"\nby Alfred C. Thompson, principal of the State Normal and Training School,\nBrockport, N.Y.\nD. \"In Training Teachers for the Public Welfare — Civic, Social, Moral, Religious,\"\nby W. S. Dearmont, president of the State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo.\nJ. G.tl^rabbe, president of the State Normal School, Richmond, Ky., read the following paper: \"Securing and Maintaining Efficiency in the Teaching Force of Normal\nSchools.\"\nZ. X. Snyder, president of the State Normal School, Greeley, Colo., being absent, the\ntopic \"Student Activities in State Normal Schools\" was passed.\nHomer H. Seerley, chairman of the committee, and president of Iowa State Teachers\nCollege, Cedar Falls, Iowa, submitted the \"First Report of the Committee of Eleven on\na Plan of Normal-School Statistics.\"\nPresident Crabbe moved the continuation of the committee for further study. This\nmotion was carried after a short discussion.\nPresident Seerley moved that a special committee be appointed to make a study of\n\"The Standards That Are Agreed upon in the Proper Making of a Teacher,\" which motion\nwas carried, and the president authorized to appoint such a committee.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — Thursday Afternoon, July it, 1912\n\nThe second session of the Normal School Department was called to order by President\nHawkins in the Florentine Room of the Congress Hotel, Chicago, 111., at 2:30 p.m.\nThe minutes of the meeting held on Tuesday were then read and approved.\nThe general topic under discussion was \"City Training Schools and Their Management.\"\nGrant B. Grumbine, president of the State Normal School, Alva, Okla., presented the\nfirst topic as follows: \"The Function of the Normal School in Training Public-School\nSupervisors in Technical Subjects: Drawing, Manual Training, Household Arts, Music,\netc.\"Guy E. Maxwell, president of the State Normal School, Winona, Minn., discussed\nthis paper.\nThe second topic, \"The Problem of Relating Theory to Observation and Practice in\nthe Training of Teachers for City Schools,\" was discussed under four heads, as follows:\nA. \"The Amount and Distribution of Time Devoted to Practice Teaching.\"\nB. \"The Best Method of Directing the Studies of Observation and Practice.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nC. \"The School Principal's Share in the Training of Teachers Prior to Their\nAppointment.\"\nD. \"The Measure of Responsibility Which Should Fall to Special Supervisors in the\nTraining of Teachers.\"\nWilliam B. Owen, principal of the Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111., who was to\ndiscuss the first topic, not being present, the second paper was called for, which was to be\ndelivered by J. Monroe Willard, principal of the Philadelphia Normal School for Girls,\nPhiladelphia, Pa. Mr. Willard not being present, his paper was read by the secretary.\nThe last two topics were discussed from the floor.\nAt this point Principal Owen appeared and discussed the topic assigned him.\nThe president next called for the report of the nominating committee which was read\nby the secretary as follows:\nFor President — ^John A. H. Keith, president. State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.\nFor Vice-President — ^William E. Wilson, principal, Washington State Normal School,\nEllensburg, Wash.\nFor Secretary — Miss Myrtle Kneffer, Cape Girardeau, Mo.\nThe report was adopted.\nThe Committee on Resolutions next made their report which was adopted, as follows:\nResolved:\n1. That the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association\nonce more gratefully acknowledges the cordial general recognition of the great work being\ndone by the normal schools thniout the United States in preparing teachers forull grades\nin the public schools to the end that the schools everywhere may become efficient. Recognizing this responsibility, the normal school pledges itself anew: \"This one thing I do.\"\n2. It reaffirms its faith and confidence in the aims and purposes of the normal schools\nas set forth in the creed of this department promulgated in 1908, which holds that their\nfunction is distinctively the training of teachers for both elementary and secondary\nschools; the establishment of departments of special research; the introduction of courses\nof training for educational leadership; and a broadening of the normal-school curriculum\nto meet the needs of the broadening curriculum of the public schools. For this purpose\nmore stress should be placed upon the training school as representing the heart of the\nschool, which gives life and character to its work. This department believes that the\nnormal schools should extricate themselves from all dominating influences that tend to\nmake the secondary courses of study merely preparatory courses for college entrance.\nInstead, the normal idea should be to reach thru its student teachers the child yonder in\nhome, in school, on playground, in the market place, the forum, the church, and the\nstate: the finished product of home, community, and school. The normal school must\nhave in mind that ideal of larger service which the child is to be best fitted to render, in\nterms of his own peculiar environment.\n3. Since the elementary school is of first imp>ortance in our American school system;\nand since, in the effort to keep this school up to a proper standard it has been necessary\nto add many new subjects and give them place on the daily program; and since all the\nsubjects and subject-matter of the earlier period have been retained, making an overcrowded program that does not give sufficient time to teachers to properly ground pupils\nin subject-matter or the principles of conduct, and to give accuracy of knowledge and\nstability of character, it is the opinion of this body that a process of correlation, integration, and elimination is necessary that teachers may have a workable program. This is\nrightfully the work of the normal schools and this department recommends the entering\nupon such research work as will determine what subjects and subject-matter have real\neducative value, and which are without such value and have place in the curriculum.\n4. Since a committee of this department has been making investigations concerning\nappropriate normal-school statistics and has made a report of progress, it urges this\ncommittee to co-operate with the National Bureau of Education in order to devise if\npossible a simple but comprehensive uniform system of normal-school statistics.\n5. This department commends and approves United States Senate bill concerning\nvocational training.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nD. B. Parkinson, Secretary pro tempore\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPAPERS\nTOPIC:\n\nTHE\nA.\n\nJOHN A. H. KEITH,\n\nIN ACADEMIC\n\nAND\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\n853\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nOF THB\n\nIN ACADEMIC\nPRESIDENT\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEDUCATION\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOSHKOSH,\n\nWIS.\n\nOur word academic comes from the name of the grove near Athens in\nwhich Plato taught, and has now, as an adjective, three distinct meanings,\nviz., first, conforming to scholastic traditions and rules; second, literary or\nclassical in distinction from technical or scientific; third, belonging to a\nhigher institution of learning. I could not bring myself to discuss the\n\"function of the normal school in education that conforms to scholastic\ntraditions and rules\"; nor yet to discuss the \"function of the normal\nschool in education which is literary or classical, in distinction from technical\nor scientific,\" because, in our democracy, there is no place for education that\nconforms to scholastic traditions or that is exclusively literary or classical.\nI think the chairman wanted me to discuss the \"function of the normal\nschool in higher education,\" and I accordingly address myself to that topic.\nEver since high-school graduates began to come to the normal schools\nin significant numbers, the normal schools have sought some accredited\nrelation with the colleges and universities. The contention was and is\nthat two years of work in a normal school ought to be and is the substantial\nequivalent of two years of work in college. The growth of the elective\nsystem together with the lessening of the foreign-language requirements in\ncolleges and the improvement in subject-matter and teaching in the normal\nschools has made the contention substantially true in some college courses.\nNo normal school would seek in a two-year course to give the same work\nthat is given in a college or to give the work that is common to the two\ncourses in the same way. Despite this difference, nearly every state normal\nschool in the country has accredited relations with colleges and universities,\nand this fact is a substantial recognition of the work of the normal school\nas being of college grade.\nIn some sections of our country the colleges and imiversities were slow\nto recognize the normal schools. A dozen years ago, a normal-school\ndiploma simply entitled a person to take the entrance examinations at our\nleading universities. This fact of tardy recognition was like \"sand under\nthe saddle\" to normal-school graduates, teachers, and presidents. The\nhigh schools were multiplying rapidly, supreme courts held that high\nschools are public schools, normal-school graduates were shut out from\nhigh-school positions; therefore, many normal schools began to extend their\ncourses to the college standard of four years and to ^ain degree-conferring\npower. Several schools succeeding in both these endeavors are now\nsubstantially colleges. My sympathies are entirely with this movement\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "8S4\n\n■\n\nNATION ALZEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n»\n\n[Normal\n\nbecause I do not believe any school can, in two years, train the present\nhigh-school product to that degree of efficiency which the public schools\ndemand. It has been urged that four years is too long a time for a girl\nto give to preparation for teaching when probably she will be captured by\nCupid in a few years. The answer to this is twofold: first, the period of\npreparation is not regarded as too long for those who are to teach in high\nschools and they do not usually teach for a longer period than do those who\nteach in the grades; second, if a four-year course in a normal school included\nin addition to what it now contains domestic science, domestic art, dietetics,\nand household management that it ought to include as a preparation for\nteaching, it would be the best home-makers' course ever devised, and would\nprove a wise investment for society and the individual alike.\nStill, whether courses in normal schools be extended or kept as they are,\nit is recognized that their work is of college grade, that it is vocational,\nand that an earnest body of men and women are endeavoring to make\nnormal schools more serviceable to society.\nBut there is another aspect of higher education to which I wish to call\nyour attention. Everyone who has known the facts has been astonished at\nthe increase in the number of students in higher educational institutions in\nthis country in the past twenty -five years. . The increase has been greatest\nin our state imiversities.\nThe report of the Carnegie Foundation, 191 1, pp. 69-71, shows:\nIncrease in past decade:\n1 . In endowed institutions\n2. In 89 tax-supported institutions\n3. In 72 foundation institutions\n4. In Germany\n\n36 per cent\n98 per cent\n62 per cent\n60 per cent\n\nThe end is not yet in sight. The fundamental facts imder lying this\nincrease in higher education are increasing wealth and a belief in the value\nof a college education.\nTake any of our Middle Western states for illustration. The college\nattendance is large and growing year by year. In Minnesota it is above\n5,000. In ten years, this attendance will reach 7,500, or possibly 10,000.\nNow, the fundamental question is: Would it be a wise thing for the state\nto have so large a number of students in one institution? There is no\ndoubt that it would be advantageous for a state to have 10,000 students in\ncolleges and universities, but should such a crowd be gotten together ?\nI need not point out the dangers that inhere in any such program,\nbecause, from any point of view save that of institutional aggrandizement,\nthey are obvious.\nThis question being answered in favor of dispersal, the next question is\nas to the how. Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, and some other states will\nprobably develop two state universities, while Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin,\nMinnesota, and others will probably develop but one such school.\nIn these\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN ACADEMIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n855\n\nstates in which the agricultural and mechanic arts colleges are combined\nwith the state university, the problem of dispersal will soonest become\nacute.\nIn some of them it has already reached this stage.\nA strong central institution with facilities and men trained to carry on\ninvestigations into pressing social and industrial problems is desirable from\nevery point of view. To have two such institutions in a state and each\ndependent on the legislature is to invite hostility, finesse, and intrigue as\nwell as embittered rivalry. The dispersal can be made to better advantage\nby having the work of the first two years of the different college courses\ndone at convenient centers in the state. To establish such junior colleges\nde novo would be an enormous expense and beset with many difiiculties.\nTo have this work done in the existing state normal schools is a simpler and\nbetter solution of the problem.\nIn the first place, the expense of dispersal is minimized at the start and\nwill increase only as the actual demands for this work increase. The\nexisting plants can be modified to carry on this work much more cheaply\nthan new ones can be built. If the equipment and teaching force are not\nequal to this additional burden, they can be increased and improved.\nIn the second place, I fancy that the straightforward scholarship thus\ndemanded will have a much-needed tonic effect on some of the work in\nsome normal schools. Puttering is easy and professional work is prone to\nrun off into discussion and exchange of opinion. A tonic is needed and I\nbelieve that the doing of two years of college work will tend to give a tone\nof scholarship without injury to the fundamental work of the normal school.\nFurthermore, such a plan would enable a normal school to put its own\nteaching in many subjects into direct comparison with the college type of\nteaching. This would result in a new kind of evidence that would probably\nlead to improvement either in college teaching or in normal-school teaching.\nIf we turn to a consideration of the proposed plan of dispersal from the\npoint of view of the individual student, other advantages appear. With\nsmaller classes, more personal attention is the student's gain. Presumably\nthe normal-school teacher's concern is in teaching rather than in exposition.\nThis ought to insure better learning and a more desirable growth in power.\nIt is my firm conviction that if a normal school goes seriously about the\nmatter of teaching the first two years of college work, it can do better\nteaching than most of our universities do now.\nThen, too, there is a greater sense of personal responsibility felt by a\nstudent in a class of twenty in college physics or biology or mathematics\nthan would be felt by the same student in a class of three hundred.\nThis ^\nsense of personal responsibility is itself an educative force of no mean merit.\nAgain, in a broad social way, the proposed plan has advantages. It is\nworth a gpod deal to put the opportunity for the beginning of a college\ncourse within the reach of every boy and girl, and at the same time to have\nthem relatively near home.\nIt brings higher education to the people as\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nhas never been done before. Normal-school students have been noted for\ntheir earnestness. This results from their \"life-career motive.\" To have\ntwo years of college work done in such an atmosphere is a great social gain.\nThere is no good reason why college work should become a synonym for\n\"club life.\" Instead it would be distinctly better if it had more hard work\nabout it and less froth and foam.\nTo this plan there are two objections. The first is that this is not what\nthe normal schools were established to do. This is true, but all institutions\nare established for service to society, and with the changing needs of society,\nthe concrete service required changes also. It is my judgment that in\ncertain of our Middle Western states now, society can best serve itself by\nhaving the state normal schools do the first two years of college work.\nNormal schools have been peculiar institutions so long that some of them\nhave grown peculiar.\nThe second objection is that the doing of two years of college work will\ndestroy the spirit of the normal school. I do not believe that the normalschool spirit is so easily destroyed. It might be broadened a bit without\ninjury in most schools and might even, since it is the greater, be made to\ninclude the less. Besides, if the signs of the times can be relied upon,\ncollege education will soon be vocational again. It seems to me that the\nnormal schools can help these signs come true by undertaking the first two\nyears of college work.\nTo summarize: I have endeavored to show:\n1. That the work of the normal school is substantially a part of higher vocational\neducation.\n2. That these schools ought now to help forward the cause of higher education by\noffering two years of college work.\n\nB. IN THE SPECIAL\nD. W.\n\nHAYES,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nTRAINING OF TEACHERS\nRURAL SCHOOLS\n\nFOR THE\n\nOF\n\nPERU,\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNEBR.\n\nFor centuries the world has been engaged in producing a rural society;\nbut within the brief period of a generation its work is being torn asunder.\nAlmost at one fell swoop of the maelstrom of twentieth-century industrial\nand social conditions it is succumbing. It is giving way before the onslaught\nof rural exodus cityward. A glance at statistics reveals the startling\nmagnitude of this shifting of population. In 1850 only 12I per cent of\nthe people of the United States lived in cities, while today approximately\n50 per cent of the population is urban, a gain of 300 per cent in 60 years.\nThe wide extent of this shifting is further illustrated by the fact that in\n1850 there were but 85 cities in the United States that had a population\nof 8,000 or more, while at the present date it is estimated that more than\n750 cities have a population in excess of that number, a gain of nearly\n800 per cent.\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n857\n\nSo far, all efforts to stem the tide of migration cityward have proved\nunavailing. The movement has gone on in spite of the warnings given\nby the student of social and political economy; in spite of the science of\nanthropology in its various phases; in spite of the devitalizing influences\nof the city upon country stock, both physically and morally, which make\nit impossible for a family to survive more than a few generations after\nremoval to the city. In this respect man exhibits an inability to profit\neither by the experiences of his race or by his own experiences. He continues to permit the call of the city to tickle his fancies, and he yields to the\ncall as if it were the irresistible siren in the stor}'' of olden time.\nStudents of social science and thoughtful students of education cannot\nbut be alarmed at some of the results that have characterized the changing\nconditions of the past few decades. They acknowledge with misgivings\nthe changes wrought in home life thru modern invention and present\nindustrial forces. They are fearful lest there be greater losses in the\ninfluence wielded by the home and the church, which for centuries have\nfashioned very largely the social and religious ideals, and to a limited\nextent the industrial conditions of the age. They are beginning to recognize present tendencies, and the forces that have caused the rural school\nto fall so far in the rear of twentieth-century progress.\nIt is doubtful whether any institution of rural life has suffered more\nduring this period of rural transition than has the rural school itself. The\ncommonwealth of Illinois, which today acts as host to the gathering of\nthe National Education Association, a state that ranks high in its agricultural wealth and industrial prosperity, may well serve as a typical illustration. It had in 1909, 106 country schools that enrolled less than 5 pupils;\n589 schools that enrolled less than 10 pupils, and 1,460 schools that enrolled\nless than 15 pupils; while 32 districts had no school at all.\nThis unparalleled exodus from the country is not due wholly to man's\nsocial instincts, not alone to his desire for wealth, nor to the false glamour\nof the city; but, according to the investigations of the Rural Life Commission appointed by Theodore Roosevelt, to the better school advantages\noffered in the city. The largest single complaint of the country people\nmade before the commission was concerning the inferiority of the rural\nschools.\nInasmuch as the present attitude is a result of education, and since a\nchanged attitude is a matter of a different type of education, it is hopeless\nto assume that country life conditions may be materially improved without\nbetter rural schools. Nor can we hope for improved schools as long as\nthere is such dearth of expert teachers in rural communities. The limits\nof this paper prevent any more than a brief enumeration of a few of the\nprincipal causes that contribute to the lack of efficiency of these schools.\nThe first, and doubtless the most important, is the low standard of\nqualifications, academic and professional, required of the teacher.\nPartly\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nas cause and partly as a result of this low standard, salaries are low, in\nfact lower than the wages paid the unskilled laborer that digs in the ditch.\nMeager salaries have compelled the rural school to be the recipient of\npractically all the inexperienced, the ignorant, and the immature of the\nteaching fraternity. The rural school has been the dumping-ground for\nthe derelicts and those incapacitated by the raising of standards in the\ncities. Far be this from an attack on all rural school teachers; for many\nof them are among the noblest of the profession. This latter class, however,\nis too frequently attracted by the allurements of the city, and leave all too\nsoon the splendid opportunities for service in the country. Then, too, the\nperson possessing higher qualifications who perchance becomes a rural\nschool teacher, is not usually an exponent of rural life, but rather of city\nlife. He holds out before the boys and girls the ideals of the city; he\npictures to them the glitter of its gilt and tinsel; he does nothing positive\nto make the young man and woman appreciate that the tilling of the soil\nto make it bring forth its products for supplying the needs of earth's teeming millions is one of the noblest callings. Neither does he seek to engender\nwithin them a serious contemplation of the country as a factor for bringing\nthem into closer touch with the life of the great First Cause.\nAdded to the problem of the rural school is the prevalence of inexpertness of supervision of these schools. This inexpertness is not due wholly\nto a lack of qualification of the supervisor, nor to the fact that his office is,\nas a rule, a political one; but more often to the large area of the unit of\nsuper\\'ision. The supervisor finds it impossible to make more than one\nor two brief calls annually in many of the districts in which large areas\nare under his jurisdiction. In my own state we have a number of counties\nlarger than the state of Rhode Island, and one in particular with an area\nequal to the whole state of Connecticut, with Rhode Island thrown in.\nThis vast empire is under the supervision of one person who is expected\nto do her work thoroly, both clerical and administrative, with not so much\nas an office assistant.\nOur normal schools, tho boasting that their function is the preparation of teachers for the elementary schools, always make the boast with\nthe mental reservation to interpret the elementary school as embracing\nthe village and city schools only, so far as their own products are concerned.\nThus my own school, tho one of the oldest in the country, situated in a\nwealthy agricultural community, does not succeed in placing its graduates\nin the rural schools. Out of 173 graduates in 191 1, 39 secured positions\nin city high schools, 127 in the grades of town schools, 5 remained in the\nnormal for postgraduate work, and 2 took rural school positions. It is\nfrankly admitted that any system which falls so far short of reaching its\nconstituency, which fails to satisfy even 5 per cent of its patrons, is a\nfailure.\nThe greatest single need of country life today is more expert teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nFOR RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n859\n\nIt needs teachers who understand rural life as it is, teachers who have high\nideals of its possibilities, teachers who can go forth into the existing schools\nand by vitalized teaching and tactful leadership convert the schools into\nliving centers for the education of child and adult. The teacher must be\nin sympathy with rural life improvement. She must have a broad view\nof the entire field, social, industrial, and educational. It is a mistake to\nthink the high-school graduate who has been reared in town is qualified to\nassume leadership in a rural community, of whose customs, habits of living,\ntraditions, and ideals she is wholly ignorant.\nThis is a day of experts, a day of extremely minute division of labor.\nThe problems of the country are so different from the problems of the city\nthat the same training that will qualify the teacher to take charge of a\ngraded school room under an expert supervisor will not necessarily fit\nher for a rural school position. The teacher of the rural school assumes a\nresponsibility far out of proportion to what we have been willing to concede;\ntoo long have the normal schools been deluded by the belief that no special\npreparation was necessary for the rural teacher; too long have school\nauthorities been willing that young men and women, often mere boys and\ngirls, as soon as they were able to pass the most elementary examination,\nand without a vestige of professional training, should assume the role of\nteacher in the district school.\nThe chief objection raised by the normal schools to providing special\ntraining for the rural teacher is that we should not be able to supply more\nthan a small proportion of the demands. It is urged that consolidation\nof rural districts will solve the problem, that it is the panacea for all the\nrural school ills. Permit me to answer that I believe in consolidation and\ncentralization. I would not detract from the desirability of urging it in\nevery township in the country; but as yet only a small area of the country\nhas established the system of consolidation, and for many years to come\nthe 12,000,000 boys and girls now on the farm will be dependent upon the\nindividual small district for their education, and not to exceed 5 per\ncent of all this number will ever receive any further formal education than\nthat received in the country school. Shall the normal schools refuse to\nattempt to meet the problem, simply because of its magnitude ? Shrinking from the problem for this reason alone is unworthy the dignity of a\nnormal school.\nAgain, it is urged that the schools of town and city consume all our\nproduct. Too long have we permitted the policies of normal schools to\nbe shaped by the demands of the city. Too long have we vied with the\nuniversities in our efforts to meet the continually advancing standards\nof the high-school teacher, standards thrust upon the high school by its\nefforts to meet the requirements of the universities thru their present\nsystems of inspection and accreditment. I would not discourage this\nadvancement of standards, indeed it is greatly to be desired; but it is\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n-— — —\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n•\n\n•\n\n■\n\n[Normal\n\ninconsistent to sanction any lower standard of qualification for the teacher\nwho has charge of the elementary school in the country than the one who\nteaches the elementary school in the city. It is illogical to assume that\ntwo years' preparation beyond the elementary schools is sufficient training\nto qualify the teacher of the boy in the country schools, and then demand\nsix years' preparation of the .teacher in the graded school. It is just as\nimreasonable to assume that two years' training will make a teacher good\nenough to take the boy thru the eighth grade, but demand that she add\nsix more years to her academic and professional equipment before she can\nteach him in the ninth grade.\nIt is admittedly true that the country boy is a little nearer nature,\nthat he is, perchance, less artificial, that he possesses greater ingenuity\nof adaptation than his city cousin, and is therefore more educable. Still,\nthis should not be an argument against his receiving the same opportimities for learning the processes of adjustment that will make him most\nserviceable to his society, in his environment. If in furnishing him with\nthese opportunities we are compelled to raise salaries of the rural teacher\nto double the amount she is now receiving, let us not complain. Surely\na nation that spends six times as much annually for Intoxicating liquors\nand tobacco as it does for education will find the additional investment\nin higher salaries not a burden, but an investment well worth while. In\ntimes past very little effort has been put forth having in mind the improvement of rural schools. The National Bureau of Education, by the admission of the present commissioner of education, has done less for the riu-al\nschool children than for any other department of education, notwithstanding\nthere are more rural children of school age in the United States than town\nchildren.\nPresent tendencies, fortunately, show a remarkable awakening in\npublic appreciation of the rural problem. The national Congress and many\nstate legislatures have made appropriations for rural life commissions.\nWithin the past eight months there has been created a rural school division\nin the National Bureau of Education. Rural life conferences are being\nheld in several of the states, particularly in connection with normal-school\nextension work. There are teachers' institutes, country school associations,\nsummer normals, county training high schools, normal training in high\nschools, junior normals, traveling rural libraries, and additional state\nnormals, all having in mind to a greater or less degree the betterment of\ncountry life.\nIn a somewhat limited investigation conducted by the writer among\nthe normal schools of the Mississippi Valley, covering fifty of the typical\nschools, it was very encouraging to note the awakening normal-school\nconscience relative to its obligation to the rvural schools. Reports received\nfrom forty-two of these schools, while not recording much of actual accom-\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nFOR RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n86 1\n\nplishment, contain sentiments redolent with hope and enthusiasm for\nwhat is anticipated in this field in the near future.\nTo the question, \"Do you have a course of study for the special preparation of rural teachers?\" 27 answered \"yes\"; two had just been authorized\nto prepare courses; two schools were not yet opened but would have such\na course; one prepares supervisors only; while 10 answered \"no.\"\n\"What was the date of its inauguration ?\" To this, all but one reported\nits inauguration between 1907 and 191 2 inclusive. Three did not give\nthe date. It is interesting to note that 17 of these schools established ruralschool courses within the past two years.\nTwenty of these schools make the completion of the eighth grade the\nminimum qualification for entrance, three the tenth grade, four the eleventh\ngrade, one the twelfth grade, and one makes age the basis of entrance\nrequirement.\nThe length of the courses above the eighth-grade entrance requirement\nis as follows: three schools 42 weeks, thirteen schools 2 years, three\nschools 80 weeks, one 84 weeks, one 3 years, one 6 years, one 160 weeks,\nwhile one does not have a separate course but has the same requirements\nas in the regular courses. In one school making the entrance requirement\ncompletion of the tenth grade, one year is required to complete the rural\ncourse, and in another 78 weeks. The four schools requiring completion\nof the eleventh grade as the entrance requirement offer a course one year\nin length.\nPractice teaching: Out of thirty- two schools that either have in active\noperation country-school courses, or will have within a year, thirteen do not\nprovide for any practice teaching whatever. One is planning to require\nit, seven state that it is required but do not give the length of time, two\nrequire 12 weeks, two 24 weeks, one a half-year, one two terms, one two\ncredits, one very little, and one, one year.\nOther professional work required: Twenty-one schools report some\nform of professional work offered, six of these offering elementary psychology. Other professional work is required, as elements of pedagogy,\nrural school management, observation, and rural school methods.\nIt is worthy of note that a few of the normal schools are already going\nfurther in their efforts to bring the rural communities to a higher social\nplane to assist them to a keener appreciation of their opportunities and\npossibilities. The ideals of the various normal schools find expression in\nvarious forms; in rural school conferences, in lectures by faculty members\nat rural gatherings, in extension courses, in short courses in agriculture\nand domestic science, in model rural rooms and buildings, in organization\nof country life clubs, in campaigns for consolidation of schools, and promotion of industrial education thru boys' and girls' clubs and contests.\nThe agitation in recent years, this quickening of the normal-school\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nconscience relative to its obligation to the 12,000,000 coiintry boys and\ngirls, augurs well for the future. Who shall say that it is not, after all,\nthe destiny of the normal school to enter into the breach made by twentiethcentury social standards and industrial influences in rural life progress, and\nby its direction and wise leadership enable the rural community to come\ninto its own. Surely the problem is worthy of no less a champion than the\nAmerican normal school.\nC.\n\nIN RELATING THEORY AND PRACTICE TEACHING\nTO SECURE TEACHING EFFICIENCY\n\nALTRED\n\nC. THOMPSON,\n\nPRINCIPAL OF STATE NORMAL\nBROCKPORT,\nN.Y.\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSO AS\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe greatest problem in education is that of the training of teachers.\nUnfortimately the teaching process does not come by inspiration as might\nbe inferred from the old proverb that the teacher is bom, not made. This\nproverb like many others is misleading and untrue. Perhaps some careless\nprinter by changing a single word is guilty of leading astray many generations under the inspiration of a wrong proverb, the correct version of which\nis that the teacher is bom, not paid.\nAt any rate, true it is that the teacher is made, not bom. It is mighty\nhard to be born a teacher, and few are so born. If this were not so the\nteacher problem would be comparatively easy. The superintendent would\nmerely become a Jason in quest of the golden fleece. Undoubtedly, inherent attributes are a very powerful factor in determining the quality of a\nteacher, a doctor, or a lawyer, but none of these can giv^e a high quality of\nservice in his particular calling without a very special and technical training.\nThe training of teachers is a much greater problem than the training\nfor any other calling, since the true teaching profession embraces all others,\nas it comes in contact with and develops all sides of life. So deep and\nintricate is this problem that it is almost beyond the comprehension of the\nfinite mind. Proof of this is that it is not at all vmcommon to hear people\nof good education and ability, who have never breathed the air of the\nschoolroom, assert that while they do not imderstand fully many things,\nthey do know about school work. In the world's history there have been\nso few really great teachers that we can easily remember and call their\nnames.\nSince the birth of the human race in Asia, the march of progress has\nfollowed the course of the sun westward thru Europe to America. While\ncircling the globe many great problems have been settled. The problem\nof making teachers still awaits its final solution. The oriental coimtries,\nthe ancient classical nations, the great educators of the Renaissance, and\nthe scholars of our own period have not settled it. This question has been\nconsidered for CQimtless ages. I shall not try to settle it offhand.\nExperi-\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN THEORY\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE\n\nTEACHING\n\n863\n\nence has taught me some things in this connection. My part will be\nconfined to a discussion of these.\nThere is a wide gulf between theory and practice in teaching. The\nignorant and destructive criticism of present methods, so prevalent in\ncurrent literature by a few educational sciolists whose experience in the\nteaching of children is limited to theorizing, will not hasten the settlement\nof this matter.\nA large part of the theory taught in our normal schools emanates from\nthe sanctums of college presidents or professors whose chief experience in\nelementary education has come from seeing children pass by their sanctum\nwindows on their way to or from school. Many a young teacher loses his\nfaith in his' normal school, if not in humanity in general, when he discovers\nthat the beautiful theories doped out in his methods classes fail to work\nwhen applied to real flesh and blood.\nThe point I wish to emphasize is that we must first make sure of the\ntheories we teach. Theorizing from any source can be of little service\nwithout demonstration. It will pay to scrutinize, with greatest care the\ntheories of destructive critics, for the keenest critic of him who can is he\nwho can't. Let us adopt the theories of those who have done something to\nshow how to determine a child's highest possibilities and how he may\nattain them.\nIt is a matter of wonder that so many of our normal graduates succeed\nas well as they do when we consider how little application the theory we\nteach has to actual school practice. Almost all of our theory says that the\nreal problem in school is the child. The neophyte, when he begins his first\nschool-teaching, quickly finds out that the real problem is not the child\nbut the parent. When the young teacher makes this discovery, if he doesn't\nregard all of his normal-school theory teaching as a hoax, he will at least\nfeel that a most important part' of his preparation has been neglected.\nSome years ago when I was a school superintendent I made a visit to a\ncertain normal school, seeking teachers for my schools. This normal school\nhad secured for a lecture course of a week a gentleman who was expounding\nwhat was to me at that time a new theory of education. I speak of it here\nsince the normal school in question made this new theory of education the\nkeynote of all of its instruction during that and the following year, and it\nwill illustrate how powerful an influence the theory teaching may have in\nthe making or spoiling of teachers.\nThe lecturer's theme was that a child should never be compelled to do\nanything that he did not wish to do. He proved beyond a question that\nif a child be permitted to follow his natural bent without let or hindrance\nfrom the teacher he would acquire an irresistible power to do things. I\nremember that he clinched his argument with the analogy that a physical\nforce unimpeded would acquire a tremendous momentum. His lecture\nabounded in such expressions as self-realization, spontaneity, self-activity,\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ninitial development, etc. In a nutshell his philosophy was that a child\nwould most quickly attain his highest possibilities by educating him along\nthe line of least resistance.\nPractically every teacher that went out under the inspiration of this\ndangerous theory failed. It did not take long to show that non-interference\nwith the spontaneous activities of children resulted in anarchy. Nature\ndoes not give the average child spontaneous impulses that will lead him to\nlearn to cipher and spell. Any system that contemplates the acquiring of\nuseful information incidentally will result in its being acquired accidentally,\nif at aU.\nNothing in this world worth while can be acquired without patient and\npersistent effort, and to teach a child anything different is wicked. Every\nman who has succeeded in any w^orthy undertaking has done so by means\nof sacrifice and struggle and usually by doing things that he did not want\nto do.\nI do not wish to be understood as advocating the old rigid educational\nsystem of inventing artificial hardships, but I do believe that no effective\nsubstitute has been found for drill and formal teaching, and that it behooves\nus normal people to examine critically any theories to the contrary. We\nmust not despise theory because it is the guide to practice, but practice\nmust ratify theory. Theory should be substantiated by a good body of\nfacts before we should allow it to influence our practice. There is always\na great temptation to make our normal schools practice schools instead of\nmodel schools.\nI hope I have succeeded in giving the impression that I would not have\nmany theories tried out in our normal schools. I should like to have in\nthe faculty a deep love of knowledge, and a strong, quick feeling for childhood. The faculty should be alert to new ideas, but not too easily influenced\nby them. The best ideas upon education should be expertly carried out in\nthe model school, for all of the work of the normal school should be made\nto center here. The normal students should have opportunity to observe\nthe work of the specialists and should later serve an apprenticeship under\nthe guidance of the expert.\nI would have normal students given adequate opportunity to study the\nnatural interests and instincts of children and the natural order of their\ndevelopment. No teacher can become an original source of directive,\nenergy without the knowledge that such a study gives. I should try tohave it deeply impressed that they are preparing themselves to teach\nchildren rather than subjects.\nOf course very special attention must be given to both general and\nspecial methods. Among normal-school teachers I have heard considerable\ndiscussion as to what should be taught under the head of methods. Some\nmaintain that subject-matter does not properly belong to the methods\nteacher.\nIt is my opinion that the aim in methods teaching is threefold:\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN THEORY\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE\n\nTEACHING\n\n865\n\nto give an expert knowledge of the child, an expert knowledge of the subject,\nand an expert knowledge of the most economical way of bringing the child\nand the subject together.\nIn practice the methods teacher should not devote his whole time to\nteaching ways and means of bringing pupil and subject together. The\nteacher of geography methods will discover that his students have not a\nsufficient knowledge of geography to inspire pupils with a love for that\nsubject. This will probably prove true in connection with any other\nsubject. He will find it very profitable in his methods class to take a\nsomewhat comprehensive review of the subject, teaching some portions\nintensively as types which the normal students will use in the model school,\nthe methods teacher using care to select such types as will adapt themselves\nbest to the needs of the pupils in the model school. The methods teacher\nand the critic teacher should be in closest touch and sympathy, and the\nteaching of the normal student, as indicated before, should be the basis of\nconference between the critic and methods teacher and of sympathetic,\nindividual, constructive criticism, thus helping the pupil-teacher to grow.\nIn this process of making teachers the greatest care should be exercised\nnot to give the normal student the impression that arithmetic, geography,\netc., point the way to future salvation in teaching, so much as a knowledge\nof, and sympathy with, the child. Unfortimately, we have not yet been\nable to devise examinations which put the emphasis in the right place.\nWhile the students should not be allowed to go from the normal school until\nthey have a sufficient knowledge content to form a proper basis for future\nstudy and growth, nevertheless, the child should constitute a large part of\nthe course.\nIn closing, I should like to make one or two very definite suggestions.\nThe field of the normal school is very broad, and like all Gaul is divided into\nthree parts. The first division comes in the model school at the end of the\nsixth grade. Here the problem has to do with pre-adolescent children.\nThe next six grades constitute the second division. In these grades are\nadolescents. The professional department is composed mostly of those\nwho have reached the age of nubility.\nThe kind of education adapted to these divisions is decidedly different\nin each case. Time will not permit a full discussion of this, but it is very\nevident to every teacher that both subject-matter and method must be of\na different character to be adapted to the natural interests, instincts, and\ndevelopment of these three classes.\nAny teacher who attempts to formulate and teach general theories of\neducation will probably do more harm than good. All theory or methods\nteaching should be aimed definitely and specifically at one of the divisions\nbefore mentioned, and it is certain that such theory or methods teaching\nwould be much more to the point if the teacher had an expert knowledge\nhimself of the individuals of the group in question acquired by actual\nteaching contact.\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nThe best results can never be obtained unless there is a unity of purpose\nand the fullest understanding between the methods teacher and the critic.\nEach step should be carefully considered by these two before the pupilteacher tries his hand in the schoolroom, then together they should test\nand weigh results and thus gain knowledge and experience for the next\nstep. This, in my opinion, is the best method of relating theory and\npractice teaching, so as to secure teaching efficiency.\n\nD.\n\nIN TRAINING TEACHERS FOR THE PUBLIC\nCIVIC, SOCIAL, MORAL, RELIGIOUS\nW.\n\nS.\n\nDEARMONT,\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF STATE\nNORMAL\nCAPE GIRARDEAU,\nMO.\n\nWELFARESCHOOL,\n\nThe need of the hour is broadly educated leaders. Leadership in this\ncountry has been too largely in the hands of men of narrow and limited\neducation and vision. These men have sought direct and immediate\nresults. In the sharp conflict of life thay have learned to win the mastery\nby fair means or foul. They have learned to love power for its own sake;\ntheir every action has, too often, been shaped by the love of gain and the\nlust for power. These men, holding in large measure the industrial and\ncivic leadership of this coimtry, have been devoid of broad humanitarian\nprinciples; without civic and social ideals; without high moral and religious\nprinciples.\nThese men of limited vision in their mad race for wealth and lust for\npower have made the rapid development of this country the wonder ot the\nworld. This country has grown in wealth beyond the wildest dreams of\navarice. But they have achieved these results at the expense of a fearful\nwaste of our natural resources and at a more fearful waste of human health,\nhuman life, and human morals.\nWe must have educated men, men of vision, men of broad sympathies\nand lofty ideals, for leaders; we must have men educated along broad lines.\nThis education must include experience and close touch with all phases of\nlife. They must be so educated that they will place their obligations to\nGod and their fellow-men above any other consideration in life. They\nmust be educated to be true leaders of the people, not their masters and\nexploiters; men who love righteousness, justice, and mercy; men who have\nfaith in the possibilities of the race — faith in the possibility of a high plane\nof living for the whole people.\nSuch men never come to leadership among an ignorant people devoid\nof civic and social pride, and moral and religious ideals. If a triumphant\ndemocracy is to rule the destinies of this continent in the ages to come, it\nmust be an educated democracy — a democracy alive to its civic duties,\nfull of social efficiency, and with a high sense of its moral and religious\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nWELFARE\n\n867\n\nTesponsibilities. In such a democracy great men and true will come to\nleadership; will rise to lead the people to higher conceptions of life; to a\nhigher degree of social efficiency; to loftier moral and religious ideals.\nThe foregoing statement of the situation makes clear the fimction of the\nnormal school in relation to public welfare. The teacher is to have a larger\nshare in making the character of the great American democracy; and the\nteachers of this country will, in the main, be trained in the normal schoolsThe responsibility of the normal schools for the public welfare is, therefore,\na large one. It calls for men at the head of them and in their faculties who\nare themselves leaders. The men of the normal-school faculties must have\nthe most thoro training for the special lines in which they are to teach.\nThey must have had a broad and varied experience in teaching and they\nmust be full of the teaching spirit. The men at the head of these schools\nand the men of their faculties must live ever in close and sympathetic touch\nwith the people among whom they labor.\nThe work done in the normal schools must touch every phase of the life\nabout them and it must prepare its teachers to be in sympathetic touch\nwith life.\nIf the normal schools are to meet their responsibilities in training\nteachers for the public welfare, they must distinctly recognize that the end\nof their work is the public welfare. They must clearly recognize that the\nend of their work is not to train teachers to teach arithmetic, grammar,\nhistory, geography, and other branches of knowledge; that the end of their\nwork is not to train teachers for the primary grades, the grammar grades,\nthe high school ; for the rural schools or for the city schools ; that the end\nof their work is not to train teachers to make a living and to become successful and influential members of society; that the end of their work is not to\nincrease their attendance and to extend the influence and power of the\nschool as far as possible. Any one of these aims is important in itself and\nis worthy of serious consideration and earnest effort; and certainly taken\ncollectively they are of the highest importance. It is undoubtedly true^\ntoo, that thru doing well these several minor things, the larger and ultimate\nend of training teachers for the public welfare is to be attained. But if we\nwould reach the ultimate goal of all our efforts we must keep the higher\nend constantly in view. It is probably true that most of the normal\nschools are failing to keep distinctly in view the fact that the end of all our\nwork is the public welfare. We catch imperfect glimpses of the end; but^\nfor the most part, we find ourselves immersed in a multitude of details and\nin a ceaseless round of endless routine that obscures the view of the real\nend. We must keep the end more clearly in view if we would train teachers\nfor effective service in promoting the public welfare, civic, social, moral,\nand religious. If this great end is to be an inspiration to the normal-school\nfaculties and give them power to inspire and direct the lives of their students; ifit is to be a moving power in calling forth the energies of their\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Normal\n\nstudents and directing them to the highest ends, it must be kept constantly\nand immediately in view.\nKeeping ever distinctly in view the end of training for the public welfare,\nthe normal school must develop in its students a high sense of civic responsibility. This sense of civic responsibility must be developed in part by\ngiving in the normal school the most careful training for citizenship. The\nstudy of history, civics, economics, and social life problems should form an\nimportant part of the training of teachers in the normal schools. The study\nof these subjects shoiild be made very practical and should be made to\ntouch actual life as closely as possible. Teachers should be trained to be\nstudents of civic, social, and economic questions in their local communities.\nIt is not imcommon to find a school superintendent who is a capable and\nefficient man in most respects, who does not know the assessed taxable\nvalue of the property in his school district. He will imdertake to discuss\nthe possibility of making some improvements in the schools of his district\ninvolving an increased expenditure for maintaining the schools without\nknowing the assessed value of his school district. This is but a fair sample\nof the lack of knowledge on the part of teachers and other citizens in relation\nto the most ordinary civic affairs. Every school superintendent and,\nindeed, every teacher should be an expert in his knowledge of taxation in\nall matters pertaining to the support of the public schools. Teachers in\nthe normal schools should be trained to be intelligent students of all civic\nand social problems confronting the commimity, the state, and the entire\ncountry. Civics should not be studied alone or mainly from the standpoint\nof gaining a historical knowledge of the development of our government.\nThe history of the development of our government should certainly be\nstudied. But the actual problems of the present should be studied constantly. Isthe city considering the problem of the water supply and the\nlighting of the city ? Whether it will be best to renew the franchise of a\ncorporation which is asking the renewal of its franchise to furnish water\nand light, or to purchase or install a mvmicipal water and light plant should\nbe studied by the classes in civics and economics. Municipal responsibility should be studied in street improvements; in caring for the public\nhealth; in keeping the peace and protecting life and property; in cleaning\nand beautifying the city; in providing schools, a public library, playgrounds, and parks; in guarding the public morals of the people thru\nregulating and controlling to an extent places of public amusement and\nrecreation. The responsibility of the city in controlling public service\ncorporations; in protecting and promoting the business of the community\nby securing for manufacturers and merchants the best transportation\nfacilities at the most reasonable rates; the care of the poor and the helpless\nmembers of the commimity; the care of the insane and the sick; these and\nother questions of civic and social concern should constitute a large part\nof the subjects for study in the classes in civics, economics, and sociology.\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\nDepartment]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nWELFARE\n\n869\n\nProblems actually confronting the state should be studied in the same way.\nThe relation of the state to the public-school system should be thoroly\nstudied. The state in the management of penal reformatory and eleemosynary institutions; in the construction of good roads; in the regulation\nand control of public service corporations; in the regulation of transportation and traveling rates; in the protection of the public thru the inspection\nand control of the banks, building and loan companies, trust companies,\nthe mines, the factories; these and many other problems confronting the\nstate government should be studied.\nIn the study of economics and sociology the history of the development\nof industries and trade and the history of the development of civilization\nand the institutions of society should not constitute the whole study of these\nsubjects; the historical view of these subjects and the broad theoretical\nview of these subjects should not constitute the work done in them in the\nnormal schools. The historical and the larger theoretical view of these\nsubjects should be studied in connection with the most careful study and\nexamination into economic and social conditions immediately surrounding\nthe student. They should be studied along with a careful study of economic\nand social problems that confront the immediate community and the\ncountry generally. The actual living conditions surrounding the students\nshould be studied and interpreted to some extent in the light of history and\nof the larger theoretical consideration of economics and sociology. Economics and sociology must not be made purely academic subjects of study;\nthey must not be studied for their broad informational and cultural value;\nthe study of them must not be separated from actual life and living conditions. Normal students should go into the factories and shops and\nstores; they should go where men are building and constructing; they\nshould go among the men who are working on the streets, in ditches, and\nin the fields. They should study the conditions under which men work;\nthey should study the conditions under which they live in their homes;\nthey should study to know what is their attitude toward life and the society\nin which they live. Economic and social life problems must have a permanent place in the work of normal-school students if they are to be prepared as teachers to make the lives of the pupils that they teach in the\npublic schools fit into the life of the world outside the school.\nBut in training teachers for the public welfare the normal school must\nprepare them to wield a strong moral and religious influence in the schoolroom. The first and most potent influence in molding and developing the\nmoral and religious character of the teachers who are trained in the normal\nschool is the personal power and influence of the men and women who\nmake up the normal-school faculties. If the normal schools are to wield a\nstrong moral and religious influence thru the teachers they train, their\nfaculties must be made up of men selected for their strength and their\npurity of character.\nTeachers everywhere should be strong in this respect;\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "870\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nbut it is of the utmost importance that these high moral and religious\nqualities shall be possessed by the men and women in the normal-school\nfaculties; for the normal schools more than any other schools are training\nthe teachers who in turn will mold the character of the millions of children\nin the public schools; and of nearly equal importance is the fact that they\nare training more of the future mothers of the better educated class of\npeople than any other schools are training. The men and the women in\nthe normal-school faculties must, therefore, be men and women of the\nstrongest and most earnest Christian character. And they must be men\nand women of wide and varied experience and broad and tender sympathies.\nThey must exemplify in their lives the purest and best moral and religious\nqualities; and at the same time they should be broadly sane and human\nin their lives and in their sympathies.\nNext in importance in training teachers in the normal school for the\npublic welfare, morally and religiously, is the training that comes from the\nstudy of history, civics, economics, and sociology, and that comes from\nthe life these future teachers live in the normal schools. Right sympathies\nshould be constantly aroused and right attitudes should be constantly\nbrought about by the study of the duties and responsibilities of citizenship;\nby the study of economic conditions, and the influence of economic conditions upon the lives of the people; and by the study of the social conditions,\nneeds, and possibilities of the people. And right sympathies and right\nattitudes should find abundant opportunities for expression in the activities\nof student life. The student activities should be planned and regulated\nwith this end in \\dew. These activities should be planned and encouraged\nwith a view to giving a healthy outlet and a healthy expression to the\nemotions of the whole student body. They should be planned and regulated\nwith a distinct purpose to give an abimdance of healthy and right expression\nand activity. Right moral character is developed thru right moral action.\nIn the daily activities of the school right moral character must be built up\nby right thinking, feeling, and acting. Right attitudes and right conduct\nin all the relations of school life must prevail; honesty and fair play and\nmanly vigor on the athletic fields; courtesy, considerateness, and a spirit of\nhelpfulness and of willingness to co-operate with others for the common\ngood in all student organizations; and a recognition by the student body\nof the importance of the great work for which they are preparing themselves\nand a correspondingly earnest application to gaining the knowledge and\nexperience that are necessary to make them masters in their profession.\nSuch living and acting under the stimulating influence and direction of\nstrong men and women cannot fail to bring the right moral development,\nespecially if the proper religious influences surround the students.\nTraining for efficiency in religious work presents peculiar difficulties in\nall public schools on account of the religious intolerance that still prevails\namong our people. The time should come when this religious Intolerance\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "liepartment]\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR THE PUBLIC\n\nWELFARE\n\nS71\n\nwhich is such a hindrance to the highest religious welfare of our people\nshould give way to a better religious spirit; but in the .meantime the normal\nschools must not neglect and especially must they not be indifferent to the\nreligious education of their students. They must recognize the supreme\nimportance of religious training and living. Thru the religious character\nof the men and women in their faculties they must exert a strong religious\ninfluence upon the lives of their students. The lives of the men and women\nof the normal-school faculties should speak in no uncertain tones on this\npoint, but should be strong and positive. No moral character that is based\nupon a colorless aestheticism can take the place of the virile moral character\nthat has its foundation and its abiding strength in the Christian religion.\nThis fact should have distinct recognition in the normal schools.\nThe normal schools should promote the religious education of their\nstudents by encouraging student religious organizations, by encouraging\nthe students to be active religious workers in their several churches; by the\nwork of the members of their faculties in student organizations; and by\nthe work of the members of their faculties in the churches. The normalschool faculties can see that the religious education of their students is not\nneglected if they determine to do it and this can be done without the\nviolation of our Constitution and laws in the letter or in the spirit; and\nwithout denying any citizen his religious freedom or his religious rights\nin any respect.\nThe only hope of the American democracy lies in education; its only\nhope lies in the public schools; its only hope lies in a better knowledge on\nthe part of the whole people of their civic and social rights and duties; of\ntheir moral and religious responsibilities. The only efficient agency for\nthe education of the people who constitute the American democracy is the\npublic schools; and the public schools can prove an efficient agent in the\neducation of the people only thru the work of the normal schools in giving\nthe teachers who are to do the work in these schools a real training for the\npublic welfare. The only hope of the American democracy lies in the\neducation of the whole people in the public schools; and that hope can be\nrealized only by making the education given in the public schools an\neducation for civic and social and economic efficiency; and an education\nthat will develop a high sense of moral and religious responsibility. Training teachers for the public welfare in the normal schools means training for\ngiving such an education as I have described. It must be an education of\nthe American democracy that will teach them that the doctrine of the\nsurvival of the fittest has no application in the lives of human beings; or\nif it has application the definition of the fit must not be the brutally selfish.\nIt must be an education that wiU fill men with an abiding faith in the\npossibility of human achievement and human destiny; a faith in the\npossibilities of a high plane of living for the whole people. It must be an\neducation that will inspire in the people a high idealism and will make\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnai\n\nthem demand and have as their leaders men of broad vision and of a high\nidealism. But it must be an education that will make the people and their\nleaders not mere visionaries — ^not impractical idealists. It must be an\neducation that will give the people a practical training for economic\nefficiency as well as for civic and social efficiency. It must be an education\nthat will free the people from actual and threatened industrial slavery;\nand at the same time it must be an education that will vastly increase their\nindustrial efficiency and industrial productiveness.\nThe work of the public schools which is to constitute the only hope of the\nAmerican democracy must be as wide in its scope as the limits set for it by\nthe men of broadest vision; perhaps its scope will extend beyond the limits\nof our present vision. It must provide for the education of the whole man;\nit must have a concern for the physical welfare of children as well as for their\nintellectual and moral welfare; it must provide the training of the physically\ndeficient, and the mentally deficient, and the morally deficient. The\ndictates of prudence as well as of human love demand this; the protection\nof society as well as the welfare of suffering human beings demands it.\nThe schools must educate for moral efficiency as well as for economic\nefficiency; they must educate men to use their leisure wisely as well as to\nbe industrially efficient and productive; they must educate them to live\nwell in the hours of their freedom from toil in the industrial fields. The\nwork of the public schools must not be bounded by any limits of class or\nage. All classes must be reached by the work of the public schools. The\nparents whose education has been neglected must find in the public schools\nthe means of extending their education; the work of the schools must\ntouch the home life of the people; it must touch their industrial life; it\nmust touch their recreations; the schools must touch and fuse into one the\nwhole social life of the people. There must be no gaps left between the life\nof the school and of home and society.\nTraining teachers for the public welfare in the normal schools means the\neducation of the teachers who can make the American public school fill\nsuch a place in the American democracy; who can thru their work in the\npublic school make an American democracy a reality.\n\nSECURING AND MAINTAINING EFFICIENCY IN THE\nTEACHING FORCE OF NORMAL SCHOOLS\nJ. G. CRABBE,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nSTAJE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nRICHMOND,\n\nKY.\n\nWhat shall we do in order to secure efficiency in our teaching force\nand by what regime shall efficiency be maintained? I use Dr. Eliot's\ndefinition of efficiency to mean \"effective power for work and service.\"\nNo new scheme of normal-school administration is here offered, no fad\nto exhibit, no hobby to ride. At a meeting of the National Education\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECURING\n\nAND\n\nMAINTAINING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n873\n\nAssociation, discussing the \"Growth of Teachers in Service,\" Superintendent Maxwell said:\nThe final solution must come thru the principal of the school. I came to this meeting\nto get light upon the problem, \"How we can make good principals out of poor ones?\"\nThis hope has not been fulfilled.\n\nThere was much sound philosophy in Dr. Maxwell's remarks. Today\nthe problem of efficiency in the teaching force of every school is largely a\nproblem of administration. My theme, then, is a double one and I state\nit thus baldly: How can we make efficient presidents and principals of\nnormal schools out of indifferent ones ? and how can presidents and principals make efficient teachers out of ordinary ones? My twofold theme\npertinently addresses itself to the two prerequisites to securing and maintaining efficiency, the president and the teacher, for without the cordial\nco-operation of the faithful teacher there can be no hope of efficiency.\nSeek first a live president, then a live teacher, and all necessary other\nthings will be added.\nI. To develop effective power for work and service in the teaching\nforce — efficiency — the president must set up his standards in the midst\nof his teachers. This is big with importance. Some normal schools have\nset up no real standards; too many have tacitly assumed a mean one.\nOther things being equal, the school's efficiency is directly proportionate\nto the standards set up.\nThe first standard to be lifted up is the president's ideal normal school,\nwhat a normal school means to him, what its mission, what the goal as he\nsees them. The president needs to see the end of normal training from\nthe beginning. He needs to see in prospect the child yonder, in home, in\nschool, on playground, in the market place, the forum, the church, the\nstate — the finished product of home and community and school. He\nmust see the child yonder and he must be able to make the teacher see\nthis same vision. He must sympathize with normal-school aims, normalschool doctrines, normal-school training, normal-school people — not passively, but he must be all aflame with genuine enthusiasm that will beget\nlove for teacher-training and child-training in the hearts of every normal\ninstructor. His ideal normal school must be a training school for teachers\n— not a quasi-college or university, that merely apes college curricula,\nmanners, and methods.\nA normal-school president once said:\nIf you want to do anything for the normal schools, help them to get out of the blind\nalley in which they find themselves.\n\nGod forbid! Such men have no true conception of the mission of the\nnormal school and should be attached to some of the mediaeval educational\ninstitutions still existing in the twentieth century. If the normal schools\nmerely equipped teachers in the common school and academic subjects,\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\ntruly we would be in a blind alley, journeying out of the main educational\ncurrent, getting nowhere in particular. But these schools are especially\ndesigned to prepare teachers, and the states have left it to the state normal\nschools to establish within their borders an educational clinic — the training\ndepartment. This training department is the heart of the state normals,\nand it is this that makes them distinctive. The ideal normal school says\nwith clear emphasis, \"This one thing I do — I train teachers for all schools.\"\nWhy not have blazoned on our standard the creed of this department\npromulgated in 1908, which briefly declares for:\nHigh-school graduation for admission to normal schools; the training of teachers\nby the normal school for both elementary and secondary schools, two years' training\nfor the elementary course, four for the secondary course; the establishment of departments of special research; courses of training for educational leadership; opposition to\nthe domination of the colleges in making the secondary courses of study preparatory\nto college; and a broadening of the normal-school curriculum to meet the needs of the\nbroadening curriculum of the pubUc schools.\n\nOr I would sound out these eternal basic principles of truth and training\nfor teachers as enimciated and taught by the State Normal in its creed:\n1. I believe in the three R's — Reading, Writing, Arithmetic — as the foundation\nstones of the teacher's training; he that climbeth up some other way, the same is a\npilferer.\n2. I believe in the three M's — Matter, Mind, Method — as the sanctum of the teacher's\ntraining; he that entereth in, shall go in and out and find pasture.\n3. I believe in the Pauline trinity, of which the Book declares, \"Now abideth Faith,\nHope, Love, these three; but the greatest of these is Love.\"\n4. I believe in the three H's, the Normal Trinity, of which the \"Book of Normal\"\ndeclares, \"Now abideth Hand, Head, Heart, these three; but the greatest of these is\nHeart.\" Heart is the sanctum sanctorum of the teacher's training; he that entereth in,\ndoes so that his pupils might have life, and that they might have it mare abundantly.\n\nBut the one standard set up is not enough. Along with the ideal\nschool, let us lift up another standard, the president's ideal normal-school\nteacher; what a teacher means to him, what it takes to make a teacher,\nwhat it takes to be a teacher, what a teacher thinks, does, feels, hopes,\nbelieves, sees, as he sees these things. \"The faculty is the soul of the institution,\" says the report of the Committee on Normal Schools in 1899,. a\ndocument which has come to be an educational classic. The faculty should\nbe men and women of physical efficiency. No argument is required. In\npassing, it is interesting to note that, within certain limits, as the teacher's\nsalary becomes smaller, physical efficiency is decreased; as the salary becomes still smaller, mental efficiency is decreased; and finally, as the salary\nbecomes pitifully smaller, moral efficiency is decreased. As a matter of\nfact, the teacher's income has much to do with maintaining efficiency.\nToday as in the days of Page and Hinsdale, and White and Harris,\nthe first essential qualification of the teacher is scholarship — ^broad, comprehensive, accurate. All professional training is, perforce, based on\nsound scholarship, special training for his own department and professional\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECURING\n\nAND\n\nMAINTAINING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n875\n\ntraining. College degrees may be good, but mere degrees mean but little\nto the normal-school president. The young man just \"doctored\" by the\ncollege, without pedagogical training, who thinks that anyone who knows a\nsubject can teach it, and then tries to teach it just as his college professor\ntaught it to him, soon finds to his sorrow that there's more than knowledge\nin the teacher's tool-chest. The college professor may or may not teach\npedagogically, tho he ordinarily does not. The normal instructor must\nteach pedagogically. Students may have had the usual high-school subjects but the normal instructor teaches them in a new normal way; in the\nhigh school the subject was the student's central thought, in the normal\nschool the end in view is the pedagogical presentation of the subject. The\nteacher must practice what he preaches, must teach by the methods which\nhe wants his students afterward to put into execution, for students, by\nand by, will teach as they have been taught by their former teachers.\nBecause of this, primarily, the normal instructor must believe in, and\nbe a part of, the training department. He must see the child yonder^ he\nmust know the problems of the public schools. It is therefore necessary\nfor him to visit the classes in the training department, observe the work\nof the training teachers, and become familiar with the student-teachers'\ndaily activities. He should know how the lesson-plans are worked out\nand developed, what difficulties arise and how they are conquered, and how\nfailures are met. He does not visit the training department simply to\ncriticize, but to put his heart up against the heart of the school and count\nits throbbing pulses, to enter fully into the heart-life of the school, to correlate his work with that of other departments, to find inspiration, to find\nthe child — truth. Only thus can he teach best as a normal instructor if\nthe normal school is to be a unit.\nAbove all else, the teachers of the school must be men and women of\ncharacter; and the state normal must be a character-building power.\nEven if a teacher be thoroly trained on the physical side and tho he be\nhighly trained intellectually — the side of concentration and mental grasp —\nyet he is but a pigmy in the line of real efficiency unless he be dominated\nby a single purpose, a great ideal for which he works and which he serves\nwith enthusiasm and devotion. He must know that that only is the best\neducation which implants in the breast of a man a knowledge of soul development and soul possibilities; which conveys in some mysterious manner to\nhis inner self the conception of individual personal worth, out of which\nis to grow to a glorious maturity the fruits of heart culture — virtue, honor,\npurity of life, character — and because of which he is to receive a healthy\ninspiration to noble living and to holy ambition, to higher attainments\nand imselfish manhood. This education will enable a man not only \"to\nget a living,\" but to live in the completest sense, and the teacher who has\nbeen faithful in these lines will some day have his pupils rise up and call\nhim blessed. For, while they will go out from school and forget much of\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nLatin and Greek and French and German and mathematics and science,\nthey will forever hold to their manhood and womanhood, built up, as it\nhas been, by the daily roimd of school duty, and strengthened by the silent\ninfluence of a true teacher's right life and correct example.\nII. To develop effective power for work and service in the teaching\nforce — efficiency — the president must lead his teachers to efficiency.\nLooking toward maintaining efficiency, the president has already set\nup his standards, his ideals: (i) his conception of a great normal school,\nand (2) his conception of a real teacher. Now he must lead, that the faculty\nmay become efficient and be kept efficient, that the school may become\nefficient and be kept efficient. It is trite to say that the president must be\na leader, yet he does not always lead. Of course, he keeps office hours,\npresides over the assembly of the student body and at faculty meetings,\ntalks sometimes learnedly, and writes pretty essays and even scholarly\ndisquisitions for the edification of the people, sends out to the teaching force\ncircular letters of counsel and direction, and in many ways points out the\nway to his teachers — tho he does all this, and speaks with the tongues of\nmen and of angels, and does not lead, he is become as soimding brass and\ntinkling cymbal. He must be a leader and himself must lead. Efficiency\nmeans power, it takes real energy, it takes downright work. A \\a,zy president will never inspire efficiency. His slogan should be, not, \" Go forward,\"\nbut, \"Come on, boys.\"\nHe may be a leader of educational thought, a philosopher, a historian,\na leader of force and power in public assemblies, but more vital than all,\nhe must be a leader in higher things, a leader of heart-power. The state\nnormals stand for real, true training and high ideals, not mud-pie ideals.\nThey stand for broad culture and clean standards. They demand the\nmost wholesome influences and surroundings. Under such environment\ncharacter is fostered and builded. That character ought to be vmqualifiedly Christian. I have no apology to offer — every teacher should be a\npositive Christian force in the community, and the head of every normal\nschool ought to be a leader of Christian ideals. More serious-minded,\npurposeful students are attending normal schools in the United States than\nany other kind of educational institution, and these young men and women\nought to be made leaders of social, religious, and community life.\nIt is to be greatly regretted that certain well-known higher institutions\nof learning in the United States — some of them state schools — find it\nwise or necessary to try to discredit the Bible, or to sneer at the teachings\nof Jesus the Christ. Often the atmosphere seems laden with agnosticism\nand infidelity. Sometimes the spirit of the school is merely un-Christian —\nthere is no time nor inclination for devotion, no encouragement for religion,\nfor the church, for God, only time for blunt facts, abstruse speculations,\n\"pure science,\" and doubtful philosophy. Scores of young men and\nwomen, scarcely out of their teens, become steeped in Tom Paine and\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECURING\n\nAND\n\nMAINTAINING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n877\n\nVoltaire, but seldom are they versed in Newton's laws, the binomial theorem, and their mother- tongue; they become worshipers of the sun, the\nbirds, the brooks, the flowers — living with nature, but finding no God of\nnature! Soon they forget their reverence for the Sabbath day, the beautiful and tender years of childhood, the memories of Christian father and\nmother and home, and the little brown church with its ivy-covered belfry,\nits stained windows, its high pulpit and pews, its quiet, peace, and solemnity,\nits simple services, its sacred influences — once-blessed home church! Forgotten! because, forsooth, some man who ought to be a leader of men and\nwomen neglects the altars of the highest life. It is pitiable for a teacher\nto tamper with unfaith. Hasten the day when the Bible shall be an open\nbook, when Christian character shall be stressed in every school, and when\nour higher educational institutions shall have a touch of the \"old-time\nreligion.\"\nI do not hurl silly invective against higher criticism and the critical\nstudy of religion thru history and scientific research, but you put young\nmen and women in the normal schools to discussing the unknowable and\nunthinkable and uncertain philosophies of pure reason, thus neglecting\nthe plain pedagogical principles and methods of the elementary school,\nand the time will come when a lot of normal school presidents will be tried\nin the eternal burnings.\nIII. To develop effective power for work and service in the teaching\nforce — efficiency — proper supervision is essential.\nSuperintendent Pearse says: \"Proper supervision is the final and vital\nthing in securing efficiency.\" He was thinking of the problem of the city\nschool, but wise supervision is necessary even in the administration of\nnormal-school life. The school machinery must be perfected, a part\nlegitimately to be attended to by the school, the other to be managed by\nthe teacher. There must be system and order in the daily round. School\nmachinery is not the highest concern of the school but nevertheless it is an\nessential and a prerequisite to all efficiency.\nPersonal supervision by president, principal, head of department, and\nsupervisor is the all-in-all essential. Criticism is not the thing in supervision, but that the supervisor may see things and know things in a comprehensive way for his own use. Then he can plan for policies and courses\nof study, and general changes and development. He will find faults here\nand there and everywhere but these can be corrected without leaving a\nbit of sting if he is tactful, especially if he is fair in his commendations of\nworthy work. Judicious approval, well merited, will salve many a hurt.\nDiplomatically, he can show teachers a better way, a more excellent way,\nor he can send them to see a better way under other and more excellent\nteachers. The average teacher — not the superior teacher — ^has a deal of\ninertia in his make-up, and it may be necessary for the supervisor to exhibit\nthis fact to such, for the sake of efiiciency.\nThe personal touch is the key-\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Normal\n\nnote to successful supervision. The mere martinet is valueless as a supervisor, but the man who loves his work, who believes in \"his job,\" who loves\nhis people, and, who, as he goes in and out before them, hopes sincerely\nto serve and help them— he is the man who has the personal touch to\nwin teachers to himself, to his way of thinking, and because of this mental\nand moral attitude, they will not only accept but even invite criticism.\nIV. To develop effective power for work and service in the teaching\nforce — efficiency — the president must keep infusing new life into the school\norganization and normal community.\nI tread on dangerous ground, but I am of the opinion that change is\nwise — new plans, new schemes of development, new materials, new organizations of life and growth. I'd have a little change each year merely for\nvariety to awaken dormant forces and I'd do it tho the new were not\nquite so good as the old. The old becomes monotonous, the treadmill\ntires, work lags; the new arouses, energizes. Encourage each teacher to\nfind some new truth or newly discovered truth or theory in his own laboratory, or to find a better or simpler way in organizing any body of truth.\nAs the normal instructor goes into the classes of the training department —\nthe normal school's laboratory- -why should he not hope to find a new or\nsemi-new philosophy of teaching. He may or may not find anything\nnew or startling, it matters not, he has done a better thing for himself\nand his school; he has been seeing more things and more closely, and his\nsearch is a spur to his best endeavor. He must not forget his greatest\nwork, that of teaching and saturating himself with the teaching spirit,\nbut this search for new truth will only enliven, vivify, illuminate his teaching. Silly experimentation is not within the scope of this suggestion.\nThere are already too many experimenters in normal schools who work —\nor play — at the expense of the child, coining masses of imintelligible verbiage\nfor molly-coddle teachers just to be in the limelight — rendering unto\nCaesar the things that belong only to the child.\nV. To develop effective power for work and service in the teaching\nforce — efficiency — the teacher must grow.\nThis last division of my theme is worthy of full treatment, but my\ntime is up. Many will consider this closing topic the only pertinent suggestion inthe paper. But, to my notion, the above suggestions are fundamental inmaintaining efficiency, and therein is the secret of real power.\nHow shall the teacher grow in service, in scholarship, in professional\npower, in teaching ability, in character, in culture, in professional spirit?\nI simply take time to make a list of practical helps tried and true for the\nupbuilding of effective power among our teachers — a sort of teachers'\ndecalog.\nI, The regular faculty meetings: May be monthly, possibly one hour\nand a half in length. Purposes: general current business, announcements\nand directions for work, general criticisms and commendations on work\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECURING\n\nAND\n\nMAINTAINING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n879\n\nobserved, round-table discussions on all topics of general interest to the\nentire normal community. Here the president should come into fellowship with the faculty and here he may begin to lift up his standards. The\npresident should prefer to have a teacher absent a whole week from his\nclassroom rather than from one regular faculty meeting.\n2. Departmental meetings: May be monthly, possibly one hour in\nlength, the hour before the regular faculty meeting a good time. A definite\nprogram should be carefully planned. A suggestion for one year's program\nis offered: For the first half-year let each program consist of one twentyminute paper and one ten-minute paper on a departmental subject, to be\nfollowed by general discussion; for the last half-year present illustrative\ndepartment work or training department class work to be followed by\nquiz and discussion.\n3. The teachers' club: This is the teacher's study or reading-circle.\nAll other worthy agencies to promote efficiency may be in operation and\nthe machinery may be oiled until no squeak can be found, yet the school\nwill fail of the highest efficiency unless the teachers read and study systematically. This club may meet fortnightly, possibly one hour and a\nhalf in length. Suggestion for program is made: For first half-year,\nstudy one up-to-date professional book with two or three other books for\ncollateral reading; for last half, let each program consist of one formal\npaper of thirty minutes with full discussion following. Current news may\nbe discussed. This work should be purely voluntary. All the teachers\nwill be glad to be active members, if the esprit de corps of the school is\nwhat it ought to be. Give the faculty time for meetings, no overcrowding,\nand let the president take the initiative if there is to be a loyal, united\nfaculty.\n4. Encourage each teacher to write once a year a carefully prepared\naddress or paper for the club or some association, or for the educational\npress. This should deal with a live professional problem or personal\nresearch.\n«\n5. The regular lecture course, fostered by the school.\n6. Reading and studying the best educational magazines and journals.\n7. Active membership in state teachers' associations and the National\nEducation Association.\n8. Occasionally the teacher needs to go to school, to become a pupil\nagain. The summer school affords a satisfactory opportunity.\n9. Sometimes a teacher may most surely grow by having an extra\nvacation. A term off duty for rest, recreation, and travel is good now and\nthen. If possible observe the sabbatical year for teachers on half-pay.\nNo great expense is incurred to the school, for competent substitutes are\neasily secured on the usual half-pay.\n10. Visiting Other schools two or three days each year will broaden\nand inspire every teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nomal\n\nSomewhat gingerly, I approach my concluding statements — ^but the\ntruth shall make us free. If in order to develop effective power for work\nand service — efficiency — the president of a normal school has run the\ngamut of ministering agencies for efficiency, has set up his standards — the\nideal school and ideal teacher — has tried to be a helpful supervisor and\nadviser, has tried to infuse new life into the organization, has rung the\nchanges on teachers' growth, and has led in all these forward movements\nto the best of his ability: if he has done all this and is a progressive and\nmeans to have a progressive school, it will be necessary for the president\nto shake up somewhat rudely the dry bones of the standpatter teacher, the\nincompetent, the inefficient. I have heretofore suggested a president's\nslogan. I now leave a sentiment for the teacher's private den to be framed\nin acacia wood: The president of this school will select teachers who will\nhelp to lessen, not increase, the burdens of administration.\nI come back to the preliminary statement made at the outset of this\naddress: today the problem of efficiency in the teaching force of every\nnormal school is largely a problem of administration.\n\nFIRST REPORT\nHOMER\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE OF ELEVEN\nOF NORMAL SCHOOL STATISTICS\n\nH. SEERLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT\nFALLS,\n\nOF IOWA STATE TEACHERS\nIOWA, CHAIRMAN\n\nON A PLAN\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCEDAR\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nFollowing the San Francisco meeting of 1911, W. J. Hawkins, the\npresident of the department, appointed a Committee of Eleven to take up\nthe entire problem of normal-school statistics and report a suitable plan for\nsuch standardization as seemed best to use in obtaining information regarding the public service and the public expenditures of state normal schools.\nThe several members of this committee were each assigned definite districts\ncomprising several states, and were advised to co-operate with the chairman\nin securing such information as might enable a satisfactory report to be\ndrafted to meet the needs of this kind of educational organization and\nendeavor.\nThis committee consisted of:\nHomer\nH.\nSeerley,\nChairman,\nCedar\nFalls, Iowa\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C.\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nDavid Felmley, Normal, 111.\nW. S. Dearmont, Cape Girardeau, Mo.\nTHE\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nWaite A. Shoemaker, St. Cloud, Minn.\nHarry F. Estill, Huntsville, Tex.\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N.J.\nErnest L. Silver, Plymouth, N.H.\nPLAN\n\nAs soon as possible, the chairman submitted a tentative plan of details\nfrom which it was expected to select definite items that shotild be considered\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nA PLAN\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n88l\n\nas coming within the scope of such a report. This plan had in mind all the\ndifferent things that state normal-school boards of management and\nofficers of administration ought to know regarding the institutions they\nconduct, the kind of information that they should be able to give to the\ngeneral assembly and to the public as well as the kind of facts that ought\nto appear in the reports of the United States Bureau of Education, in order\nto be of comparative value to the institutions represented in these statistical\nstatements.\nThese items were the following:\n1. Income\n2. Expenditure\n3. Faculty\n4. Students\n5. Training department\n6. Graduates\n\n7. Course of study\n8. Library\n9. Plant\n10. Equipment\n11. Per capita cost\n12. Economic use of the institution\n\nThese items were subdivided so as to give definite information regarding\nsources of income; varieties of expenditure of income; grade of scholarship,\nservice, and authority of the faculty; kind, quality^ and character of the\nstudents; grade, organization, and undertakings of the training department; variety and standard of graduating classes; extent, quality, and\nquantity of the courses of study; service, utility, and breadth of library,\nand equipment of all kinds; values of the plant given by the state; per\ncapita expense of conducting all kinds of undertakings; the economic use\nof all parts of the institution and the degree of greatness of its helpfulness\nas compared with its cost.\nOBJECT\n\nOF\n\nTHESE\n\nINQUIRIES\n\nIt is a fact that the people and even the officers of the states do not\nknow as they should the actual service of the public institutions. They\ndo not know enough about them to fairly appreciate their necessity, their\nimportance, or their helpfulness to civilization, nor do they comprehend\ntheir results or their endeavors for the public good. This condition of\npopular opinion does not need to exist, since a fair treatment of the questions\nof publicity and promotion must always bring their reward in better encouragement and support. The state normal schools, as a class, have been very\nslow to accept this need of a better understanding of their province, of their\nlargeness, and of their undertakings, and hence they have hardly received\nthe share of commendation, of expansion of service, or of popular appreciation that they actually deserve. It was to meet this known actual need, to\ncultivate this larger conception of the status of responsibility as institutions\nin normal-school circles, to develop this larger ideal of the greatness and the\nimportance of the teacher in civilization, that a preliminary report was\nprepared for the February meeting and that a first report is now submitted\nfor actual consideration and genuine criticism by the workers of this very\nimportant field of public endeavor.\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nRESPONSE\n\nThe acceptance of these ideals and views by the presidents of the state\nnormal schools of the United States, when they were presented in detail\nthru the co-operation of the committee, was not very encouraging. More\nthan three-fourths of them were very doubtful of the expediency of such an\nundertaking and many decided that such an enterprise was too worldly\nand too business-like in nature to deserve either personal attention or open\ncriticism. In fact, they consigned the entire discussion to oblivion, concluding that neither statistics, publicity, nor comparative problems of\ninstitutional service were of such a character that they could afford to\nregard them as a part of their sacred duty to educational progress or to\npublic enlightenment. They thus decided that all such studies belonged\nto the professional investigator and the would-be statistician, satisfying\nthemselves that the present conditions and the limited status existing have\nbeen granted as acts of Providence and are undesirable of being changed\nor of being improved. Recognizing the conservative attitude as shown by\nmanifest conditions, the chairman submits the following suggestions to the\nother members of the committee and to such members of the department as\nmay be interested, with the hope that some positive conclusion may be\nreached within the coming year and a final report be able to be prepared\n• and suljmitted for adoption at the next meeting of the department. It is\nrecognized by the committee that the diflSculties that have arisen are great,\nand that the differences of opinion that are foimd are numerous, and that\nthe problems that must be solved are complex because of the many fundamental distinctions made by statutes, by ideals, and by circumstances over\nwhich the present institutions have but little control.\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIt is necessary to recognize at the outset these fundamental conditions\nby adopting a general classification for the state normal schools in order to\nplace each individual school in the class in which its constitution, development, and service naturally require. Until this is satisfactorily done any\nattempt at comparative statistics would be unreliable because the schools\nto be studied are so different that an actual comparison is impossible. It\nis not assumed that any one class is to be regarded as either better or worse\nthan any other class. This report can have nothing to do with deciding the\neducational merit of the several classes of schools. Its only fimction is to\npoint out these classes, to construct definitions marking out the characteristics of these classes, and assemble under each division the various\nprominent types and values that are found. By so doing, the more notable\ndifferences may be outlined, the more fundamental objects may be designated, and the special province assumed indicated. With this end in view\na tentative proposition is hereby submitted for a possible classification.\nIf this plan be approved, then the committee will be prepared to determine\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nA PLAN\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n883\n\nthe classification of each school and the character of statistics that each\ncondition seems to demand.\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDEFINED\n\n1. First standard. — This class of state normal schools is particularlymarked by the emphasis placed on training in teaching. Such schools are\nchiefly notable for the number of pupils in their training schools and for\nthe quantity of teaching they require where the practician is on his own\nresources and not under the immediate supervision of the faculty of the\nschool. They assume that instruction in the theory and in the processes\nof elementary teaching is within their province but that academic and\ncollegiate work in perfecting the scholarship of the teacher should be\nobtained in other kinds of educational institutions. They do not aim to\naffiliate with collegiate institutions and do not prepare the way for their\nstudents to obtain advanced credit from such institutions. This class of\nstate normal schools includes many of those first founded in the United\nStates. Massachusetts may be selected as developing schools according\nto this type.\n2. Second standard. — This class of state normal schools is particularly\nmarked by the emphasis placed upon the scholastic instruction that is\ndeemed essential to the preparation of the teacher. Such schools maintain\ncourses in the theory and processes of elementary teaching and also require\ndefinite training in the art of teaching in a well-organized and well-conducted\ntraining school. They accept as students high-school graduates and give\nthem two years of instruction and training. They also accept as students\nthose not high -school graduates and give them three or more years of\ninstruction and training. They place much importance upon strengthening\nand expanding the scholarship of their students and they seek and secure\nrecognition for part of this work from colleges and universities. Thus many\nof their students enter universities and colleges after graduation from the\nnormal schools. These schools have large faculties for instruction as\ncompared to the faculties for training and they have the equipment and the\nspirit of collegiate institutions. Such a type of normal school is found in\nmany parts of the country and in several states with numerous variations\nas to plans and procedure as the conditions may require.\n3. Third standard. — This class of state normal schools is adopted rather\nthan founded by the state in which it is located. The buildings, grounds,\nand equipment are not state property, and the management is not state\ndirected or controlled. The state makes appropriations which are distributed to such schools according to the number of teacher students that\nare taught and trained. Their work is not limited to the educating and\nthe training of teachers because they receive and graduate students from\nother kinds of courses. This plan does not give uniformity in system or\nplan or scope, as each school has its own individuality and can decide its\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nown province and character. Results are determined by examinations\ngiven by state committees appointed for that purpose. Such schools are\neducational institutions where the preparation of teachers is one of the\nfunctions but not the sole function. Pennsylvania had developed teachers'\ntraining schools of this kind.\n4. Fourth standard. — This class of state normal schools is like the second\nstandard in many respects but is different in that such schools are also\njunior colleges as well as state normal schools. They are authorized by the\nstate to admit Freshmen and Sophomore students who do not expect to\nbecome teachers and organize classes for them which strictly conform with\nthe college work maintained at the state university. Such schools as these\nare now found in Wisconsin. There are also some other differences in the\nseveral individual schools because the different kinds of special teacher\ntraining are not uniformly organized in every school maintained by the\nstate. This allowing differentiation where there are several schools foimded\nby a state by giving each a special province is the plan that has been\nrecently adopted in Kansas.\n5. Fifth standard. — This class of state normal ^hools is organized and\nequipped to take students without secondary education and give them\nsuch scholarship as high schools give and in addition a notable amoimt of\nvocational instruction and training. Such schools are planned to unite\nthe school and the home and prepare students for primary and elementary\nteaching. This class of schools is found in the South and is a notable agency\nin improving social and industrial conditions thru the instruction of their\ngraduates in the common schools. Their province, their kind of equipment, and their needs are such that they can hardly be placed in comparison\nwith other classes of state normal schools.\n6. Sixth standard. — ^This class of state normal schools is of such a grade\nin scholastic work and is so comprehensive and collegiate in the organization\nand management that they are properly called state teachers' colleges.\nThey are organized into departments, they are extensively equipped, they\nhave many courses of study for all kinds of special teachers; they confer\ncollegiate degrees of the Bachelor's standard; they train high-school\nteachers, principals, and superintendents; they have a training-school\ndepartment with a highly trained faculty, covering the kindergarten, the\nprimary school, the grammar school, and the high school; they develop\nteachers for special service rather than general service, they educate and\ntrain critic teachers for state normal school work; they are factors in all\nkinds of public-school education: in fact they are institutions rather than\nsingle schools and their ^administrative problems are complex and far\nreaching. Such schools as these are now in Iowa, Colorado, Indiana,\nMichigan, Missouri, and Kansas, and other states have institutions in\nprocess of development.\nThese variations are consequences of developments in educational\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nSUPERVISORS\n\nIN TECHNICAL\n\nSUBJECTS\n\n885\n\nobjects and demands that are continually appearing in the different states.\nWherever social responsibility and social service are recognized as the basis\nof educational organization and improvement; wherever it is believed that\nthe educational institutions should conform to the known needs of the age;\nwherever the normal schools are granted the liberty of initiative and\nadaptability; wherever they are accepted as wielding a notable influence\non the public welfare; there they are among the most progressive, the most\nmodern, and the most effective agencies that modern civilization has to\nmeet the demands and the exigencies of the times.\nOTHER\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nIt has been suggested by some members of the committee that an\ninvestigation concerning the real work undertaken and accomplished would\nbe much more useful, in which an attempt was made to get up statistical\ninformation regarding the kinds, variety, and special directions of instruction and training that were recognized as constituting the essential parts\nof a teacher's education. It is stated that state normal schools have now\nbeen long enough in existence to have reached some definite conclusions as\nto the standards that are agreed upon in the proper making of a teacher.\nThis would be a profitable line of inquiry and should be undertaken. The\nstandardization and the quantitation of this type of educational endeavor\nis worth the while even if it is extremely diflScult because of so much difference in practice and in conception of the undertaking. Because of the\ninterest in this field of inquiry that has appeared in numerous directions,\nbecause of the benefit that could arise from such a fundamental inquiry,\nit is believed that another national committee with a three-year plan of\ninvestigation and discussion would be a good enterprise for the department.\nTOPIC:\nTHE\n\nCITY TRAINING SCHOOLS\nMANAGEMENT\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nFUNCTION OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL IN TRAINING\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL SUPERVISORS IN TECHNICAL SUBJECTS: DRAWING, MANUAL TRAINING, HOUSEHOLD\nARTS,- MUSIC, ETC.\n\nGRANT\n\nB.\n\nGRUMBINE,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nALVA,\n\nOKLA.\n\nBefore determining the fimction of normal schools in training supervisors for drawing, domestic science, manual training, and public-school\nmusic, it is well to ascertain what various tj^^es of institutions are now\ndoing in this work. In order to secure this information all cities having\na population of over 25,000, and all colleges, universities, and normal\nschools so ranked by the federal commissioner of education were written.\nMany did not reply. Under certain conditions it would not be safe to\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\ndraw conclusions from the nmnber that did reply, about 60 per cent, but\nthe replies came from every state in the Union and the agreement Is so\nlarge that it is considered safe to draw conclusions.\nThe state universities of Montana, Colorado, Arizona, Michigan, and\nTexas make no attempt to train super\\asors in these subjects. The\nUniversity of Oklahoma has just started a course in public-school music.\nSouth Dakota is just beginning courses in music and drawing. Kentucky has recently begun a four-year course in domestic science. Indiana\noffers courses in music and drawing; manual training will be given next\nyear. Maine offers an excellent course in domestic science and intends\nto make the work of the highest order. The University of North Dakota\ngives courses in preparing supervisors in manual training, drawing, domestic\nscience, and music; courses new and graduates inexperienced teachers.\nNew York offers special courses in these subjects in its summer school.\nNebraska has no special department for this work. Ohio has courses\nrecently organized in manual training, domestic science, and drawing,\nbut few students. Illinois offers courses in music and domestic science\nthru the year, manual training and drawing thru the summer session.\nOther universities made no reply and the inference may be that they are\nnot interested in this line of work.\nOf universities other than those maintained by the state, 75 per cent\nreplying state that they offer no such courses. Princeton, Vanderbilt,\nSt. Louis, Johns Hopkins, etc., comprise the list. The others state that\ncourses are offered in one or more of the subjects, and rarely more than\ntwo. Several state that there is an excellent field to develop (if you please —\ndevelop), and will introduce such courses soon.\nIt is safe to say that the imiversity has not entered this field. An\nexamination of their catalogs shows that the courses they offer in these\nbranches are for those seeking aesthetic development, and if they produce\nteachers, these go to city high schools, normal, and colleges of various\nranks, rather than as supervisors to grade systems.\nReplies were had from about a hundred and fifty colleges of various\nranks. Sixty-five per cent offer no courses in these subjects. Thirtyfive per cent pretend to do so. Upon examination of a few of the catalogs\nof those institutions which offer courses in these subjects, it is found that\ntheir courses are not such as one would recommend for the training of\nsupervisors. It is admitted, however, that one who has supervisory\nability and natural inclinations and talent to teach could by completing\nsome of the courses offered in these institutions make a very efl&cient\nsupervisor, but the courses offered are not essentially to train supervisors.\nThe city training schools offer courses in These subject^, but the purpose\nis, according to the statements of superintendents, to make the grade\nteachers efficient to handle this work, not as supervisors, but in the absence\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nSUPERVISORS\n\nIN TECHNICAL\n\nSUBJECTS\n\n887\n\nof the supervisors. Ninety superintendents agree on this statement.\nThe city training school is therefore eliminated.\nThe city high school is marvelous in its extensiveness. It is just\nbeginning to appreciate its full field of usefulness. Its growth should\nhave no opposition and every encouragement. Millions of girls and boys\nmust necessarily look to this institution for the better and nobler ideals of\ncitizenship. Replies from eighty-seven city superintendents state that\ntheir students are unable to so select subjects that at high-school graduation they are qualified for supervisory positions. Three of the ninety\nreplying state that their graduates are able to do so. From these statements from city superintendents it can be concluded that the city high\nschool is not in the field.\nThe technical subjects under discussion have been taught in some normal schools for many years, and it is safe to say that all normal schools\nare giving some attention to these branches at present. But it is a fact\nthat very few are giving courses in these branches that would enable one\ntaking them to become a first-class supervisor.\nIt is found that superintendents find the normal graduates (tho they\nmay have elected heavily in these technical subjects) are not ready or\nable to assume the responsibilities of supervisory work in larger systems.\nAnd hence but few now look to the normals to supply their demand.\nThe superintendents of the larger systems go to the mechanical school\nfor their manual- training man. They agree that generally this man is\ninexperienced as a teacher, but is selected because of his thoro training.\nIt is also found that such men are more proficient as departmental instructors than supervisors because of their lack of experience and lack of the\nobservation afforded by the normal schools. Those having the ability\nto supervise become excellent men after varying terms of experience, during\nwhich time the system in which they labor suffers more or less.\nThey are similar to the college graduates who teach. Ordinarily it\ntakes them several years to learn by experience that which the normal\nschool is able to give. Hence it is safe to assume that if the normal schools\nwere to give as thoro and complete courses as the mechanical school gives\nin manual training, their graduates would be at the higher premium.\nIn this case the city superintendent selects the man highly proficient\ntechnically but lacking in pedagogical training, rather than the person\nwith the pedagogical training but with less technical skill.\nFor supervisors of drawing and vocal music the larger systems draw\nupon the smaller ones and not infrequently select grade teachers who show\nmore than average ability in these branches. No doubt such grade teachers,\nwhile students, did the major part of their work in these technical branches,\nand adding to this training some valuable experience as grade teachers\nthey then become the valuable and efficient supervisor.\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nNot a few superintendents look to such schools as Stout Institute,\nColumbia, Drexel, Pratt, Crane, Simmons, Massachusetts Normal Art\nSchool, and Newcomb for their material. Most of these institutions require\nhigh-school graduation or' its equivalent for entrance, and give four years'\nwork, and very intensive at that, as a requirement for graduation.\nThese schools do produce supervisors. It is found that a large majority\nof their students have from one to five years' actual teaching experience\nbefore graduation. Their teaching before graduation is generally done\nin the smaller systems and they come in contact with all students from\nthe first to the twelfth grade. This valuable experience, added to their\ntraining, which is of the best, gives them excellent qualifications for the\npositions under discussion.\nMany supervisors of drawing and music come from the private studio\nand art schools. These persons are mature and highly trained, their\ngreatest fault being that because of their lack of a general education they\noften lose sight of the end desired by the city systems. Too frequently\nthey are searching among their many pupils for an artist, and during\nthis search, pupils below the average ability suffer. And those below\nthe average ability are the ones that need most attention.\nThis, however, is a weakness of many teachers (inability to reach\nthe student that needs most the teacher's assistance). And herein lies\nthe greatness of normal schools. When students have observed and taught\nunder efficient criticism, their weak points as well as strong ones become\nevident.\nBut the critic must be fearless and impartial.\nIt is believed that every source of supply of supervisors has been\nreviewed. The city training schools and high schools are not in a position\nto train super\\asors in these technical subjects, nor do they have any\ndesire to train them.\nStout, Drexel, Newcomb, Pratt, the Normal Department of the Art\nInstitute, Chicago, etc., are no doubt in the lead for producing supervisors\nfor the larger systems, and it is noted that many after having finished\ncourses in normal schools and having taught for several years, desiring\nto make themselves still more efficient, take additional work at the abovenamed institutions. For this reason many of their graduates are experienced and therefore in demand.\nThe students who have four years of university training seldom enter\ngrade work, nor care to, preferring the high-school position, and in this\nthey receive encouragement from the university faculty.\nBut with the aggressive spirit evidenced by some deans of teachers'\ncolleges the normals will have to be more spirited than they are at present\nif they wish to be felt in this field.\nThe real college has no desire to enter this field. The woman's college\ndoes not at this time offer suitable courses in these branches, in fact\nfew heads of vocal departments in such institutions have correct conceptions ofpublic-school music and its values.\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nSUPERVISORS\n\nIN TECHNICAL\n\nSUBJECTS\n\n889\n\nIt must not be inferred that the normals are not performing a great\nfunction in producing the kind of supervisor imder discussion. Ninety\nsuperintendents in cities of over 25,000 inhabitants state that they do not\ngo to normal schools for their supply of supervisory material. But where\ndo they go? Ninety per cent state, to the smaller system, and these\nwho are selected from the smaller systems are generally normal trained.\n■Just because the graduates of normals do not enter the larger systems,\"\njust because these graduates are young and inexperienced, and a few more\nsuch reasons, is no cause to state that normals do not produce supervisors.\nNo normal asserts that with its course of study and diploma ten years of\nstrenuous experience is given.\nDo colleges produce college professors? Do universities produce\nuniversity presidents ? They most certainly do. But not at the time of\ngraduation. College professors and university presidents are results of\nexperience and development, and supervisors are educationally in the same\nclass.\nSuperintendents of the largest systems, where supervisory work is a\nlarge and real responsibility, refuse to call upon any school for material.\nOne superintendent of a large system replies that he takes several years\nto select supervisors; has many names on file and keeps in regular touch\nwith their progress, development, and success. In this manner he gets\nthe very best. Of course they do not come directly from normal schools,\nbut the majority are normal trained.\nFew nornial schools, however, require more than two years' work in\nany of these subjects after requiring twelfth-grade graduation for entrance.\nGenerally this product is efghteen or nineteen years of age, entirely too\nyoung for responsible positions. And this is one of the salient reasons\ngiven by very competent judges of teachers for not going to normal schools\nfor supervisors.\nHere is where the normal must improve. A finishing course must be\ngiven — a course one or two years in length to supplement the two years\nnow given and the several years of actual teaching experience.\nIt is dangerous to make courses too short, because of the narrowness\nof the product. Owing to the conditions of this age many persons do not\ntake the time properly to fit themselves for responsible positions; some,\nbecause of finances, must in as short a time as possible fit themselves to\ndraw incomes, others do not have the ability to stick. The normals must\nput their product in positions to be of service as soon as expedient, and\nthis expediency is governed by local conditions which are different in\nvarious states. No rule can be made that is applicable to all, each institution must solve its own problems. But no school ought to descend\nto the level of some schemes improperly called business colleges which\naim to fit men for responsible positions in thirty days, without grace.\nNor can courses be made too long. Enough material other than the\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nspecial subject should be required so that the product is well balanced.\nMay we be immediately relieved from the unbalanced specialist!\nIn conclusion, let it be said that, after national investigation, it is\nfoimd that more work is\" done by normal schools in preparing teachers\nfor these positions than any other kind of school, and normal schools\nshould by all means continue to keep the position they now hold. The\nonly change necessary is to make their courses more extensive.\nTHE\n\nPROBLEM OF RELATING\nTHEORY\nAND PRACTICE IN THE TRAINING\nFOR CITY SCHOOLS\n\nJ. MONROE\n\nWILLAED,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF PHILADELPHIA\nGIRLS, PHILADELPHIA,\nPA.\n\nTO OBSERVATION\nOF TEACHERS\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nThe Philadelphia Normal School, founded in 1848, is the oldest city\ntraining school in the country. Prior to 1893 the normal department of\nthe school was simply a postgraduate course of a year added to a threeyear high-school course. In the normal year, book-geology, lectures in\nchemistry, a fairly good course in trigonometry, and another in logic were\nfar more important than the brief course in the history of education, psychology, and so-called \"methods.\"\nStudents \"practiced\" teaching in a school of practice for six weeks\nwith a minimum amount of guidance. One teacher assigned all lessons in\nthe primary grades, another in the grammar grades, and with them the\npupil teachers \"consulted\" w^hen either deemed it necessary.\nTwo-thirds of the time of the pupil teachers was spent in observation,\nbut it was in observation of the work of other pupils, and nothing in the\npsychology of that date helped them to interpret what they saw. Moreover, the \"methods\" which they had previously studied were frequently\nquite independent of the methods followed in the practice school.\nNeedless to say practice teaching imder such circumstances was an\nordeal. Doubtless, it made some by throwing each on her own responsibility. Doubtless, too, it broke many. No certificate to teach was given\nthose who thru timidity, due frequently to youth and modesty, failed to\nteach satisfactorily to the principal of the school. Because of the large\nnumber of pupil teachers, the principal frequently had not the opportunity\nto observe the work of each for more than three brief lessons.\nNaturally, in 1893, when a new normal school was inaugurated with a\ntwo-years' course, following the regular high-school course, the pendulum\nswimg the other way. Theory was magnified at the expense of practice.\nA school of observation and practice succeeded the old school of practice.\nIn it there was an experienced teacher in every grade. The pupil teachers,\ninstead of having the whole responsibility, now had practically none.\nInstead of being in the school for six consecutive weeks, they visited it in\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATING\n\nTHEORY\n\nTO OBSERVATION\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE\n\n891\n\nthe odd hours when the exigencies of the roster made it convenient to put\nthem there. Instead of teaching all day and many days, they frequently\ntaught as few as six more or less isolated lessons during their whole residence\nin the school.\nSuch was the point attained in the evolution of the problem when I\nbecame principal of the school in 1898. In the years that have elapsed I\nhave been steadily and seriously endeavoring to readjust the work and place\nit on so sane a basis that neither theory nor practice shall be omnipotent,\nbut that one shall serve as a handmaid to the other. I have not yet succeeded ingetting as complete an interaction as seems to me desirable, nor,\nperhaps, do I myself realize all the potentialities hidden in a more perfect\nunion between theory and practice.\nI have ventured to preface this history of the Philadelphia Normal\nSchool to my account of the present relationship between theory and\npractice of teaching in the school, because it seems to me that most city\ntraining schools fall into one or the other of the three classes thru which\nwe have passed. Either practice is everything and theory almost nothing,\nor theory is all-important and observation and practice either unguided or\nneglected, or both; or else the relative values of theory, observation, and\npractice, all are recognized as well as the value of each to the other and the\ndependence of each upon both the others.\nIt is my desire to give as clear a concept as possible of the work we are\ntrying to do, and of the conditions secured for its performance. It is proper\nto remark that the Normal School, in which the work of training teachers\nfor the elementary schools ends with their certification, includes and\nembraces the Normal Department, the Department of Observation and\nPractice, and two Adjunct Schools of Practice with their fifty classes of\nchildren of all elementary grades and the kindergarten. These practice\nschools are our laboratories of teaching. Their faculties are composed of\nskilled teachers selected by the principal of the Normal School upon the\nrecommendation of the superintendent of city schools, and receiving\nincreased compensation for their services.\nThe qualifications for admittance to the Normal School demand four\nyears of good high-school work on the part of the applicant and bona fide\nresidence in Philadelphia. The course of study requires two years of\nprofessional study and practice in teaching.\nIn the Junior year the subjects of the curriculum of the elementary\nschools are considered always from the viewpoint of the teacher. In most\nsubjects these reviews hinge largely on the question of method. In other\nsubjects, however, as history and geography, no method work is suggested\nuntil later. We consider it most important that our students get an adult\nattitude toward these great subjects, something that they have not earlier\nattained, perhaps, by reason of their youth and immaturity of mind.\nIn the Senior year the practice work of our students covers a period of\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "§92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nfour consecutive months. During the first two months the students are\nassigned to methods, and to the Department of Observation and Practice\ndirectly connected with the Normal School, spending four weeks in grammar\nand four weeks in primary grades. One \"major\"' subject is taught daily\nby each student, planned by her under the personal direction of the teacher\nof methods in that special subject. In this way each method teacher aids\nthe student in the intelligent application of the method of her department.\nStudent teachers are responsible also for the teaching of whatever\n\"minor\" subjects may be given to them. All lessons are assigned by the\ntraining teacher but their preparation is under the direction of the teacher\nof methods. When not teaching, students are expected to observe the\nlessons of the training teacher and to note carefully the routine and the\nmanagement of the classroom. Before entering upon practice work specific\ndirections respecting observation by student teachers are given by the\ncritic teachers, and every effort is made to train them to observe\nintelligently.\nThe last two months of the practice period are spent in the Adjunct\nSchool of Practice. Here student teachers teach all subjects and are\nresponsible for a certain amount of the clerical and monitorial work of the\nclassroom — directed by the training teacher.\nIn order to present more definitely the plan of observation and practice\nlet us consider first the parties concerned in carrying it out for the first two\nmonths. There are on one side the student teacher; the training teacher\n— ^in whose class the student teacher gets her practice teaching for one month ;\nthe method teacher — ^in charge of the subject to be taught; and the critic\nteachers, whose duty it is to observe the student teacher's work and in the\nend give judgment respecting her ability to manage and teach a class, all\nworking together to secure for the student teacher the training necessary\nto fit her to enter a classroom, take charge, and succeed. On the other\nside, we have the children to be taught — the class.\nThe Senior class is divided as equally as may be into four parts or sections\nfor the purpose of giving to each section two months of theory, observation,\nand practice, followed by two months of general practice. During the first\ntwo months half the student teachers teach on Mondays and Thursdays\nand the others on Tuesdays and Fridays. On the remaining three days\nthey are engaged with their teachers of methods. Each student must\nteach her \"major\" subject each day and any \"minor\" assigned to her.\nAt the end of their first four weeks a rearrangement of student teachers is\ncarefully made, those having had primary work for the first month taking\ngrammar work the second, and vice versa.\nSince the number of student teachers is divided into two equal parts, the .\n\"major\" subjects are likewise divided — one-half the student teachers\nreceiving their assignments from arithmetic, language, or reading, and the\n« Language, reading, arithmetic, history, geography, nature-study — arbitrarily termed \"major\" subjects.\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATING\n\nTHEORY\n\nTO OBSERVATION\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE\n\n893\n\nother part from history, geography, or nature-study. This arrangement\nis reversed for the second month.\nWhile the schedule for the student teachers in the School of Practice is\nmade out in advance, so far as \"major\" subjects are concerned, the training\nteacher assigns these lessons always one week prior to the date on which\nthe teaching is to be done. The student teacher meets the method teacher\nat the close of the daily session and repeats to her the assignment in writing.\nAfter giving her such directions as are needed in the way of preparation of\nthe lesson to be taught, she dismisses her to return with a plan of the lesson\nat the same hour two days before her teaching, when her plan is approved\nor returned for change, and the character of her preparation is carefully\ninvestigated.\nThe roster of the method department of the Normal School is made out\nwith that of the School of Observation and Practice as a basis, which makes\nit possible for the method teacher to observe the work of the most of her\nstaff of young teachers, and this works to the advantage of both. The\ncritic teacher, however, is free from the fetters of the classroom and makes\nher own daily roster of rounds carefully observing the teaching, and at the\nclose of the day gives such criticisms as are needed to improve the quality\nof the work and to increase the power of the teacher. Thus, it will be seen\nthat theory finds its expression in practice day by day, under the watchful\ncare of those who feel responsible for its inculcation, as well as by the\ncompelling influence and power of the presence of the critic teacher.\nNo student teacher is permitted to teach who has failed to meet the\nrequirements of her method teacher in the work of preparation, and should\nshe fail in the classroom to teach to any profit on account of indisposition,\nnervousness or other cause, the training teacher so tactfully assumes the\nburden that the class is well-nigh oblivious to the exact condition of affairs,\nand the student teacher still holds the respect of the children.\nAfter these two months devoted to theory and practice, the student\nteachers are placed in the Adjunct Schools to complete the period of four\nmonths allotted to this work. Here they teach every day and every\nsubject, receive instruction in keeping class and daily records, take charge\nof classes during the temporary absence of teachers, and learn the general\nduties of the classroom. The critic teachers follow them into these schools,\nthe work of the teachers of methods being confined exclusively to the\npreliminary training in the Normal School.\nOpportunity for observation is here more extended and the requirements\nare more exacting. The student teacher now reviews certain chapters of\nKirkpatrick's Fundamentals of Child Sttidy in use in the department of\npsychology, and prepares for coming discussions, following its outlines in\nreports on her observations. Each critic teacher meets her group of student teachers specially each week for one hour. At this meeting, general\nsuggestions based on the observations of the critic herself, or brought to her\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Nomal\n\nnotice by the training teachers, are presented to the group. Students\ndiscuss also subjects previously assigned, such as bear on methods, classroom routine, and discipline. Individual criticisms are given to all students, but those showing greatest weakness receive special attention. In\nher talks, the critic aims to open the eyes of her student's understanding to\nthe highest achievements of each training teacher, of whom she has had\nfour, all excellent trainers, but each possessing some special gift, some\npersonal power, all her own. To lead these student teachers to recognize\nthis power, and to get from each personality the greatest help, means a\ntremendous uplift to them.\nBefore leaving the Adjunct Schools of Practice the student teacher\nprepares quite an exhaustive report of her study of the fourth month's\nclass and of one child in this class. Her last indi\\adual conference with the\ncritic teacher consists of an oral review or summary of her entire four\nmonths' work. In this review she tells of her efforts to correct serious faults\nand to develop along proper lines. The critic teacher reads from her notes,\nas the student teacher proceeds, any comments bearing upon these points\nand upon the student teacher's progress — tries tactfully to make suggestions\nand to lead the student to talk freely and informally. The student also\ntells in her own way of what, to her, has been the great value of this period\nof practice — how it has supplemented her professional training — what\ndefinite equipment it has given to her for work in our elementary schools.\nNo mark or average is given for reports on observation — the object\nbeing to keep the student teacher actively working along good lines, and\nactively thinking because her thoughts will be asked for. Its value to the\ncritic is that it gives close and sympathetic contact with her students, a\nchance for personal word and inspiration, and helps often to make clear the\ngirl's weakness in teaching.\nUnder the rules of the Board of Public Education of Philadelphia every\ngraduate of the Normal School for Girls is entitled to a certificate to teach\nin our public elementary schools. Where scholarship attained, teaching\ninstinct shown, and teaching power developed, have reached a degree\nsufficiently high to justify expectation of success as a teacher, a permanent\ncertificate is issued by the board. Otherwise, a \"trial\" certificate is given\n— good for one year from date of appointment as a regularly elected teacher.\nIf the holder, within that time, demonstrates to the satisfaction of the\nsuperintendent of schools her ability to manage a class and teach, he so\nreports to the board, and she receives a permanent certificate in lieu of her\ntrial papers. Otherwise she forfeits further claim for consideration and is\nbarred from the profession.\nInferior teaching power almost invariably accompanies a low grade of\nscholarship. In support of this statement I may draw from the records of\nthe last class which numbered 291 graduates. Forty-three trial certificates\nwere issued — nearly 15 per cent of the class. Taking the graduates in the\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATING\n\nTHEORY\n\nTO OBSERVATION\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE\n\n895\n\norder of their standing there were two trial certificates issued in the first\nhundred (2 per cent) ; five in the second hundred (5 per cent); and thirty-six\nin the last ninety-one or 40 per cent. In the last twenty-five the percentage\narose to 64.\nExtreme care is exercised in determining the quality of the qualifications\nof the candidate during her four months of practice. While the responsibility for the grading rests primarily with the critic teacher, her final\njudgment is not lodged until she feels that she has given full consideration\nto those of method and training teacher, whose professional relations with\nthe student teacher cause them to observe her from different points of view.\nAt the end of each month the principal of the Normal School receives\nfrom each training teacher, on blanks provided for the purpose, a carefully\nprepared report for each of her student teachers, discussing the work done,\nusing the following topics as a basis: personality — ^language; intellectual\nability — preparation; teaching power — teaching instinct; originality in\nmethods and devices; ability to govern.\nAt the end of the year, therefore, there are for every graduate four\nreports, written by as many training teachers, on the topics just enumerated.\nIn addition to these four, an additional report is made by the critic teacher\nin the case of every graduate receiving a trial certificate. I consider these\nreports very valuable, containing as they do all the information required\nin justification of the decision reached.\nIn discussing the subject of this paper it has seemed necessary to give\nin considerable detail the plan which we have followed in the main for the\nlast few years, which I shall briefly summarize as follows: —\nfl) The amount and distribution of time devoted to practice teaching.\n1. All Senior students spend at least two days a week for two months in the School of\nObservation and Practice. Part of this time is spent in the observation of the work\nof training teachers, but they themselves teach daily.\n2. All Senior students spend five days a week for two months in an Adjunct School\nof Practice. Here they are given greater responsibility and have broader latitude in\nteaching. At the present time an experienced teacher is in charge of each grade except\ntwo. Eventually it is hoped that by enlargement of the buildings and reduction in the\nsize of classes to thirty-five or less, each training teacher may have charge of two classrooms;\nthus giving more practice and more responsibility to the student teachers.\nh) The method of directing the studies of observation and practice.\n1. Each subject of the curriculum is in the hands of a speciahst who is responsible for\nthe methods employed in the School of Observation and Practice as well as those used by\nthe student teachers. The training teachers assign each lesson, but the plan for it must\nbe submitted to the specialist and approved by her before the student is allowed to teach.\nThe specialist observes the work of the student teacher and criticizes it.\nThe specialist herself in many cases teaches lessons in the School of Observation and\nPractice for the benefit of the student teachers, allowing them in turn to criticize and\nquestion her devices and methods and results.\n2. The psychology teachers also use the classroom as a clinic, and critic teachers,\nknowing neither the students nor their preparation, give the students an unprejudiced\njudgment.\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nFinally:\nThe verdict of the Normal School, that is to say the combined ratings\ngiven for scholarship, for preparation of lessons, and for the actual teaching,\ndetermines the professional standing of the teacher. School principals,\noutside of the Nonnal School including the Schools of Practice, have no\nshare in the training of teachers prior to their appointment.\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL TRAINING AND\nART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nPresident — Clifford B. Connelley, Carnegie Technical Schools\nVice-President — Isabel Bevter, University of Illinois\nSecretary — W. A. DiJnn, principal, Polytechnic School\n\nFIRST\n\nSESSION— Monday\n>\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nUrbana, 111.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nForenoon, Jitly 8, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order in FuUerton Hall, Art Institute, Chicago, 111.,\nat 9:4s A.M. by President Clifford B. Connelley.\nPaul Kreuzpointner, chairman. Industrial Committee of the American Foundrymen's Association, Altoona, Pa., was appointed secretary pro tempore.\nThe meeting of the nominating committee was then announced.\nClifford B. Connelley, dean of the School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Technical\nSchools, Pittsburgh, Pa., then gave the president's address, entitled, \"Citizenship in\nIndustrial Education.\"\nA paper on \"The Relation of the Elementary School to Subsequent Industrial Education\" was given by William T. Bawden, Teachers College, Columbia University, New\nYork, N.Y.\nThis paper was discussed by Charles A. Bennett, professor of manual arts, Bradley\nPolytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111.; Paul Kreuzpointner, Altoona, Pa.; Emery T. Filbey,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.; Arthur L. Williston, principal of Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.; Robert W. Selvidge, professor of manual arts. University of Missouri,\nColumbia, Mo.; Frank Ball, director of industrial training, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Paul J. Bast,\nLakewood High School, Lakewood, Ohio; W. I. Heiser, Manual Training High School,\nIndianapolis, Ind.; Frank M. Leavitt, associate professor of industrial education. University ofChicago, Chicago, 111.; and Charles A. McMurry, director of Normal Training\nSchool, De Kalb, lU.\n\"The Report of the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements\" was then\npresented by Arthur L. Williston, principal of Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2 140 p.m.\nThe reading of the minutes of the previous meeting was dispensed with.\nThe first paper, on \"The Significance of the Industrial Arts in the Schools,\" was\npresented by Charles A. McMurry, director of Normal Training School, De Kalb, 111.\nFrank M. Leavitt, associate professor of industrial education. University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111., then read a paper on \"Some Sociological Phases of the Movement for\nIndustrial Education.\"\n8\nThis paper was discussed by William J.97Bogan, principal of Lane Technical High\nSchool, Chicago, 111.; C. A. Prosser, secretary. National Society for the Promotion of\nIndustrial Education, New York, N.Y.; David Snedden, commissioner of education,\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nBoston, Mass.; George S. Waite, superintendent of manual training, State Normal\nSchool, Kalamazoo, Mich.; Charies A. McMurry, Normal Training School, DeKalb,\n111.; and Paul Kreuzpointner, Altoona, Pa.\nThe nominating committee was appointed by the chair as follows:\nWilliam J. Bogan, principal of Lane Technical High School, Chicago, lU.\nLucy S. Silke, special teacher in drawing, public schools, Chicago, 111.\nJohn C. Brodhead, assistant director of drawing and manual training, Roslindale,\nMass.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION — ^Wednesday Forenoon, July 10, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Fullerton Hall, Art Institute, Chicago, at 9:15\nA.M. by L. D. Harvey, president of Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis.\nThe first paper was presented by Fred D. Crawshaw, professor of manual arts.\nUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., and was entitled, \"Needed Changes in Manual\nArts.\"\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Is tfie Introduction of Technical Subjects in the\nEighth Grade Advisable ?\" which was read by Wilson H. Henderson, supervisor of manualtraining, Springfield, 111.\nDiscussion was opened by E. A. Wreidt, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., who\nwas followed by: Robert W. Selvidge, professor of manual arts, Teachers College, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.; L. L. Simuners, director of manual training in\nState Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.; and L. W. Wahlstrcm, Francis W. Parker School,\nChicago, 111.\nAfter the discussion the meeting was adjourned.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION — Thursday Forenoon, Jxjly ii, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order by George N. Carman, director of Lewis Institute,\nChicago, 111., at 9:30 a.m.\n\"The Manufacturers' Viewpoint of Industrial Education\" was presented by C. R.\nDooley, Educational Department, Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co.,\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Modern Apprenticeship Training\" by James A.\nPratt, director of Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson P.O., Pa.\nThe discussion on this paper was opened by Charles F. Perry, supervisor of industrial\neducation, Milwaukee, Wis., who was followed by Lewis Gustafson, superintendent,\nthe David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, St. Louis, Mo.; Frank H. Selden,\ndirector of Department of Mechanical Science, State Normal School, VaUey City, N.Dak.;\nH. E. Miles, of the National Association of Manufacturers, Racine, Wis.; E. G. Cooley,\nChicago, 111.; and Arthur L. Williston, principal of Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.\nThe meeting adjourned at 12: 15 p.m.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July ii, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 p.m. by Isabel Bevier, president of the American Home Economics Association, and head of the Department of Household Science,\nUniversity of Illinois, Urbana, HI., acting chairman.\nThe first paper, on \"Distribution of Income, $500, $1,000, and $2,000 per Year for\nFamily of Five,\" was presented by Mary S. Snow, supervisor of household arts in public\nschools, Chicago, lU.\nIsabel Bevier, head of the Department of Household Science, University of Illinois,\nUrbana, 111., then presented a paper on \"Dietetic Standards for These Various Households.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n899\n\nA paper on \"Obligations to Society for the Three Standards Presented\" was read\nby Mrs. Raymond Robins, head of the National Women's Trade Union League, Chicago,\n111.\nIrene E. McDermott, director of household economy, Pittsburgh public schools,\nPittsbixrgh, Pa., and Carrie H. Lyon, instructor in cooking and housekeeping, Margaret\nMorrison Carnegie School for Women, Pittsburgh, Pa., discussed this paper.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report :\nFor President — Arthur L. Williston, principal of Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.\nFor Vice-President— LiWian S. Cushman, School of Education, University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111.\nFor Secretary — ^Irene E. McDermott, director of household economy, Pittsburgh\npublic schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFor Corresponding Secretary — Robert W. Selvidge, professor of manual arts. Teachers\nCollege, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\nThe meeting adjourned at 5 : 00 p.m.\nSIXTH\n\nSESSION — Friday Afternoon, July 12, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. by Elizabeth Buckley, supervisor of\nart, Chicago, 111., acting chairman.\nA paper on \"The Place of Art in the High School of Commerce\" was presented by\nJ. Earl Grifl&th, Central Commercial and Manual Training High School, Newark, N.J.\nWalter Sargent, professor of aesthetic and industrial education. University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111., then read a paper on \"The Value of Art in the Industrial School.\"\nFlorence E. Ellis, supervisor of drawing, Cleveland, Ohio, presented her paper on\n\"The Dresden Congress.\"\nA paper on \"Vocational Training Old and New\" was then read by T. Vemette\nMorse, president of Artcraft Institute Guild, Chicago, 111.\nThis paper was discussed by Emma M. Church, director of Chicago School of Applied\nand Normal Art, Chicago, 111.; Josephine Locke; John C. Brodhead, assistant director\nof drawing and manual training, Roslindale, Mass.; and Lillian S. Cushman, School of\nEducation, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nPaul Kreuzpointner, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\nCITIZENSHIP\nCLIFFORD\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nB. CONNELLEY,\nDEAN\nCARNEGIE\nTECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF SCHOOL\nOF APPLIED\nINDUSTRIES,\nSCHOOLS,\nPITTSBURGH,\nPA.\n\nIt has become self-evident to speak of the present day as a period of\nindustrial unrest. Whether the very fact that such a statement has\ncome to be axiomatic is a circumstance which should give us cause for\ngrave worry, or whether, on the other hand, the fact itself should be treated\nas an encouraging bit of evidence of the progress of the times — an indication that men have begun fully to appreciate the proper relative values\nbetween production and the producer — are questions which do not concern the educator nearly as much as does the question of what education\nitself can do to meet the acknowledged condition of things. The attitude\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "900\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nof capital toward labor, and the view which labor takes of capital are not,\nconsidered as abstract questions, the primary province of the teacher of\nindustrial education. But in so far as the inculcation of industrial training and the teaching of the useful arts will bring about a better understanding between employer and employed — in so far as it will help the\none to appreciate and the other to understand their rights and obligations in respect of the other — in this respect, I say, the aims and eflforts\nof the educator in the fields of industrial training may become living forces\nand vital factors in the proper adjustment of society.\nThe theme of my remarks today is a consideration of citizenship as\nit is affected by and as it affects industrial training. It is therefore fitting\nthat a word be said on the subject with which I have chosen to preface\nmy observations, for, after all, there can be no true citizenship in the highest\nand most developed sense of the term so long as one large class of the\nsocial body manifests a constant antagonism toward another large class\nof that same body. The organization of society — or of the state, as it is\nsometimes called — depends fundamentally on the willingness of each\nindividual to surrender some rights and some liberties for the sake of the\ngeneral public good. Were man contented to live alone and apart from\nall his fellows — conceding for present purposes that such a condition might\nbe possible — there should be no need for self-sacrifice, there should be no\nnecessity that one should give up this right and another that privilege\nin order that a community of men should exist as a compact body. But\nman is not so constituted that he can live entirely alone. Man was formed\nfor society, and society, or state, there must be if man is properly to enjoy\nthe privilege of existence; community there must be if man is to enjoy\nlife, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, for without community and state\nthe weak must perish before the onslaught of the strong, the fittest must\nalways triumph thru the extermination of the less fit. Man recognizes\nthis and therefore he forms himself and his fellows into communities and\ncompacts of society, and in this community or state he places his trust\nand his faith, in the hope that thru it he may ultimately achieve those\nends which his Creator intended for him.\nSir William Blackstone says:\nThe only true and natural foundations of society are the wants and fears of individuals. Not that we can believe with some theoretical writers that there ever was a\ntime when there was no such thing as society, either natural or civil; and that, from the\nimpulse of reason, and thru a sense of their wants and weaknesses, individuals met\ntogether in a large plain, entered into an original contract, and chose the tallest man\npresent to Ijp their governor. This notion of an actually existing imconnected state of\nnature is too wild to be seriously admitted, and besides it is plainly contradictory to\nthe revealed accounts of the primitive origin of mankind, and their preservation two\nthousand years afterward. It is the sense of their weakness and imperfection that keeps\nmankind together; that demonstrates the necessity of this union; and that therefore\nis the solid and natural foundation, a§ well as the cement, of civil society. And this is\nwhat we mean by the original contract of society; which, tho perhaps in no instance\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n901\n\nhas it ever been formally expressed as the first institution of a state, yet in nature and\nreason must always be understood and implied, in the very act of associating together:\nnamely, that the whole should protect all its parts, and that every part should pay obedience to the will of the whole, or, in other words, that the community should guard\nthe rights of each individual member, and that, in return for this protection, each individual should submit to the laws of the community; without which submission of all\nit is impossible that protection should be certainly extended to any.\n\nIt must follow from the very essence of the constitution of society,\nas indicated by Blackstone, that no community can prosper, no state can\nsucceed, where this giving-up of individual rights for the common good,\nthis merging of privilege into public necessities, is not properly understood\nand appreciated by the individuals who endeavor to make up that community. Citizenship, as I take it, denotes, in its highest form, this true\nappreciation of the relative rights of man and state — the willingness, from\nmotives of unselfish sincerity, to give up some of man's inherent natural\nfreedom for the public good and to cast individual rights and individual\nprivileges into the crucible of the state, from which shall emerge a metal\nof the purest type, deriving strength from the lasting qualities of its ingredients, and power from the very gathering- together of these same qualities.\nCitizenship, as thus expressed, denotes the noblest bond between man\nand man in the social community. It speaks of loyalty and trust as terms\nthat are evidenced in the practical affairs of individuals and unites all of\nthem in the common brotherhood of organized communities. No state\nin which citizenship is thus understood and developed need fear for its\nultimate success; no community in which men and women live up to the\nappreciation of these relations need have serious doubts as to its future.\nI am sure that I should meet no dissenting voices if I should say that\nno factor in the world's history has contributed more to the realization of\ntrue citizenship than has education — education in the home and in the\nschool ; training, both ethical and mental, at the fireside and in the schoolhouse; the development of the minds of men and children. Side by side\nwith the growth of the state has been the growth of the public-school\nsystem; as the one has prospered the other has grown; or should I reverse\nthe order and say that as the school has prospered the state has grown?\nRome, in the days when Rome was powerful and great — -the Rome of\nthe Caesars and the world-wide rulers — was a Rome of learning and of\nmental advancement. And when Rome forgot the value of learning and\nof culture, its days of power became but as the grass of the fields, for the\nwinds of licentiousness and destruction passed over it, and the place thereof\nknew it no more. Greece, in the years when Greece was the world's\ncenter of progress and commerce, was a Greece where art flourished and\nliterature held the highest places. And when Greece neglected its arts\nand learning — when the nation's men of wisdom were forced to bow before\nthe onslaughts of unrestricted pleasures and unrestrained privileges —\nGreece could do naught else but wrap the draperies of its shroud about\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nit and lie down to everlasting sleep. What does all this mean, if it does\nnot mean that citizenship had failed, that national power had crumbled\nmerely because education and enlightenment had been relegated to realms\nwhere few men trespassed, to fields where few would wander? These\nsentiments were expressed by our dear Dr. C. M. Woodward, of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., to whom we all owe so much, more than\ntwenty years ago.\nIn no civilized country in the world's history has the public school\nbeen so idealized as in our own. Statesmen have denominated it \"the\nbulwark of liberty.\" Historians speak of it as the power which holds\nthe balance between equal rights. Sociologists praise it as the common\nmeeting-ground for the poor and the rich, for the weak and the strong — the\nassemblage of the children of men, where democracy has both its birth\nand its salvation. Legislatures have given freely of the means of the state\nin order that the public-school system may be properly maintained and\nin so doing, they are but giving expression to the desires of their constituents.\nIn some of our states the appeal of the public school has struck the citizens\nwith such vital force that they have not left the future of the system to the\nwill of the legislatures alone, but have, thru constitutional provisions,\nmade it mandatory on these representatives of the people that the public\nschool be given both constant and liberal support. As an instance of\nthis, I point to the constitution of my own state of Pennsylvania, wherein\nis to be found the following provision:\nThe general assembly shall provide for the maintenance and support of a thoro\nand efficient system of public schools, wherein all the children of this commonwealth\nabove the age of six years may be educated, and shall appropriate at least one million\ndollars each year for that purpose.\n\nThis constitution was adopted in the year 1874, and tho in those\nthirty-eight years reformers and critics have assailed many of the provisions\nof that organic law, not one has raised his voice in protest against this\nspecific clause, for all of them, whether they be friend or foe, have realized\nthat, thru this direct provision for education, the people of the commonwealth whose voices made that constitution the organic law of the state\nat the same time made indirect provision for the assurance of future citizenship in its highest form. It is worthy of note, in this same connection,\nthat tho this constitution was adopted thirty-eight years ago, in a period\nwhen vast fortunes, as we measure them now, were few indeed, yet the\npeople insisted that at least one million dollars be given each year to the\nsupport of the public schools. It is hard for us of the present day fully\nto appreciate what a sum of this proportion meant to the men of 1874,\nbut we can be sure that they must have considered even that amount,\ngreat as it seemed to them, not a trifle too large for the purpose to which\nit was to be applied and since that time it has increased many, many times.\nI am sure that similar provisions are to be found in the constitutions of\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n903\n\nother states, and that in those states as in Pennsylvania, the successive\nlegislatures have given lavishly and with a free hand of the funds of the\ncommonwealth in order that the public school might continue to educate\nour children and thus to prepare them for the responsibilities of true\ncitizenship.\nWhat part has industrial education played in this training for citizenship ? True, the industrial feature of our school system is not a thing of\nancient origin. Men did not at once realize the possibilities of this development of the hand along with the development of the mind along cultural\nlines, and it was many years after our public-school system had its beginning before industrial education as an organized department of the curriculum became ingrafted on to it. But there came a time when those who\ncould see far ahead, who could pierce the mist that enveloped the present\nand separated it from the future — there came a time, I say, when men and\nwomen of this caliber in the educational field began to demand that the\nhand and the industrial side of our children be developed along with the\npurely academic side. Like a voice crying out into the night came the\nfirm tones of these fearless and far-sighted educators, insisting that our\npublic schools were doing but a part only of their duty so long as they\ncontinued to neglect industrial education. Men and women who had\nbeen trained according to the old order of things first stood amazed at\nthis new demand. Then amazement gave way to curiosity and interest,\nso that the pioneers of industrial education were at least given a hearing.\nThen, gradually the opposition began to wear away — one by one the clouds\nwere shifted, step by step the rocks were scaled — and soon here and there\nthruout the country experiments were begun to give this new idea a practical\ntest. And it was just this \"practical test\" which alone was needed to\ninsure success for the efforts of these pathfinders of industrial education,\nfor wherever the experiment was made, there friends were added to the\ncause and the movement found supporters. The way was not entirely\nfree from difficulties — here and there a thorn of the old opposition extended\nitself and attempted to retard the onward march by. its scratches. But\nthey who marched were too earnest to be stopped by thorns, too zealous\nto be retarded by difficulties. They had a mission to fulfill, and tho, like\nall persons who have a message of progress to bring unto mankind, they\nwere reviled and scoffed at, still kept their faces toward the rising sun and\nmoved steadily onward, until at last their cause triumphed.\nMen and women began to feel the inspiration of their enthusiasm\nand to like it. The little children brought home to their parents strange\ntales of wonderful new courses in the public school, where the child's\naptitude for mechanics and industrial art was given an opportunity for\nfree play. Fathers and mothers saw the fascination which the \"new\neducation\" had for their sons and daughters, how it broke the monotony\nof endless poring over books, and, best of all, they saw their children mani-\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "904\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfest an interest in the manual-training courses which has no analogy in\nthe school life of these same fathers and mothers. A new force had come\nto kindle the interests of the little folks in their school hours — a vital\nmagnet that seemed to draw them nearer and nearer because it was so\nwonderfully interesting, and attractive. The hours of idleness in the\nlives of the children decreased and the moments of usefulness came to\ntake their places. And the elders looked on with satisfaction, for they\nbegan to realize that a new force for better citizenship had been injected\ninto the lives of their children. Industrial training had come to stay,\nfor both the children and their parents liked it, and, what is even more\nimportant from the viewpoint of the educator, the new form of education\nproved to be a very useful and instructive one.\nIf there is one particular thing that all men who study the question\nof citizenship imderstand, it is that individuals can be true citizens only\nin the proportion that they are useful citizens, and no man or woman can\nbe altogether useful who has not had all his faculties developed. It was\nthis vital point in the production of citizenship that industrial education\nlaid hold of from its earliest day, and which became the surest safeguard\nfor the permanency of this new form of education in the life of the American\npublic school. Both educators and laymen felt the need of the proper\ndevelopment of all of the faculties of the children, and the realization of\nthis need paved the way for the system which was to provide the opportunity\nfor filling this very need. Children are so constituted that their hands\nas well as their minds must be employed if they are to be kept wholly\nfree from the vice of idleness. No normal child in possession of all its\nfaculties can be convinced that its welfare is being thoroly considered so\nlong as it is compelled to keep its hands inactive thru the long hours of\nthe school day, and it follows from the very nature of the child itself that\nif it is not given a useful and desirable way in which to employ those same\nhands during part, at least, of the school hovurs, it will find for itself some\nmeans of exercising those very parts of the human body which the Creator\nevidently intended should be used actively and frequently. Whoever\nhas had much experience with school children will admit that the kind\nof employment which the child usually finds for its hands if left to its own\nchoice is not always the most useful or the most desirable kind. It follows,\ntoo, that much of the educational development for citizenship which comes\nthru mind-training alone must be lost by the opposing influence of the\nimproper employment of hands at the same time. Therefore, in so far\nas industrial education has given the child a healthful method of employing\nits hands in a practical and desirable way, it has helped to extinguish\nsome of the influences which retard the growth of true citizenship and\nhas, incidentally, been a support for mental training in the direction of\nthe development of this same citizenship. If industrial training had done\nnothing more than give the children of the schools an opportunity to exer-\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nIN INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n905\n\ncise their hands and mechanical natures in a useful way, it would be justified in laying claim to the designation of a vital influence in the production\nof good citizens. It has done this and much more, as the history of industrial training in the public school itself will demonstrate.\nThere has never before been a time in the history of industrial education when^we have been able to get as many men and women interested in\nthis phase of the work at any one convention of the National Education\nAssociation. You will note by the program that we have tried to\ncover all phases, as the universities, technical schools, colleges, and high\nschools (the latter supported by public expense) are trying to formulate\nplans where they can train the young men and women technically. If the\nyoung men and women of our country will follow the advice and take\ncognizance of the training they receive from such people as we have on\nour program, I feel reasonably sure that this country of ours in a few years\nwill feel this training as to the citizenship of its people. The manufacturers\nof today, as you all know, are spending every energy possible, in many\ncases at a loss financially , to educate their apprentices. Whether this is a\nselfish motive of the manufacturers or not, the fact remains that a man\nskilled at any work he is doing, will, of necessity, become more happy and\na better citizen.\nOutside the school, this same training has shown its beneficent\ninfluences. There was a time when young men and young women, after\nleaving school, came to the workshops and mercantile establishments\nwell trained in mind but absolutely undeveloped in the practical side of\ntheir natures. What was the result? Employers of labor could not\nafford to keep such young men and women in their employ until this\npractical side had been developed by experience, for the keenness of competition would not permit of this. Consequently, both employer and\nemployed were dissatisfied — the former because of the employee's lack\nof practical knowledge, and the latter because of the employer's apparent\nattitude of displeasure. The period in the life of a yoimg person in which\nhe enters the realms of the earning class is a very critical one, and upon\nits success or failure depends to a great extent the future career of this\nperson. It must be apparent that a period in which dissatisfaction plays\na prominent part cannot be a very successful one, and that its impression\nwill leave its effects on the entire life of the young man or young woman.\nConsequently, one beginning his career under such a handicap as that\nabove suggested will have an extra battle to fight in the attainment of\nthose qualities which best fit men and women for citizenship. Industrial\neducation h^ recognized this and, since its adoption in the school system,\nmuch of the dissatisfaction between employer and employed has been\neliminated, for the employer has come to realize that his young employee\nhas learned that one's hands are intended for useful and efficient work in\npractical directions.\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nPerhaps the severest test which the training for citizenship is put\nto is that which comes when the graduate of the school enters the moneyearning classes, for the best or the worst that is in a man comes to the\nsurface when he embarks upon the modern-day pursuit for the symbol\nof material wealth arid the means for sustenance and comfort. It is this\nstruggle on all sides for money, whether it be for enough to systain one's\nself and family or whether it be for larger sums and greater fortunes, that\nis the underlying cause of much of the present-day friction between capital\nand labor. On the one hand, we find men fighting forces which they\nthink have kept them down, and on the other hand, we find men combating the growing power of combinations of labor. To the student\nof economic conditions, it must be manifest that much of this struggle is\nthe result of misunderstanding on the part of both sides. But, be the reason\nwhat it may, the truth remains that citizenship cannot attain its highest\npurpose in any community in which there is a constant struggle between\nemployer and employed. Industrial education can become a useful force\nin bringing these classes together by offering to the prospective employee\nan opportunity for developing his mechanical side to that point where\nhis skill and ability will of itself command the attention of the employer\nand make it less difficult for the former to secure that portion of the profit\nof production to which his labor entitles him. On the other hand, since\nno employer in these days of fierce competition is long ignorant of the\nfact that in the degree in which he employs skilled men his profits will be\nmeasured, industrial education will, by training young men and women on\nthe practical side, develop the best that is in its subjects and enable the\nemployer to find persons not only anxious but also able to contribute\ntheir skill to the employer's business, thus increasing his profits and making\nhim more willing to share with his employees the benefits which their\nabilities have brought to him. As a result, the gap between capital and\nlabor must constantly be decreased, each must understand the other better,\nand one of the greatest handicaps to the real growth of true citizenship\nwill be removed.\nAnother phase of this, too, is extremely gratifying, when you find\nthat the Women's Alliance is making an investigation of the women wageworkers. In the United States today we have ten million women who are\nemployed in the different occupations. The Women's Alliance of which\nwe will hear something, I trust, before the convention is over, has made it\npossible to have the condition of many of the workers bettered. We\nhave no less a person to tell us something of the condition in this country\nthan Mrs. Raymond Robins, who, as you know, has been at the head of\nthis movement for years.\nFinally, apart from considerations of economic growth and material\ngain, comes the consideration of industrial education as it contributes\ntoward the ultimate happiness of men and women as individuals.\nNo\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n907\n\nnation can become truly great whose people are not in the ma\"n happy\nand contented, and no people can be happy and contented who have not\nlearned the lesson of how to live.\nHerbert Spencer says:\nHow to live is the essential question for us. Not how to live in the mere material\nsense only, but in the widest sense. The general problem which comprehends every\nspecial problem is the right ruling of conduct in all directions under all circumstances.\nIn what way to treat the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to behave\nas citizens; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to utilize all those sources\nof happiness which nature supplies — how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage to ourselves and others — how to live completely. And this being the great thing\nneedful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which education has to teach.\nTo prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge; and\nthe only rational mode of judging of any educational course is to judge in what degree\nit discharges such function.\n\nSurely industrial education, judged by this standard, is helping properly\nto fulfill the true function of all education. The development of the faculties of young men and young women, the training of them in lines that are\nuseful and helpful, the inspiration which it offers to those who come within\nits influence, all contribute to the ultimate happiness of mankind. A\nuseful man is a happy man — happy unto himself and happy unto those\namong whom he lives. His life is a helpful one, his example is a gem in\nthe jewel box of human achievement. And whether his sphere be great\nor small, whether his earnings be much or little, every man who is useful\nhas the possibilities of good citizenship within him.\nIndustrial education has helped to teach men and women how to earn\na living and to the extent that it has done this it has contributed to the\ncause of good citizenship. But even greater than this in its contribution\nto society must be placed its attainment in teaching men to be happy by\nbeing useful, to be contented by being in the possession of developed\nfaculties. And in so far as it has taught men this it has taught them the\nnoblest aim of citizenship — it has taught them how to live.\nTHE\n\nRELATION\nWILLIAM\n\nOF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\nQUENT INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\n\nT. BAWDEN,\n\nTEACHERS\nCOLLEGE,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nTO SUBSE-\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe elementary school has sometimes been made the scapegoat of the\nschools \"higher up.\" If the college experienced difficulty in turning out a\nproduct in all respects satisfactory, it complained of the inadequate preparation of the students sent up to it from the high school. The high school in\nturn maintained that most of the shortcomings of its graduates were to be\nascribed to the inefficiency of the elementary school.\nIf these apologetic explanations are to be accepted as fully meeting the\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "go8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIManual Training\n\nsituation, they imply as the chief function of the elementary school preparation for the secondary school, and as the chief function of the secondary\nschool preparation for the college, and as the chief function of the college\npreparation for the graduate school, and so on. The insufficiency and the\nabsurdity of this view have been pointed out in the characterization of our\neducational system as a \"vestibule to a vestibule to a vestibule.\"\nRecent discussion has brought forward certain facts that emphasize\nthe fallacy contained in such criticisms of the elementary school. In the\nfirst place, attention is being called to the fact that only a very small\npercentage of the children who enroll in the elementary school seek entrance\ninto the high school. In the light of the figures the elementary school could\nnot be justified in assuming that its primary purpose is training for the\nhigher schools. In the second place, the aforesaid critics have hitherto\nfailed to appreciate the fact that the students who come up to the higher\nschools are the result of a process of elimination and selection that weeds\nout all individuals who do not indicate capacity for adjustment to school\nrequirements.\nA great many students of education are centering their attention at the\npresent time on the contribution to social progress that may be expected of\nour educational institutions. The fundamental question in their minds is :\nDoes education render the highest service to society of which it is capable ?\nThe emphasis upon the objective rather than the subjective aspect of the\nproblem should assist in the formulation of principles upon which may be\nbased the reorganization of the elementary school, now recognized as\nessential.\nFrom this view, as has been indicated by Dr. Elmer E, Brown, the\nelementary school provides the\neducation needed for all; which for the sake of the general good no citizen can be permitted to do without.\nBeyond this is the region of difference, of divergence, ....\n\nin which it is necessary to begin to provide opportunities for training along\nlines differing according to the proposed careers of the individuals. Consideration ofthe questions involved therein is directly responsible for the\npresent widespread interest in industrial education.\nThe conception that the elementary school is to provide the education\nneeded by all children apparently has led many well-meaning individuals\ninto the unwarranted assumption that the elementary school must offer all\nthe subjects asked for in the name of all the children and must require all\nthe children to study all of these subjects. The result, naturally, is the\nelimination of large numbers of children who cannot or will not take the\ndose, on the one hand, and an unnecessarily full program for those who do\nstay in school, on the other.\nI have heard Professor Selvidge say that \"it is only because of reverence\nfor the dead that we have our present overcrowded curriculum.\" With\neach new movement for reform we have had new subjects added to the list,\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depanment]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nQCQ\n\nbut only rarely has anything been thrown out, and not until Professor\nDewey's time perhaps have we had it seriously proposed that we break\nwith tradition and thoroly overhaul our elementary-school system.\nFor years we have had complaints of the overcrowded curriculum, but\nprogress toward simplification seems slow. President Sutherland, of the\nPlatteville Normal School, in an address on \" Sources of Waste in Education,\" after pointing out that the grammar-school pupil is \"expected to\nmanifest interest and enthusiasm, between the hours of nine and threethirty,\" in from nine to twelve different subjects, says:\nPupils pursue altogether too many studies at a given time. Their interest is dissipated by too frequent changes from one consideration to another. Concentrated\nattention is impossible both from pupil's and teacher's points of view, when so many\nthreads or phases of work are simultaneously soliciting the interest.\nTHE\n\nELECTIVE\n\nSYSTEM\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIt is understood, of course, that the curriculum of the elementary school,\nas well as of the higher schools, is in a transition stage from that of a period\nin the past when the only individuals who needed education were the\ncandidates for the learned professions, to a quite different period that is\nnow fully upon us when the need of universal education must receive\nrecognition. The new education must be richer in content and more\nvaried in method than the old. The school cannot hope to meet the\nsituation without material expansion in equipment, courses of study,\nprogram, and' teaching force.\nSince there is already offered far more than any single individual can\nassimilate, the inevitable conclusion is that the principle of election must\nhave greater influence in the working-out of our plans for elementary\neducation.\nIt will be objected at once that this suggestion is all wrong, that we\nought not to entertain the proposition of a choice of studies on the part of\nboys and girls in the elementary school. Against those who hold this view\nthe answer is the undisputed fact that from 40 to 50 per cent of the pupils\nwho enter the elementary school elect no studies at all in preference to what\nthe school offers them after fourteen years of age. This seems to show\nthat the elective system is already operative.\nFurthermore, it is to be noted that provision for the needs of children\nwho have been compelled by circumstances to make a choice need not\ninterfere with the plans of those children who may postpone such choice.\nIt is not possible within the limits of this paper to consider the details\nof a reorganized curriculum and administration. It will be sufficient to\nsuggest two or three lines along which such reorganization may proceed in\norder that the elementary school shall provide the \" education needed for\nall\" and in order that it shall sustain the proper relation to subsequent\nindustrial education.\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "t;iO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWIDE-OPEN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Manual Training\n\nOPPORTUNITIES\n\n' I. In the first place, it must be agreed that the elementary school should\nsustain the same relation to subsequent industrial education that it does to\nsubsequent professional and technical education, or so-called general education, or to education in the school of experience. Its aim should be the\nperhaps impossible one of preparation for any subsequent schooling or for\nimmediate wage-earning. It must provide a foundation upon which any\nreasonable superstructure may be built. The problems of the eleAientary\nschool will not have been solved until it gives as careful and efficient-attention to the needs of the child who goes out into the industries as it gives to\nthe needs of the child who goes on to the secondary school and college.\nAmerican institutions are organized, theoretically at least, on the supposition that the only barriers to upward progress are the limitations of\nindividual endowment. Everything must be, as we say, \"open at the top.\"\nAgainst this principle the elementary school has in the past been a serious\noffender, in contributing to the restriction of possibilities in the cases of\ncoimtless individuals. This it has done by its cultivation of ideals and\ninclinations in a narrow field, and by its attraction away from commerce\nand industry toward genteel careers. It has been well said that the practical\ntendency of our academic education is to prescribe the future careers of the\nyoung people who submit themselves to it.\nEvery individual should approach the time of decision as to his future\nlife-work with an open mind, in possession of as much data as possible\nconcerning prospective occupations, and with as much knowledge as possible\nof his o\\\\ii tastes and capacity. The opportunities and responsibilities of\nthe elementary school in these respects have never been fully realized.\nTHE\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nMOTIVE\n\n2. Closely connected with what has been said is the proposition, now\nurged in many quarters, to introduce into the work of the elementary school\nmore of the vocational motive. This involves such modification of the\nspirit and content of the work as will make its vocational value apparent\nto the pupils themselves and wiU definitely raise and attempt to answer\nquestions relating to future occupations.\nI do not believe with those who hold that consideration of such questions\nas these during the elementary-school period means prematurely fastening\nupon the shoulders of childhood the cares and responsibilities that should\nbe postponed as long as possible. The elimination statistics that have been\ngathered are the very best evidence that such consideration is not premature.\nThe vocational motive is already in the situation, but it works the wrong\nway. As it is now, the boy sometimes leaves school because he wants to\nget a job, and he feels that the school is doing him no good. The school\nshould be so changed that the boy will want to stay in school as long as he\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n911\n\npossibly can because he wants a job and he knows that the school will\nhelp him.\nThe appeal to the vocational motive does not necessarily imply the\nsetting of a time at or before which every boy must have decided upon his\nlife-work; tho it is a question whether it would not be an unusual boy who,\nin a proper school environment, would reach the age of fourteen or fifteen\nyears without forming some definite idea as to his future work. A good\ndeal could be accomplished, without revising courses of study and without\nnew equipment, by a change of attitude on the part of the teachers toward\nvarious occupations.\nSchool-teachers must take the lead in recognition of the essential\ndignity and worth of honest and efficient work of whatever character. If\nwork is anywhere regarded as mean and contemptible it is probably because\nof the influence of someone who has been taught by the school to regard\nhimself above it. Without question the teacher has done positive harm\nwhen she has attempted to spur the restless boy to renewed interest in\nbooks by the warning: \"You surely do not want to grow up to be a common workman!\"\nIndustrial education has fully justified itself from many points of view,\nbut I believe that in no other single particular is such justification more\nacceptable or more gratifying than in the changed attitude of young people\ntoward work. More than one student of the signs of the times has protested vigorously against the bringing-up of a generation of young people\nfree from all economic cares and anxiety, without the discipline of daily\ntasks and responsibilities, accepting more or less consciously the notion\nthat personal daintiness and perfection of attire (admirable as these are)\nconstitute the only reliable and indispensable guaranty of respectability.\nThere is doubtless a good deal in modern social conditions to call forth\ncomplaints along this line, but I believe it is possible to discern evidences of\na contrary tendency. The successful development of so many forms of\nindustrial education is of itself an unmistakable indication of progress in\nthe right direction.\nWhereas it has been alleged hitherto that entirely too many of even\nthose boys who were looking for work were discontented with anything\nexcept the \"clean\" jobs in store, office, or shipping-room, it is now asserted\nthat by the success of the various forms of industrial education that have\nbeen offered we \"have disproved the theory that the American boy will not\ngo into the trades, and have proved conclusively that if the trade be made\nattractive the American boy will go into it.\"\nThe elementary school must co-operate heartily and effectively with\nthis tendency. It will be obliged, of course, in its capacity of adviser to\npresent the facts with reference to certain callings, but it should present real\nfacts, and it should not temper its presentation of these facts with an\nadmixture of false pride or snobbery.\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTHE\n\nTION\n\nSOCIAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\nIManual Training\n\nMOTIVE\n\n3. A third respect in which the elementary school should change in\nadjusting itself to subsequent industrial education is in giving more recognition to the social motive.\nIn appealing to the ambitions of our pupils we more commonly lay\nstress on the advantages to the individual of culture, power, and achievement. We dwell on the satisfaction that comes with an education and the\nability to appreciate and enjoy the fine things of life. And we do not fail\nto mention the privileges of association with the elect on a plane above the\nlevel of the common herd.\nIs it not time now that we turn away from this selfish view of life and\nin harmony with the spirit of the new age, point out the joys and the reward\nand the duty of service ?\nIt should be possible to show young people that participation in the\nbenefits of an education provided freely by society entails a commensurate\nobligation on the part of the individual toward society. But, more than\nthis, it should be revealed to these boys and girls at an early age that the\nonly rewards and satisfactions in this life that are worth while are obtained\nthru social service. And, still further, it sfiould be made clear that the\nstate is justified in maintaining a system of education solely on the ground\nthat an educated individual is a better citizen than an ignoraat one. Education for service, therefore, must be the fundamental motive behind all\neducational effort.\nAfter one has provided for the necessities and comforts of life there is\nnot much lasting satisfaction in the mere amassing of wealth, or in any\nother form of activity open to one who is unwilling to be useful to his\nfellows. On the other hand, one can be truly happy in any sphere, however humble otherwise, if he can have the satisfaction of counting for\nsomething in the progress of his social group. These considerations should\nundoubtedly have a place in the training of young people, and experience\nwith grammar-school pupils has demonstrated that they are susceptible\nto this motive.\nSUMMARY\n\nIn brief, I have attempted in this paper to formulate four propositions:\n1. The elementary school should sustain the same relation to subsequent industrial\neducation that it does to subsequent education of other kinds: it should afford training\nleading in all directions that are worthy, with all possible impartiality.\n2. In order that the elementary school may fulfill its function of providing the\n' ' education needed for all \" it must definitely abandon the idea of \" one curriculum for all.\"\n3. The elementary school should encourage in its pupils the development of vocational purpose in their efforts toward education. Further, the pupils must be convinced\nthat the school is able to help them discover and define these purposes, and that as soon\nas these purposes are defined in their own minds the school is prepared to offer practical\nand substantial assistance in their realization.\n4. The school should make more of the appeal to altruistic motives, emphasizing the\nideal of education for service.\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n913\n\nDISCUSSION\nPaul Kreuzpointner, chairman, Industrial Committee, American Foundrymen's\nAssociation, Altoona, Pa. — It is a decided gain in educational progress to have presented\nto this convention one of the most difl&cult problems to be solved by the educators in so\nconvincing a manner as Mr. Bawden has succeeded in giving us his presentation of\n\"The Relation of the Elementary School to Industrial Education.\" We men of the\nindustries who are under daily obligation to adjust to their work the material received\nfrom our schools appreciate the willingness of the educators to have the elementary school\ntake part in the work of preparing those who are destined to enter industrial life direct\nfrom the elementary school.\nIf we trace the effect of present-day educational endeavor upon the various social\nforces of our national life, as these forces act and react upon each other, we find that the\nreadjustment of the elementary school in the direction so admirably outlined by Mr.\nBawden would benefit society at large even more than the industries would be benefited,\nbecause by so doing industrial education would be raised to that higher level of ethical\nand intellectual efiiciency and broader social usefulness which this form of education must\neventually occupy in our national life.\nIf we retain our present conception of the function of industrial education — that it is\nto be only an instrument to increase output and to furnish the means to a comfortable\nmaterial existence — then we endanger our civilization by the everlasting appeal to the\nselfish instincts of the employer and employee, eventually producing a state of mind which\nwill react injuriously upon the industries and society alike.\nThose who have the opportunity to analyze the mental attitude of the industrial\nworker cannot but come to the conclusion that much of the friction and misunderstanding in industrial life could be avoided if our schools would temper their almost exclusive\nliterary or exclusive technico-mechanical education more with such altruistic elements as\nwould be capable of promoting the conception of social service as a mainstay of social\nstability and civic usefulness.\nIn the last analysis the welfare of the individual depends upon the welfare of the\ncommunity, and the welfare of the community will not be fostered where education has\nhardly any other object than to get all out of the social soil that can be extracted without\nreturning new fertilizing elements in the form of social service and responsible citizenship\nThe conception of the relation of elementary education to industrial education, as presented to us by Mr. Bawden, suggests this broader ground. The readjustment of the\nelementary school in the direction indicated would also react favorably upon the teachers\nby improving their social standing and influence in the community, both of which are.\nnow often withheld because of the absence of that intimate relation elementary education\nmight bear to the life of the industrial worker.\nThirteen per cent of the total enrolled school population receive a secondary education. Does the education the other 87 per cent receive in the elementary school suffice to\ndo their share of the nation's work efficiently? To give them greater efficiency it is\nneither necessary nor desirable to turn the elementary schools into specific industrial\nschools. What objection is there from the pedagogic standpoint to having elementary\neducation serve as a foundation for the cultural needs of the industrial worker, similarly\nas literary education serves as a foundation for the cultural needs of the professional\nworker ? Are we willing to admit that educational progress concerns itself solely with the\neducation which lies beyond the elementary school ?\nWhat is asked for from the elementary school is not specific industrial training, but\nthe infusion and the diffusion of that general intelligence which will serve as much as a\nfoundation for higher civic efficiency as for specific industrial efficiency.\nTaking Dr. G. Stanley Hall's Adolescence as a criterion we could safely introduce into\nthe eighth grade, with suitable correlation of academic subjects, the teaching of elementary\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nknowledge of foods, textiles, wood, minerals, metals, and the study of physics. If this would\ninterfere with the preparation for secondary education, would it be impossible to proxide\nways and means thru differentiation in the grades for the educational needs of the thirteen\nout of every hundred rather than neglect the other eighty-seven ? I am not pleading here\nfor specific industrial education but for that broader general and cultural civic education\nwhich should give the industrial worker an insight into the relation of his work to his\ncivic responsibility, the insight of which can be acquired satisfactorily only by active\nexercise aided by a knowledge of the nature, use, and means of how to preserve one's\nhealth and strength, and the material substances wherewith we have to sustain our\nmaterial and spiritual life, ovir social and political institutions, and ovcc civilization.\nEmeky T. Filbey, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. — I wish\nto discuss briefly a topic suggested by Professor Bawden, namely, the attitude we may\nreasonably expect on the part of the elementary-school teacher and how that attitude\nmay best be secured. In discussing this subject we must take into consideration conditions as they are and conditions as we would like them to be. Dr. Judd, in a recent\narticle, has given us a characteristic account of existing conditions. He says:'\nThe school has in the past given too little attention to the special forms of mental\nactivity which are involved in the application of reading. Pupils have been allowed\nto go out of the elementary schools with the ability to read, but they have never had their\nattention drawn to the fact that this ability would help them to acquire the information\nthat they need to guide them in the mechanical arts which they take up as a means of\nlivelihood. The fact is that pupils who leave the school at the end of the sixth grade\nvery seldom help themselves by using the power which they have. This is partly due\nto the fact that they do not know that there is a body of written and printed material\nwhich would be of value to them, and it is partly due to the fact that they have never\nacquired the habit of carrying their reading process beyond the earliest formal stages.\nThe school ought to show them that there is a b^dy of material other than poetry and\nliterary prose.\nLike criticism might be made of other subjects in the curriculiun. A great body of\nvaluable material is a^^ilable in all branches of our industries which may be made intensely\ninteresting to the boys and girls who contemplate industrial careers. The teachers who\ncan best bring this material to the attention of oiu: students are those who are keenly\nalert to the social and industrial conditions of oiu: time and who have a broad vision of\nthe industrial possibilities of the nation.\nEducators are quite well agreed that the first three or four grades of oiu* elementary\nschool are fairly satisfactory. Grades five and six offer a field for common subjectmatter but, as shown above, our method of treatment is inadequate. The seventh\nand eighth grades are commonly thought of as the period of election, one group of students\nelecting the academic, the other the industrial coiu^es. By industrial courses we do not\nmean the academic plus shopwork or cooking. We mean a certain amount of constructive and industrial work plus courses in language, mathematics, history, science, etc., so\norganized as to meet the needs of the students and at the same time develop in them the\ndesired \"attitude of mind\" and \"method of thought.\"\nThe teacher with a purely academic attitude is not qualified to render the best\nservice to all of the pupils in the fifth and sixth grades; but in the seventh and eighth\ngrades where much should be made of the vocational motive this situation is intolerable.\nThe pupils who elect the industrial courses certainly deserve teachers who have a sincere\nand sympathetic attitude. Many of our so-called commercial and industrial courses\ntoday are failing to accomplish the things hoped for because they are in the hands of\nteachers who are not in sympathy with the work. They are teachers of mathematics,\nhistory, and what not, whose business it is to do poorly, lest they be required to continue\ndoing well a thing they do not care to do. It has been assumed that teachers acquire\n' Elementary School Teacher,\n\necember, igii.\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n915\n\nthe desired attitude, but the experience of the public school does not warrant such assumption.\nThe teachers of the academic courses are being well prepared for their work in the\nnormal schools; special rural training schools as departments of these same jiormal\nschools are preparing teachers for the rural communities. Where are the teachers for\nthe industrial courses being trained? Where are the teachers\\of the fifth and sixth\ngrades of all of our schools being given the \"changed attitude\" of which Professor Bawden\nspeaks ?\nFew of the normal schools of the country are prepared to give their students an\nadequate insight into the industrial life of our people, or a knowledge of the social conditions under which they work and live. Quoting Professor Bawden:\nThe elementary school should sustain the same relation to subsequent industrial\neducation that it does to subsequent education of other kinds^.\nHave we not a right then to expect the normal schools of the country to prepare\nteachers of the industrial courses as they prepare teachers of other lines of work ?\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nTo the Department of Manual Training and Art of the National Education\nAssociation:\nAf the Boston meeting of the National Education Association, resolutions were adopted by the Department of Manual Training and Art\nurging the colleges and universities of America to grant applicants for\nadmission greater freedom in the choice of subjects acceptable for college\nentrance, and especially urging the recognition as acceptable elective\nsubjects, drawing, shopwork, and household science and art where these\nare well taught and form a part of a well-planned and approved fouryear high-school course. To further the spirit and purpose of these resolutions a committee was appointed which made a report at the meeting\nheld in San Francisco a year ago.\nThe first efforts of the committee have been to secure and distribute\ninformation regarding the practice of the various colleges in this matter,\nto call attention to the growing tendency toward decidedly more liberal\nrequirements in the definitely prescribed lists of subjects, and to bring to\nthe attention of college authorities the facts regarding the increasing latitude of choice in the elective subjects that may be offered for admission to\ncolleges.\nThe collecting of this information and placing it where it would be\nlikely to do the most good was felt to be an important step in persuading\nmany colleges to follow the lead of the more, progressive ones that already\nare giving proper recognition to the subjects in which this department of\nthe National Education Association is especially interested.\nIn carrying forward this program, however, it has been the aim to make\nthe general plea for granting greater freedom to preparatory schools in\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "9l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\narranging their courses of study to fit the local needs and to develop as\nfully as possible the interests, tastes, and abilities of the pupils whom they\nserve; for it is confidently believed that wheresoever the importance of this\nbroad principle is recognized by college authorities there is likely to be\nlittle difl5culty in securing the inclusion in the list of elective subjects\nefifective work in drawing, shopwork, or household science and art.\nDuring the past year lack of funds has somewhat retarded the work of\nthis committee in certain directions, and furthermore the committee is now\nwaiting for a special report from Washington that is expected to give us\nmost complete information regarding important sections of our work. In\nconsequence of these two facts the report of the committee at this time will\nbe a report of progress only, and will be brief. It is important, however, to\nbring to the Association at this time the facts regarding the colleges now\ngiving credit for drawing, shopwork, and household science and art, and\nto direct attention to certain tendencies that have been observed during the\npast year.\nTHE\n\nPRESENT\n\nRECOGNITION\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nOF\nIN\n\nDRAWING,\n\nSHOPWORK,\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nPREREQUISITES\n\nA. At the present time 28 coeducational institutions will accept from\nboys 2 or more units^ of drawing and 2 or more units of shopwork,- that is,\n4 or more units of manual tr-aining; and will accept from girls 2 or more\nunits of drawing and 2 or more units of household science and art.\nThe list includes such important institutions as:\nUniversity of Chicago\nUniversity of Wisconsin\nUniversity of California\nLeiand Stanford University\n\nUniversity of Minnesota\nUniversity of Missouri\nIndiana University\nUniversity of Cincinnati\n\nB. In addition to the institutions referred to above in paragraph \"A,\"\n43 more coeducational institutions accept drawing, shopwork, and household science and art in dififerent amounts. The maximum accepted from\nany one person varies in these institutions from i to 4 units, with an average, for the institutes in this list, of a small fraction over 2 units.\nThe list includes:\nUniversity of Illinois\nUniversity of Michigan\nUniversity of Nebraska\nOhio State University\n\nNorthwestern University\nOhio Wesleyan University\nPurdue University\nUniversity of Kansas\n\nC. In addition to the institutions referred to in \"A\" and \"B,\" 8 other\ninstitutions for men accept drawing and shopwork from an applicant in\namounts varying from i\\ to 4 units.\n' The word unit as used in this report means the equivalent of one recitation or two periods of shopwork\nor drawing each school day for one school year. It equals about one-fifteenth of the total college-entrance\nrequirement.\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n917\n\nThis list includes :\nColumbia University\n\nLehigh University\n\nUniversity of Georgia\n\nD. In addition to the institutions referred to, 3 others accept drawing, and household science and art in amounts varying from 2 to 5 units.\nE. In addition to the foregoing, 12 other institutions accept drawing and shopwork or drawing and household science and art in amounts\nvarying from i to 3I units.\nThe list includes:\nCornell University\n\nTufts College\n\nPennsylvania State College\n\nF. Twenty-five more institutions will accept drawing, but not shopwork\nor household science and art. Six more are indefinite and will under\ncertain circumstances consider some of the subjects dealt with in this report.\nWith this group Harvard University under its new plan of admission\nshould be included; for while no specific credit is given by Harvard for\ndrawing and shopwork, it is true that an excellent record in those subjects,\nand the power of initiative and the abUity to think that may be developed\nthru them, are all given due credit in a general way by the Admissions\nCommittee.\nG. But 62 institutions out of the total of 188 that we have reported give\nno credit for drawing, shopwork, or household science and art.\nThis list includes:\nYale University\n'\nPrinceton University\nAmherst College\nWilliams College\nOberlin College\n\nVassar College\nSmith College\nWellesley College\nBryn Mawr College\nMount Holyoke College\n\nA summary of the statistics shows that: 15 per cent of the institutions\naccept all these subjects and grant a maximum total credit in them of 4\nunits; 44 per cent accept all these subjects and grant on an average a\nmaximum total credit in them of 2f units; 50 per cent accept two or more\nof the subjects and grant on the average a maximum total credit in them\nof 2f units; 66 per cent accept at least one of them. But 33 per cent give\nno credit in any of them.\nIf, however, these percentages were based upon enrollment it would be\nfound that considerably less than one-third of the students enrolled in the\n188 colleges were registered at institutions granting no credit for any of\nthese subjects.\nIn addition to the data summarized in the statistics presented in this\nreport, the committee wishes to record a number of hopeful tendencies\nthat it has observed during the past year;\nFirst: Speaking generally, the high schools thruout the country appear\nto have grown into a feeling of greater independence of the colleges than\never before, and today better appreciate the importance of shaping their\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "9l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ncourses, and their instruction to meet the needs of their own students whether\nthe latter plan to go to college or not.\nSecond: The high schools have succeeded in making their position in\nthis matter and their needs better understood by college authorities and\nby the public than ever before.\nThird: The high schools appear to have come into a larger faith, that\nif they depart from traditions and more effectively cultivate in their pupils\npurpose, the habit of application, power, originality, and discriminating\njudgment, the colleges will meet them at least half-way.\nFourth: On the other hand, the colleges appear to have recognixed\nmore thoroly the broader functions of the' high schools.\nFifth: There has been a decrease in definitely prescribed entrance\nrequirements in foreign languages.\nSixth: There has been an increase in the proportion of entrance credits\nin which some freedom of choice is permitted.\nSeventh: There has been an increase in the latitude of choice in the\nelective subjects.\nEighth: More generally the college authorities have come to feel\nthat it is both wise and necessary to leave to school men and to state boards\nof education the full power and the full responsibilities of administering\nthe work of secondary schools.\nRespectfully submitted,\n/Arthur L. Williston\nI Michael W. Murray\n\\Wm. C. a. ELammel\nCommiUee '.Clarence D. Kingsley\nJEdnah a. Rich\nI Helen Louise Johnson\n\\ Clifford B. Connelley\n\nTHE\n\nSIGNIFICANCE\nCHARLES\n\nA.\n\nMCMURRY,\n\nOF\n\nTHE INDUSTRIAL\nSCHOOLS\nDIRECTOR\nDEKALB,\n\nOF NORMAL\nILL.\n\nARTS\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe characteristic of the arts and crafts work is manual effort. It\nconsists in directing motor action along typical lines of construction in\nspecial trades. We will sum up the grounds on which this motor activity\nis recommended to the schools.\nFirst: It supplies an educative outlet for the great physical energy of\nthe children. This powerful impulse for activity in constructive work has\nnot always caught the attention of the teacher, but we may be justified in\nsaying that the constructive instinct in children is as strong as the play\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nARTS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n919\n\ninstinct. Froebel discovered in play a source of educative power unsuspected before. Constructive exercise may have an equal value. Concentration ofschool labor upon mental work for the whole time leads the\nteacher to neglect the physical, but in race development physical energy\nhas ever been conspicuous in many ways, in wars, in industries, and in many,\nphases of national life. The extravagance manifested in athletics in recent\nyears may be due in part to the fact that opportunities for physical activity\nhave largely been cut ofE in other directions.\nSecond: Our psychology greatly strengthens the argument for motor\naction. Our present psychology centers in the statement that every sense\nimpression tends to work out thru a nervous pathway into motor action.\nThe process of education is the process of building up the co-ordination of\nideas with muscles thru motor nerves. Children are very receptive of ideas,\nbut they are equally pronounced in their motor reactions. One who\nobserves children will be convinced that the motor action is one of their\nstriking characteristics.\nThird: Mastering the diflSculties of construction leads on to mental as\nwell as muscular control.\nThe child is getting possession of himself.\nFourth: The right kind of motor training leads to the same kind of\nhealthy physical development as well-regulated sports. One-sided devotion\nto purely mental pursuits cannot be profitable in the long run.\nFifth: A full equipment of shops, gardens, and other facilities of work\nfor all children is an obvious need of our present life.\nSixth: To sum the matter up, the large problem is, how the child is to\nwork his way into proper relations to the physical world and to the social\nworld about him. Not only thru ideals in books and stories, but thru\npractical co-operation with his fellows, the child should acquire skillful\nreaction and social training. A boy working in the shops and gardens will\nacquire gradually an interest in and respect for carpenters, gardeners, etc.\nChildren thus gain many sympathetic and appreciative insights. The arts\ntherefore lead all studies more directly into the motor world of industrial\nand social life.\nWe may sum up the matter by saying, that training in the arts will\nround out and complete those series of physical and mental activities thru\nwhich the child is brought into relation with the world about him.\nIf the conclusions stated above are justified, the great moral value of\nthe arts in the education of children lies in their ability to give an appreciation of our duties to our fellow-men. The business relations of men in\nshops, fields, and factories, the moral duties of men to each other in financial\nways are- strongly emphasized. The principles of justice and fair dealing\ncome out clearly and unmistakably. One great field of practical morality\ntoday is found in the business relations in the industrial world.\nThe manual arts are now being emphasized in their relation to vocational training. The industrial arts in schools prepare for vocational life in\ntwo ways:\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nFirst, by giving variety of motor training and a versatile mental attitude\ntoward constructive problems. They train one to adjust himself to\nnew situations.\nSecond, by giving a positive experience and knowledge of several\n.typical arts, greatly facilitating the mastery of any particular art when the\ntime comes to specialize. In these two respects a strong course in the\nmanual arts, laid out along the line of a few fundamental crafts, such as\njoinery, textiles, and bookbinding, will yield a rich culture value to the\ncourse of study and, at the same time, a motor training which is sufficiently\ndefinite to prepare for a wide variety of special vocations. A high degree\nof excellence in any art is not obtained by grammar-grade children, certainly not the expert skill of adult workmen. This belongs to those who in\nthe period of apprenticeship and in adult life devote themselves mainly and\nfor years to a specialty.\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nMANUAL\n\nARTS\n\nTO ESTHETICS\n\nA close relation is now developing between the manual arts and fine art\nas illustrated in drawing, designing, etc.\nThe aesthetic element has been gaining entrance to our school work in\nseveral ways, in drawing, of course, but also in literature, in music, in\ndomestic science, and incidentally in many other ways. It is natural for\nchildren to introduce some element of beauty into their constructions. It\nis difficult to see how a controlling aesthetic element can be kept out of the\nmanual arts; first, because the impulse to aesthetic expression is well-nigh\nuniversal, and second, because in the productive industries, art as a controlling element is ever^^where making itself felt. Most articles designed\nand produced in the shops, mills, and factories have a marked aesthetic\nquality, and the more clearly the art sentiment is expressed in these products\nthe more valuable they are and the more desired.\nThe manual arts must put themselves in harmony with this demand\nfor aesthetic expression now so dominant in the industries.\nIn this sense the manual arts as now being introduced and worked out\nin the schools may have a highly liberalizing influence upon education.\nThe desire for skill, efficiency, and finish in workmanship is closely\nallied, to the aesthetic instinct. The projection of aesthetic ideals into\ncommon industrial products will slowly lift all the grades and crafts to a\nhigher level. Those nations are taking a controlling place in industrial\nactivities which show superiority in artistic production of the various\nfabrics.\nOne danger of our age is that of materialism and utilitarianism which\nare not redeemed by ideals. The spirit of art everywhere introduces an\nideal quality into the labors of men, and redeems them from the baseness\nthat attaches to the merely material. All of our trades and crafts, so far\nas our system of machine-made products admits, should be raised to some\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n92 1\n\naesthetic standard. The faults from which such an infusion of art sentiment\nwould liberate our industries may be designated as poor and shoddy workmanship, ugliness, drudgery, and cramping narrowness in the workman.\nIt would be a blessing to millions of people if, thru the schools, the labors\nof men and women could be lifted up to art standards. It would also add\na strong thought-element of superior quality to the manual arts as school\nstudies. Looked at from the standpoint of artistic design, all of our school\narts can be made thought-studies of the first rank, not mere manual and\nphysical dexterities.\nIn this way, on the basis of a rich thought-content, including design,\nconstructive principles, and knowledge of materials and tools, the manual\narts in the schools are brought up to the full thought-standard of other\nimportant studies. In this way, we may arrive at a course of study in the\nindustrial arts that has a substantial basis, a rich thought-content, based\nupon a few simple fundamental human industries, historically developed\nand deeply interwoven with the progress of human life and thought.\nA course of study in the arts will thus relate itself to all the leading\nthought-studies, not merely as a motor outlet for pent-up muscular energies,\nbut involving also the aesthetic ideals of the race. These are gradually\nincorporated into the prevailing industrial activities of men upon which\nour modern progress in social organization is based.\n\nSOME\nFRANK\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL PHASES OF THE MOVEMENT\nINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION\nM.\n\nLEAVITT,\nASSOCIATE\nUNIVERSITY\nOF\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF INDUSTRIAL\nCHICAGO,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nFOR\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nTo one who studies the present movement for vocational education,\nand especially that phase of it which we designate \"industrial education,\"\nthe conviction becomes more and more firmly fixed that its impulse springs\nfrom those profound forces which seem to be impelling a general social\nadvance and which are dominated by the desire to secure for the less\nprosperous half of the population a larger share in the good things of life.\nRepresentatives of this less prosperous half, to bring this about, are\nworking for the establishment of minimum-wage boards, old-age pensions,\nindustrial insurance, employers' liability laws, and adequate education\nfor themselves and for their children.\nRepresentatives of the so-called ruling classes are frequently found\nto be working for essentially the same ends with the belief that in this\nway only can be averted a struggle between employers and employed\nwhich, wanting a more equitable adjustment of present conditions, may\nbe fraught with grave and destructive consequences.\nAt all events it seems to be reaching the social consciousness that\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nindividual efficiency and the individual's sense of his responsibility to\nsociety must be enormously increased.\nIn working out the solution of these complex problems there is probably\nno single institution in which society in general places as much dependence\nas it does in the public schools. It is becoming evident, however, that\nan increasingly large percentage of all who are relying on the public schools\nin the emergency imhesitatingly express the opinion that the ideals of the\nschools must be' modified if they are to play the important part in this\nsocial advance which they should.\nIt is one of the curious things about our American educational system\nthat, conceived in a spirit of socialism so far as its organization and administration are concerned, it has tended, nevertheless, in its subject-matter\nand in its methods of instruction, to emphasize and to promote extreme\nindividualism. Supported by fvmds raised by assessment on all the property\nof the commimity, and organized in such a way as to make possible, if not\ncompulsory, the attendance of all children, presumably for the common\ngood and, as a sure fovmdation for social democracy, the ideals of the schools\nhave centered the interests of the pupils on individual advance and on the\nultimate attainment of conspicuous success in the competitive social and\neconomic struggle rather than on the desirability of giving the largest\npossible service for the common good.\nPerhaps in no phase of recent scientific educational study has the\npurely individualistic ideal been more clearly seen than in the realm of\nchild-study and psychology. It is not my purpose to state that such\nacti\\dty has been necessarily undemocratic, unsocial, or inadvisable —\nqmte the contrary. It can be shown that psychology has contributed in no\nsmall degree to the tremendous advance which education has made during\nthe last quarter-century and that it has helped to bring into the schools\nthe very elements which may be most effectively used in socializing education. Sofar as it has been worked over into terms of educational method,\nhowever, psychology has been distinctively individualistic. While social\npsychology — group psychology — ^is such a recent development that its\ntechnique and terminology are still in the making, it can hardly be doubted\nthat its influence on public education is destined to be even greater during\nthe next twenty-five years than the psychology of the individual on which\nwe have thus far relied. It will demonstrate that our citizenship as a\nwhole must be taught to have less interest in its rights and more in its\nduties, less thought for the possibility of reaching eminent position for\noneself and more for the desirability of securing the contentment and\nhappiness of the less fortunate.\nI believe that the present movement for industrial education has\nimportant contributions to make to this socializing of popular education\nand it is to this phase of the movement that your attention is asked.\nIt is an oft-repeated statement, but one which must nevertheless be\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n923\n\nbriefly discussed in this connection, that many educators are strongly\nopposed to the vocational motive in education.\nIn a discussion recently published in a leading educational journal\nis found the following statement of the \"bread-and-butter\" principle as\nseen by the classicist:\nIn obedience to popular clamor, [they] resolved to replace the literary education,\nwhich had held sway for centuries, by a study of exact science. They kept sternly in\nview the demands of the counting-house and workshop. We will not train the boy's\nmind, said they; we will pack his brain with useful facts. He shall not think; he shall\nremember. Strictly cut off from a knowledge of the past, he shall live solely in the\npresent. Thus there will be no waste of force. A full pocket shall reward his industry,\nand if his head is empty of those general ideas which cumbered his father's, so milch the\nbetter for him.\nHe will get rich the more quickly.\n\n. It seems to me that the distinction here drawn between the \"cultural\"\nand the \"bread-and-butter\" aim of education, with the conclusion that\nthe latter is wholly to be avoided as sordid and mean, has a perfectly\nnatural origin, a brief discussion of which is pertinent to our subject.\nWhen these ideals were in the making, the vast majority of students came\nfrom those classes of society whose members were economically independent\neven if not actually wealthy. The pursuit of knowledge for the sake of\nincreasing an assured income, already sufficient, or with hope of improving,\nfinancially, a career sure to be rewarded by an adequate living and by\nsocial distinction, was very properly considered sordid and unsocial. To\nuse education merely as a means of enhancing one's opportunity of gaining\na larger measure of the material things of life, or of controlling and exploiting one's fellow-beings, was indeed justly condemned. The result of such\naction could only be to increase the gap between the rich and poor, the able\nand the incompetent, the wise and the foolish, and therefore to disrupt\nsociety.\nToday, when universal education is our aim, \"bread-and-butter\"\neducation for the masses of mankind will have exactly the opposite effect,\nwill tend to bring the masses and the classes closer together, to secure\nunity in diversity by giving each a more genuine appreciation of and respect\nfor the other. So far from being sordid and basely utilitarian, it represents\none of the finest ideals which the human mind has conceived and sets forth\na philosophy of life which can be fully realized under no other conditions\nthan complete solidarity.\nAnother important social phase of the industrial education movement\nis that it is bound to have a profound effect on the whole system of popular\neducation. This will be true whether our traditional schools admit or\nreject the new forms of education. The conditions of industry are such\nthat the employer can no longer afford to train his apprentices in the old\nway but must, instead, evolve new methods to meet the new conditions.\nTraining must be had and, if the schools refuse to give it, the privately\ncontrolled schools will draw large numbers of the pupils away from the\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "9 24\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\npublic schools, thereby greatly reducing the influence of the most potent\nsocializing institution of our times. What seems more probable, however,\nand what is infinitely more desirable, is that the more vital and direct\nmethods which are being developed in connection with industrial training\nwill modify and immensely improve the methods and ideals of general\neducation. Indeed there seems to be little doubt that this will be the\noutcome, since vocational training is even now to be foimd in almost every\npart of our school system. Great activity is to be observed in the elementary schools where retarded and discouraged children have been brought\nto see the meaning and the need of education by the utilization of the\nvocational motive, and have been led, by more interesting and stimulating\npathways, to the door of the high school. The high schools have modified\nentrance requirements and have arranged and administered with wholeheartedness less extended courses for those needing them and have not\nonly shortened the courses but have vitalized them as well by relating\nthem to the possible future vocations of the pupils. Separate schools have\nbeen established for those who for any reason cannot be cared for in the\nvocationalized classes of the elementary and high schools, and part-time\nand continuation schools and classes have been formed for those who\nmust work while they study.\nThe present demand for the enlargement of the function of the public\nschool, thru the introduction of industrial education, is but a step in the\nevolution of this popular institution. The advance has always been\nbrought about thru the efiforts of those seeking social ends and the betterment of the people, and, as often, has been opposed by conservatism.\nIn this onward movement it is clear that we have reached a crisis similar\nin principle to others which have periodically confronted popular education\nwhen advance has become imperative and when such progress has been\nopposed by the ruling interest, whether wealth, aristocracy, or sectarianism.\nUnless we are to reverse all pre\\dous precedents the schools will again\nwiden their sympathies and will receive and instruct a still larger proportion of the country's children, thus greatly increasing their social value.\nAnother sociological phase of industrial education is its relation to\ncriminology. That industrial education is to have an immense influence\nin preventing juvem'le delinquency is the belief of those who have studied\nfaithfully the lessons taught by the reform schools and penitentiaries.\nCertainly nothing could be of greater social significance than the reduction\nof crime and especially crime for which society, rather than the delinquent,\nis mainly responsible. It becomes entirely clear, as one studies the methods\nemployed in a modem reform school and the records of those who have been\ndischarged from these institutions, that the same kind of training for the\nboy before commitment would, in the large majority of cases, effectually\nremove him from the probability of delinquency. When taught the\nsatisfaction of work well done, when made to see that the way thru is\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n925\n\ninfinitely better than the way around a difficult piece of work, even tho\nit be rough manual work; when he has once experienced the pleasure of\nactually carrying his own weight, economically considered, he is far less\nlikely to proceed by the devious ways resorted to by those whose wit has\nbeen developed more than their skill. That \"joy in work\" is no mere\nsentimental phrase becomes a conviction on carefully observing large\nnumbers of reform-school boys engaged in their somewhat skilled\noccupations.\nIt is obviously essential to the stability of society that intelligent\ncontentment prevail thruout the group. One of the purposes of industrial\neducation held, more or less consciously, by its advocates relates directly\nto the contentment of the masses. To my mind it is one of the most\nsubtle and far-reaching aspects of the movement. That social discontent\nexists no thoughtful observer will doubt, whether he can assign the cause\nor not. It has been claimed that the schools are partly to blame because\nof the false ideals of pleasure which they have engendered. These ideals\nwe are told give undue emphasis to the joys of consumption, the spending\nof money, and passive entertainment, and ignore almost entirely the\nfiner pleasures to be derived thru creative work or even the sterner joy\nof useful productive labor.\nOur courses of study seem to be so devised that they develop the child\nto the point where he can enjoy, intellectually and aesthetically, many of\nthe things which cultivated people prize, beautiful surroundings in the\nhome, music, art, poetry, the drama, and travel. This is well, but where\nsuch tastes are developed without equal attention being given to the\ndevelopment of ability to secure the means whereby the desires may be\nsatisfied there is brought about an unbalanced condition which frequently\nleads to the conclusion that money is the one thing needed to secure happiness. The joy of consumption, rather than the joy of production, is the\nend which they seek, in common, it must be admitted, with American society\nin general. It is believed that a rational plan of education which lays\nespecial emphasis on the constructive activities will enable many to know\nthe pleasure which comes from such work and to turn to that for some if\nnot a large part of their recreative entertainment, as well as to have a\nclearer appreciation of the substantial satisfaction which their daily work\nmay yield.\nFinally, industrial education is sociologically significant for what it\nis making possible in the way of collective control, that is control by the\ncommunity, of the conditions of child labor. It is a matter of social\nconcern that children are now being warped, degraded, killed, mentally,\nmorally, and physically, by their early industrial experiences. It is of\nimmense moment to the common welfare that these experiences are often\nwholly discouraging and unsatisfying to the young workers, thereby\ncreating or strengthening the belief that work is a curse, a thing to be\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\navoided as far as may be, and that the prizes of life are reserved for those\nwho exploit rather than for those who serve. Industrial education is so\nsuccessful in dra-wdng attention to this matter that where such education\nis an established fact it is much easier to secure the extension of childlabor laws, the inauguration of systems of vocational guidance, the coordination ofapprenticeship laws with those relating to education and child\nlabor, and the establishment of minimum-wage commissions to fix and\nmaintain suitable rates of compensation for children or minors. All these\nare of distinct social significance and the accomplishment of them will be\nimpossible without a system of industrial education. In fact a thorogoing system of industrial education leads inevitably to vocational guidance,\nchild-labor and apprenticeship laws, and public wage boards, and will\nserve to bind them together into a single function.\nIn the great problem which confronts civilization today, the workingout of right relations between man and man, the \"masses\" will be the first\nto accept the conditions of advance and to work and sacrifice for it.\nI repeat that, so far from being a narrow utilitarian movement I believe\nthat industrial education allies itself with the broadest and I may say the\nmost spiritual movement of the century, the promotion of genuine brotherhood. Brotherhood is possible only where there is frankly accepted the\nideal of unity in diversity.\nUnity in diversity; this is also the keynote of industrial education.\nIts promoters are learning to treat with equal respect and to strive equally\nhard to administer to the needs of the future factory worker, the future\naccountant, the future electrician, or the future engineer. And if education\nlearns to dignify all vocational life by giving it consideration in its various\nforms and relations, who shall say that this will not have a profound\ninfluence in helping us as a nation to develop a unity of purpose out of\nthe wonderful diversity of conditions and opportunities which our country\naffords and of which we are justly proud and which in a social democracy\nshould somehow be made to minister to the common good ?\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam J. Bogan, principal, Lane Technical High School, Chicago, 111. — Has the\nspeaker made too many claims for industrial education? Is its supposed effect upon\ncrime the figment of a Sunday-school imagination ? No. So long as Satan is the chief\nemployer of idle hands, crime will flourish; and when we reaUze that a prime function of\nthe school is to furnish Satan competition, crime will decrease. The cry of humanity is\nfor work, a cry unheard by the school. A pathetic illustration of the need for industrial\ntraining is seen in the letter of a boy convict to his mother written from the prison to\nwhich he had been sentenced for life. He was one of five convicted last winter of the\nextremely brutal murder of Guelzow, the Chicago truck farmer. This boy was not yet\nsixteen years old and he had known his companions only five days before the murder.\nBut he was out of work — and Satan provided employment. The boy held the farmer's\nhorse while the victim was literally butchered.\nHe writes to his broken-hearted mother.\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\ngz7\n\nI am learning a useful occupation here so I'll have something to work at to help you\nwhen I get out. [The optimism of youth ! He was sentenced for life.] Oh, if I only had\nsomething like this before IT happened.\n•\nLadies and gentlemen, the cry of the ages rings out from the heart of that ignorant\nboy: \"Oh, if I only had something like this before it happened.\" He had capitalized and\nunderscored IT as if to symbolize in a striking manner his awful crime and his terrible\nremorse: \"Oh, if I only had something like this before IT happened.\" No claim is made\nthat work will prevent all crime but it is hardly necessary to prove to this audience that\nuseful labor is a splendid moral corrective that the schools should use with greater\nfrequency.\nThe address of Professor Leavitt is particularly pleasing because it helps to counteract\none of the usual effects of college domination. I do not mean overt acts of domination\nbut the subtle influence of college tradition carried into elementary and secondary schools\nby college graduates with a holy and awful respect for everything dead in language,\nhistory, art, and mathematics. These young graduates go proudly forth firm in the\nconviction that they carry the torch of educational progress but, alas, too often they lead\ntheir followers into the slough of despond.\nThe address makes a strong appeal to democratic instincts. It emphasizes a theory\nheld by many that the beneficiaries of special privilege will release their hold on the throat\nof misfortune when education has fired their imaginations to the point where they recognize\nthe brotherhood of man as a possibility rather than as a mere party shibboleth. True,\nthe ideals of the schools must be modified if this social program is to be made effective.\nIn theory and in practice the schools of a democracy should minister to the needs of all.\nThat they have thus far failed to do so is a reflection on every educational leader of\nAmerica. Is the time now ripe for change? Judging from the frequent complaints of\nstudents and their employers our boasted educational system aims to train for everything\n— and therefore trains for nothing. Everyone admits the need for change, but few have\nthe courage and the knowledge and the sympathy necessary to face the task of aiding\neven in a small way the reconstruction of our school system. Our educational system of\ntoday reminds one of the condition of the navies of the world immediately after the fight\nbetween the \"Monitor\" and the \"Merrimac.\" Up to that time the backbone of every\nnavy was the wooden frigate, a thing of beauty and a joy forever, but oh, so inefficient.\nThis frigate was manned by sailors who knew and loved every bolt and bar and block and\nrope from stem to stern and from truck to keelson. After the battle every navy of the\nworld became a museum of junk; every frigate a fit subject for an epitaph; every sailor\na candidate for the retired list. Now in place of the rollicking sailor we have the engineer,\ncold, deliberate, and scientific. He steers by electricity, hoists his ammunition by electricity, aims by mathematics, and fires by pneumatics. We have lost in poetry, but we\nhave gained in efficiency. What is the lesson for us ? The sailor who could not adapt\nhimself to new conditions was shoved aside and was perhaps thankful to be given \"a place\nin the sun.\" Have we the energy, the intelligence, and the sjmapathy to lead in this new\ncrusade ? In the new program shall we play the part of feeble grandfathers content to\nsit in the sun and croon to the baby while others do the world's work? All say \"no\"\nbut many act \"yes.\"\nThe danger to this great movement lies, not in the opposition of reactionaries, but\nin the friendship of the inefficient. The superficiality of our methods is shown in our\nchicken-like running to cover whenever a storm of indignation at our inefficiency blows\nup from the direction of the taxpayer. In a frantic endeavor to ward off criticism, every\ncity in this broad land is going thru the motions of establishing industrial courses — on\npaper at least — supervised too often by men of slight knowledge and less sympathy.\nTherein lies the danger. In the process of convincing the world that industrial education\nis all we claim we must work with efficiency and sincerity. We must become students\nagain.\n\nWe must go to school to the butcher, the baker, the candlestick-maker.\n\nWe\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmust pray for the grace of the open mind. We must place ourselves in sympathy with\nevery sanely directed attempt to improve the social order. The first and second estates\nhave dominated our educational systems from the beginning. Let us now give heed\nto the cry of the third estate.\nC. A. Prosser, secretary, National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education,\nNew York, N.Y. — I thank the chairman of this meeting and you for the opportunity to\ndiscuss some of the points that have been brought out in the excellent papers read by Dr.\nMcMurry and Professor Leavitt. So many valuable things have been presented by them\nthat I hesitate to disagree with any part of their addresses lest their effect be lessened and\nI be misunderstood.\nDr. Snedden has summarized what I should like to say when he declared that, whatever else we did in vocational education of any kind, we should be certain it was not made\na sham or a pretense. There is very great danger that, in the attempt to graft practical\neducation on to the kind of general education which the schools have been giving, the\nwork will be made so academic, so liberalized and culturized that it will fail properly to\nequip the child to meet the demands of useful employment which thousands of them must\nmeet when they leave the schools.\nTwo attempts have been made in which the schools have taken part, to give some\npractical training which it was hoped would fit for successful work in the industries.\nAfter the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, drawing was introduced in the\npublic schools of the coimtry rather extensively. In Massachusetts, drawing was required\nin evening schools, which it was hoped wovdd prepare for the industries, first in all cities\nof over 100,000; then in cities of over 50,000; then in cities of over 20,000. Since drawing\nwas one of the tools in trade which every workman must use in one form or another, it\nwas believed that, equipped with it, children and matiu-e workers woidd become more\nefficient; but the drawing fell into the hands of the schoolmaster, who did not know life\nand the industries, and was liberalized and culturized imtil today no one claims that the\ndrawing given in the public schools of the country, whether in day school or evening\nschool, has played any part in the promotion of industrial efficiency or in advancing the\nwelfare of the worker, which is other than negligible.\nIn the first burst of their enthusiasm over the new-found manual-training idea it\nwas claimed that boys who had taken the manual-training work in elementary school and\nhigh school would receive a basic training in industrial education which would enable\nthem to adapt themselves to all the varied demands of different productive callings.\nThe failure of manual training to realize these claims has been the thing which has brought\nmost discredit upon the movement and most opposition to its further development.\nManual training is a necessary and desirable part of the general education of every\nAmerican child. It has little, if any, industrial significance as it is given in the American\nschools. Those who attend the manual-training or technical high school do not take up\nproductive employment in the industries. Too little time is devoted to the training to\ndevelop much skill and insight. The instructors giving the work are usually without the\nexperience in the occupation itself necessary to give interest to the boy and reality to the\ntraining. The work is carried on in the shop on an exercise basis rather than on the productive basis on which the commercial shop outside, to which the boy himself must\nadjust himself, is operated. The technical and academic work is not correlated or connected with the shop work. The shop experience of the boy is not used as a part of his\ntraining — as a means of teaching him in the classroom — nor as a means of fixing the\ninstruction received in the classroom thru its application in the jobs or problems with\nwhich he deals in the shop. Manual training has not met and cannot meet the need of\nindustrial education. Those who take the work do not enter productive employment,\nand if they did expect to, manual training is not the sort of education which they need to\nfit them for their life-work.\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n929\n\nThere is considerable danger in some quarters that, after having offered two schemes,\ndrawing and manual training, as a means of securing industrial efficiency and failed with\neach of them to meet the problem, we shall make the third mistake of attempting to\nsecure, thru a few alterations in what is really a manual-training scheme, the same end.\nThere is great danger that school men will attempt to set up a scheme of so-called industrial education as the result of a general theory or philosophy of education from within\nthe schools, when every experience goes to show that the problem can be dealt with, so\nfar as the practical and technical work is concerned, only by first making a close study of\nwhat are the industrial conditions to be met and then adapting the training of the schools\nso that the pupil may be adjusted to the requirements of the employment upon which he\nmust enter outside the schools. This does not at all mean that the industrial school of\nany kind is for dependents, or defectives, or dehnquents. It is for good, healthy, capable\nAmerican boys who learn largely by doing and who in these schools find their best chance\nto uncover and develop their taste and aptitude for practical and constructive work,\nwhile at the same time they are being properly trained in the things that make for good\ncitizenship and in the related and academic studies which will make them better workers.\nI was very much interested in the excellent paper of Dr. McMurry on \" The Place of\nArt in Industrial Education.\" I agree fuUy with what he has to say concerning the necessity of developing the aesthetic or artistic sense thru training in the public schools for those\nboys or girls who manifest unusual aptitude for it and who wiU find a large use for it after\nthey leave the schools. We seem as yet not to have developed, as some countries in\nEurope have, any scheme whereby we can give encouragement to those who manifest\nunusual ability along such lines and who need to be trained for leadership in them.\nI do not agree at all with what seems to be his idea that the training which all boys\nand girls need to fit them for industrial life is a course of shop and classroom instruction\nin which the larger or dominant emphasis is laid upon the development of the artistic and\naesthetic sense and upon its execution in a few carefully devised, carefully worked out\nexercises in the shop.\nImpressed by the crying need of a more artistic product from our shops and mills and\nfactories, one is likely to rush to the conclusion that our deliverance lies in the attempt\nto develop the aesthetic sense and creative ability of all our boys and girls who go into the\nindustries either as leaders or as productive workers. This might have been true a century\nago when under the simpler conditions of life the old artisan trades were followed by wellrounded workmen, each of whom had a chance to put his own individuality and his sense\nof proportion and beauty and adaptability into the things he made. Modern industry is\nnot so organized. It is probably safe to say today that under the conditions which\nsurround the workers of our day, few of them have a chance to exercise ingenuity and the\naesthetic sense and individuality in the making of things save those who are employed as\ndesigners in the office of the concern making blueprints which the worker is required to\nfoUow carefully.\nThe question of what training we shall give boys and girls for the industries is largely\nthe question of the group we are dealing with and of where the emphasis should be laid.\nUndoubtedly those boys and girls who have the artistic sense to such a degree that it\nrepresents the line along which they should be trained as their best way out to efficiency\nand happiness should be given the opportunity to develop it to the full and to be trained\nin its execution. Undoubtedly all children should have an opportunity while they are\ngoing thru the schools, whether they be the general schools giving general education or\nindustrial or trade schools, to have their sense of appreciation of the things that are right\nand good and true and beautiful developed so that they may be intelligent constmiers of\nthe goods of life, so that they may learn to use aright the best things and to enjoy both\ntheir work and their leisure. Here again I agree with Dr. McMurry.\nBut to lay the chief emphasis in the training of the millions of boys and girls who are\ngoing into wage-earning occupations upon the instruction which is intended to develop\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "93©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCtATtON\n\n(Manual Training\n\npower of artistic or aesthetic expression would, under the conditions which are fotmd in\nour industrial life, be as misguided as to attempt to fit all boys and girls for the presidency\nor for college and professional careers. Let us seek out and develop as effectively as we\ncan, more effectively than we have ever yet done, those children who are to serve us, by\nlifting and bettering the character of the things we make in industry'; but let us not make\nthe mistake of assuming that aU children are capable of the development of this artistic\nsense, on the execution side at least, and let us not lay the emphasis there in the training\nof the great body of boys and girls who need other kinds of training in order to fit them\nfor the work which they are adapted to do and which they must do as their way out to\nefficiency and happiness.\nThe typical boy and girl fourteen years of age leaving the public schools as they do\nby the hundreds of thousands need either imder the roof of the school or in the industry,\nor in both, practice in the callings which they are to follow imder the conditions which\nthe calling sets up that will give insight, skill, knowledge, and power of growth. They\nneed training in the related mathematics, drawing, science, technique, which will make\ntheir work interesting and intelligible and lead to mastery and promotion and leadership.\nThey need an acquaintance with the industry as it is carried on, its organization, its\nadministration, its problems, its diflSculties, its social and economic place and relationship.\nWith the great majority of these boys and girls the emphasis needs to be laid upon extensive practice in school or shop, along with thinking about the practice, rather than upon\nthe doing of a few things that will bring out an aesthetic and artistic sense and power of\nexecution which they do not possess and which they could not use successfully even if\nthey did possess it, and even if what httle they did possess were developed to the fullest\nextent.\nI sometimes fear that in the discussions among school people of the problem of industrial education today we still have our eye fastened upon the fortunate boys and girls who\nare able to give their time between foiu-teen and eighteen years of age to schooling, when\nthe great problem in vocational education today is to reach the great army of boys and\ngirls who up to this time, largely because we did not know how to deal with them, have\nbeen neglected by the schools. More than 6,000,000 boys and girls between fourteen and\neighteen years of age are employed in various ways in this country. This does not include\nthe additional army of children in some of the southern states leaving school at the tender\nage of twelve. During the present year at least 2,000,000 more childish wage-earners\nupon reaching the age of fourteen will enter the ranks of industry. More than seven out\nof ten of this multitude did not finish the work of the elementary school. More than three\nout of four of them did not reach the eighth year of the schools, and more than one out of\ntwo, the seventh year. Almost half of them had not completed the fifth-grade work.\nGreat numbers of them were barely able to meet the test for illiteracy necessary in order\nto secure working certificates which in most of the states is a test on the work of the\nfourth grade.\nThese children not only entered life deficient in the elementary-school education\nwhich our day regards as being necessary to the civic intelligence and the vocational\nefficiency of everyone, but practically all of them had been trained by a formalized process\nin the things of the books alone, which gave them no opportunity to find what they would\nlike to do and what they were best able to do in life. Practically all of them went to work\nwithout proper vocational direction and guidance. All of them found the doors of most\nof the skilled and desirable industries closed to them until they should become sixteen\nyears of age.\nSince they must work somewhere, most of these childish wage-earners find their way\nlargely by accident into low grade skilled or imskilled occupations — the great childemploying industries and enterprises which are always wide open at the bottom to receive\nyoung workers but closed at the top so far as permanent desirable employment is concerned. Here because their work lacks purpose and hope they drift about from one\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] ' SOCIOLOGICAL\n\nPHASES\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n931\n\nposition to another, changing in some states, it is said, from one unskilled position to\nanother on an average once every four months. The resulting moral degradation to the\nchild and the tremendous cost to the employer due to this indifferent, unstable, fluctuating\nservice cannot be estimated. For most of these children the years from fourteen to sixteen\nspent in wage-earning in store and shop and factory are wasted years, since they find\nthemselves at sixteen in the same position as at fourteen — starting life without any\nadequate preparation for wage-earning. Their menial, monotonous, more or less\nautomatic work not only gives no skill which will be useful to them in after-years but also\narrests rather than develops intelligence and ambition.\nOut of the great army of children who leave the schools at fourteen to go to work and\nget from those schools no further attention, come the ne'er-do-wells, the loafers, tramps,\ngamblers, prostitutes, and criminals, for whose care the state spends more money in penal\nand correctional work than it would have cost to have prevented, thru proper vocational\nguidance and training, many of them from becoming a burden and menace to society.\nThe ultimate goal of the movement for vocational education is to reach and train\nproperly for their work in life, whatever it may be, the millions of children now going to\nwork at fourteen years of age. Manual training and domestic economy for the regular\nhigh-school pupils, technical high schools to fit boys for service as leaders on the business\nand directive side ef industry, trade schools that deal with a selected group of fortunate\nboys who are able to give four years to preparation for an occupation — all these have their\nplace and deserve public support. But they contribute nothing to the solution of the\nvastly more important and critical problem of reaching and serving the educational needs\nof the multitude of children whom we have up to this time neglected, largely because we\nhave not known how to deal with them. From the social and economic standpoint the\nmost valuable contributions to vocational education, and certainly to a wider democracy\nas well, are being made by those schools which, by opening the doors wide to the child at\nfourteen years who is able to give all his time to training for some occupation before\nentering it or by following him with its service to the work upon which he has already\nentered, are finding out little by little how we can get hold of him and prepare him for his\nlife-work properly — to the end that we may by such experiments come to know as our\nfinal goal in vocational education how to \"train all kinds of men [and women] in all kinds\nof ways for all kinds of things.\"\nIn his excellent address, Mr. Leavitt touched upon the fact that vocational education\nwas to play a large part in solving the problem of child labor. If the all-day vocational\nschool, which will ultimately attract to itself about one out of ten of the children who now\ngo to work at fourteen, rendered no other service than to hold these children out of the\nindustries between fourteen and sixteen until the door of the skilled and desirable employment was opened to them, saving them for the two years from the deadening effect of the\nspecialized machine, turning them out at sixteen years of age more mature of body and\nmind to meet the strain of the industry, it would be worth all that it would cost the public\nfor the service that it rendered such children. The part-time school, which, either on the\nvoluntary or compulsory basis, claims a portion of the working day or week of the wageearner between fourteen and eighteen away from the shop for after-training in the school,\nis an institution that, by reducing the total number of hours of service during the week of\nthe immature child in the shop, thereby tends to the reduction of child labor.\nThere are not wanting signs to indicate that in many of the states the trend is\" toward\nan extension of the compulsory education law in the direction of sixteen years. To raise\nthe compulsory age law to sixteen and require all children to attend school between\ntwelve and fourteen would be a great injury to many of these children, particularly if they\nwere required to attend schools giving the general or old-line training of the same character\nas that which they were taking before they left the elementary school and for which many\nof them have little taste and in which many of them, to say the least, did not make a\nconspicuous success, and which gives but little preparation of the kind that these children\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "93 2\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nneed for their work. This would necessitate the development of the all-day vocational\nschool between the years of twelve and fourteen to take care of those workers who gave\ntheir entire time to the school. Many believe, and I count myself one of the number,\nthat if the compulsory education law is raised to sixteen years of age, it ought to require\nthe attendance of all children under fourteen in the school but should say to the child at\nthe age of fourteen :\nYou can continue to go to school now or go to work, but if you go to work you must\ngive a certain portion of your week during working hours for the further training you need\nin order to fit you for the work which you intend to do and at the same time to remove\nyour elementary-school deficiencies.\nCompulsory part-time education for children between foiirteen and sixteen years of\nage is coming, and coming rapidly. Personally, I do not believe that any state in the\nUnion is ready to pass such a sweeping provision. We do not have the teachers to give\nthe instruction; we do not know what to do by way of training for many industries; v/e\nhave not yet learned how to organize our schools to' carry on the work in many lines;\nnor have our manufacturers yet learned how to organize and administer their shops so as\nto give these children a part of their time away from their regular employment without\ninjury to the business.\nWe need at the present time such close studies of the needs and possibilities of parttime schoohng as that which is now being conducted by the Massachusetts Board of\nEducation and which will be published January i, 1913. From these we shall learn\nmuch about the kind of work we need to give in the school in dealing with different children.\nWhile this is being done we need to encourage all sorts of voluntary experiments in parttime schooling between the school and the shop wherever the manufacturers can be\ninduced to co-operate.\nIn this way we shall learn to deal on a small scale with the great body of ovu: workers,\n90 per cent of whom, if they are to be reached at all, are to be reached thru part-time\neducation. The goal of our work should not be the 8 per cent who remain in school but\nthe 92 per cent who go to work. While we are learning by experiment and study covering\na period of, let us say, five years, what it would be wise to do, and while at the same time\nwe are preparing teachers in ways which we have not yet clearly seen, we shall be getting\nready in an intelligent way to meet the problem of legislation which, based upon the\ngeneral theory that the state should be responsible for the training of the adolescent child\nwhether he remains in school or goes to work, will require the attendance of all children\nfor a portion of their week upon the instruction which is best adapted to the needs which\nthey present according to their interests, their ability, and their employment.\n\nFRED\n\nD.\n\nNEEDED\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nCRAWSHAW,\n\nPROFESSOR\nWISCONSIN,\n\nOF MANUAL ARTS,\nMADISON, WIS.\n\nARTS\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThis paper records an investigation rtmning back over four years.\nIt has been my privilege since the fall of 1908 to visit in the capacity of an\ninspector nearly one hundred manual arts high-school departments in\nthe states of Illinois and Wisconsin. Some of these have been visited\ntwice so that over one htmdred visits of an inspectional character have\nbeen made by the writer. In May of the present year I was granted a\ntwo weeks' leave of absence by the University of Wisconsin to visit eastern\nschools. Nineteen vocational, industrial, and trade schools were visited.\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNEEDED\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nARTS\n\n933\n\nIt is my purpose now to give you the benefit of my observations in terms\nof needed changes in the conduct of our public-school manual arts work\nfrorii the beginning of the sixth grade to the end of high school.\nThis will be done by regarding the visits of the four years as a research.\nMy material will be divided, therefore, into three distinct parts analogous\nto those which naturally form the divisions in any investigation, viz.,\nthat which deals with the data, that which tells of the handling of the data,\nand that which considers the results obtained.\nFirst, then, I shall give the basis for any statements which Avill be\nmade upon the needed changes in the manual arts. Second, I shall describe\nthe experiment, which in this case will be a statement of observations of\nthe teaching of manual arts, and, third, the conclusions will be presented,\nviz., what it seems to me should be done in teaching the manual arts that\nadvantage may be taken of the best methods now being used in manual\ntraining, and in vocational and industrial education.\nTHE\n\nDATA\n\nThe writer has just closed his sixteenth year of teaching manual arts.\nThe experience of these sixteen years has been gained in all of the consecutive grades from the first in the elementary school to the last in the university. The kind of work taught has been that which is considered\nfundamental in the educative process and that also which functions as a\nsubject, vocational in character. Under the head of vocational may be\nlisted the teaching of applied physics for prospective workers in power\nplants, the motive power for which is both steam and electricity, and also\nthe preparation of teachers of manual arts in public schools and industrial\nschools.\nAs a preparation for this work the writer completed the course for\nmechanical engineers at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester,\nMass. This institution probably, as much as any other, has given rise\nto many of the methods now used in our industrial and trade schools.\nThose who attended the Worcester Institute when I did spent ten consecutive working hours each week during the Freshman and Sophomore\nyears in the shop, working with journeyman mechanics upon contract\nwork and under the leadership of a man who had been a foreman in a\ncommercial plant. In addition to this, 168 consecutive working hours of\nsummer time was spent in the shop just succeeding both the Freshman and\nSophomore years.\nOne further item of experience is given to help justify statements to\nbe made farther on. For short periods of time the writer has earned his\nliving as a shophand or as a draftsman.\nFurther and probably more important data which should be given for\npurposes of this thesis relate to the visiting of schools.\nIn 1908-9 and 1909-10 while the writer was connected with the Uni-\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nversity of Illinois he visited no less than twenty-five of the departments\nof manual arts in high schools of Illinois. During the past two years he\nhas visited for the University of Wisconsin sixty-nine Wisconsin highschool departments of manual arts. On the recent eastern trip, previously\nreferred to, nineteen schools were visited. With reference to the kind of\ninstruction given they may be classified as follows:\nThree colleges, each doing specific technical or vocational work for future tradesmen,\nforemen, and superintendents, or teachers.\nThree pre-vocational schools.\nFive elementary industrial schools.\nThree large high schools, two of them technical in character.\nOne continuation school.\nOne co-operative school.\nThree trade schools each doing continuation school work.\nSTATEMENT\n\nOF\n\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nIn describing the observations made in visiting schools I shall deal with\nthe public schools of the ordinary type first and refer principally to conditions inthose in Wisconsin as they exceed in number all others which I\nhave visited.\nUsually the construction work of the first four or five grades is given\nfor the purpose of general educational ends. Paper and cardboard, yam,\ncord, and raffia, clay and sometimes wood are used in this period as illustrative material and therefore become a means of carrying on more\neffectively the work of reading, language, geography, and number. To be\nsure, a certain emphasis is given to technique and to processes, but this\nlower grade work is regarded principally as a fundamental method in\neducation.\nIn the upper three grades of the school period below the high school\nwood is the principal material used, altho in a few places — not more than\na dozen, however, of the ninety or more regular schools with which the\nwriter is particularly familiar — light metal, clay, and sometimes cement\nhave a small place. It is a significant fact also that almost without exception the woodwork of these three grades takes the form of what may be\ncalled rather formal bench woodw^ork. By this is not meant that all that\nis done is the making of exercises, in fact abstract exercises are given only\na small place. Small projects are made. They are supposed to be useful\nwhen finished. While they may have some utilitarian value, they do not\nnecessarily possess the element of use for the one who makes them. This\nbeing true, they must of necessity be made more because the instructor\ndemands than because the pupil desires. A second significant fact is\nthat oftentimes it is very difficult to determine just why articles are\nconstructed. There is little apparent progress made in tool exercises, constructive elements, or co-ordination of muscular and mental effort. This\nmay be due to the difficulty in arranging a course for three consecutive\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNEEDED\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nARTS\n\n93S\n\nyears so that there shall be little duplication. Be this as it may, the articles\nmade during the early part of this period are usually small and quite impossible of good construction except by those who have had considerable\nexperience. There are notable exceptions to this rule to be sure, but it\n'must be remembered that I am endeavoring to give this observation to\nportray truthfully conditions in the majority of cases.\nIn comparatively little of the work which has been seen during the\npast four years has there been more than a slight consideration given to\ndesign, to construction which would compare with that of average commercial standards, or to good finish. I hesitate to say this, because of the\nexceptions to the rule, but it is unquestionably true that comparatively\nlittle of the work now being done in the upper three grammar grades in\nschools visited is more than average in quality judged from almost any\npoint of view which one may take.\nIn the high school conditions usually are much better but even here\nafter three and sometimes four years of grammar-school woodwork there\nis a deplorable lack of really high grade work. For the most part the\nfirst two years are spent in furniture and cabinet construction. Very\noften the article made is one which the individual selects because of his\ndesire for the finished piece. Little regard it seems to me is given to the\ntype of construction or to the grading of articles so that there shall be a\nprogression in elements of design or constructive details. If there is any\ntime when boys should become familiar with commercial shop methods\nin woodwork it must be certainly in the first two years of high school\nwhen they are completing their fourth, fifth, and sometimes sixth year\nof it. I have failed to find many schools, however, where the atmosphere\nof the manual arts shop is anything like that of the commercial shop.\nBy this I mean that there is usually exhibited only a small degree of the\nindependence which is the result of a continued and careful consideration\nof the common details in shop practice; an independence, also, which can\nbe shown only after a considerable period of time, made up of units of\nthree or four consecutive hours, is spent in a particular occupation. In\nthe selection of and planing-up of stock, the laying-out of many similar\njoints on several pieces, and the assembling of these one finds in observing\nthe work of all the schools in a given territory that only a very few have\nreached the standard of the most ordinary practice in the factory. In\none item alone — the condition of tools — the average high-school manual\narts shop is lamentably lax. Again in the finishing of work only a few\npupils out of the average-sized class will scrape and sandpaper until the\nmost easily used finishing material will give a good appearance.\nI shall not take the time to speak of other lines of shopwork such as\npattern-making, forging, machine-shop work, etc., for two reasons: first,\nbecause only in the larger cities are these branches taught, and second,\nbecause where they are to be foimd the standards are not very different\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfrom those reached in the woodwork m the same school. I will consider\nfor just a moment mechanical drawing, for it is a part of the regular highschool manual arts for the first two years of the high school, which by\nthe way are the only high-school years uniformly used for the manual arts.\nOnly a very few high schools in Wisconsin offer any line of manual arts\nbeyond the Sophomore year.\nFor the most part the mechanical drawing may be characterized in\none of two ways: either it is merely shop drawing, by which is meant\nthe making of drawings of projects which are made in the shop, or it is a\nprogression of formal exercises in about the following order: line work, a\nsheet of letters/ many sheets of geometrical problems (made, let us note,\nbefore plane geometry has been studied), a series of problems in theoretical projections, sections, and intersections, and a few working drawings\nungraded as a rule and given with considerable emphasis on the side of\nmachine design rather than on the side of good working or machine drawing to tell properly a shop story to a mechanic. The technique of line,\nletter, and figure in the majority of drawings is mediocre to say the least.\nNow I suspect those of you who are teaching the kind of work which\nI have been describing are by this time thoroly con\\'inced that I have\nexaggerated in my seeming denunciation of public-school manual arts.\nYou have said that I have been painting altogether too dark a picture.\nThat I have given it a deep brown in tone, I will admit, but it is none too\ndark, I believe. At any rating, an unfair arrangement has not been premeditated. Isit not true that when you \\dsit a manual-training center\nother than your own you go where you know the work is good ? Do you\nnot usually go to a school in a large city or do you not see the work put\nup at some convention where the best of the best is likely to be exhibited ?\nIf this is true, you wiU form an opinion not of the average work done or\nof the grade of much of all of the work done in a state, but only that of a\nlittle of the best work done. What has been attempted is to show, by\ngiving you my observations, the existing conditions in the majority of\nthe schools in one state and in a few in a second state. I have wished to\nshow also the average conditions in the rank and file of the public-school\nmanual arts departments. Bear with me a little longer and we shall have\na much more pleasing picture to look upon.\nThus far the older form of public-school manual arts work has been\nconsidered. Now I shall refer to the newer form — some type of vocational\neducation. In doing so we must make clear the age of children in a school\nand the particular type of school. The range in age is the same as that\nused in the first illustration, viz., from twelve or thirteen to sixteen or\neighteen years old. I shall speak of the work done in five types of schools.\nFirst: The pre- vocational school where some specific occupation is taught and by\nan apprenticeship method.\nSecond: The elementary industrial school. Here the training for some vocation is\nnot the object of instruction but rather it is to interest pupils and keep them in school\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNEEDED\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nARTS\n\n937\n\nby giving them a sufficient amount of time for handwork which has a commercial outlet\nFurther, interest is secured by making the related academic work correlate with and\nsupplement the shopwork. These two schools form a couplet at the lower age limit of a\nsix-year period of instruction beginning just before it is discovered that children are\nlikely to lose interest in school.\nThird: The intermediate industrial school or pre-trade school for children fourteen\nyears of age.\nFourth: The trade school, for boys or girls sixteen years of age.\nFifth : The technical high school.\n\nThe fourth and fifth form a second couplet at the opposite age limit\nin the vocational process of instruction which ranges from about the time\nof the sixth grade to the beginning of the Junior or Senior year in high\nschool or even to the end of the high-school period. The intermediate\nindustrial school forms the link between the two couplets and consequently\nthe two age limits.\nIn a series of articles in Vocational Education Professor Frank M.\nLeavitt has described some of these types so thoroly well that I may refer\nyou to his articles for details. I can also recommend the report of the\nChicago City Club on Vocational Education in Chicago and Elsewhere for\na most careful analysis of vocational education and for a division of vocational schools into several types.\nI wish now to record generally some observations regarding the work\nof these vocational schools as I did in the case of the traditional manual\narts schools.\nIn the schools of the first couplet, those dealing with the child of twelve\nto fourteen, two rather well-defined methods of instruction are followed.\nIn the elementary industrial school each individual gives approximately\none-half of his time to shopwork, selected because of its possible future\nuse in an occupational way. Four or five shop subjects are covered in\ntwo years, thus about one-half of each year is given up to each of the shop\nsubjects. , In wood, the principal material used in the particular school\nI have in mind, the projects made are not much different from those generally made in regular seventh- and eighth-grade manual arts work. The\nmethods of work, however, more nearly correspond to those used in commercial shops where each workman completes a single project rather than\nseveral individual and similar parts of some particular project.\nThe school day is divided between shopwork and related academic\nwork. The three hours which are devoted to this last class of studies is\ndivided between mechanical and freehand drawing, closely related to\nthe shopwork being done at the same period of time that a particular\nkind of shopwork is carried on, and to concrete arithmetic and English,\nand geography and history. These two last subjects are taught together,\nwithout textbooks, but with the aid of quantities of illustrative material\nsuch as samples of raw and manufactured products, lantern slides, charts,\nmaps, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nMy observation concerning the shopwork in schools of this type is\nthis: Time enough is given to the work to make it vital; great care is\nexhibited in the design of each project, its difl5culty of construction compared with the ability of the workman, the method of construction, and\nthe finish. The technique of the shopwork is of a high order, that of the\ndrawing not so good.\nIn the pre-vocational school many articles of one particular pattern\nare made. Each boy first makes one complete object, then he does a\nsingle operation on several similar objects, the work rotating about the\nclass so that each boy in turn performs each operation on several pieces,\nthus following what I have spoken of as the apprenticeship method. Naturally jigs and forms are used in this work and every effort is made to produce ahighly satisfactory completed article in as economical a manner as\npossible, both as regards the time of the individual and the material used.\nThe repetition of work in job lots develops a considerable degree of skill\nand a good technique is established. In this type of school three hours\nare used for shop practice and three hours for regular school work. This is\nof the closely related ty^e and usually taught to this class of children in\nsegregated groups; sometimes, however, in regular classes with no special\nattention paid to its relation to the shopwork. Here again, the quality\nof the work done is good.\nThe intermediate industrial school is really an elementary trade school.\nIn it boys enter upon the process of learning a trade, following the most\napproved methods so far as the individual's age and his increasing proficiency in the work will permit. They get just enough of the closely\nrelated academic work to make them intelligent workmen in their supposed\nfuture occupations. Each boy or girl selects his or her chosen field of\nwork when entering the school and continues in it for two years or imtil\nsuch time, within the two-year limit, as it may be thought best to change\nan individual to another line of occupational work, providing lack of adaptability to the first line is quite apparent. Good commercial standards of\ntechnique are maintained.\nThe technical high school for the high-school student compares in\npoint of time devoted to shop and drawing activities and methods of carrying on shopwork to the elementary vocational school. Each individual\nspends considerably more time in the shop processes than he would if he\nwere registered in a regular high school having a manual arts department,\notherwise the difference between the two is not great except that the\ncommercial shop methods are more nearly duplicated and the finished\nproduct averages much better.\nThe trade school for boys and girls sixteen or more years of age compares closely in the conduct of courses to the intermediate industrial school\nfor boys and girls fourteen years old. It differs in this particular, that\ncommercial shop methods are more closely followed. In fact in some of\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNEEDED\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nARTS\n\n939\n\nthe eastern trade schools one sees a miniature manufacturing establishment. Individuals do everything that it is necessary to do to learn a trade,\nbeginning with the simpler operations performed upon several pieces and\nworking gradually toward the more difficult ones. A change from one\njob to another is made when the first of the two is correctly done and with\nsome degree of skill. The academic work here as in the intermediate\nindustrial school is limited to those particular details which have a direct\nbearing upon the work of the trade being learned. All work when completed must be salable in the open market, consequently it must be standard\nin design, construction, and finish.\nThe third division of the thesis is reached:\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nWe will note, first, some of the most important differences between the\ntraditional form of manual arts as it is usually conducted and the vocational\nform for similar grades and ages of individuals.\nFirst: From two to five or six times as much time is devoted to the shopwork\nand drawing in vocational schools as in manual arts departments in regular schools.\nSecond: The academic work of the vocational school is given less time than in the\nregular school and is always of an applied type, being taught concretely either by the\nshop instructor or by some individual who is in sympathy with the vocational plan of\nintensifying study and treating it from the shop operation point of view.\nThird: Boys and girls are segregated in classes which consider only that branch of\nwork which the members of the group may follow as an occupation.\nFourth: Individuals of each sex are given the advantage of vocational guidance so\nthat those wishing a specific training may receive it without loss of time and effort.\nFifth: While different methods of doing work are used in the vocational schools,\nsometimes resembling closely those of the ordinary manual-training shops and sometimes those of the apprentice shop in a factory, the general conduct of work in the vocational school follows closely general commercial practice.\n\nIt is particularly with reference to these points that I suggest changes\nin the public-school manual arts work. They show unquestionably the\ndividing line between the old and the new in the manual arts, between\nthe amateurish or the play work and the corresponding work of the adult\nstandard. I cannot subscribe to all the methods and conditions found in\ncertain types of vocational schools for all regular public-school manual\narts departments. It doubtless is the feeling of those who are interested\nprimarily or wholly in the educational value of manual training that some\nvocational school methods look not so much to the interest of the individual\nboy or girl as to the interest of his or her future employer. Also the manualdraining teacher probably believes that the manual arts have long been\ndoing some of the things which vocational education now demands. But\nit seems to me that teacher, tradesman, and manufacturer alike must\nagree that vocational education as it is carried on in some schools at present\nshows clearly conditions which must obtain in the public-school manual\ntraining if it is to live up to its greatest possibilities.\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWe must see as we have not seen before that the manual arts of the\nregular public school have or may have economic value as well as social\nand general educational value. For the work of the upper grammar\ngrades and the high school it must become more specialized and less general.\nThe following conclusions have been reached with this general change of\nconditions in mind.\nThe needed changes in the manual arts under ordinary public-school\nconditions as I see them are as follows:\nFirst: There should be an industrial significance given to materials\nused in the lower grades. This is done in many places especially where\nhandwork is a concrete means of handling the general educational material\nof these grades. However, there is formality in lower grade construction\nwork quite as much, perhaps, as in other lower grade teaching. Where\ncardboard construction is maintained merely for the purpose of emphasizing a certain type of motor effort, and where weaving is taught only to\ninstruct pupils in the simpler weaving processes, there is not much or any\nof the possible general intelligence developed that might be if these materials\nwere used partly at least to emphasize their industrial, economic, and social\nsignificance.\nSecond: In the upper grades more time — not less thai} two and\npreferably three times what is now ordinarily given to manual training —\nmust be secured. If it is true that 'manual arts work should be classed\nas a laboratory subject and if laboratory work to be placed upon the same\ncredit basis as regular recitation subjects is given twice the time of recitation subjects, then we should expect at least ninety minutes per day for\nmanual arts in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. .\nThird: Besides the greater amount of time in these grades there must\nbe ultimately an opportunity in this period for a certain degree of specialization or better an intensification of effort upon handwork with possible\nfuture vocations serving as a guide for selection of subjects. The spirit\nback of the pre-vocational and elementary industrial school must prevail\nnot in these few and scattered schools but in all schools, for is it not\ntrue that in every school the majority of pupils need the vocational either\nfor vocational ends or for an incentive to hold them in school? I need\nnot refer to the many investigations which go to prove this point.\nFourth: In this upper grammar grade specialization we must have\nmuch greater effort in the direction of adult standards. By this I mean\nwe should do things not in the \"play at it\" or amateurish way but in the\nway men do similar work for which they receive their daily wage. This'\ndoes not mean that we must lose educational standards in the manual arts\nof this period. These must be retained. It does mean, however, that we\nmust put our manual training of these grades upon the basis of real work.\nTo do this in addition to additional time we must demand the methods of\nsuch schools as the Elementary Industrial School of Cleveland, Ohio,\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNEEDED\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nARTS\n\n941\n\nand the Agassiz Center Pre- vocational School in Boston, Mass. To my\nmind a combination of the methods used in these two schools is greatly\nto be desired in all upper grammar grade manual arts work. It seems\nto me that the trade methods of instruction such as are used in the Rochester\nBoys' Shop School and the Industrial School in Boston are not demanded\nin the regular public-school manual arts except in special schools desigr.ed\nfor a particular class, as is true in each of these schools and others like them.\nFifth: In the public high-school manual arts departments there must\nbe an opportunity for specialization from the first day of the first year\non. In other words, the methods of the best technical high schools and\nsome of; the methods of the trade schools must be introduced into all\nhigh-school work. As it is now, the first year of high-school manual\narts work is not very different from that of the last grammar grade, with\nrespect to any point except that of time allowed for it. The subject is\nusually bench woodwork and the kind almost a duplicate or a summary\nof the work of the two preceding years. Look over almost any outline\nof woodwork for the five years running from the sixth grade to the Junior\nyear of high school and you will find very little difference in methods of\ninstruction or in the class of work done in any two succeeding years. The\ngreat majority of boys, and girls too, whom we may hope to see enter\nhigh school must see in high-school work something more than that of\nthe traditional type or that which is general only in character. I believe\nthe junior high school is the solution of many high-school problems. In\nthe manual arts at any rate for many individuals the first two years in\nhigh school must become finishing years and this means that these individuals inthese two years must prepare for strictly vocational service.\nSixth, and last: For those who will continue in high school thru the\nfour years the specialization feature of the first two years is not desirable,\nat least not in such great measure as for those who will leave high school\nto go to work at the end of the Freshman or Sophomore year. For all\nothers, however, those who will complete high school but who will then\nenter some wage-earning occuf)ation the last two years at least must be\nspecialization years. Thus it seems to me that if the high school cannot\nprovide the necessary shop facilities, advantage should be taken of the\nco-operative plan as it is carried out in either Fitchburg or Beverly, Mass.\nIf cities the size of Fitchburg can successfully operate this plan, it should\nbe a possible one in almost any community.\nThe theory advanced in this paper is simply this: Give sufficient time\nto the manual arts from the beginning of the sixth grade on thru the high\nschool to make it vocationally worth while. Introduce methods which\nwill give pupils a real knowledge of work as it is actually done under commercial conditions when these conditions are good and considered standard.\nBreak down, to some extent at least, the pedagogs' standard of sequence\nof models and iron-clad progression in tool exercises and likewise break\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ndown the standard of a definite sequence of subjects. Why do we require\nboys to go thru two years of bench woodwork before we allow them to do\nmachine-shop work or enter upon the work of the forge-shop or foundry ?\nWhy do we still have woodwork for five or six consecutive years in communities where wood is little used in manufacturing processes but where\nthere may be a great deal of printing, work in textiles, or in cement and concrete? Massachusetts is discovering that work in textiles and printing\nare both highly satisfactory as manual- training subjects.\nMy plea is for a change toward greater latitude in selection of subject\nand closer application to commercial standards — a change which does not\nmean revolution, but evolution; a change likewise which does not mean\ndiscarding the good we know exists in manual training, but rather the\nretention of all this and the addition of all that is good and practical in\nvocational education. Such a change means new and continued life for\nthe public-school manual arts and extended opportunities for them to\ndo what may justly be expected of them.\nIS THE\n\nINTRODUCTION OF TECHNICAL SUBJECTS\nEIGHTH GRADE ADVISABLE?\n\nWILSON H. HENDERSON,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nIN THE\n\nTRAINING, SPRINGFIELD, ILL.\n\nBefore taking up this discussion, it may be well to define the word\ntechnical.\n\nWebster's International Dictionary gives this definition:\n\nOf or pertaining to the useful or mechanic arts, or any science, business, or the like.\n\nWe seem to be agreed that technical subjects should be taught, but we\ndiffer as to where they should be introduced. In determining this, I am\nreminded of a recipe for preparing trout which begins thus: \"First, catch\nthe trout.\" Now we must not do the Simple Simon stunt and expect to\ncatch the fish just where we think they ought to be, but we must go to where\nthe fish are. If we are to introduce technical subjects into our schools\nwhere they will do the greatest good for the most children, we must find\nwhere the boys and girls are who need this training and take it to them.\nOur compulsory school law is based on the theory that a child will enter\nschool at six, complete a grade each year, and by the time he is fourteen\nwill have completed the eighth grade. According to the theory, we should\nfind all of the children completing the eighth grade at fourteen, and if this\nwere so, the close of the eighth grade would be the logical place for the\nintroduction of technical subjects.\nThe schooling described by the compulsory attendance law is regarded\nas the minimum education which every child should receive, and it is not\nuntil he has this common-school education that the law is willing to release\nhim; yet the United States commissioner of education in his 191 1 report\nsays:\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nIN EIGHTH\n\nGRADE\n\n943\n\nIt is quite probable that less than half of the children of the country finish well more\nthan the first six grades, only about one-fourth of the children ever enter high school, and\nless than eight in every hundred do the full four years of high-school work.\n\nThe 191 1 Bulletin of the Bureau of Education entitled Age and Grade\nCensus of Schools and Colleges, by Dr. George Strayer of Teachers College,\nColumbia University, states:\nOmitting repeaters, the percentage of boys in cities of more than 25,000 population,\nin the entering group who actually enter sixth grade, would be represented by a median\nof 73 per cent; the seventh grade by a median of 55 per cent; while the eighth grade\nwould show a median of approximately 42 per cent.\n\nIn the spring of 191 1 the division of education of the Russell Sage\nFoundation imdertook an investigation in co-operation with the superintendents ofschools of 29 cities, to secure accurate information regarding\nretardation of school children. Among the interesting facts revealed are\nthe following :\nOf 100 children who enter the first grade, 60 reach the sixth grade, and 25 of them\nare over fourteen by the time they reach that grade; 40 reach the eighth grade and 14\nof them are over fifteen years of age.\n\nDr. Leonard Ayres' book Laggards in Our Schools, which is a report of\nextensive and thoro investigations of our public schools, shows that of\nT,ooo children who enter the schools, 272 reach the eighth grade, 145 of\nwhom are over fourteen years of age. Dr. Ayres states that over one-half\nof the children who enter school leave at fourteen. Thus there is a closer\nconnection between the age of fourteen and the leaving of school than\nbetween the fourteenth birthday and the completion of the elementary\nschool. These children who leave school at fourteen are the ones who are\nthe most in need of technical training.\nThe Illinois compulsory attendance law provides that all children must\nattend school until the age of sixteen unless the child is between the ages of\nfourteen and sixteen and is necessarily -and lawfully employed during the\nhours when school is in session. Nevertheless there are thousands of boys\nbetween the ages of fourteen and sixteen loafing on the streets in this state.\nThose persons who have so much faith in the efiicacy of a law compelling\nattendance until sixteen should bear this in mind.\nUnder the conditions that exist, it is obvious that to reach the children\nwho are the most in need of technical training, we must introduce it in the\nelementary school. But at once it is protested that we must not shorten\nthe period of childhood, that childhood is a refuge and should be guarded;\nthat fourteen is too young for specialization and a child at that age is not\nmature enough to choose his career; that it is child labor; that if the child\nis given skill the factory will claim him all the sooner; that it is contrary to\nour American principle of equal opportunity; that it is impossible and\nimpractical because 98 per cent of the teachers in our schools are women\nwho have no knowledge of technical subjects; furthermore\nthe pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nadolescent child has neither the judgment nor the physical strength necessary for this training.\nViewed superficially these may seem to be valid objections but with the\nidea in mind that the schools are maintained for the good of all the children\nof all the people, I should like you to consider them in the light of present\nconditions. First, \"We must not shorten the period of childhood. Childhood is a refuge and should be guarded.\" Childhood should be a refuge\nwhere, guided and protected, the child should be taught to protect and care\nfor himself so that when the protection is withdrawn it will not be needed.\nChildhood is a period of helplessness and during that period many a child\ncomes to school hungry and half -clothed, while the mother washes or scrubs\nfor a dollar a day. Is it right that we prolong that period of helplessness, or\nshould we teach the chUd something by which he may feed and clothe\nhimself and so relieve the mother ?\nThen, \" Fourteen is too young for specialization and a child at that age\nis not mature enough to choose his career.\" This may be true, but we\nmust meet a condition and not a theory. These children are not specializing when they go to work at fourteen, and they have no choice of careers.\nThey must take the work they can get, liking it or disliking it, fitting or\nmisfitting. The boy or the man with no skill or technical training has a\nhard time making a bare living, but a boy with proficiency in a skilled\noccupation can choose his own career.\n\"It is chUd labor.\" Does lat^or cease to be child labor at thirteen years\neleven months and twenty-nine days of age? These children do go to\nwork nine hours a day, six days a week, at fourteen, and what we are proposing isto have them work three hours a day, five days a week, under a\ncompetent instructor so that when they go to work their labor may be a\nlittle less irksome and the pay a little better. The term labor signifies\nwork which is impleasant or disagreeable to the worker. It gets its significance from the state of mind of the worker. With this idea in mind\ncompare from the boy's standpoint the work that is now done in the eighth\ngrade with what is proposed, and decide which is child labor.\n\"If the child is given skill, the factory will claim him all the sooner.\"\nRemember that the factory is now getting him at fourteen and the law will\nnot allow it to get him any younger. A school which will take the child at\nfourteen and give him a two years' course leading to skill and proficiency in\nsome occupation will keep the factory from getting him imtil he is sixteen,\nwhereas it now claims him at fourteen.\n\"It is contrary to our American principle of equal opportunity.\" On\nthe contrary it is contributing toward giving every child an equal opportunity. At present the boy who must go to work at fourteen has no\nopportunity to prepare for the work that he is to do. The child who can\nremain in school long enough to prepare for a profession has every opportunity. The United States Government will board, clothe, and teach a\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nIN EIGHTH\n\nGRADE\n\n945\n\ntrade to an Indian boy of fourteen, and some states and charitable organizations will do as much for a Negro boy, but the only way for a fourteen-yearold child of poor white parents to get the opportunity to learn a trade is\nto commit a crime.\n\" It is impractical and impossible because 98 per cent of the teachers are\nwomen.\" If, as some persons think, we have too few men in the elementary\nschools, this might be a good way to get more of them there. Our schools\ndo not exist for the good of the teachers, and if the welfare of the children\nrequires that more men shall be in the elementary schools, they will be\nthere. To state that it is impossible to give technical training in the\nelementary school seems folly when there are about fifty schools in the\nUnited States that are giving such training to children fourteen years of\nage, where a majority of the pupils in the eighth grade are over fourteen.\nIt requires more judgment to do some of the work that is required in\nthe eighth grade than is necessary in many skilled industries. I wish to\ncall your attention to some of the things demanded by the course of study\nfor the common schools of Illinois for the seventh-grade arithmetic:\nCommission and brokerage, different forms of compensation, wages, salaries, fees,\ncommissions. Tlie study of commissions for tax collections, agents' sales, lawyers'\ncollections, and brokers' purchases; stocks and bonds, promissory notes, banking business,\nbookkeeping, exchange, United States revenues, property insurance, life insurance, the\ndefinitions of expectation, level premium, endowment policy, mutual and old-line\ncompanies.\n\nFrom the introduction to eighth-grade grammar:\nIn the eighth year a somewhat full study of each part of speech is made. The formal\nclassifications are given, the different uses are reviewed, inflection and the rules of syntax\nare studied and some time is given to parsing.\nThis involves persistent practice in\nsentence analysis\nStudy gerunds; verbs of the old conjugation, or strong verbs;\nverbs of the new conjugation, or weak verbs.\n\nFrom the introduction to eighth-grade arithmetic:\nThe arithmetic of this year deals with mensuration. A knowledge of the elements\nof geometry is necessary. This may be gained experimentally by drawing and measuring,\nby paper cutting and folding, by applying one figure to another. Simple algebraic\nprocesses should be taught as they are needed in the development of formulas.\n\nIt seems to me that arithmetic is dangerously near being technical,\naccording to our definition, and that the grammar borders on child labor,\nand requires fully as much judgment as typesetting or bookbinding, carpentry or cabinet-making. Is there any reason why this mensuration\nshould not be taught by the construction of a real product as well as by\npaper cutting and folding ?\nTo make a living, a person must have something to sell, that is he must\nhave something, the use of which is valuable to someone else. The person\nwho does not have something to sell in sufficient quantities to receive in\nreturn the necessities of life is a parasite on the community. These things\nwhich a person sells may be divided into five classes:\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n1. Intelligence, knowledge, or brains by some other name.\n2. Physical strength, or muscle.\n3. Intelligence and physical strength combined, or skill.\n4. Personal influence.\n5. Honor, which includes virtue and integrity.\n\nTo illustrate: the physician markets the use of his brains or his technical\nknowledge. The ditch-digger or the hod-carrier markets his muscle or\nphysical strength; the surgeon, the watchmaker, and the machinist, their\nskill; the politician, his personal influence; swindlers and girls in vice\ndistricts sell their honor.\nIf the child is to go to work at fourteen or soon after, what can the school\ngive him to sell ? In this discussion we must eliminate the last two mentioned, and the first is out of the question as it is impossible to develop a\nchild's intelligence to a marketable degree. Neither can his physical\nstrength be suf&ciently developed to demand a living wage. The most\nadvisable course is to develop a degree of skill as it is in the most demand\nand brings the highest price. The child has both intelligence and strength\nsufficient to acquire a degree of skill.\nAs to the manner in which this may be done, I quote frorii the preliminary report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education,\nsubmilted at the Department of Superintendence during the Mobile\nmeeting :\nIn the first place, such expert testimony as we have indicates the presence of considerable waste time and energy in the elementary school. There is a very widespread\nbelief among school men that the fundamental facts, habits, attitudes, and ideals demanded\nby the general needs of our civilization can be fixed in the nervous system of the children\nin six school years.\nIn the second place, the compulsory education law under our present organization\ngives society control of the child only long enough to guarantee the abler child eight years\nof general training. It cannot guarantee him the additional years of vocational education\nrequired to make him an efiicient, self-supporting, and self-reliant citizen.\nTo shorten the elementary school to six years without impairing its efiiciency is to\nallow two further years of control that will guarantee every child who does not go to the\nhigh school some vocational education. In case of those children who are more given to\naction than to abstraction it is equally profitable to begin to center their intellectifal work\nabout an active vocation early. To begin vocational education with its practical lifecareer appeal, at twdve rather than at fourteen, is to save many a child from truancy\nand disinterest. It will extend their school life so that they are not too early driven into\nunprofitable and futureless employments. They will still take up much general training\nparallel with their broad study of vocational work.\n\nAs an illustration of how this technical training may be given in the\nelementary school, I wish to describe, briefly, an experiment that has been\nmade in Springfield during the past year. Hoping to do something for the\nboys who now leave school at fourteen and go to work in low grade industries, the board of education furnished two rooms, one with the regulation\nschool desks, etc., and the other with a small but complete outfit for printing\nand bookbinding.\nThe school in which the experiment was made is on the\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nIN EIGHTH\n\nGRADE\n\n947\n\noutskirts and is in what is generally called, a poor section of the city, A\nprinter was engaged to teach printing and was instructed to teach the best\npractice among printers and to have the boys turn out a good commercial\nproduct. A teacher familiar with the work of the upper grammar grades\nwas placed in charge of the schoolroom.\nNo boys were assigned to the school, but word was sent around among\nthe schools that any boys over thirteen who had completed the first five\ngrades would be admitted. The principals in our grammar schools are\njust like the principals in other places and they did not encourage good boys\nwho could do good work to leave their schools to go to the \"vocational\nschool.\" Consequently the class of boys who went to the school was not\nthe most desirable. Of thirty-three who attended, ten were under the\njurisdiction of the Juvenile Court. Two had served terms in the reformatory. With very few exceptions the boys were \"undesirables.\"\nThe following may give an idea of the economic conditions of the\nparents. Ten are miners, two are blacksmiths, two are car-repairers, one is\nan electrician, and one is a saloonkeeper. A number of the fathers are not\nregularly employed at anything. Five of the boys are orphans, and two of\nthem stay at the Home for the Friendless. The father of one boy was sent\nto the penitentiary and the boy had to leave school to help support the\nmother.\nThe boys worked in the shop one half of each day and in the schoolroom the other half. The academic work consisted of industrial history\nand geography, arithmetic, drawing, English composition with especial\nemphasis on letter- writing, penmanship, and spelling. In the shop, the\nboys learned to set type, operate the various machines, and do all the\nwork of a printshop. During the year, they did printing to the amount of\napproximately $400 for the board of education. This was in addition to\nthe exercise work.\nA few of the boys were not quite fourteen when they first went to the\nschool but all became fourteen before the close of the year. Of the thirtythree enrolled, ten left to go to work, three of them in printshops at fairly\ngood pay; four moved from the city, and seventeen remained until the close\nof school. A few left a week before the close so that they might beat the\nother fellows to the summer jobs. We gave one fellow up as hopeless and\nsent him back to the other school and the principal expelled him. He was\nover fourteen and had been loafing on the streets too long.\nWe found that with the one line of mechanical work, this type of school\nheld seventeen of twenty-eight of our poorest and seemingly most hopeless\nboys, almost every one of whom otherwise would have left school. We\nfound that it is possible to give boys considerable skill in a very tedious\ntrade. We also found that boys are not bad just because they like to\nmove about and do things with their hands, and we are wondering if\nperhaps our present system does not hiake some boys bad.\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nTo summarize\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nbriefly:\n\n. If the schools are to do anything to benefit the children, they must do it while the\nchildren are yet in school. As a majority of the boys and girls leave school before completing the elementary grades, those subjects that are taught in the high school do not\nbenefit them. Those who are the most in need of technical training are the children who\nmust make their living at an early age as only the low-grade industries are open to the\nunskilled and untrained.\nIt has been demonstrated that a large niunber of children can be kept in school for\na longer period by making an appeal to the vocational interest and at the same time a\ngreat deal can be done toward preparing them for a life in the industries without in any\nway detracting from their academic education. The placing of this training in the\nhighest grammar grade will furnish the children an incentive to remain in school until\nthey can enter these classes.\nSurely any training which will enable a large percentage of our future citizens to\nattain a higher education, a better livelihood, or a happier existence is advisable.\n\nDISCUSSION\nRobert W. Selvidge, professor of manual arts, Teachers College, University of\nMissouri, Columbia, Mo. — In my judgment the chief difficulty in our manual- training\nwork is that we have no well-defined, conscious purpose. It is useless for us to try to\nhide behind that blind called \"general educational value.\" When that is the only\njustification we can give for a subject it is dead and should be decently interred. We\ncannot justify manual training on such a basis. It must have a \"specific educational\nvalue.\" When we can set out these specific values we have a standard by which we can\njudge our work. As I understand it this is the desire of both speakers. We may differ\nas to what the specific things shall be but we have made a long step toward the solution\nof the problem when we try to name them.\nThe significant features of modern society are industrial and the essential elements\nin our industrial life are machine and factory production. This points to one of the needed\nchanges in the manual arts. We have been teaching various forms of handwork, in an\nindifferent sort of way, relying on its \"general educational value\" to justify us. The\nability to do various forms of handwork may be a very desirable accomplishment for\nthe man of leisure, just as music or painting may be, but it has very little industrial\nsignificance. If o\\xt teaching is to have any direct or specific value we must acquaint\nthe boy with modern industrial methods and processes. A great deal of the manualtraining work gives no more insight into modern production than does formal grammar.\nI am inclined to think we have too many kinds of industrial or vocational schools.\nI doubt the advisability of differentiating our schools for children before the age of fourteen. Above that we may give definite vocational or trade training or the student may\ntake the regular college preparatory course. In schools for children below this age we\nshould give them definite information concerning a number of industries with a careful\ntraining in some industrial processes. This I would give to all children and I would give\nenough of it to make it worth while. This is or should be the period for vocational\nguidance and such work should be of great value in determining the vocation.\nThe work described by Mr. Henderson is interesting and significant and it seems to\nme all children in the grades should have the opportunity for such training together with\ncompetent advice as to the lines of work to select in the vocational or trade schools which\nshould follow.\nI see no objection to the introduction of technical subjects, if you wish to call them\nsuch, even below the eighth grade, provided it is understood that you are not attempting\nto teach a trade but that you are trying to give the boys a clear insight into the actual\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nIN EIGHTH\n\nGRADE\n\n949\n\nworking conditions and requirements in the field of industry represented by the subject\nin order that they may choose with greater wisdom the vocational courses which they\nwill enter when they reach the age of fourteen. An attempt to teach the skilled trades\nbefore the age of fourteen will in most cases, I believe, result in incompetent workmen,\nlow wages, and the justifiable opposition of the skilled workmen of that craft.\nI have little patience with the \"widowed mother\" plea that children must enter\nindustrial life at the age of fourteen. Missouri and Illinois have shown the way around\nthat diflSculty by pensioning such mothers, who take care of the home, and send the\nchildren to school. I might say right here that I fear our social education is more neglected\nthan our industrial education. It will be necessary to give it more consideration before\nwe can proceed far with our industrial education.\nIn conclusion I wish to say that I stand for an elementary-school curriculum which\nwill give the boy of fourteen the widest possible basis for choosing his line of specialization,\nwhether it be industrial or professional. Let our secondary schools be schools in which\nchildren can specialize in the various vocations.\nL. L. Summers, director of manual training, State Normal School, Oshkosh,\nWis. — We have all been pleased and benefited by the masterly way the leading speakers\nhave treated the subjects under discussion this afternoon. Altho the papers have been\npresented under different names they treat of the same subject, for without the needed\nchanges for which Mr. Crawshaw has pleaded it would be impossible to introduce technical training in the upper grades of our common schools.\nWe are all in accord with the general conclusion but there may be some difference\nof opinion as to the best way to accomplish our aim. Everyone will agree that the public\nschools are maintained for the purpose of the general education of all the people, that as\nconditions change our schools should change to meet these conditions. There is now\na rapidly growing sentiment that our public schools must do more than this. In addition\nto providing this general education every boy and girl has a right to demand specific\ntraining for some trade or useful occupation.\nAre we ready as teachers of the manual and industrial arts to point the way ? Mr.\nCrawshaw painted rather a dismal picture of our achievements up to date. The statements which he has made are all true. Upon whom shall the responsibility be placed ?\nSchool authorities have been parsimonious in regard to time, equipment, etc. Schools\nfor training grade teachers have given the subject practically no place in their courses of\nstudy. Schools for the training of manual-training teachers have placed emphasis on\nthe training of special teachers for high schools almost to the exclusion of training supervisors for the grade so as to make it possible to start manual training when the child\nenters school. Neither have these schools fostered a close relationship and interdependence between the freehand drawing and design in the schools and the manual-training.\nIn many of our schools these subjects are as isolated as literature and pure mathematics.\nI shall have something to say in support of the many excellent ideas given us by the\nspeakers who have preceded me, but before I attempt this I should like to offer an independent suggestion.\nThe needed changes, as I see them, must be more fundamental in character and\nmust affect every grade in the entire curriculum. The training of the hand, the eye, the\nvoice, the physique is as important as the traditional three R's and should be given\nan equal amount of time. Some schools have made a beginning, but in comparison to\nthe importance which the subjects deserve our efforts along these lines are superficial\nand ineffective. By the time a pupil has finished the fifth grade he should have exhausted\nall the simpler uses of clay given in connection with his nature-study, reading, geography,\nstory-telling, number work, etc., together with some knowledge of pottery and an insight\ninto the industry. The work with paper should follow the excellent beginning made in\nthe kindergarten and should be connected with the regular school work of the pupil in\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nsuch a way that each would be strengthened. Beginning with the third grade this work\nwith paper should include the making of booklets in which drawing and design would\nform a very important element. This last-mentioned kind of paper work shoiold be\nthe forerunner of bookbinding and this training would be an excellent preliminary for\nthose pupils who would finally select bookbinding and printing for their vocation. Weaving, together with the making of a simple loom, should begin in the first grade. This\nshould increase in difficulty as the pupils advance and larger and more compUcated looms\nbe made and more difficult weaving attempted. Before the end of the fifth grade, the\npupils should be able to make ingenious looms which could be used in the weaving lessons\nand would also serve to illustrate the history and development of the weaving industry.\nThe other simpler forms of manual training could be treated in the same way. However,\nthe most important form of manual training for these first five grades is work in wood.\nI speak with conviction in this matter, having experimented with wood in these grades\nfor the past seven or eight years, and I am confident that many of the fundamental operations of the woodworking trades can be best taught before the child reaches the sixth\ngrade and taught at a time when it will do the child the most good from the standpoint\nof muscular development and control, the standpoint of interest, and the standpoint\nof the development of his imaginative and inventive faculties.\nMr. Crawshaw passes over the first five grades with the suggestion that the manual\ntraining taught should have an industrial trend. Schools training manual-training\nteachers have practically abandoned this field. I feel that the first five grades are the\nmost important years between the kindergarten and the college, and if I could suggest\nthe needed changes I would plan my course of study somewhat as follows: one halfhour for woodwork, one half-hour for the various other forms of manual training, one\nhalf-hour for singing, one half-hour for drawing, one half-hour for calisthenics and two\nand one-half hours for the various forms of academic work. The academic work and\nthe other forms mentioned would be so closely related that oftentimes it would be impossible for the observer to tell with certainty whether the pupils were having a lesson in\ngeography or clay-modeUng, reading or drawing, woodwork or number work. Number\nexperience would take the place of too much number drill. Drawing, clay-modeling,\npaper-cutting would take the place of so many oral answers in the reading, geography,\nand nature-study lessons. In short, an effort would be made to develop the whole child\nand to lay such a substantial foundation that a superstructiure in which the academic\nstudies were emphasized or a superstructure in which industrial training would be emphasized would rest equally secure.\nHow is this goal to be reached ? Every normal school must give at least one-third\nof the time in training its graduates to teach these non-academic subjects. If two years'\ntime is not sufficient then three years should be substituted. Our institutions training\nmanual-training teachers should so change their courses of study that it would be possible\nto train supervisors as well as special teachers of manual training. The work of the\nmanual-training and drawing supervisors should be planned together so as to make it\nmutually helpful. Drawing and manual training must begin when the child enters\nschool and must be taught by the grade teacher under supervision, and this most fruitful\nfield of manual-training effort be given the attention which it deserves.\nI believe with Mr. Crawshaw that the school should be made to fit the needs of the\nchild. For those children who must leave school before the close of the common-school\nperiod a special effort should be made to give them the best possible training. A systematic effort should be made to find out leading occupations into which these yoimg\nboys and girls enter and then so plan the last year's school work that it will be the most\nhelpful. For those who are only able to finish the common schools the work of the sixth\nand seventh grades should be of a general character, leaving the last year for specialization.\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nIN EIGHTH\n\nGRADE\n\n951\n\nL. W. Wahlstrom, Francis W. Parker School, Chicago, HI. — In the present days of\neducational doubt and unrest, when all our props seem to be kicked from under us, when\nwe wonder what our next step should be, it would be well for us to heed the injunction of\nthe apostle Paul to \"prove all things, hold fast that which is good.\"\nMany questions need to be proved again and yet again; when we think we have\nfinally solved them — lo, they bob up, in a new form. Confusion of terms often leads to\nmisunderstandings. Much of the so-called industrial training of the present day is as\nacademic and divorced from the true spirit of industry as the manual training which it is\nsupfKJsed to supplant, and this, as was so ably pointed out to us yesterday, is one of our\ndangers of the immediate future. On the other hand, there are at present and there have\nbeen in the past many manual-training teachers who have had the right vision and who\nhave been doing effective vocational training for the industries under the guise of the\nmuch-maligned term of manual training. Such experiments as Mr. Crawshaw and Mr.\nHenderson have pointed out to us are much needed at the present day to clarify our vision.\nSome of them, in truth, are not new but they are the kind that will bear constant repetition.\nI should like to paraphrase Mr. Henderson. \"If you wish to educate a boy — first\ncatch the boy.\" This is done by the type of school described, namely, the one in which\nthe technical and vocational aspects predominate. The hook is baited with interest and\nwith this as an incentive the boy will knuckle down to any amount of hard work. Drudgery\nand drill even become joyful labor under the higher vision of an immediate useful end.\nHe is a producer, an economic asset in his community. He is no longer a parasite. He\nfeels, swelling within him, the impulses which grow and develop into manhood — the\npower and desire to do things and to have a share in the world's work. It has been to our\neverlasting discredit that the schools in the past have taken every means possible to\ncrush out this instinct when it appeared in our youth, until, able to stand it no longer,\nhe has been forced into the industry to satisfy this craving for productive action. Here,\nto the everlasting discredit of the industry, he has been exploited and given a perverted\nview of life. How much better if the school meets its opportunity and provides the bait\nwhich will hold the boy long enough to send him forth into the industry with ideals\ndeveloped, ready to take his place in the world, and aid in solving the mighty problems of\nlabor.\nWe want technical subjects or, as Webster has it, subjects \"pertaining to the mechanic\narts and industries,\" introduced in the eighth grade and even lower. We want them\nintroduced with higher ideals than are often introduced to the boy in the factory.\nToo often introduction of technical work has meant the bringing-in of a so-called shop\natmosphere, frequently by means of substituting a tobacco-chewing or smoking artisan\nwith no vision or ideals, for the manual-training man.\nThe Massachusetts Report of 1906 showed that in many cases the factor which determined aboy's leaving school was not an economic or financial one but a lack of interest\nand faith in the school by both parents and boy. They were merely awaiting the age\nlimit to drop out and go to work.\nMany school men if they analyzed the situations in their school system would find\ntheir pupils attending school in much the same way as the Roosevelt delegates at the\nrecent Republican convention — \"present but not voting,\" waiting until the convention is\nover in order to get busy in their own way. It behooves us to look well to our educational\nmachinery; to see to it that we are not boss-ridden by outworn traditions — that we do\nnot use steam-roller methods to iron out the interest and enthusiasm of the boys and\ngirls delegated to our care and rob them of the privileges of education which should be\ntheirs. If we do, we lay ourselves open to the same charge, \"Thou shalt not steal.\" We\nmust apply the eighth commandment to education as well as to business and politics.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTHE MANUFACTURERS' VIEWPOINT\nEDUCATION\nC.\n\nR.\n\nDOOLEY,\n\n[Manual Training\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nDEPARTMENT,\nWESTINGHOUSE\nMANUPACTURING\nCO., PITTSBURGH,\nPA.\n\nELECTRIC\n\nAND\n\nIn these days of progress our educational system is receiving its share of\nattention. Great improvements are being made in buildings and equipment, in methods of instruction, in the care and improvement of health,\nsystems of organization, and school management, and in adaptation to local\nneeds in specific cases. These developments are good and may be passed\nwith perhaps a single warning against over-systematizing where the system\nreceives more attention than the product.\nConcerning this machinery of our educational system the manufacturer\nis interested largely in but one thing — the practical application of the\nschoolroom to productive labor.\nIt requires but a few practical problems to show the real use of a mathematical principle — to show that by a simple calculation the task becomes\neasier, and time and efifort are saved. The student gets a view of his mathematics as a tool — an entirely new thought. He gets a broader view of his\nwork, sees all sides of his problem at once, the possibilities, the limitations,\nand the relations to other problems. He is w^orking intelligently and he\nknows it. He is enthused over the great assistance his brain is able to\nrender his hands. He adds to his interest inspiration, and ideals of efficient\nservice begin to develop. He takes pride in his work.\nFormal education must accomplish two things; first, it must lay a\nfoundation upon which the student may build as high as he is able without\nany backward step. Second, it must enable the student to step out into\nlife at any stage of his schooling where either circumstances or his natural\nlimitations call him, fully able to use his mind and body to his best ability.\nAnd we might add a third; viz., all students shoiild leave the formal schoolroom, however high they have climbed — ^graded school, or graduate college\n— inspired to continue their search for knowledge but fully appreciating that\nthe world will always ask of them, \"What can you do ?\" and never, \"What\ndo you know?\"\nA young man or woman completes a prescribed course and we caU it\ncommencement, but the graduate does not get the idea imtil ten years later.\nBut the boy or girl who leaves school at the fifth or seventh grade never\nhears anything about this commencement, except as a thing he has missed\nand glad of it. Neither his teacher nor his text has fitted him for a useful\nlife altho he is very much in the majority.\nJust how far do^vn into the grades the things of our daily life should\npenetrate will probably always be a question and the answers will vary with\neach locality, but we are generally agreed that at present the change from\nschool life to real life is too abrupt.\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMANUFACTURER\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n953\n\nThe manufacturer is eagerly searching for men who can achieve, and\nwelcomes the modern development which is producing continuation schools\nand other forms of practical instruction.\nHowever, as important as the machinery of education is, the humaii\nelement is by far the more important. So far we have made little effort\nto reduce the classification of student abihty to a working formula, but\nthis must be done if our nation is to succeed industrially.\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nSTUDENTS\n\nPerhaps the greatest problem confronting the manufacturer is that of\ngetting the right man into the right place. This is also a tremendously\nimportant problem to society as a whole, for it means more eflScient living,\nand by efficiency we do not mean more product but less waste.\nFor a hundred years we have drifted quietly into a pride of our educational system which offered to each and every boy an equal opportunity to\nbecome president of the United States, or general manager of a railroad.\nWe have impulsively interpreted this to mean that the educational system\nshould force each boy as near to these goals as possible regardless of his\nnative fitness. The greatest need today is a wise and proper classification\nrecognizing mental and physical limitations as well as special adaptabilities\nearly in life, and then a training suited to each class. There has been far\ntoo much of a tendency among the common and secondary schools toward\ninfluencing any and all students to take higher educations. In fact, society\ntoday adds a degree of respectability to those who go to college simply for\ntheir going, and quite regardless of their fitness to assimilate and use the\n^ learning placed before them. The result is that today there are many students struggling their way thru high schools and colleges who ought never\nto have taken our present form of higher education, and who will never be\nable to make anything like efficient use of their training. Of course this\ntraining in one sense has done them no harm, but can society afford this\nextremely expensive way — expensive in both money and years of life — for a\nboy to find himself ? Would it not be better to surround him thru all his\nearly years with supervision close enough to determine accurately his\ncapacity and then train him accordingly? This will not force into the\ncarpenter's trade him who has capacity to design a locomotive, but rather\nwill make good carpenters, of those who would otherwise be shiftless day\nlaborers, tiresome preachers, and starving lawyers. He who has been\nschooled beyond his ability is more to be pitied than he who is succeeding\nwithout a so-called education.\nQUALIFICATIONS\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThis may sound like a tremendous responsibility placed upon the teacher\nbut it is only a rational step toward lightening the present responsibility.\nDoes not every mechanic study and know the characteristics of his material\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nbefore beginning to fashion a new article? Would he build a bridge of\nstraw or shape a summer hat of steel ? Of course there wiU be mistakes, but\nhow many mistakes are made at present ? How many boys have had their\ninitiative and genius of originality dwarfed by forcible conformity to one\nsystem ? How many men and women, engaged in what we call successful\noccupations, are really failures because they could have done more for\nsociety and have been happier had they been assisted along the lines in\nwhich nature best fitted them ? Many an excellent farmer has been lost,\nbecause as a boy he was sent to an engineering school thru social pressure\nand is now a very mediocre engineer.\nBut having made a classification, the teachers must do one thing more,\nviz., so inspire all students that their lessons imconsciously become vital\nparts of their lives and not mere dead pages of a textbook to be memorized.\nThis may be a matter of personality which all teachers do not have. They\nshould have it, and those who do not — well, they are in the wrong job, and\nfor the sake of the children, society, and themselves, too, should be removed.\nMany a first-class clerk, or seamstress, is struggling to make a poor-class\nteacher. We all suffer for this but put up with it for the sake of a false\ndiscrimination in the respectability of various occupations. We are more\nconcerned with what society sees us do, than with how well we do.\nIt will require teachers of great courage to insist on changes in the\nform of training for children of well-to-do parents, and it will require a new\ntype of school board to provide the many different kinds of training needed.\nTeachers of the future will be most carefully selected according to\nthe same standards, and trained in the same manner, as they will in turn\napply to their students. They will further be required to keep in touch with\npractical life thru regular commercial employment, at proper intervals.\nThe manufacturer's viewpoint might be expressed briefly as follows:\nFirst, the teachers must classify the students according to their several\nabilities and then train each class accordingly. This training is far more a\nmatter of inspiration and personality than of text. Teachers must get the\nright boy into the right kind of life-work for him. Second, the students must\ncome to industry thoroly imbued with all the humanitarian attributes\nthat can be crowded into the one word character. They must find joy in\nservice and pride in a job well done. Third, their scientific training should\nteach them to think independently, thoroly, and quickly, and it matters\nlittle if their minds are not loaded with cataloged information which, at~\nbest, is imcertain memory. These things must be worked into our educational system if our country is to lead the nations of the world industrially.\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nMODERN\n\nAPPRENTICESHIP\n\nTRAINING\n\nAPPRENTICESHIP\n\nTRAINING\n\nJAMES A. PRATT, DIRECTOR\n\nOF WILLIAMSON\n\nFREE\n\n-\n\nWILLIAMSON\n\nP.O., PA.\n\n•\n\nTRADES,\n\n955\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF MECHANICAL\n\nIn presenting my subject there are a few principles of education which\nI think it wise to mention in order that the reason for remarks relative to\ncertain courses coming under review may be the clearer. In my discussion\nI have assumed that a teaching method, giving due recognition to apperception in trade work, is regarded as being of value, and that a definite course\ncontent is of a decided advantage, the course to be divided by definite unit\nperiods, and closing in a well-rounded completion.\nApprenticeship is the most primitive educational system known;\noriginally, and as applied in some cases today, its method is purely one of\nimitation and the content such material as lies nearest at hand, rather than\nthat which best serves in developing the individual along well-defined lines.\nTeachers must admit that it is inefficient when these important points are\nrealized. The larger business organizations have of late years condemned\nthe simple old-style apprenticeship, not because of shortcomings in method\nor content, but because the capable journeyman was not developed; yet\nin many cases we still find apprentices indentured who for the first year\ndo laborers' work, run errands, and are the butt of jokes, and in succession\nget what may fall to their lot by chance. The number of boys who are poor\nworkmen after completing such apprenticeship is very large indeed. Such\nis one of the types of training which is still to be found in many organizations, especially those of small size. The larger organizations have in many\ncases made an effort to improve their apprenticeship training, and developed\nwhat is known as a factory apprentice school. This plan gives the boy a\ncertain degree of supervision while at his work in the shop, and an amount\nof schooling commonly of a technical nature. I am personally acquainted\nwith a number of graduates of at least one such course. Some of them are\ngood mechanics, some are poor. As large a percentage who satisfactorily\ncomplete the course are as capable as we find graduating from any other\ncourses, so criticism as to efficiency of training on the basis of evidence in\nmy possession would not be in good form.\nThere are, however, two serious drawbacks to these schools, considered\nfrom the professional educator's standpoint. First, they are decidedly\nautocratic; only a chosen few can get any consideration as candidates.\nIn the plant which I have in mind, I personally know that a very high type\nof boy is selected, and usually a correspondingly desirable mechanic is the\noutcome. It is certainly the private employer's privilege to refuse opening\nhis organization to any boy who may present himself in order that he may\nhave a trial at a trade, when he (the owner) is under an obligation as to\ntraining; hence many a diamond in the rough does not even get a glance\nfrom the selecting eye. The second feature is the lack of teaching. We find\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\none man in charge of from 50 to 250 boys and this man has other duties in\nthe plant besides attending to the training of the apprentices; in fact the\nteaching is a secondary feature. This involves the monitorial system of\nteaching, that is, an older apprentice teaching a younger, with a lessening\nof knowledge on the part of the one taught, until his understanding of\nprinciples is so limited that he makes an expensive blimder commercially,\nwhen the boy is taken in hand by the instructor and the process described\nis repeated. The drawbacks of the monitorial system are so many and great\nthat I need not discuss it before a body of teachers.\nThe third method of training which comes to mind is the trade school.\nNot all schools indenture their boys, but since I am assuming apprentice\ntraining to refer to the development of any learner of a trade, these schools\nare open for discussion under the title before us.\nThe periods of training in trade schools vary greatly; many such organizations make no effort to fit a boy to earn journeyman's wages, but handle\nonly elementary work; others offer more extended courses, enabling the\ngraduate to earn young journeyman's pay directly upon completion of the\nwork covered. The trade schools, like any other organization, may have\nfaults; they may be the home of \"fogyism\" and a center for the trying-out\nof useless personal fads, and errors of omission and commission may go on for\na great period of time without interference. One sometimes finds schools\nwhere no one takes any interest in improvement. The boy here soon feels\nthat all he need do is put in the time, and get as much fun out of life as\npossible, which in effect produces a commercial drone who can show but\nlittle in the way of training for the money which has been spent on him.\nOn the other hand, there is no organization which is so free to develop the\nbest there is in a boy. All the faults extant in a school are purely matters\nof choice and not of necessity, because their elimination does not interfere\nwith some other issue at stake which must retain precedence. The trade\nschool is called to teach a trade, that is all, and any board may arrange\naffairs in such a way that it shall be possible to require a trade school to\ngive a well-rounded training, not being compelled to accept excuses because\nof interfering factors. In addition to this desirable condition, it is possible\nto offer a good academic course, which may be completed in the same time\nthat the boy formerly spent in getting nothing but shop training, due to a\nproper arrangement of his class periods and study hours, and to efficient\nmethods of teaching.\nThe public support of trade schools has always been regarded as an\nitem of large expense, but as a matter of fact there is no type of advanced\nschool which can be operated at so reasonable a cost, if arrangements are\nmade, whereby exercises are of such a nature as to be turned back to the\nschool system for use as equipment.\nAs an illustration of what can be done in this connection, we have put\nup at Williamson School during the years 1910-11 and 191 2, construction\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartraeatJ\n\nMODERN\n\nAPPRENTICESHIP\n\nTRAINING\n\n957\n\nto the value of $26,747 which at 44 per cent for labor gives us a labor credit\nof $3,922 per year, and at present the jobbing, allowing twenty cents per\nhour for labor, demands a credit of $7,165 per year, making a total credit\nto be allowed for work done as exercises of $1 1 ,087 per year. This work was\nentirely on our own property, and in the public-school system it will be the\nwisest policy to maintain such exercises on public buildings, since by this\nmeans many park. pavilions, museums, bath-houses, as well as much equipment for the school buildings may be run as exercises, giving to the community many things which it could not otherwise have; to the boy excellent\nexercise material; and to the general workman, contractor, or manufacturer,\nperfect freedom from competition of the school in the general field. There\nwas recently a plea in one of the eastern dailies asking philanthropists\nto donate this sort of equipment, all of which could be had at small cost, if\nthe city had a trade-school system.\nJust at this point, by way of suggestion, I would call your attention to\nthe Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the City of Rochester, where one may\nfind some valuable information relative to methods and per capita cost for\nthe industrial training of boys between fourteen and sixteen years of age.\nThe co-operative plan of apprentice training is the latest scheme in the\nline of a system. By this plan the boy spends part of his time in the shop,\nand part of the time in school; he gets no shop training in the school,\ncovering only classroom subjects here; as operated at present, so far as I\nknow, there is no shop teaching worthy the name being done in any of these\ncourses.\nThe advocate of the co-operative plan claims that by sending the boy\nto the business firm he can earn wages while learning, and that it eliminates\nthe cost of shop equipment and material for working, as these are furnished\nby the firm with which the boy is co-operating. I grant that certain\nfeatures of a trade can be developed in a shop without a teacher. Among\nthese are thie faculty of associating successfully with others, self-confidence,\nan appreciation of one's true place in an organization, as well as the appreciation of practical reliability; all come to one in any organization more or\nless intuitively. Briefly stated, this is a kind of rounding out and it is\ntaught to none of us, but gathered by ourselves; it may be more quickly\ngathered in some environments than others. It is such a line of development as this which may be left to the shop without a teacher. For the\nbest results all other features should have careful teaching; none of the\nco-operative plans in operation at present give the matter of shop teaching\nany serious attention. I believe a plan can be adopted whereby some of the\nbenefits due to teaching can come to the boy, the shop be used to a certain\nextent, and at the same time permit the boy to earn money, if necessity\ndemands it, under an arrangement of one year in the school, fitted with a\ngood trade shop where the boy is taught fundamentals in both theory and\npractice of trade. The second year let him go to the business firm and\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwork for just what he may be worth, gathering to himself experience;\nlet him be communicated with and examined from time to time by the school\nauthorities; don't ask the firm to promise any teaching, they won't do it\nanyway; simply let the boy be paid what he is worth. At the end of this\nyear let him return to the school and take his advanced constructive work\nand speed practice imder proper guidance. From such a course he ought to\ngraduate capable of earning a young joumeyraan's rate of pay. Let us\nbear in mind that the boy gets no efficient teaching in the plant; making a\nschool out of a business firm cannot be expected, as modem methods of\nmoney-making and good teaching do not travel in parallel paths. If they\ndid there would be no need for trade-teaching systems of any kind, as any\nboy who wished to do so could find ample opportunity for thoroly learning a trade. During this second year in the shop, however, the boy can\nearn a much higher wage than would be possible if he came directly from\na school where he had received no industrial training, thus enabling him\nto gather a reasonable sum which would be of assistance to him.\nWe have now briefly reviewed in a general way the modem methods of\ntraining and come to a point for consideration which is worthy the attention of such a body as is present today. I sincerely believe that some effort\nshovild be made to equalize the trade-training offered to the youth of the\nland. I recently made a study of a nimiber of different organizations, in\nwhich more than five thousand apprentices are enrolled. These organizations cover aU the instruction types which we have reviewed. All these\nare presented as trade courses and a study shows the great variety of graduates offered to the world. It is a certainty that these men are very different\nin ability after leaving the courses, and it is an equal certainty that many\ncan give but a small degree of satisfaction as mechanics, due to their very\nlimited training. On the other hand it appears that the apprentice in some\ncases is spending too much valuable time in getting information which\nshould become his possession in a briefer period. The work of correlating\nthe total period and the apprentice's development is one which is worthy\nof consideration and if properly carried out will be of benefit to the youth,\nthe employer, and the community.\nDISCUSSION\nCharles F. Perry, supervisor of industrial education, Milwaukee, Wis. — To\ndiscuss the \"Manufacturer's Viewpoint of Industrial Education\" and \"Modem Apprenticeship Training\" is to consider an element of most vital import to the employer of\nskilled labor — namely, his future workmen — from the viewpoint of the employer.\nIt avails but little to discuss today regarding guilds and the old-time apprentice\nsystems and how boys used to learn their trades. What are the opportimities today for\na young man to become a skilled mechanic ?\nThere are, broadly speaking, four kinds of plants in which a young man may learn a\ntrade today. First, the shop which takes the apprentice a definite time, probably four\nyears, and makes no promises of any kind. He must serve and absorb as best he can.\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nAPPRENTICESHIP\n\nTRAINING\n\n959\n\nSecond, the shop which is willing to enter into a compact with its apprentices and assures\nthem a definite amount of experience on all of the machines in the plant. Third, .the\nplant which guarantees a definite amount of shop experience to each apprentice, plus a\ncertain amount of instruction in mechanical drawing, workshop mathematics, and\npossibly some instruction in a few of the fundamental laws of physics and chemistry.\nFourth, a good trade school.\nOf these four different avenues which young men may take today to become journeymen earners in some chosen trade, obviously the employers of the first two mentioned\nclasses have very little if any viewpoint whatever on industrial education. The fourth\nclass, the trade school, is not up for discussion, leaving the third class or the one wherein\nthe welfare of the apprentice is really a matter of concern to the employer.\nThat it is a vital question is proven by the action taken by an increasing number of\ncorporations and manufacturing plants in giving the subject of skilled help needed in the\nimmediate future concentrated thought and study, in employing expert assistance to\nplan courses which will draw promising young men to become apprentices, which will\nretain them thru their period of indenture, and which will permit this to be done at no\nloss to the employer.\nWhile the subject to be discussed is the \"Manufacturer's Viewpoint of Industrial\nEducation,\" it is evident that in weighing it in his mind the manufactiuer must include\nthe viewpoint of the apprentice toward the manufacturer and the opportunities he has to\noffer. There ought to be and must be mutual concessions. Primarily the apprentice\nis to the employer as any machine or source of income. He wants the thing that turns\nout the most work and consequently brings in the largest returns. He is not running\nhis plant for the sake of making journeymen. Without doubt, many employers today\nwill tell us that the apprenticeship system has been a source of deep anxiety to them.\nMany will frankly admit they are discouraged and accuse the young learners of as much\nselfishness as they themselves are accused of. Just as soon as many apprentices attain the\nsavoir faire of the plant in which they start to learn their trade, even tho the agreement\nbetween the employers and themselves has been mutual and not a legal or binding one,\nthese apprentices will \"jump\" this job and hire out to some other employer, if not as\njourneymen, then at an advanced period in the understood term of apprenticeship.\nThis \"jvunping\" of apprenticeships is one of the much-discussed subjects at meetings of\nmetal trades' and manufacturers' associations.\nIn a nutshell, the attitude of all plants to their apprentices with possibly a very few\nexceptions is one of giving the youth a chance to absorb what he can from his environment. In effect, the employer says to the young man who apphes to him for the opportunity to learn a trade, \"You may work in my shop and use your eyes and train your\nmuscles, and because I give you this opportunity you must make for me a certain nimiber\nof each of the things you learn to make.\" This is fair. These are the conditions under\nwhich I served a five-year apprenticeship as machinist and tool-maker, and not once in\nthose five years did my foreman, when he gave me a new job, instruct me how to do it.\nI was supposed to have used my eyes on other jobs and at the same time attend strictly\nto the many repetitions I had to make as the weeks and months of my own apprenticeship rolled by.\nI consider the apprenticeship course as outlined by several large manufacturing\nplants and corporations today superior to all other methods excepting the apprenticeship served in a good trade school. The efficiency of the graduate of a modem plant\nunder the third classification depends upon two very important facts, the kind of product\nmanufactured and the quahty of the same. The value of the manufacturing plant with\nthe last mentioned apprenticeship system to the conmiunity's market of journeymen\ndepends upon the number of apprentices it graduates yearly.\nWhile every possible effort to improve the lot of the apprentice should be welcomed.\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nit is evident that each modem plant is not caring for any more apprentices than its\nimmediate needs demand; and the nimiber of plants thruout the country having as\nthoughtful and liberal apprentice cotirses as conunercial conditions will allow are so few,\nthat it is evident that by no means as many worthy young men have the opportunity\nto learn trades as would like to do so.\nThe great change which has come over manufacturing conditions in recent years and\nwhich has brought us to our wonderful status of specialized departments has made successful apprenticeship training more and more difficult, and the tendency toward specialization is yearly gaining more and more momenttun, thus increasing the complexity of the\napprenticeship problem.\nAside from the fact of the increasing nimiber of trade schools in this country there\nwill always be the youth who for various reasons — among them, principally, financial\npressure to earn — will choose to become a jotimeyman thru the avenue of the commercial\nshop.\nHow can this problem of increasing difficulty of training skilled mechanics be met ?\nAmong the list of helpful suggestions which would come in response to such a question\nthere are two which should prove helpful. First, the full meaning of each trade which\nrequires a period of service in order to master its fimdamentals should be made clear.\nThe entire outline of each trade in its minutest possible detail should be printed and made\navailable to every youth and manufacturer who wishes this information. Thus the\napprentice may see at a glance how he is progressing. It is safe to assiune that there are\nvery few shops in each community which offer facilities to master the entire list of fundamentals inany one trade. It will be found that the trade courses as outlined will consist\nof two divisions — the actual trade or shop practice side and the theoretical part. There\nshould be a night school, possibly in some of the manual-training departments of some of\nthe city high schools, where the apprentices may go to have their questions answered on\nthe \"why\" side of their trade. If it is foimd not feasible to have a system of exchange of\napprentices from shop to shop, the young men should be furnished with some opportunity to receive instruction in night classes on the practical side of their trade, especially\nalong the line of fundamental parts of the trade not attainable in the shop where they\nare serving their apprenticeship.\nSecond, the manual training in our public schools shovild be such as to reveal each\npupil to himself, as to whether he desires to follow the life of an artisan. When we consider the large number of boys who leave school when the law says they may, at fourteen\nyears of age, also when we consider that practically 90 per cent of all the workers in the\nworld's market are earners by virtue of the manipulation of their fingers more or less\nskilled, and that the large majority of this stream of fourteen-year-old boys will drift\ninto work more or less mechanical, it is vital that the only training that they have had\nwhich has tended to develop their hands and eyes be of the kind that has instilled some\nideals which will prove of true value in their immediate future.\nLewis Gustapson, superintendent, David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades,\nSt. Louis, Mo. — My discussion this morning wiU be limited to certain thoughts that have\noccurred to me in connection with the papers that have been read. What I have to say\nwill therefore be rather disconnected.\nFirst: There can be no question of the need for systematic instruction in the industries. The organization of trade schools like Williamson and the organization of teaching\nsystems in manufacturing establishments like the Westinghouse Company are in themselves an indication that the conditions existing in modem business are not conducive to\nthe instruction of apprentices. Only by modifying these conditions — ^by putting the\napprentice into an educational environment, that is, into a school, whether it be within\nthe factory or without — can the proper instruction be given.\nSecond: The aim of the school and the aim of the factory are diametrically opposed\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nAPPRENTICESHIP\n\nTRAINING\n\n961\n\nto each other. The school deak with potentialities. Its eye is on the future. It does\nnot ask the student, \"What are you?\" but, \"What may you become?\"; not, \"What\ncan you do ? \" but, \" What can you be taught to do ? \" The factory deals with actuaUties.\nIts eye is on the present. It asks, \"What do you know now?\" \"What can you do\nalready?\" Its main object is a saleable product. Wherever the factory inaugurates an\neducational department it does so only as a compromise, as a sacrifice of present returns\nfor future gain. The factory school arises because the other agencies (e.g., the industry\nitself and the existing schools) are inadequate to furnish the training which the future\nworkmen of the factory need. Whenever these agencies shall rise to the occasion the\nfactory school will drop out.\nThird: The co-operative plan of industrial training has on the factory side certain\nserious defects : (a) Few men in the factories are competent to teach the shopwork, however\nwell they may know it; (b) There is often not only a great lack of interest in the apprentices on the part of those competent to give instruction, but a decided unwillingness to\nteach; (c) The needs of the business, the necessity f»r turning out work rather than\nworkmen, the fact that the employer and the workmen have not time to teach, together\nwith the fact that the business is often limited in its range, preclude instruction. (Hence\nthe inauguration of shop classes and factory schools, i.e., the segregation of apprentices\nwhere they will not be in the way and where they can be taught under favorable conditions.) This is not to be taken as a condemnation of the co-operative plan ; but merely\nas a precaution against certain difficulties.\nFourth : The matter of the proper length of course for trade schools in this country is\nvery much unsettled. Experience would indicate that four years of preparation for a job\nat the bench is too long, but that three years for the younger and two years for older pupils\nis about right. The determining question must be. How much of the trade shall you\nteach? How far shall you reproduce shop conditions? How far shall you endeavor\nwithin the school to furnish skill, speed, and experience? There are certain things in\nevery occupation which no school can economically attempt to supply.\nThe suggestion made this morning that courses be arranged so that the pupil work\nthe first year in the school, the second year in the shop, and the third in the school again\nhas much to recommend it. The rub would be, however, to get the boy, first, into the\nright kind of shop, and then, at the end of the year, to get him back into the school.\nMost boys who get a taste of earning money are as hard to catch as colts in the pasture.\nFifth: In the papers this morning, as in the papers at most conferences bearing on\nindustrial education, the emphasis has been placed on the trade school and on education\nfor the trades. This is doubtless because in the trades the lack of proper training is most\npainfully felt. We must not lose sight, however, of the fact that there are many divisions\nof industrial training not included in training for the trades and that vocational training\nis a wider term than industrial.\" The trade school, the factory school, the co-operative\ncourse are all only preliminary steps toward the solution of the problem of how the workers\nof the coimtry shall be trained to do their work. They do not begin to reach widely enough\nto answer the demand. Before the demand can be answered there must be an extensive\neffort everywhere on the part of the public schools. These form the only educational\nagency that can reach all the people everywhere. Some good work is aheady being done\nby the schools. Just what should be done in the future, experiment must decide. Private\nschools may serve as experiment stations; manufacturers' schools may serve to reveal\nand meet peculiar conditions; the main task must rest with the schools of the public.\nIn solving the problem the public school musr steer between Scylla and Charybdis,\nmust make early training broad without smattering, must make later training intensive\nwithout cramping. It must not make the mistake of forcing into carpentry the lad who\nmight design a war vessel, and it must at the same time see that the lad who would never\nreach the point of designing a vessel of any kind shall have the chance to become a good\ncarpenter if he so desires.\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nFrank H. Selden, director, Department of Mechanical Science, State Normal\nSchool, Valley City, N.Dak. — From the discussion to which we have listened it appears\nthat the trade school as a factor in education may well be discussed under two topics:\n1. What it can do.\n2. What it cannot do.\nThat the trade school has a place and can produce results of value has been so well\nshown that I think I may well omit a discussion of the first division of this subject and\ndevote my few minutes to a consideration of what the trade school cannot do and possibly\nindicate a way by which that left undone by the special may be accomplished by the\ncommon or general school.\nWhen we have done all that can be accomplished by the special school there will\nyet remain a large nimiber of boys and girls likely to enter industrial occupations who\nwill not have been reached by our special schools. Can these pupils receive a training\nin the common schools that will fit them for industry ? If this can be done, then there\nis a task in the matter of trade or industrial training that concerns everyone having to\ndo with the public schools.\nFrom the time the lad of Woolwich Arsenal became the greatest worker of iron of\nhis day, tho he did not learn a trade or attend a trade school, there has been something\nin industry that boys could get that would insure their success in trade work without\npassing thru the usual routine of learning a trade. Why could he do this ? I think I\nsee the answer in the statement of Samuel Smiles, as he says :\nHenry Maudsley had a power of analysis and synthesis that gave him power to\nmaster the work so that without passing thru a regular apprenticeship he soon surpassed\nthe old tradesmen.\nIf this be true, then have we not the key to the problem ? Is not the great need of\ntoday a training that will give boys this power of attacking the problems of industry\nintellectually rather than by the tedious process of old-fashioned apprenticeship? I\nthink we could find a few of our modem so-called trade schools actually teaching their\nwork in this manner. Is not the great need a constantly increasing number of Henry\nMaudsleys who are able to apply great principles to the problems of the shop ? Is not\nthe one class of boys that is really in great demand those boys who are adaptable and\nteachable and who have the power of meeting and readily conquering new problems ?\nHow are we to accomplish this ? By teaching in every school the science of which\nHenry Maudsley was the first great teacher — the great principles that underlie the working of all solid materials. Can this be done ? If, as Mr. Smiles asserts, Henry Maudsley\ncould teach such eminent mechanics as Joseph WTiiteworth and Joseph Clement in his\nshop school, is it not reasonable to suppose that with all the advance of a century both\nin the knowledge of this science and in methods of teaching we ought to be able to teach\nthis science in our school shops at this time ? Can anyone who is familiar with the life\nand work of Maudsley and his pupils doubt that there is a science of working solid materials\nthat can be taught and that leads to exceptionally proficient workmanship ? Is it likely\nthat there is any longer a valid excuse for teaching the craftsmanship of a bygone age ?\nWhen we take up the teaching of the science of working solid materials and make it\na part of every school course because it is of exceptional value as a part of a liberal edu. cation, then there will be no occasion for teaching trades except to those few pupils who\nmay, by some slip of fortime, miss the usual opportunities of the common school.\nWhen this is done we no longer shall be obliged to ask pupils what they expect to\ndo after leaving school, for then every pupU may study the science of working solid\nmaterials as a part of a Uberal education and on leaving school know that he has the\nnecessary qualifications to make good in any line of industry in so far as a school is necessary to insure success. I think the manufacturers will much prefer the boy who has the\nbroad foundation and is capable of learning the special details of a trade quickly and well\nto the one who is only trade trained.\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depariment]\n\nMODERN\n\nAPPRENTICESHIP\n\nTRAINING\n\n963\n\nSome may say I am talking only theory. Let me assure you that any who wish\ncan have very positive proof that this is not theory. Those who will search earnestly\ncan find traces of this science being taught in many schools, sometimes only across the\nhallway from another shop class where it is absolutely unknown.\nThe sole reason why it has not become more generally a part of school work is that\nthose who are in position to determine the subject-matter of our school courses are prone\nto class all schooj shopwork as of the same nature and especially do they fail to sefe the\ngreat differences that exist in so-called educational manual-training courses. There is\ntoo much looking at shopwork in a general way, too much determining of policies and\ncourses on casual inspection and general information.\nAnd now in closing, without taking time to elaborate these statements, I wish to\nsuggest that instead of expending so much effort in establishing trade schools, in the\nsplitting asunder of America's most distinctive and most democratic institution we search\ndiligently for the better elements in our present school shopwork and develop this work\nto the science that it may be and ought to be. We shall then have the higher grade of\nmechanics that must necessarily follow the teaching of this science and also the even\ngreater blessing of an undivided system of schools for all.\n0\n\nH. E. Miles, of the National Association of Manufacturers, Racine, Wis. — The\ntrade schools offer no adequate solution.\nI believe, however, as much as anyone in the\nsplendid work they are doing for a very few. With aU the fuss and effort of thirty years,\nfrom 1881 to 191 1 there were established in this country only ten trade schools with an\naverage attendance of less than 150, often not over 100. Two or three have been added\nsince. The total regular students are fewer than 2,000, or about the same as the number\nin the continuation schools, at the end of the first or second year of their establishment, in\nCincinnati alone.\nThe average maintenance cost per pupil per year is from $180 to $300, to which\nhas to be added the personal expense of the students, they having little or no earning\ncapacity during the school term. The average output in graduates is about 700: think\nof this: only 700 out of a population of ninety millions, and a school population of twentyfive millions, and tens and tens of millions at work in our industries.\nFurthermore, the graduates of the trade school are so well educated and skilled that\nvery few of them remain as journeymen : they rise thru the journeymen's positions to\nplaces as foremen and superintendents, and of leadership often unrelated to their trades.\nCONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThere must underlie and be closely affiliated with our few trade schools a vast number\nof continuation schools wherein children by the hundreds of thousands will support\nthemselves by about five days of work per week with a half-day to a day of schooling\nthat interprets the work of the other days; and of part-time schools, still more thoro\nand of higher accomplishment. From these two and other like schools, our trade schools\nsome day will gather the cream of the product, and make, not the superior men they\nnow make, but men still more capable, and trained directly for the highest positions of\nleadership and industrial development.\nPRE-VOCATIONAL\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWe must also have pre-vocational work in the elementary schools with an appreciation of the cultural and educational value of industrial work. In other words, especially\nfor the great body of concrete or hand-minded children in the seventh and eighth grades,\nwith some similar consideration for those still younger, recourse must be had to prevocational studies, which have been shown in recent years, in many cities, to be of infinite\nvalue in brightening up the so-called retarded children, in developing in them such virtues\nas concentration, love of work, respect, and ambition, and the ability actually to do the\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Manual Training\n\nproblem in mathematics, etc., that they camiot do in the abstract lessons of the printed\npage.\n\nOUK CHILDREN NOT EDUCATED\n\nHalf of all the children in the United States quit school by the end of the sixth grade.\nOnly one child in three finishes the eighth grade; only one in five enters the high school;\nonly one in thirty finishes the high school.\nThe new conception, then, concerns the educational salvation and direction of this\n50 per cent of the child life of the nation, the children of today, the adult, controlling,\nresponsible life of tomorrow. An infinite mistake is committed in the failure to educate,\nin any sense, more than half of the population. We are wasting the human resources\nof the nation, infinitely our most precious possession, estimated by the way, by Professor\nFisher of Yale, to be of the money value of $250,000,000,000 and five times the total value\nof all our other resources combined. Proud as we are, we have done the relatively little\nthing in developing our physical resources. We must now do the infinitely greater\nthing — develop the citizenship, make of each child the best possible, the most efficient\nand valuable social unit, for his own sake, and for the sake of the community and the\nstate.\nADOLESCENCE\nAnother loss lies in the loss, except imder the criminal statutes, of all control and\ndirection by the state of its youth in the period of adolescence, say from fourteen to seventeen years of age. This is the critical time of life, when the will asserts itself, the impulses\nof maturity are felt, and when, as is recognized by all countries educationally more alert,\nthe developing character needs guidance and cries out for it, for the estabUshment of\nstandards, for interpretation, and for the strengthening and development of judgment.\nGermany, France, Belgium, Austria, Switzerland save and infinitely strengthen\nand develop the manhood and efficiency of their people, by retaining an educational\ncontrol thru these years.\nCAPITAL AND LABOR\nToday our factory children look upon a shop too much as upon a jail. There has\ndeveloped among a considerable part of the adult factory workers a dislike, almost\na hate for work. Substantially all of our native-bom factory workers are the boys\nwho left school in the sixth grade, just grown up. They have had little education except\nthat of the newspapers and the chances of the public platform and the street.\nIndustrial education rightly includes courses in civics, in social rights and responsibilities. One-half of the trouble between employer and employee, between capital and\nlabor, so called, will disappear when our workers have the education to which they are\nentitled, and better understand what are their rights and how to secure them; what are\ntheir obligations, and how to observe them.\nCITIZENSHIP\nIn abandoning, educationally, during generations, one-half of the growing population in mere childhood, the American state has put itself in real peril. For various\nreasons no vital hurt has come, but now, with every citizen fast coming to feel and assert\nhis equal power, it is beyond question that every citizen must be informed that he may\ngive and take, in reason and with understanding. It will not be enough to have good\nworkers; there must be everywhere a high and intelligent standard of citizenship.\nAN INDUSTRIAL NATION\nWe have become an industrial nation. Each year shows a less percentage of population on the farm and a greater in the cities. While our exports, so-called manufactured,\nare large, 56 per cent are exceedingly crude, like lumber, flour, and petroleiun. We used\nto speak of our \"limitless natural resources.\" We now see that under present processes\nthese resources will be exhausted within a short time. We export cotton at 14 cents a\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nAPPRENTICESHIP\n\nTRAINING\n\n'965\n\npoCind, and buy it back in fine linen at $40 a pound. We export bar iron and re-import\nit as razor blades. We export hides and import gloves. We export copper and import\nart bronzes. We must acquire greater skill to the end that our exports shall carry the\nmaximum and not the minimum of high class labor. Industrial education, first of all, is\nfor the entire citizenship, and secondly economic; humanizing thru the industries, thru\nthe day's work and as part of it.\nThe National Association of Manufacturers has taken an advanced and comprehensive stand upon this subject. I shall be glad to send you, upon application at Racine,\nWis., its interesting and instructive report upon it. The association also earnestly desires\nthe criticisms and advice of educators to the end that its efforts be helpful and well directed.\nIn the open discussion, Frank H. Selden, of Valley City, N.Dak., took the floor\nto reply to a statement that he was in error in regard to superior intelligence of our high\ngrade mechanics.\nMr. Selden said in part:\nI do not claim that we are competing with Germany in all lines of manufacture;\nwe are skimming the cream of the world's trade; we are selling abroad those things that\nrequire a knowledge of mechanical science in their production, and buying, in return,\nthose things that depend upon craftsmanship and the cheaper forms of labor. A prominent American jobber in tools and machinery of all kinds stated that, altho his firm\npurchased tools and supplies of every nation that has such things to sell, the only tool\nthat they find advisable to purchase of Germany is the little German bit. The jobber\nalso stated that the reason Germany could compete in supplying the bits is that manufacturers in other countries having plants and capital large enough to do such work\ncould find some more profitable line of manufacture.\nThe Germans themselves recognize the Americans' superiority, as shown by German purchases of high grade machinery. One large manufacturer of machine tools,\nin equipping a new plant in Germany, purchased every one of his high grade machine\ntools from the United States. Other data in regard to this fact may be found in an\narticle published in the American School Board Journal of July, 1911. The Germans\nare imitators rather than leaders, and, therefore, altho this question of trade is in some\nrespects secondary, it in reality touches a fundamental principle. For whether we look\nto Germany or to ourselves for our ideals of industrial education will determine very\nlargely whether we develop a race of imitative mechanics to do the cheap grades of\nmanufacturing, or a nation of individual, original, and progressive mechanics who will give\nour manufacturers power to skim the cream off the world's trade.\nAnother case in point is the fact that an American saw manufacturer has been able\nto drive G^man saws almost entirely from the German market to their own better class\nof mechanics. A most careful search in regard to the condition that brought this about\nshowed very conclusively that the reason for the German and English manufacturers'\nnot holding their home trade was that neither nation had studied the saw scientifically,\nthus forcing the conclusion that the American is no doubt far in advance of any other\nnationality in his knowledge of the science of working solid materials.\nIt is, therefore, evident that our problem is opt to follow Germany in her plans,\nbased, as they are, on imperialism and craftsmanship, but to develop in this republic\na line of industrial education that will produce the scientific mechanic. We should strive\nto maintain our place as a manufacturing nation by educating our mechanics to produce\nthose things that require the highest type of mechanical intelligence and also to maintain\nan American standard of society and living.\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "966 *\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nDISTRIBUTION\nMARY\n\nS.\n\nSNOW,\n\nOF INCOME,\n\nYEAR\n\n$500, $1,000, AND\n\nFOR FAMILY\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF FIVE\n\nOF HOUSEHOLD\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nARTS\n\ntManual Training\n$2,000 PER\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nIn a meeting of so seriously intentioned a society as the American\nHome Economics Association, no subject, with the sole exception of pure\nfoods, has a right to a larger space on the program than the one which\nwe shall discuss. With several government volumes already recording\nthe findings of the Committee on Research into the Increased Cost of\nLiving, and with ex-President Roosevelt throwing it out as a lure and a\npromise that he will bind himself to do the same thing, his promise leaving the implication that having discovered the cause he will immediately\nremedy it, it is meet that women in every part of the land shall seriously\nstudy how they will spend the wage so hardly come by on the part of\nthe wage-earner — that the wisdom and skill in the spending shall match\nthe earnestness and zeal in the earning.\nIt is time that women definitely discussed the actual value of a loaf\nof bread in terms of flour, labor, and fuel, and compared the result with\nthe price paid by consumer when ordering by telephone, delivering by\nwagon (special and hurried), wrapping, bookkeeper's time for the account,\nand other expense accessories are added. Whether or not we shall have\nco-operative bakeries, laundries, groceries, and markets, should enter into\ndiscussion of this subject; whether or not larger appropriation of money\nand longer time should be given in the public schools to training in housewifery, also belongs in the argument; but most of all should come the evangelist who shall have the power to awaken all women to the appreciation\nof the fact that the labor and strain of the husband in earning any one of\nthe stated incomes should be met by similar earnestness and expression\nof power on the part of the woman in the spending.\nWomen are the spenders of most of the money that is earned. The\nlaborer who gives the wife the pay envelope on Saturday night knows\nthis well; so does the wife to whom, in the spending of the same, with\nall our theories of percentages, food values, and textiles, we have little'\nto impart, so deeply has life driven the lesson. She knows very well\nwhat can be realized from chfck, brisket, and plate cuts of meat. The\nteacher of household science must gather her classes from a higher social\nstratmn before she will find real ignorance on these subjects. It is true\nthat she can teach them little charms of preparation and serving which\nthey prize and have joy in taking part in, but the keen wisdom in marketing\nwhich poverty has forced upon them has many a lesson for the expert\nteacher.\nStudents of theoretical budgets have worked out many elaborate\nschemes of ideal divisions of income, which, after all, are a generalization\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF INCOME\n\nFOR\n\nFAMILY\n\nOF FIVE\n\n967\n\nfrom the experiences of the race, and not jn any respect original discoveries\nof methods by which clothing may be increased by diminishing rent cost\nor food. All income distribution must in the last analysis base itself on\nthe unit and not the family, and the unit has come to be accepted by all\neconomists as the man, the woman being estimated as 90, the child from\neleven to fourteen as 90, the child from seven to ten as 75, the child from\nfour to six as 40, and the child of three or less as 15. A family, therefore,\nconsisting of,\nHusband\nWife\nGirl,\nBoy, 912\n\nBoy, 7\nGirl, 5\nBoy, 2^\n\nshoidd be considered, as computation of food needs, as 4.85 men. This\nwill concern only such as elect to consider these incomes in a severely\nacademic manner. Since the intention of this paper is rather social and\nobservational, this consideration is left to the speaker who follows.\nInformation for this discussion has been gathered from many sources,\nincluding governmental researches, Mrs. More's admirable work on Working Men's Budgets, settlement researches in eastern cities, the very valuable\nreports on Chicago Housing Conditions by Miss Breckinridge and Miss\nAbbott, some very naive and interesting data furnished by New York\npublic-school children thru the efforts of an exceptionally valuable principal,\nand work done by the household arts pupils in Chicago high schools.\nThe information and conclusions of the trained social workers are reliable\nand workable, they having sifted, preserved, and recorded the matter\nnecessary for generalization. The data and conclusions of the elementaryschool children and the secondary-school pupils are valuable for the illuminating glimpses of the home feeling and attitude toward the life struggle —\nas, for example, under the heading of amusements, at least one-fourth\nof the girls state that the girl (16) and the boy (12) must earn their own\nmoney for themselves and a girl (9). This computation is made with\ndelightful cheerfulness and no expectation of failing of suflScient diversion.\nExtensive explanations are made as to why larger allowance is made for\nthe clothing for the girl than for the mother, the implication being that\nthis fact is damaging to the girl's character unless she makes it quite clear\nthat the condition is temporary.\nIt was very marked that the girls who came from homes of small\nincomes had vastly better judgment in the value and distribution of money.\nThere were but three pupils of the number who estimated constant hired\nservice in the $2,000 income, and but 20 out of 870 girls who estimated\noccasional hired service (like washing). Not any girl included any hired\nservice in the $1,000 or $500 income. Very few omitted savings as an\ninevitable apportionment in the $1,000 and $2,000 incomes, and more\nthan half of the number included insurance in all three types.\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n(Manual Training\n\nThe $500 income instantly became the center of interest, since the\nmembers of families of this group rarely reach high school; never, unless\nthey are in some way self-supporting. They needed to be constantly\nreminded that thousands of families are living on that and less. It then\nbecame a problem carrying its own satisfaction in academic solution.\nIt seemed to them, as it does to most people, that in the United States with\nits comparative freedom from caste and inherited privilege, and its half\na fruitful continent to feed a nation, that it should be impossible that\n\" 10 millions people are sunk in poverty, 4 millions of them in receipt of\nrelief\" — at any rate we are so informed by no less an authority than Robert\nHunter. Half a million laborers in Illinois alone earn an average of $575\neach in a year, provided they are employed every working day. The\nvast number earning below $500 who create this average is appalling to\nthe social worker and should be startling to those enjoying the grace of\ncomfortable incomes.\nIn the consideration of all the incomes, the ordinary distribution\nhas been used of food, rent, fuel, lighting, clothes, sundries.\nIn a carefully compiled government study of 65 average families,\nhusband and wife and five children, the following figures resulted for the\n\nyear:\n\nFood\nRent\nFuel\nLighting\nClothing\nSundries\n\n$193 . 76\n86 . 31\n23 . 90\n3 . 69\n54- 18\n92 . 16\n\nThe item of sundries includes insurance, which most of the families\nmaintained; church, to which many of them contributed; the doctor,\nschoolbooks, carfares, and other small expenses. Estimating this family\nas 4.85 men, the food cost less than 80 cents a week apiece, or less than\n12 cents apiece per day. It means all the train of incapacities which belong\nto undernourishment, anaemia, rickets, susceptibility to disease, inability\nto do mental work, and frightful strain on moral stamina. Why marvel\nat shiftlessness, improvidence, bad housekeeping, and yielding to temptation? Marvel, rather, at the persistence of the life-spark. The item of\nfuel $23 . 90 is increased in interest when it is remembered jthat the cost\nof fuel to the poor is increased often more than 50 per cent by reason of\ntheir being obliged to buy coal by the bucket, and wood by the bundle.\nIt is useless for the economist to counsel the poor on this subject. The\nwoman has not and never can have the money to buy coal by the ton,\nflour by the barrel, or canned goods by the dozen. One child states innocently that fuel may be had for nothing by the children who hunt it on the\nrailroad tracks. Our tradition that economic precocity should not be\nforced upon children sounds flat and tasteless as a subject of discourse,\nwith a child speaking thus.\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF INCOME\n\nFOR\n\nFAMILY\n\nOF FIVE\n\n969\n\nThe rent item of $86.31, or a trifle more than seven dollars a month,\nwill mean little to people who have not seen the places which can be had\n■for such price. The reports of Miss Breckinridge and Miss Abbott on\nChicago housing conditions are vivid and accurate, setting forth with\nminute particulars the places out of which thousands of children come daily\nto the great public schools, confidently expecting the secret to be revealed\nto them whereby their condition will somehow be magically changed.\nThe item for clothes for this average family of seven is $54. 18 for the\nyear for all. The wife of one of our presidents once chose to tell the women\nof the country how to dress on $100 per year, and great and loud was the\noutcry. If any of the women of the ten million whom Hunter describes,\nand whom all school-teachers know, interested themselves in the controversy, they must have considered it about as entertaining as a recipe for\nenduring the tedium of a ride in the park in a touring car. Their clothing\nis haphazard, second hand, and insufficient. They suffer excruciating\nmisery in winter. The children leave the schoolroom reluctantly, clinging\nto its warmth and comfort as long as possible. The wretchedness and\nsqualor of the clothes of these poor kill the self-respect of the wearers as\nfast as they reach consciousness of differences.\nThe heart of childhood has fires of joy which nothing can quite quench,\nand no spectacle is more appealing than the grace and abandon of these\nchildren flinging themselves into the spirit of the folk-dance unconscious\nof any drawbacks in heavy and broken shoes or ill-fitting and ragged\nclothes. If one wanders long and far enough in the public schools, one\nfinds a great number of teachers who make up to the children in many\nways for the burdens which society lays on their shoulders. Like Tolstoi\nand one other, we ask, \"What then shall we do?\" The public school\npatiently takes one burden after another upon itself as society wearies\nor fails under the load, but can society devise any scheme by which the\npublic school may force society to believe that the laborer who works\nhard every working-day and is sober and self-denying should somehow\nreceive more than $500 a year as a wage for the tireless labor of production,\nsending in abundance to the markets of the world what immediately\nreturns as a stream of gold ? Five hundred dollars cannot clothe, shelter,\nand feed a normal family, with high resulting efficiency. Thousands of\nfamilies are subsisting on it, but society will ultimately pay.\nIt is comparatively easy to work out the budget of the family with\n$500 to provide for 365 days. One need not worry over percentages and\nlogical divisions. If the children are naked, spend some money for clothes\nand go without food; if they are hungry, buy food and go naked; if the\nrent is due and the landlord impatient, pay it and go without both. Books\nare no problem, since as one child very simply states: ''Of course the children of this family will have fund books,\" meaning the books furnished\nfree to indigent children in schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "970\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe industrial education report of 1900 has an illuminating bulletin\non what the trained and the untrained man can earn. The man we have\nbeen considering is im trained and at 35 years his maximum of $640 is\nreached, when he declines steadily to $200 at 65. The trained man on\nthe other hand at the age of 35 years has reached $1,270, and climbs on to\n$1,365 at 45, and declines to $1,000 at 65 years.\nIn turning to the budget of $1,000, the sum is so princely in the light\nof the $500 family that one is tempted to become scientific. Indeed, to\nuse the city of Chicago as an illustration of a large city, it is found by\ngeneralization from the latest census report that $1,202.55 P^'^ yosit is\nthe average wage of the salaried person; the term salary applying to the\nperson paid weekly, monthly, or yearly in distinction from the one paid\nby the day. There are in this city 54,821 such, who on this average salary\nsupport from one to seven and often more people. Add the fact that the\npurchasing power of these dollars is steadily decreasing, so that the money\nwhich would have purchased 100 loaves of bread 10 years ago will buy\nbut 95 today \"with no relief in sight,\" as they say of convention weather,\nand one is forced to the experiment of attempting to make mathematics take\nthe place of bread and butter, and long study of the method of spending\nthe money make up for the meagerness of the amoimt to be distributed.\nDr. Engel teaches that, whatever the income, we shall find the items\nof rent and clothing maintaining a constant average for each of 25 per cent\nof the income. It is a very interesting phenomenon that it is the experience\nof the race upon which we depend for scientific data. None of the sociologists pretend to teach that the world is doing the thing wrong. They\nsimply arrange the data in an orderly way and call it a science, which,\nafter all, is the definition of science. Mrs. Richards differs so slightly\nfrom the Engel generalization that the variation may be ignored. In\nshelter, people, like water, tend to seek their level, and if they ambitiously\nor unwisely strive to reach above it and violate the law of ratio, again,\nlike water, they are unstable and tend to calamity.\nThus if the $1,000 salary is drawn upon for more than $250 in rent,\nfood or clothing or other well-being is endangered. So definitely is this\nfact fixed in the minds of most people that we decide promptly and with\ngreat definiteness concerning our neighbors, that they are or are not living\nin a house they cannot \"afford.\" Hygienic conditions above all, availability to school, and other cultural influences, character for decency of\nthe neighborhood, kind of highways, transportation, lighting — all must\nenter into the selection of this house which shall cost the tenant but a\ntrifle over $20 a month. The pushing-on of tenants caused by business\noccupation of neighborhoods with consequent increase of value of ground\nspace, as well as improvements adding to value of environment, forces\nthis $1,000 family farther into suburbs, where soon the inherent and compelling desire to own one's place brings a deepening of thoughtful ness\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF INCOME\n\nFOR\n\nFAMILY\n\nOF FIVE\n\n97 1\n\nabout expenditure which presently analyzes the budget quite as skillfully\nas Engel with all his mass of material. Nothing can more swiftly and surely\nsteady and improve good citizenship than owning a home. It quickens\nthe imagination as to what it means to the other fellow if a neighborhood\nis degraded by liquor-selling, the social evil, or whether or not it is a hardship to have poor streets, poor lighting, poor sanitation. The welfare\nof the group is a matter of indifference to the casual dweller, but the family\nwhose \"place\" has been paid for by pinching and saving is there to stay\nand environment is important.\nThis family of five shall be clothed with another $250. The scientific\nanalysis of the family makes it equivalent to 4 men, who may spend $62 . 50\napiece on clothing. This must mean boots, hats, and underwear in suffiency; outer clothing of decency and respectability. The mother must\nappear at the woman's or parents' and teachers' club with her appearance\nin keeping with her hopes and ambitions for the children. It is easy for\nthe public schools to prepare women to carry on nearly all the clothing\nconstruction for the family in the home, thus increasing both quantity\nand, better than that, quality. But it is difficult to preserve this valuable\nattitude of self-sufficiency in the presence of the pageant of complexity,\ngorgeousness, and display which the pupils see in the windows of the department stores. If for two years influential shops should elect to present\nin their windows simplicity and refinement alone, the effect on the girls\nwho are destined to marry the man with salary of $1,000 or less, or more,\nwould be so far-reaching that all of society would feel the effect in a clearer\nbasing of real values in living. Those who ride with wage- and salaryearners morning and evening, study their faces, hear their casual conversation, and see them rush to their work feel somewhat of the strain of human\neffort that provides money for the tawdry, the elaborate, the bizarre, and\nthe useless that seems to attract so easily as it is displayed in the shop\nwindows.\nThe problem of warmth and comfort must be faced and the woman\nwho faces the task of buying woolen clothes, outer or under, for the household has an opportunity to sit in judgment upon the \"fine Italian hand\"\nof the tariff-maker. It will be an interesting moment when some great\nnumbers of women come together as they did recently at San Francisco\nand spend an equal length of time studying Schedule K; valuable to hear\nthe conclusion as to why one may not for a reasonable sum of money\nshelter the children from the biting north wind. The writer saw a woman\nshopping for \"all-wool\" dress goods and after tediously raveling and pulling she said, \"Well, I will take the samples home, I will be back tomorrow.\"\nThe clerk turned to the next customer with a weary smile. The customer\nasked, \"Do you have many like that?\" and he answered, \"No,\" and both\nmuch relieved turned to the customer's affairs — and yet this was precisely\nwhat all women should do. The buyer of the department store did just\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthat, only more thoroly. The Avoman is spending the money capital of\nthe business in which she is engaged for life and if she scorns to be a good\nbuyer or if she is too ignorant to be a good buyer, either the family is\ncold and himgry or the bread-winner must make another spurt to make up\nfor her mistakes.\nFood has a ratio which is in inverse proportion to the size of the salary.\nIn a $500 income it was 60 per cent, in a $1,000 income it is 30 per cent,\nand more than anywhere else in the home management the mother needs\nknowledge, good judgment, and diligence in business. Regarding this\nfamily still as the scientific unit of 4 men, there is the sum of $300 to be\nspent for food. This represents $75 apiece for the scientific unit, or\nSi. 44 a week for each. Discussing this subject not long since with one\nof the most expert dietitians in the country, she declared that it could\nnot be done except with as large a group as twenty, considering the standard\nof living which should be maintained. But the reply is unanswerable,\nit is done. We can count the calories and remain in consternation at\nthe results. Meanwhile the children grow and prosper in and out of\nschool. Their eyes are bright, their heads are clear, their spirits are high,\nthey leap and run. Their well-being is maintained, but a scrutiny of the\nhands of the mother is very revealing as to where the burden falls of keeping the children well, strong, and happy. The children pick up many\npennies at trifling tasks which pay for their pleasures and often help pay\nthe grocer. They get an economic precocity which is often revealed by\noutbursts of almost supernatiu^al wisdom on the part of children in the\ncookery classes as to where extraordinary grocery bargains may be had\nin the neighborhood — children of eleven and twelve ask the privilege of\nbuying in class quantities at preserving time, describing all the while\nwith tumultuous eagerness the variation in prices in the range of half a\ndozen blocks in all directions. Mother has not yet taught them the saving\nthat can be managed by the use of the telephone.\nThese people, like the other group, cannot buy in large quantities;\nthey must pay the everlasting and crushing tax of the person whose crime\nis having meager money in his purse. Instead of buying six bars of soap\nfor a quarter they must purchase five bars at five cents each. They must\nbuy potatoes by the small measure, and canned vegetables by the can,\nwith all the extravagance in prices which this implies, and they can do\nno other way. The remaining $200 must be diAaded among fuel, light,\nchurch, insurance, carfares, amusement, schoolbooks, the doctor, incidentals, and sa\\dng. Out of hundreds of budget problems worked out\nby high-school girls in Chicago, only eleven omitted saving. If one is\never inclined toward pessimism throw a problem which is real into the\nhands of a group of high-school girls. One hears vast lamentation of\ntheir frivolity, of their extravagance, of their lack of purpose — space is\nlackingjfor discussion of this — ^but this statement is reiterated: with hun-\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF INCOME\n\nFOR\n\nFAMILY\n\nOF FIVE\n\n973\n\ndreds of high-school girls working on a budget of $1,000 per year for a\nfamily of five, only eleven omitted saving. The attitude toward insurance\nis shown in another part of this paper. Their conclusions in regard to\nclothes invariably carried the definite implication that they were to make\nthem themselves, including hats. It is true that the household arts group\nin the high school is not preponderant, except, of course, in the Girls'\nTechnical High School. In this school the details of the budgets were\nworked out sufficiently in detail to be a working program for the inexperienced. All schools brought power enough to the question so that from\nthirteen high schools working independently and freely the final generalizations were those of Engel and Mrs. Richards. The variation was the\nconstantly recurring expectation that the older children were to contribute\nsomething to their own support — and all precluded any type of private\ninstruction.\nThe $2,000 income should maintain the 25 per cent average for rent\nand clothes (and this average is a veritable average of the three incomes)\nand practically the same average for food. The attempt is here made not\nto confuse the discussion with a vast afray of figures. This gives the unit\n$2 a week for food in this family. This again means close and careful\nbuying — $1,200 is thus used for food, clothing, and shelter. The operating\nexpenses, such as fuel, lighting, service, if any, and what Mrs. Richards\ncalls \"higher life\" — meaning books, travel, insurance, and so forth — are\nincluded in the remaining $800. The attitude of the high-school girls is\nthat there should be very little hired service in the families with this income.\nThey very perceptibly increased the appropriation for church and charity —\nalso laying great stress on dentistry as if this were a luxury — as it is. To\nanyone with serious intention to be valuable to the world in ways great\nor small a perusal of Miss Addams' Spirit of Youth in the City Streets will\nexplain the steady increase in the percentage allowed by the girls in the\ngraded budgets for amusement — all were very definite, many describing\nwhere good things were to be found for a small sum.\nMuch stress has been laid on what the girls did, since it brought out\nso much of realization of money values. The discussion of the $500 income\nin many cases spread thru the whole school and into the neighborhoods\nand deepened the responsibility of the students toward the necessity of\nunderstanding.\nAs in the beginning so in the closing of this paper, the contention is\nmade that most of the money that is earned is spent by woman and the\nreturns from it will be in direct proportion to her wisdom, her intelligence,\nand her vision.\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL\n\nDIETETIC\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR THESE\n\nVARIOUS\n\nISABEL BEVTER, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT\nOF HOUSEHOLD\nUNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nHOUSEHOLDS\nSCIENCE,\n\nIt seems well to acknowledge at the outset what I am sure is obvious\nto all of you, viz., that the task implied in the subject is an impossible one.\nDietetic standards can exist only for known conditions of occupation,\nrace, age, sex, living habits, and even here scientists differ widely as to\nthe bodily requirement for food and the economists even more as to the\namount to be expended for it.\nPerhaps that statement will help us to appreciate how tremendous\na problem confronts the housekeeper. If she turns to authorities for\ninformation about the proportion of $500 to expend for food she learns\n(Massachusetts Report, 19 10, Cost of Living) that on an income of $450\nto $600, 55 per cent must be spent for subsistence merely; that means\n$275, 15 cents per person per day. She also learns that 63 per cent of\nthat income has been spent for food; that means $315 per year, 17 cents\nper person per day, and it is not clear to the writer how, with the prices\nof the past year, it can be accomplished for less than 20 cents per person\nper day. Again to quote from the Massachusetts Report:\nIt may be worth while to record the opinion in New York City, where rentals and\nprovisions are perhaps more expensive than in any other large city, for an average family\nof five persons the minimmn income on which it is practicable to remain self-supporting\nand maintain any approach to a decent standard of Uving is $600 per year.\n\nJohn Mitchell has said:\nSix hundred dollars per year is the minimum wage that will maintain a workingman\nand his family, according to American standard.\n\nThe report says:\nAn income of $600 in these New York studies means an expenditure of 22 cents\nper capita per day for food, and in the opinion of the cormnittee with an increase to income\nof between $700 and $800 and 25 cents per capita per day a family can live without\ncharitable assistance thru exceptional management and in the absence of emergencies.\n\nBut the report continues thus:\nIn view of all the facts the committee is of the opinion that it is fairly conservative\nin its estimate that $825 is sufficient for the average family of five, three children imder\n14 years of age, to maintain a proper standard of living in the Borough o.f Manhattan.\n\nMrs. More's studies of 200 New York families showed that they\nneeded at least $6.00 per week for food. Further data on the question\nis supplied by the Report of the British Board of Trade on the cost of living\nin principal industrial towns of the United States.\nTotal nimiber of towns investigated 28. All except two east of the Mississippi.\nDistributed as follows:\nNew York\ni\nCentral\n6\nNew England\n6\nMiddle West\n5\nOther eastern\n4\nSouthern\n6\n\nSo much or rather so little of help comes from the economists to the\nbuyer of food when the income is $600. And yet the problem is a pitifully\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDIETETIC\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nFOR\n\nVARIOUS\n\nHOUSEHOLDS\n\n975\n\nreal one and necessity compels it to be met every day, for statistics show\nthat from 60 to 75 per cent of adult males earn less than $600 per year.\nWe cannot then either as individuals or as groups dismiss the question. We\nare our brother's keeper, and some way must be found to interpret standards\nof living in terms of living conditions that shall make for health and eflficiency\nin our national life. We need an awakened conscience, an attitude of\nmind that makes us feel it is wrong for one family to waste more than\nanother has to eat each day.\nWe need instruction not only in making money but in spending it,\nand all kinds of helps to understand the real value of foods in human\nnutrition. At present to those who need the information most, dietetic\nstandards and nutritive ratio have no more meaning than Choctaw. If\nthey suggest anything it is food for the sick.\nThe small boy's definition of nutritious food — something that don't\ncost much and has no taste — is very generally appreciated, as well as\nthe statement of the woman, \"I'd druther do as I'd druther about food.\"\nThere seems to me no use in playing with the question. The cost\nof food is a fundamental one. Each year serves but to emphasize the fact\nthat prices are not growing less, nor the supply of food increasing as fast\nas the demand. We are not assured that we shall have more money wherewith to buy food, so we must have more skill and more knowledge in the\nbuying and using. Food values must be as much a matter of common\nknowledge as the multiplication table or number work. We need more\nstudies of family budgets, more investigations into living habits, more\nstudies of a living wage, and when all these have been interpreted in terms\nof common life and language we shall have the factors that enter into the\nmaking of dietary standards. At present our view is entirely too limited;\none is certain that a knowledge of food values is all that is required, another\nthinks an appreciation of Engel's laws would settle the question, and very\nfew recognize that the fundamental thing is a public appreciation of the\nfact that it takes superior skill and knowledge to be a good buyer of food\nproducts or administrator of the kitchen. We talk about administration\nof the household in the parlor and are both ignorant and helpless before\nthe activities of the kitchen.\nIf I seem to have wandered afar from my subject it is because I regard\nan attitude of mind the first essential before one studies dietary standards.\nLet us begin with Hutchison's test for the value of a food. He says it\nmust meet these four tests: chemical, physical, physiological, and economic,\nand I would like to add a fifth, the psychological. From these tests we\ngain knowledge of its nutritive value, its power to yield energy, its behavior\nin the intestinal tract, and its cost. With these tests in mind I wish to\ncall your attention briefly to the tables which illustrate these tests.\n1. Nutritive value and cost.\n2. Calorific value.\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nA single Dlustration will suffice to show the point I wish to make about\nthe psychological test. Recent scientific work, I understand, discredits\nthis test, and insists that if the food contains the nutritive material and\nyou eat it you will have the benefit thereof whether or no. Here the\nhousekeeper's and the scientist's use of knowledge might differ.\nThe subject of discussion is the economics of the household as I understand the term; it means wise expenditure in the household, not alone of\nmoney, but of time, energy, food, anything that contributes to the welfare\nof the household. It does not seem to me wise expenditure to be giving\npeople what they do not like even if it is 99 per cent pure food. In the\nselection of the diet attention must be paid to notion dignified by the\ntitle personal idiosyncrasy, tradition, or what not. It pays to avoid\nbringing these titles to light. In a certain residence hall, it was possible\nat a certain time of year to secure oranges in quantity for a cent apiece.\nThe whole character of the table and the attitude of mind of the boarders\nwas changed by simply satisfying that desire for \"fruit for breakfast\"\nby a penny orange. Notwithstanding the fact that the authorities said,\n\"Fruit for breakfast is a liixury,\" the housekeeper knew that only by that\npenny orange could she give to the breakfast table the atmosphere that\nwould make the boarders forget the other defects, and that once started\nwith fruit, good humor and good appetite would prevail. It seemed to\nher wise expenditure if a penny could yield so much of satisfaction. A\nfamiliarity with these tests seems imperative for one who would attempt\nto expend money wisely for food. Important as the wise selection of\nfood is, it is only one phase of the problem. There remains its preparation, its service, and a knowledge of the persons for whom this food is\nintended. This is why a standard dietary can be made only for known\nconditions of race, age, sex, occupation, climate, living habits — and even\nhere authorities differ widely. The subjoined tables show a day's menu\nin terms of cost and nutritive value and energy for three different standards.\nLet us consider the problem with an income of $1,000 per year.\nProfessor Small is reported to have said:\nNo man can live and bring up a family and enjoy ordinary human happiness on\na wage of less than $1,000 per year.\n\nThe report of the Russell Sage Foundation on standard of living in\nNew York City says: \"The average amoimt spent for food rises from\n$290. 10 per annum for the $600 families to $451 .46 for the $1,000 group.\"\nFigures of that report coincide with the statement often made that with an\nincome of $500 to $1,000 about half must be spent for food. These figures\nshow that 44.6 per cent was expended when income was $1,100; 45 per\ncent when income was $1,200; 36.8 per cent when income was $1,500.\nSo the problem reads $450 for food, practically $1 . 20 per day, 24\ncents per person per day.\nOne may not say what can be purchased, rather what is to be eliminated\nfrom consideration. Out-of -season food — this family may not have\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDIETETIC\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nFOR VARIOUS\n\nHOUSEHOLDS\n\n977\n\nstrawberries in midwinter or grape fruit daily (but neither is essential\nto happiness or nutrition); expensive cuts of meat; much fresh vegetables\nor fruit. For this family, certain general principles hold. The smaller\nthe sum to be expended, the more necessity for eternal vigilance and expert\nknowledge in buying.\nThe less money, the more need for psychology by the buyer and for\nskill in preparation and service.\nThis income is no excuse for mussy hash, soggy potatoes, and watery\nprunes. If brains and time go into the meal, mock duck, French fried\npotatoes, prunes and whipped cream may appear. To be sure it has\ntaken time to prepare that meal. Some call it \"puttering with food,\"\nto others it seems at least a fair question whether it does not yield better\nresults than some other forms of puttering — at cards, or at the bargain\ncounter, for example. On this income the man must be willing to eat\n\"made-over dishes,\" provided they are appetizing, the children must\nlearn to eat bread without sugar, and the wife to combine brains and skill\nwith the use of the fireless cooker, and all must agree that food is not the\nonly important thing in the world. Variety to them must not mean ten\nkinds of food at one meal, but rather five or three things well cooked and\nnicely served and let the ten find expression in variety of preparation.\nI know of a most interesting experiment in which five standard foods,\nviz., cabbage, potatoes, apples, wheat bread, and beef, were served for\ntwelve meals without a repetition in preparation. That is an intensely\npractical and satisfying example of variety.\nThe same principles should guide in the $2,000 income where 30 per cent\nmay be spent for food. This means $600^164 cents per day, practically\n33 cents per person per day.\nEven here the food must still be bought in bulk wherever possible.\n\"Nourishing food\" must not be interpreted to mean cream, eggs, and steak.\nOne must not consider beans, brown bread, and turnips as \"coarse fare,\"\nor feel defrauded and assume a martyr air if grape fruit is not served\nregularly for breakfast. There can be a wider choice, a more generous\nuse of fresh vegetables, of cuts of meat that can be prepared more quickly,\npossibly a smaller use of cereals and dried fruits.\nThe family taste must not be trained in the direction of eating breast\nof chicken or porterhouse steak only. The demands of the higher life\nin a well-ordered home are to grow as income grows and their satisfaction\ncosts money. It would appear then that certain general principles must\nguide in a wise expenditure for food.\nRemember that both meat and vegetables have a place in the diet.\nMeat properly cooked is usually easily digested and furnishes building\nmaterials of a high order. Some vegetable may give building material\nin a cheaper form. Moreover, vegetables give bulk and mineral matters\nto the diet, the latter being very essential to growing children.\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nDo not seek to live on as little food as possible. No one knows the\nmargin of safety. Avoid excess in food as one would any unwise expenditure.\nKnow what foods are really cheap or dear from the standpoint of\nnutritive value and cost. While fresh fruits and vegetables are desirable,\nthey do furnish a small amount of nutritive material and so can rarely\nbe considered cheap foods. Do not forget the uses of skimmed milk.\nThe cereals in general are cheap sources of nutrition and wheat bread\ngives much energy and building material at small cost.\nLearn the value of the simmering burner and the fireless cooker in\npreparing food that requires long cooking, otherwise the resulting product\nis not truly a cheap food.\nPractice psychology in unconscious direction of the family taste.\nHave seasonable food, not watery food on a wet day or fritters on a hot one.\nWatch the flavor and maintain high standards of service with a workable\ndefinition of variety.\nAnd in all the process let her who does that spending wisely and well\nknow, and let the world know, she is doing one of the great things of life\nwhen she brings health, satisfaction, and efficiency into the home thru\nits food supply, and let us teach everywhere to everybody, by all honorable\nmeans, in school and out, the value of food, the value of money, the obligation to spend both wisely, to set no false standards whereby a brother\nor a sister is made to stumble.\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenti\n\nDIETETIC\n\nTABLES\n\nILLUSTRATIVE\nDepartment\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nFOR\n\nOF VARIOUS\n\nVARIOUS\n\nPOINTS\n\n979\n\nHOUSEHOLDS\n\nIN THE\n\nFOREGOING\n\nPAPER\n\nof Household Science, University of Illinois\n\nThis table shows the quantities of various foods that are required to equal a quart\nof milk in total nutrients.\nA quart of standard milk weighing 34 . 4 ounces contains 3 . 3 per cent protein, 4 per\ncent fat, 5 per cent carbohydrate, and 0.7 per cent mineral matter, or 13 per cent total\nnutrients equal to 4.47 ounces.\n097\nAmount\n139\nRequired\n(Ounces)\n10.4\n\nTotal\nNutrients\nPercentage\nII. 7\n\nKind of Food\n\nBeef round, medium fat\nOysters\nCodfish, boneless dried\nEggs at 25 cents per dozen . . .\nCheese, Cheddar\nWheat flour\nMacaroni\nCornmeal, granular\nPotatoes at $1 .00 per bushel. .\nBeans, navy dried\nCabbage\nCauliflower\nApples at $1 .60 per bushel. . .\nBananas at 20 cents per dozen,\nPrunes\n\nNet Cos009\n\nCost per Pound\n\n21,')\n$0 io8\n477\n\n$0,125\n.200\n•ISO\n\n233\n42.7\n32.1\n\n.200\n.180\n.025\n.030\n\n19.\n38.2\n6.11\n4-9\n2S-7\n\n89.7\n87^S\n72.6\n87.2\n17^4\n\n019\n\n^\n\n076\n\n•ISO\n\n02\n1^147\n00\n48\n6 053\n\n.025\n\n87.4\n\n.016\n\n7-34\nII.\n7-7\n\n61.2\n27.7 S-i\n\n.062\n.085\n.125\n\n16. 1\n66.0\n\nSI\n6.8\n58.0 S-i\n\n076\n\n068\n43S\n\n.120\n.028\n\n39-2\n\nDepartment of Household Science, University of Illinois\na new method for indicating food values\nBy Irving Fisher\nComposition of Milk\nMethod of\n\nWeight per cent\nCalories per oz\nCalories per cent\n\nProtein\n\nFat\n\n3-3\n\n21\n\n19.0\n\nIS\n\n4\n\n3-8\nName\n\nof Food and\n\"Portion\"\nRoughly Estimated\n\nAlmonds, a dozen\nApple pie, | of pie\nBacon, ordinary serving\nBanana, one large\nBread, a large slice. . . .\nButter, an ordinary pat\nCheese, ordinary piece. .\nChicken, ordinary piece\nCream, ordinary serving\nBeef sirloin, small piece\nEggs, one large\nGrapes, one bunch\nOysters, a dozen\nPotatoes, one\nWhole milk, f glass. . . .\nSugar, s teaspoons\n\nWt. Containing too\nCalories\nO.S3\nOz.\n0.53\n1.30\n\n0.44\n10.\n.377\n0\n3^15-0\n7\n1-4\n\n2\n\n6.8\n4-98\n0.86\n3^6\n\nTotal\n\n13S^9\n\n12.3 in 100 oz.\n20. 7 in\nI oz.\n100\nin 4 . 9 oz.\n\n13\n\nProtein\n\n2S\n\nS\n6\nS\n\n12\n100 . S\n\n79\n\nS9\n136\n\n24 38\n\n38\n\no-S\nS2\n\nFatS^o\nhydrate\n\n77\n\n87 Carbo69 IS\n10\n\n946S\n19 73\n99S\n\n8x\n2\n\nS\n\n68\n\n49s\n\nTotal\n29\n10089\n10029\n100\n100\nlOO\n100\n100\nlOO\n100\n\n21\n\nICX>\n100\n\n80\n\n10\n\n100\n140\n\n63\n\n29.0\n\nIS\n\nGram\n\n22\n49\n193\n2.31^\n\nCarbohydrate\n\n22\nI\n\n32\n100\n\n90\n\n40\n31\n32\n\n100\n100\n100\n100\n90\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nqSo\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nA DAY'S MENU*\nBreakfast\nNxjTRiENTS Furnished\nFood Materials\n\nWt. AS\nPmtCHASED\n\nOz.\n\nApple\nOatmeal\nHamburg steak\nBaked potato\nBread (toast)\nButter\nSugar (on oatmeal 0.45\noz., in coffee 0. 30 oz.)\nCream (on oatmeal i . 50\noz., in coffee 0.50 oz.)\nCoffee\n\n45\n1.0\n0-5\n\n5^5\n\nProtein\n\nFat\n\n0.014\nOz.\n.099\n.160\n\n0.014\n.007\nOz.\n•039\n• OOS\n\n.005\n.768\n.276\n\n•425\n.518\n\nCost PER\nPound\n\n•675\nhydrate\nCarbo-\n\n•125\n.056\n$0,030\n\nOz.\n.809\n1-593\n0.486\n\n.030\n.01\n.250\n\n0.75\n\n4.0\n\n21.25\n\nTotal\n\n.0034\n•0055\n$0.0087\n\n.0310\n.0078\n.0027\n\n•125\n.060\n\n•750\n.090\n\n30\n2.00\n\nNet •0\nCost\n03s\n\n.050\n\n.0156\n\n•370\n•350\n\n1.372\n\ni^378\n\n.0100\n\n4-403\n$0.0882\n\nLuncheon\nPuree of baked beans\nBoiled ham\nBaked apple\nCheese (Cheddar) . . .\nBread\nButter\nTotal\n\n0.5\n2.0\n\n4-05.5\n9.0\n\n.404\n-139\n0.622\n.014\n\n0.292\n.014\n•039\n.184\n.448\n\n.005\n.276\n\n•425\n\n1.460\n\n1.402\n\n.0225\n•005s\n.0087\n$0.0167\n\n1.092\nI -593\n\n.0050\n\n0.486\n0.020\n\n.0078\n\n19-5\n\n30\n\n3-191\nDinner\n.099\nRoast lamb\nPotato\nTomatoes (canned) . .\nBread\nButter\nIndian pudding\n\n4.00\n2.50\n5-50\n0.50\n500\n\n0.508\n\n.005\n.060\n.228\n•369\n1-549\n\n-425\n.010\n.040\n\n7-50\n25.00\n\nTotal\n\n.005\n\n).788\n\nTotal food for day\nTotal nitrogen content for the day\nTotal calories for day\n•According to Atwater.\n\n$0.0662\n-0034\n.0045\n\n0.175\n0.809\n\n$0.0400\n.0038\n\n1-637\n1-330\n\n.064\n.01\n$0.16\n.030\n.012\n-250\n\n.0078\n$0.0895\n.0300\n\n-532\n1.520\n3-951\nProtein\n\nTotal nutrients furnished.\nEquivalent in grams\nCalories for the day\n\n$0\n\n123.0\n4.38 OZ.\n504.0\n\nFat\n121.00\n\n4.30 OZ.\n1,125.0\n4 . 11 lb.\n19 . 68 grams\n2953 . 00\n\nCarbohydrate\n11.545 OZ.\n1,3240\n323.000\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDIETETIC\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nFOR VARIOUS\n\nHOUSEHOLDS\n\nA DAY'S MENU\nBreakfast\nNutrients Furnished\nWeight as Purchased\n\nCoffee, ^ oz\nCream, ^ oz\nSugar, i| oz\nOatmeal, 20 grains.\nMilk, 2 oz\nSugar, ^ oz\nToast, 2 oz\nEgg, 2 oz\nBacon, i oz\nButter, I oz\nGrape jelly, | oz . .\nTotals.\n\nCalories\n\nFat\n\nProtein\n\nGms.\n\nGms.\n0.3S4\n\nhydrate\nCarboGms.\n0.\n637\n\n28.4\n\nCost per\nPound\n.163\n\n1.44\n2.62\n\n1.870\n3.220\n\n2.26\n\n8.03\n6.60\n10.06\n' !68'\n0.014\n\n5.400\n7.400\n4.010\n1.700\n\n.050\n• 300•25\n.060\n.072\n\n9.450\n2.82\n13-500\n28.23\n9.450\n\n.050\n•34\n• 030\n\n38.0\n150\n108\n\n31.70\n\n1-4Luncheon\n\nTotals\n\n3\n\n■2A\n\n6\n\nO.OI\n\n24., 62\n\n362\n708\n\n21.24\n5.20\n5-IO\n\n1.27\n9.92\n21.40\n36.60\n\n$0.0676\n\n40\n679.0\n730\n34-8 38\n\n8;o3'\nDinner\nBrown potato, 4 oz\nRoast beef, 4 oz\nMacaroni and cheese,\n3 . 6 oz\nBread, 2 oz.'\nButter, 3 oz\nCustard, 5I oz\nCracker (i), ^ oz\nLettuce salad, f oz. . . .\n\n2.00\n21.90\n11.03\n\n5-4\n7-45\n1. 16\n\n.86\n\nTotals\nTotals for the day\n\n98.37\n49.80\n\nTotals for day in oz.\n\n3-4\n\n8.05\n.11\n16.8\n8.03\n.68\n\n57-57\nno. 51\n\n3-8\n\n.067\n.030\n• 340\n\n■\n28.2\n-30\n102.98\n\n.0107\n.0083\n.0050\n$0.0579\n\n9250\n57.0\n.097\n\n205.0\n\n•150\n$0,020\n.057\n.030\n\n8.42\n'15-8'\n\n.007\n$0,013\n.0098\n\n73.0\n58.0\n\n20.86\n29.4\n\n.80\n10. 0\n7.10\n\n137.0\n\n• 0784\n$0,048\n.163\n\n336.0\n117. 0\n137.09\n38.0\n\nOOII\n\n.12\n\n■2\n\nTomato soup, 4I oz. . . .\nBaked beans, 2 oz\nBrown bread, 2^ oz. . . .\nButter, 5 oz\nBaked apple, 5I oz . . . .\nCream, i oz\nCookies, 2 oz\n\nOOII\n0026\n7\n\n010\n0038\n\n8.28\n\n72.36\n\n$0,009\n004\n01 5\n\n.08\n\n23 -954\n\n1307\n\nNet .005\nCost009\n\n77.0\n325.0\n150.0\n3.\n16\n\n-340\n\n104.0\n\n.200\n.1\n40\n\n312.33\n\n73-0\n1,142.0 -0\n45\n\nII. 0\n\n2,746.0\n\n$0,005\n.004\n.036\n.007\n.0193\n.022\n.013\n.0025\n\n$0.2343\n$0.1088\n\n981\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nA DAY'S MENU*\nBreakfast\nCoffee\nCream\nSugar\n\nGms.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nGms*\n\n119\n30\n9\n\n;\n\nTotal\n\n158\nLuncheon\n\nOne shredded wheat biscuit\nCream\nWheat gem\nButter\nTea\nSugar\nCream cake\n\n31\n116\n33\n7\n185\n10\n53\n\nTotal\n\n435\nDinner\n\nf\n1\n'\ni\n\nPea soup\nLamb chop\nBoiled sweet potato\nWheat gems\nButter\nCream cake\nCoffee\nSugar\nCheese crackers\n\n114\n24\n47\n76\n13\n52\n61\n10\n16\n\nTotal\nTotal food for day 2 . 22 lb. or\nTotal nitrogen content\nTotal protein content\nAverage fuel value per day\n\n413*\n1,006\n6.62\n41 .375\n2,000 calories\n\n•According to Chittenden.\n\nDISCUSSION\nIrene E. McDermott, director of household economy, Pittsburgh Public Schools,\nPittsburgh, Pa. — ^It has been stated that 75 per cent of the adult males in the industrial\nsections of this country earn less than $600 per year.\nThe Interstate Commerce Commission reports that in the face of a large number of\nhighly paid manual and salaried workers the real average income of nearly two million\nrailway employees during the year before this report was $662. The majority of ministers\nof all denominations receive less than $1,000 a year.\nHow to handle this average income for the average family and maintain the family\nas an efficient imit in society is a problem well worth careful attention.\nThat the problem is receiving attention is daily proven to us. There is scarcely a\nmagazine, scientific or classified in any other known class, which has not told us all about\nit. There are training schools in the country endeavoring to make household economy\nmore effectual by establishing model apartments or cottages. Some of these are in reaUty\nmaintained on a very efficient basis with correct relationship between the economic and\nsocial standardization. Others are worked out in theory to a large extent and often prove\na stumbling-block to the eager, practical housekeepers who vainly endeavor to emulate\nthe standard at the stated cost.\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDIETETIC\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nFOR VARIOUS\n\nHOUSEHOLDS\n\n983\n\nIt is time that some association having aspirations to render help in our work, took\na stand and tried to set at least a feasible standard for the social efficiency of families\nhaving certain material resources.\nSomeone has said that money represents crystallized energy or power. Now energy\nand power are measured with a fine nicety. When this is possible, there should be some\nabsolute measure for determining the purchasing limit of a given amount of stored-up\nenergy or power.\nHowever, there are many different viewpoints in making an estimate, or taking\nstock of one's income.\nA man earns $600 a year — which represents his economic worth to a community —\n90 per cent of this amount may be spent by an intelligently trained home-maker. This\nadds much to the stated amount, for it then represents the original $600 plus the economic\nworth of this woman's training. The reverse is true when the 90 per cent is spent by a\nwoman who has not been trained to make a wise expenditure. Then our proportion\nreads $600 minus what this woman's lack of training would take from the purchasing\npower of the sum stated.\nAgain, the family may be in a position to make another increase for the purchasing\npower of the money. A garden may furnish valuable additions for the family menu.\nAdjacent water may make fishing a gainful recreation. A residence in fruit-growing\ncommunities may permit \"picking on shares\" as a possibility for non- wage-earning members of the family. These and many other advantages make a force worth reckoning with.\nGood health for the members of the family — coming in the shape of an inheritance or\nbrought by right living — -is another source of a gainful addition.\nThere are many occasions when it is necessary for the wage-earner to stand for\nhigher wages. However, there are more occasions when it should be necessary for that\nlong-enduring public to take a stand, and demand that these purchasing agents in the\nAmerican homes should have an opportunity for becoming more efficient.\nThis will never be brought about by untrained writers demonstrating smug theories\nabout their pet economies. It can only be done when public schools standardize dweUingplaces and establish suitable, nourishing dietary standards.\nWe have long since learned that a square will not fit into a round space without a\nbit of alteration in its shape, and then it would no longer be a square. We must realize\nwith equal force that a family having crystallized energy amounting to $600 a year cannot\nuse from this sole quantity crystallized energy equal to another income twice that amount\nbelonging to someone else.\nThe typical American family of this generation consists of five members, father,\nmother, and three children under wage-working age. The American School of Home\nEconomics claims that the average family should have $360 a year for food to keep its\nmembers in health. To this amount must be added the operating expenses of the home\nand other necessary expenditures. If the average wage now earned by the average head\nof the family is not sufficient to sustain the American standard of life, it is time that the\nreal truth of the fact should be known. Members of this and other associations standing\nfor furthering the efficiency of successful teaching of heme economics should give their\nbest thought to this question.\nWe have had papers read today showing that there are some who have done this.\nThe research should be of a wider nature. The splendid clubs of this country which are\ndoing much toward helping to handle the problem should enlist more help and sympathy.\nThere is as much misery and crime brought about by an inordinate desire to possess\nclothes unsuited to one's income, as there is in the overindulgence in strong drink. It\nwill require a long time to convince the public of this fact.\nThe question then is: \"In what way may we increase the ability of the future homemakers toward increasing the power of the crystallized energy of the average income for the\naverage family?\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "984\n\nTHE PLACE\nJ. EARL\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF ART\n\nGRUTITH,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nHIGH\n\nCENTRAL\nCOMMERCIAL\nSCHOOL, NEWARK,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSCHOOL\nAND\nMANUAL\nNJ.\n\n(Manual Training\n\nOF COMMERCE\nTRAINING\n\nHIGH\n\nWithin the past few years, the inadequacy of public-school education\nfor the masses has obtruded itself upon the minds of our keenest educators.\nAnticipating the future of the individual, the classical high school's greatest\nefficiency lay along the lines of college preparation. Yet the number of\nstudents who were actually able to utUize this opportimity were in the\nminority.\nIt was plainly evident that a means must be devised whereby, without\nextra expenditure, a usable, practical, self-efficient education coidd be\nextended to the maximum number of pupils. After a careful and deliberate\nstudy of the needs and requirements of such a preparation, technical and\nconunercial education have been the logical solutions. It is a phase of the\nlatter type of vocational training which pertains to us within the limitations\nof this paper — \"The Place of Art in the High School of Commerce.\"\nIt seems, therefore, necessary at this point to define terms. First, art\nis not a thing to be done but is the best way of doing whatever is to be done.\nSecond, a high school of commerce (as distinguished from a commercial\ninstitution) is a high school wherein the requirements not only include\nthoro courses in bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, banking, and the\nlike; but there are found also such required credits as a four years' course\nin English, a thoro training in business mathematics, strong courses in\nbotany, physiology, and chemistry. And in this list, required — ^nonelective — is applied art. The training of the so-called commercial college\nhas been found inadequate. The ability to keep an accurate set of books\nor to produce a neat and correct typewritten letter is insufficient. In short,\nthe graduate of a high school of commerce must be fitted for a broader,\nmore cultural business career. Not only the typist or the bank clerk is\nnow an exponent of such a school; but the buyer, department head, or\nadvertising manager is not too great a product to demand from an institution of this caliber.\nThe subject for discussion then, is: In what way is art a factor in the\nbest possible equipment of the individual for a broad, efficient business\ncareer ?\nThe influence of art upon industrial and commercial progress is so\napparent as to make instruction in that branch a necessity in a course of\nstudy designed to prepare for commercial pursuits. It is of vital importance,\nbecause competition, in the business world today, is largely that of quality\nof skill and of beauty. It therefore becomes the responsibility of the art\ndepartment to teach the discrimination between the various degrees of\nquality, to develop the skill of hand necessary to successful production, and\nto give birth to or awaken the feeling and appreciation of beauty. To just\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF ART\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF COMMERCE\n\n985\n\nwhat extent the vocational school should equip for life-work is a subject\nfor discussion. The technical courses cannot hope to turn out master\nmechanics. The bank president is not the immediate result of a commercial course. So, in art, the course must be considered a success, from\na business standpoint, if it provides for the individual a means of sustenance\nand lays open before him a direct path leading toward a definite end.\nSuch a course should be broad, for the demands upon the worker will be\nvaried. The art must be \"applied,\" in the sense that nothing should be\npermitted to exist for beauty alone. The pupil does not simply design;\nhe designs for some specific purpose. Every step must be one of a logical\nsequence, leading toward a definite and well-defined culminative end. Of\nnecessity, the plan must comprise nearly all that is taught in the classical\nhigh school, viewed thru the lenses of commercial utility. From the former\ncourse may be taken much of the handwork; but to that course must be\nadded a most thoro preparation in printing, a careful study in interior\ndecoration, actual drill in arrangement of counter and display case, together\nwith a sound study of the principles of advertising.\nProcesses of manufacture and tests of quality of such commercial\nproducts as textiles and fabrics relate themselves quite as much to the art\ndepartment as to the chemical or physical laboratory. A knowledge of\ndesign and color, of the fitness to purpose of an article, of its construction,\nand a study of the materials used in its production are necessary in successful selecting and buying. The future business man must be given skill in\nthe correct display, convincing advertisement, and intelligent sale of his\nstock. The clerk must be directed in the arrangement of his wares. The\nstenographer must be shown how to space his letters and business papers\nand directed in the printing of placards and labels. A knowledge of the\nnecessary planning and designing of office furniture and the making of\nworking drawings for the same is most essential. Art, an undeniable factor\nin business, in industry, in commerce, is of vital importance in a course\nwherein boys and girls are to be fitted for thoro business careers. The aim\nof such a course should be not so much to give proficiency in the crafts as to\ngive discriminating taste and judgment.\nBordering an enormous pit at the corner of Barclay Street and Broadway, New York, stood a sign: \"Cass Gilbert, Architect of the Fifty-five\nStory Woolworth BuUding\" — and the building was yet a dream. Wolf\nand Redfern of Paris do not ply the needle and yet they stand pre-eminent\nas creators of apparel. Every thread of the cloth which clothes you was\nplotted on paper ere the looms were set in motion. The engines which\ndrove those looms were drawn to absolute scale before ever a pattern\nof a single wheel was made. Here have been cited, offhand, but four\nsmall component parts of society's mighty mechanism. Back of each,\nand deep-rooted as tradition, stands the artist. And yet,, it has been\nthe custom of the past for education to thrust the individual into this\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nlife of commercialism without any working knowledge whatsoever of the\nart side of business.\nJust the place that art occupies in the commercial world, it should\noccupy in the high school of commerce — not a separate, intangible mystery,\nunderstood by the few; but a practical, usable, everyday necessity. What\neach individual and indispensable thread is to the warp and woof of the\nfabric, English, mathematics, art, and their kin should be to a school\ncurriculum; each rendering service to the others; each incomplete and\ninsufficient in itself alone.\nNow that a general \\dew of art's place in such a school has been obtained,\npermit the wTiter, in brief, to cite one or two specific instances of its\nsignificant correlation.\nIt is not within the province of this paper to discuss whether or not\nmanual training, sewing, or millinery should have places in a high school of\ncommerce; but since more than one such school has already given them\nplace, the subject must be considered from that viewpoint. With these\nthree branches, art is as imperative as is a rudder to a ship. Yes, perhaps\nit must be life-preserver, too.\nDesigns for metal and wood, worked out to size or to absolute scale and\nstudied for suitability to purpose, proportion, and beauty of design, should\nprecede each problem and be constantly consulted during its construction.\nGreat care should be used that the design not only be correct from a design\nstandpoint, but that it be fitted to purpose and material and be capable of\nenduring the processes it must undergo during its construction.\nIn the millinery and sewing courses, the design sketch should be considered only a means to an end, for it is folly to design in terms of two\ndimensions for the hiunan body, an object of three dimensions. Even Mrs.\nWiggs in Lovey Mary discovered that a person \"can't be goin' and comin'\nat the same time.\" After a series of quick spontaneous sketches, a model\n(in actual size), worked out on a form and in tissue paper and inexpensive\ntextiles, and then applied to the figure, should precede the hat or any but\nthe simplest gowTi. Rather should these courses be termed \"household\narts\" and be supplemented by actual shopping trips together mth lessons\nin the tests of cotton, wool, linen, silk, and a training in the recognition of\nthe relative quality and values of these materials. These lessons form the\nconnecting link with interior decorating, a subject which should be considered from the standpoint not only of the home but also of the oflice,\ntaking up the designing of office furniture, filing-cases, and the like. In all\ninstances both spacing and color schemes should be made subjects of study.\nThe department should aid the business courses by assisting in the\nspacing of its correspondence, filing-cards, etc.; and by designing its\nletterheads and business forms.\nA teaching of the knowledge of printing together with the methods of\ndictation as to its set-up, including instruction in proofreading and the\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF ART\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF COMMERCE\n\n987\n\nnecessary characters involved, are responsibilities which the art department,\nthe business department, and the English department should share with\nwell-planned correlation. A printing-press, in actual operation, is the\nlogical end of such training.\nAnd now we come to another phase of instruction which is a necessity *\nin a high school of commerce because it is a necessity in the business world.\nIt concerns every home in the land, as a home, and every man and woman, as men\nand women. There is not a person who expends even the most modest income for the\nmost modest necessities of life but is affected by advertising. It is the one art which\ninterests every person, the one profession which enforces its tenets upon all who Uve, the\none business which means profit or loss to every individual who earns or spends money.\nWhether we will or not, whether we know it or not, we are all dependent upon advertising\nand to each of us it means gain or loss.\n\nWise students are not wasting their time in an attempt to curb the\ninfluence of the sun. Rather are they devising means of harnessing its\nmighty power. No more can we turn advertising into art. It is our\nproblem to turn art into advertising. \"Aaron's rod was a crude and feeble\ninstrument compared to a well-conducted advertising campaign.\" Such a\ncampaign has made more than one president of the United States. Such\na campaign has changed a little corner drug-store into a continent-wide\nsyndicate. \"Midas was an amateur in gathering gold compared to the\nadvertising campaign, skillfully prosecuted.\"\nIt remains for us, then, to give fundamental instruction in this business\nnecessity; and in no phase of business activity is art more pitiably wanting\nthan in advertising. George H. French, who has probably compiled the\nmost logical treatise on the Art and Science of Advertising, says:\nAdvertising will always remain a craft, an art, or a profession according to the preparation, talent, and application of the artisan or artist; but the intelligent advertiser will\nmake use of every science that can contribute to its success, and the greatest of these is\npsychology. But, on the other hand, psychology alone can never teach a science of\nadvertising.\n\nIt has been found that the student of vocational school age is not too\nyoung to imbibe the necessary principles of psychology when they are\ndemonstrated to him in a clear, simple, applied explanation, with no\nmention of the fact that he is undergoing such a serious operation as the\npsychologizing of his mind. Parallel with these principles, the art side\nshould progress with logical development, and should comprise printing\nfrom a design standpoint together with practical experience in illustration.\nHere again processes and costs of reproduction are necessary items of\ninstruction; and here again correlation with the English department is\nsolicited.\nSuch is the place that art should have in the high school of commerce,\nif that school is to succeed in its specific purpose. It is the subject most\nefficient in the curriculum in its amalgamating power of correlation.\nAt this point, permit the writer to make a plea for the sincerity of such\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "988\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\na course. Without the firm support of the local educational executives, the\nsubject must of necessity lose much of its power. It should not be given\nthe tag ends and left-over portions of the time schedule at the hour of\norganization. Neither should it be cataloged as an optional or elective\nsubject. Under such conditions it starts its race handicapped. True,\nmuch of the past criticism accorded to the impractical artist was due him.\nFor, with his \"art for art's sake\" ideas, his planless and purposeless course\nof study was like the man who was being chased by a tiger — he was on his\nway but he knew not whither he was going Full many a pedagog wastes\nhis life trying to realize his ideal, forgetting, erewhile, to idealize his real.\nAlas, too often, he has hitched his mental automobile to a star, and the\nterrific momentum thus acquired has blinded him to the absolute necessity\nof thoroness in the daily routine of fundamental preparation; and he\n\"skids\" along far over the head of the average pupil. The course must\nshow convincingly its every purpose, its definite goal, and must fulfill its\nevery promise. To this end, every step must be one of the most zealously\nand methodically planned continuity.\nIf this paper has seemed to place too great a weight of responsibility\nupon the shoulders of art, be it said, in passing, that just this weight is being\nborne, with success, by two schools of this nature, known well to the\nwriter. In closing, may I quote from a recent address on \" Ideals in Education,\" given by Professor Franklin W. Hooper, of the Brooklyn Institute,\nin which he says:\nThe three R's are but a preparation for further study. One-third of the school time\nis wasted in educational fads and only recently have the true progressive ideas of manual\ntraining and industrial education begun to receive the attention which their importance\ndemands as preparation for an independent future. For the three R's I would substitute\nthree I's: Industry — teach the boy or girl to love work, and you have laid the foundation\nfor the building of character, for the encouragement of independence, for the development\nof will and the power of application: Integrity — strict honesty to ourselves and to one\nanother as a fundamental principle of life and character building; and third, Idealism—\nthe ideals to be derived from the study of history, of the Scriptures, of the prophets and\nsages of all time.\n\nTo this let us add these words, quoted from Ruskin:\nEducation without Industry is Guilt;\nIndustry without Art is Brutality.\n\nTHE\nWALTER\n\nVALUE\n\nSARGENT,\n\nOF ART IN THE INDUSTRIAL\n\nPROFESSOR\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF ESTHETIC AND\nINDUSTRIAL\nOF CHICAGO,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nArt presents two important aspects, one of which is usually designated\nas representation and the other as design. One consists in picturing facts\nand appearances; the other in arranging lines, proportions, colors, etc.,\nin order that the results may satisfy the sense of beauty. Each of these is\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF ART\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n989\n\nof genuine value in the industrial school. I shall discuss the contribution\nof each, under the following captions: drawing as a means of increasing\none's range of activities in industrial processes, and design as a factor in\nincreasing the quality and therefore the value of industrial products.\nI.\n\nDRAWING\n\nAS\n\nA\n\nMEANS\n\nOF INCREASING\nONE'S\nINDUSTRIAL PROCESSES\n\nRANGE\n\nOF\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN\n\nThere are two methods of dealing with material, one of which may be\ncharacterized as direct and the other as indirect. The direct method is\nconcerned with the immediate handling of material. The indirect method\ncarries on its preliminary planning and experimenting in some medium which\nis substituted for the actual material because it is more easily and economically handled. A representative operation thus takes the place of the\nactual one until the more important question of plan and design have been\ndecided. The representative operation is then translated into the actual\nmaterial.\nFor example, a person in making a garment may act directly upon the\nmaterial by proceeding at once to cut the cloth and experiment with it till\nhe has shaped the garment as it should be, or he can leave the cloth\nuntouched until he has completed his experimentation in terms of drawings\nand paper patterns, and then translate the results into the final material.\nAn Indian can proceed directly to the erection of his wigwam, but\nthe construction of a modern building must be approached indirectly by\nmeans of the architect's plans. The direct method which is often suitable\nin simple and familiar operations becomes immensely wasteful when the\noperations are complicated. The indirect method is adequate and it means\n,economy of time and material.\nDrawing contributes in two ways to the indirect method of dealing with\nmaterials. First, as a means of experimentation, freehand sketches of\nshapes enable one to determine his ideas of the general appearance of\na piece of construction. These drawings, in elevation or in perspective,\nare the means by which he can experiment with forms and choose from a\nnumber of possibilities that one which is best. Secondly, as a means of\nexact definition, working drawing has become a highly specialized and conventional language, sufficiently developed to furnish a means whereby\none may work out all the data of construction even to minute details.\nIndustrial schools should provide students with both of these means\nof dealing with materials indirectly, and a large amount of practice in\nrapid freehand sketching, both of perspective appearances and of projection, should be given. To devote a relatively large proportion of the time\nallotted to mechanical drawing in high schools and industrial schools to\ninstrumental drawings carefully finished in ink seems to me to be a mistake\nunfortimate in its consequences. A student should know what it means\noccasionally to carry to completion an inked-in drawing.\nIn general,\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "990\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nhowever, the perfected instrumental drawing bears to the freehand working\ndrawing in which are noted the necessary data which the student has secured\nfrom objects or from his ideas a relation comparable to that which exists\nbetween an author's original manuscript and the typewriter's copy. The\nlatter looks much better but does not represent so much thinking.\nThe natural tendency of the majority of industrial workers is toward\nthe more primitive, direct, imconsidered, hit-or-miss method. Few stop\nto project detailed plans until forced by necessity to do so. As soon as one\nbecomes proficient in this method of procedure he can guide the work of\nmany hands.\nDuring the formative years of the high and industrial school the significance of a mastery of drawing as a common means of expression lies deeper\nthan its evident use as an immediate aid to constructive work. It establishes ahabit of dealing with material in such a way as to call into exercise\nthe higher mental activities. We know that habits of dexterity soon\nbecome fixed but we do not always realize that habits of thought and of\nimagination tend to become just as definitely formed. When the primitive\nhabit of dealing directly with materials has once become established, it\ndoes not easUy change to a more effective method. Unless the other sort\nof habit is early developed, a man stands less chance in his struggle against\nautomatism and the influence of the machine. Drawing is not only a useful accompaniment of constructive work and a tool with which to think and\nplan. It is also an important factor in determining the level of a man's\nindustrial habits.\nII. DESIGN AS A FACTOR IN INCREASING THE QUALITY AND THEREFORE THE\nVALUE OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS\n\nOne need not go far in the study of human nature to be impressed by the\nprofoimd and insistent demand for aesthetic satisfaction. This is not the\nplace for a philosophical discussion in order to determine the relative value\nof this demand in comparison with others. In considering its recognition\nin industrial schools we are faced by the practical consideration that, even\nin commercial lines, it determines the direction of an enormous amount of\nhuman effort and of great sums of money.\nBecause its basis is in the emotions, it is too often considered as something\nwhich is vague; something which may be ignored until a time when more\npractical issues shall have been settled. This is a mistake. The demand\nis not vague. It is definite and persistent, but our knowledge about it and\nour ways of dealing with it are characterized by a high de'gree of nebulousness.\nThe aesthetic demand springs from elemental emotions. It will be\nministered to in some way or other, either by sensational stimuli of things\nnew, strange, ornate, diverting, fashionable, or by being brought into contact with and led to appreciate things which are excellent and which\nconstitute sources of permanent satisfaction.\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF ART\n\nIN THE\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n991\n\nLack of well-established standards and of developed appreciation of\nthem leaves this deep-seated impulse to seek satisfaction in unpromising\nways, and results in a feverish demand for continual change, which is\noften grotesque in its unreasonableness, and which, to state it in no more\nsignificant terms, is the cause of enormous economic waste, since many\nlines of manufactured goods must on this account be changed once or\ntwice every year.\nMany industrial schools realize the situation and would be glad to\naccord more recognition to the teaching of design in their courses. They\nare confronted, however, with a practical difficulty. They can secure many\nteachers who will present abstract principles of design, but few who can\nuse them as a method of procedure in such a way as to be able to say of a\nspecific industrial product not only that it is good or bad, but why; and\nwho can then proceed to point out the way to make the inferior product\nbetter.\nThere is need of systematic study of industrial products of great artistic\nmerit, in order to define, so far as may be, the elements which contribute\nto this degree of excellence. Some of these elements are definable in terms\nof materials, colors, and shapes. Others are due largely to the individual\ngenius of the designer and suggest the need of in^^estigation as to the best\nmethods of training designers.\nThe art department of every state imiversity should make a list of\nthose industries in which the state is engaged, which depend for their success, to any considerable degree, upon good design. It should investigate\nimports along these lines, and analyze them for suggestions. It should\ngather specimens or photographs of the best historic examples and become\nacquainted with the most noted modern producers. In this way a museum\nof design as related to the industries of the state would gradually be established and become an important center of reference.\nSome plan should be developed whereby unusual talent for design may\nbe discovered in children in high schools, and these children be advised as\nto the best way of developing and applying this ability. The desire for\nartistic expression is exceedingly strong in many young people. A large\nnumber who would find satisfaction for this desire, and also a field for great\nusefulness in design, now give themselves to painting because they have not\nbeen shown the possibilities and attractions of work in design. Talent in\nthis line is a definitely valuable asset to the state.\nIn its twofold capacity of furnishing a means of increasing one's power\nto deal with materials by a representative means, such as plans, and of\nmaking our industries, because of good design, minister not only to utilitarian but also to aesthetic demands, art has an important contribution to\nmake in forwarding modern industrial education, and a well-defined place\nin industrial schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "992\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE DRESDEN\nFLORENCE\n\nE.\n\nELLIS,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nCONGRESS\nOF\n\nDRAWING,\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nOHIO\n\np\" The history of the international congress of art teachers is familiar to\nmany, to others it is not, therefore a brief review seems in order.\nThe first international congress of art teachers was held in Paris at\nthe time of the International Exhibition of 1900. Its purpose was the\ndevelopment of drawing and related subjects. This first congress decided\nto establish an international association of art teachers which should conduct the congress; carry out resolutions passed at the congress; interest\npeople, professional bodies, and governments in its welfare; collect drawings and materials connected with the teaching of drawing and related\nsubjects for use of its members; and be a connecting link between succeeding congresses.\nThe second congress was held in Berne in 1904 and at this time the\nassociation was founded as the International Federation. Papers relating\nto drawing in general instruction were read and discussed, and a small\nexhibition of drawing was held, but the exhibition was not really representative ofthe work of the different countries, as there had been no definite\nplan in its selection and arrangement.\nThe third congress was held in London in 1908. The program consisted largely of papers and discussions on the educational value of drawing,\nand on methods of presenting it in various schools and in different grades.\nThe name of the association was made the International Federation for\nArt Education, Drawing, and Art Allied to Industries. A large exhibition\nof drawing was one of the most interesting, helpful, and successful features\nof the meeting. This exhibition showed the best work of the coimtries\nrepresented — their ideals of art education in the schools. The American\nexhibition was a composite exhibition selected from some sixty cities. It\nshowed the drawing in the elementary schools and high schools and there\nwere also several exhibits from colleges, and from schools of fine and industrial art.\nThe fourth congress is to be held in Dresden, August 12-18, and\npromises to be the most successful congress yet held. The small number\nin attendance at the first congress increased to 823 members and 22 countries\nrepresented at the second congress. At the third congress there were\n1,819 members present and 38 coimtries represented (of this number some\nioo were American art teachers), and a still greater increase is expected\nat the Dresden congress. The subjects of the papers and discussions are\nas follows:\nThe Psychological Principles of Drawing\nFirst Steps in Teaching Drawing to Young Children\nDrawing, Modeling, and Manual Work as Means of Expression in General Education\nArt Training for Applied Art and Industrial Purposes\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDRESDEN\n\nCONGRESS\n\n993\n\nTraining of the Art Teacher\nOrganization of Schools for Technical Art Training\nDevelopment of Taste thru the Teaching of Drawing and Manual Work\nLettering and Teaching of Lettering\nThe Underlying Principles Which Should Govern the Art Teaching in Secondary\nEducation\nTechnical and Professional Teaching of Drawing\n\nAn international exhibition of drawing and allied work and methods\nof instruction wilt be held August 4-25. It was desired by some foreign\ncountries that the exhibition from the United States should show a solution\nof problems in different parts of the country and in different grades of\nwork; therefore the general plan for the American exhibition is as follows:\nGroup I\nUNGRADED\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe work of this section is a composite of work gathered from many states, and is\nto show how drawing is conducted in the vmgraded schools thruout the coimtry.\nGroup II\nWORK\n\nFROM\n\nA MEDIUM\n\nSIZE CITY\n\n(MINNEAPOLIS)\n\nGroup III\nREPRESENTATIVE\n\nLARGE\n\nCITIES, EAST\n\nAND\n\nWEST\n\nBoston, New York, Cleveland, Chicago, St. Louis, Denver, and San Francisco.\nGroup IV\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS, NORTH, SOUTH, EAST, AND WEST\n\nThis exhibition will present the work of representative normal schools.\nGroup V\nART\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nHAVING\n\nNORMAL\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nThis section will be composed of exhibits from the Massachusetts Normal Art\nSchool, Rhode Island School of Design, Pratt Institute, Pennsylvania Museum School of\nIndustrial Art, Maryland Institute, and the Normal Department of the Chicago\nArt Institute.\nGroup VI\nART\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF UNIVERSITIES\n\nNewcomb College, and Teachers College, New York City.\nGroup VII\nREPRESENTATIVE\n\nART\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSchool of Applied and Normal Art, Chicago; School of the Museum of Fine Arts,\nBoston; the Art Students League, New York City; the Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia; the Art Institute, Chicago; and the School of Fine Arts, St. Louis.\n\nIt has been recommended by the American committee that a report consisting ofedited copies of papers presented at the Dresden congress, supplemented ifpossible by illustrations of foreign exhibitions of special interest\nto Americans, and by short articles on the congress written by Americans\nin attendance at the congress, be published by the American committee;\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n(Manual Training\n\nthat the report sell at $2 ; and that a report be given to every teacher who\nsubscribes $2 for the congress fund. Such a report will serve a double purpose; itwill be of value to American teachers who cannot attend the congress, and it wdll aid in raising funds for the congress.\nThe International Congress is a wonderful impetus to art education in\nmany ways. Thru its exhibitions and discussions it affords a direct comparison of the work and methods of different countries; it gives international co-operation among art teachers; and from it the art teachers of\nthe nations of the world receive inspiration and help. It deserves our\nheartiest interest and support. I trust that many of us can avail ourselves\nof the fine opportunity for advancement offered by attendance at the\nDresden congress.\nThe International Federation for Art Education, Drawing, and Art\nApplied to Industries is a very important factor in the promotion of art and\nindustrial education. Its members are the leading art and industrial\nteachers of the world, and its conclusions will be worth careful attention.\nLet us not forget, in the enthusiasm of the present for the practical in\neducation, that education should and must be cultural as well as practical.\nA training of the hand principally is not education. Education is a training of the whole child — it is a training of the eye, the hand, the mind,\nthe heart, and the soul.\nVOCATIONAL\nT. VERNETTE\n\nMORSE,\n\nTRAINING\n\nOLD AND\n\nPRESIDENT OF ARTCRAFT\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nNEW\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nGUILD,\n\nIn attempting to solve the problem of what to do with the boy and\nincidentally the girl, we are not dealing wath entirely new ideas; most of\nthem have been tried before.\nPossibly there are a few in this audience who were at one time problems;\nif so they are better able to appreciate all movements that will tend to put\ninto action the undeveloped ability of humanity in such a manner that each\ncommunity will be able to develop its own people and resources according\nto its requirements in both work and play, thus contributing to the world's\nadvancement thru local endeavor.\nNature has so distributed her gifts that each locality is, or should be,\na law unto itself, and not an experimental station for the purpose of promoting the ethics of some educational system prepared under entirely different conditions and in no wise adapted to local demands.\nScience has given this century such marvelous means of commimication\nand transportation that to develop local conditions is to win the recognition\nand approval of the world. It has in fact opened the doorway of modem\nopporturiity. This being true, the fact confronts us that we do not need\nmore schools of ancient origin, wherein we are forever getting ready to do\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOLD\n\nAND\n\nNEW\n\n995\n\nthings but are never permitted to act them. In this creative age we have\nno right to ignore the lessons of the past, for that past, if it is worth while,\nwas also a creative age, and we must respect its efforts. Let us then incorporate those teachings with the necessities and demands of modern life,\nthat we of this century may also build for the future, for better homes and\nbetter community life.\nDuring this great convention, every phase of vocational training has\nbeen presented, each exponent evidently having a different idea of how\nthe work should be conducted. This is most encouraging as it is a sign\nof freedom. Freedom means progress; the bitter differences of today are\nfrequently the cohesive elements of tomorrow.\nMany of the suggestions presented are non-cohesive, fragmentary\nspecimens of personal experience with technical conditions, reminding\nus of our early days in drawing when we worked for weeks on drawings\nof ears and eyes and noses, which we laboriously pieced together imtil\nthey in some manner represented a so-called classical head. If this composition was sufi&ciently organic to hold together the author had arrived, and\nwas able to write a book or establish an art school.\nFortunately that period in art instruction is a thing of the past, for we\nhave now learned that art is something more than mere technical drawing\nand painting. It is the most perfect and beautiful way of interpreting and\nintelligently expressing the thoughts and ideals that lie within, the beauty\nof life's labor.\nThat word \"life\" brings us again to the starting-point. How many\nof the present-day educators are working in harmony with this vital spark ?\nAre they not more frequently engaged in putting forth the institutional\ntenets and technical dogmas of the past, instead of developing mental\nand physical growth?\nWe of the past may have been educated as genuine artificial classics,\nwith false ideals in regard to physical labor, with false pride, and many other\ninconsistent ideas, but we had one great advantage. When we were\npresented to the world with a diploma in one hand and a burning torch of\nself-esteem in the other, we did not have to do things. Our position was\nsuch that in case of ignorance on any question we could smile, look pleasant\nor wise as the occasion demanded, and occupy at least a cultural position\nin the world. But what of the artificial tradesman, he who cannot conceal\nhis blunders, he whose houses must stand or imperil the lives of those\nwho occupy them, he who must build for use as well as beauty ? As leaders\nin this great work, can we for the sake of self-glory, worldly popularity,\nenviable positions, or even a fat salary afford to turn out false products ?\nThis is the vital question of the hour.\nTrades and recreation, like boys and girls, are not wholly new subjects,\nbut our point of view has changed. The development of machine-made\nindustries has taken from our homes the great anchor of mutual activities.\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n(Manual Training\n\nThere is no longer a need of homemade clothing, carpets, or furnishings\nof any kind. Man has created and developed wonderful things but let\nus thank God that in his great wisdom he did not give man the ability to\nmake grain, trees, flowers, and other growing things. Nature has reserved\na few forces which man may possibly improve but cannot create.\nIn the city the five-room apartment supplies all the requirements of\nthe average family, which seemingly needs nothing that cannot be brought\nhome in a paper sack, and therein lies the principal viper of increased cost\nof li\\dng. If you are earnest in this work, keep your eye on the paper\nsack and its contents. Nothing to cook; nothing to sew ; but little to mend\nand repair with socks warranted to wear six months, for we all know they\nwill go out of style in that time — and who cares to wear even socks that are\npasse ? No buttons to sew on when the very latest device calls only for a\npatented safety pin; nothing to do — no personal activity that is absolutely\nnecessary to make the character of those about us greater, better, and\nnobler — is it any wonder that we have created a new disease, popularly\nknown as slumming and charity gi\\dng, which in many instances creates\nfalse taste, restless conditions — and dependence, if not pauperism ? Better\nartificial classics than this.\nOut of these modem homes, women — restless women — are constantly\ngoing into store, shop, and factory, swelling the tide of cheap, inexperienced\npin-money labor. Is it any wonder that we are restless ?\nI thoroly believe in teaching every girl a trade, a craft, a profession, or\nwhatever you choose to call it, but I do not believe in opening the shop\nor factory door and dri\\dng them all into it. That is only the other extreme\nof driving them into the university. I say open all doors of educational\nand self-supporting opportunities but keep always in \\dew that the home\ncomes first. Then we as a nation are safe.\nFor a solution of these problems we turn eagerly and trustfully to the\npublic schools. Could we trust them if they did not have a past which\nassured us of their future worth ? During some twenty years of personal\nexperience in coaching partially educated men, women, and children for a\nbusiness life, people who knew something of everything, people who were\nexponents of the many difi'erent systems taught in both public and private\nschools, some of them with diplomas covering every subject on earth\nexcept the ability to work and the knowledge of how to earn a living, comes\nthis conclusion : that it is really easy to earn a living. The world needs you,\nand is willing to pay you for just what you are, but the world is in many\nrespects a \\\\'ise old guy, and will not invest its money in false sta;ndards.\nI come to this great meeting as a student that I may be able to carry\nits standard of excellence and its teachings to others from the mother's\nand the woman's standpoint. Of all the plans and suggestions for the\ndevelopment of the child nothing seems more clear than that presented by\nMr. L. L. Summers.\nFrom my standpoint it comes nearest the normal\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOLD\n\nAND\n\nNEW\n\n997\n\nhome growth in development of the normal child; it presents an element\nof growth and propaganda without loss of aesthetic ideals. It is not merely\nthe assembling of mechanical, machine-made parts, but the development\nof ability. It suggests a normal method of developing and putting into\nconcrete expression the particles of the child's mind by carefully studied\ndegrees in such a manner that he does not exhaust his future powers by\nconstructing things beyond his personal conception. The child is to us the\nraw material and we have no right to use him to exploit our exhibition work\n— he feels and knows the cheat, the false pedestal on which we have placed\nhim, and he grows up willing to cheat others in the same way. Permitting\nthe child to develop in the normal or to us artistic manner — it matters not\nwhat you call it— does not always win the greatest popularity for the\nteacher, but it does create a normal human being with parts so delicately\nadjlisted and fused that it may intelligently take its place in the wagewinning world.\nI have been able to read somewhat between life's lines, and it seems to\nme that this is just the kind of a child that the great majority of real teachers\nwould conscientiously produce if they were not bound hand and foot by\nbook-publishers, school boards, and politics. Now the men that compose\nthese bodies are just like other men, and we must admit also that they are\nour own fathers, brothers, husbands, and sons in many instances. We must\nalso admit that they look at the \"women folks\" with gentle, loving eyes,\nwhen complaint is made, and say, \"Nay, dear, that may be true, but you\ndon't understand business principles. Take this money and buy a new\nbonnet.\"\nDoes this dismiss the subject, or does it only tend to make us smile\nand look pleasant while we formulate our plans for further action ?\nThat child, that raw material, belongs to us, and every time a child,\na man, or a woman is misplaced, a mother-heart is aching.\nTeachers who do their duty from love of the work do not as a rule\nreceive much credit. They are too busy, with no time for the flourish of\ntrumpets, and most of them are women.\nI would not do away with the magnificent masculine manhood of our\nteaching army — I wish there were more of it; but men and women should\ncomplement each other in this great work, they should stand shoulder\nto shoulder.\nGentlemen, I know hundreds of women who have done more than\n\"see the inside of a sHop.\" I know women who have worked at the bench\nside by side with uncouth men for the sake of being more thoro in the\ncraft they were trying to teach.\nHow many men have done much more than \"see the inside of a shop\" ?\n■— that's a good sentence; I am glad I was present to hear it. How many\nmen have served this much- vaunted apprenticeship which is being exploited ?\nYou know very well that the best apprenticeship men would not as a rule\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "998\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nbe able to pass the academic school examination with its classical frills.\nYet they know their craft so well that they are able to smile at mere academic principles.\nThe normal training as it stands today presents a series of craft fragments and expects inexperienced teachers to piece them together as best\nthey may. Teaching teachers to teach from books is one thing but giving\nteachers the ability to do things is quite another. The normal schools\nmight do worse than give their teachers half a day in the shops for actual\nconcrete work; then there wotdd be no occasion for such wanton waste of\nmaterial and effort. Let them learn to cut and contrive, else their efforts\nwill be as wasteful as that of the old woman who made a nightcap out of a\nsheet.\nThe old way was: \"Finish your work before playing.\" This method\ngave cohesive and relative qualities to life. The announcement of a\nSunday-school picnic — we had real Sunday schools then — gave to the\nchildren and the family visions of a glorious good time, but what did it\nentail ? A new dress for every girl in the family, lunches to be prepared,\nsewing, baking, washing, ironing, something for every member of the\nfamily to do enthusiastically and joyfuUy, hurry, hustle, bustle, and happiness for weeks before the important event, and happy remembrances forever\nafterward. As a rule each member of the family and community had\ncreated and made an entire article of use or beauty for a definite purpose.\nToday— but why mention it? — we have caterers — and what else are they\ngood for? It is thus that we have lost the relationship of life-activity;\nwe don't know how to regain it, so we turn it over to the teachers with\n\"that's what they are there for.\" But the home-makers cannot and must\nnot shift this great responsibility. As in the olden days, the home and\nschool must supplement each other.\nSome of you will remember that it is now nearly twenty years since we\ncommenced to battle for the aesthetic element in all work and play. This\nquestion has been so ably presented by nearly every speaker that I shall\npass it over for other things, for every trade is a craft, and every craft\nworth entering should be controlled by the ideals of art. You may call it\ntechnology, manual training, trade schools, or crafts — it matters not. If\nthe basic principle is well understood and promoted the results will be\nthe same. We must have a knowledge of raw material, its capabilities and\npossibilities, the same as in colonial sheep-shearing days. Our advanced\nideals of how to use this material must be thru good drawing of designs\nthat are adapted to the uses of the material. We must understand the\nreal use of objects made and just how much or how little they may be\nornamented without overpowering that usefulness.\nMy experience in promoting these ideas has proved to a great number of\nthose friends who have been in constant touch with the movement that the\nfield for future activity should be, not in the center of our great seething\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOLD\n\nAND\n\nNEW\n\n999\n\ncity life, but in the rural districts. I would not send hundreds of children\ninto the country every summer for a brief summer outing, altho that is\nbetter than nothing, but I would establish a chain of exchange vocational\nand educational farms in the rural districts, where the raw material may be\nhad almost for the asking and where the activities of real life may be demonstrated just by living them daily. The city child will then go to the country\nfor a purpose and return to us with real ideas and knowledge of duty\ninstead of a false idea that the country is only a place in which to have a\ngood time, thus adding one more link in the chain of unrest that is causing\nso much trouble at present. Again, I would bring the country child to the\ncity under the same conditions, thus giving to each and every one some\nchoice of life-work.\nWe commenced this country plan of education some twelve years ago\nin a quiet small way, for cultured, refined mothers who were left with\nfamilies to support, and the results have been so satisfactory that we now\nmake bold to give our plans to the world, and where is there a better place\nto plant the thought than in the National Education Association? Let\nus work together in this great movement of \"art for life's sake\" and remember that art is not a thing, not a picture or a great statue, not a wonderful composition or a beautiful song, it is only a beautiful way of doing\nthings. Select your work, give of your best, express yourself in terms of\nuse and beauty, and you are just as much of an artist as the painter— more\nof one in fact — if it is your great calling to deal with life in its truest and\ngreatest sense.\nArt means to build and rebuild, to generate and regenerate, the great\nmotor power of civilization. Fortunately minds will, if given a chance,\ngrow new motor power, consequently new standards are constantly confronting us,but life does not change. We only finish the work of those\ngone before and as a natural result leave our own unfinished, therefore let\nit be the best we have to give.\nGreat revolutionists create no more than a ripple. Every art and\nscience is dependent upon some other art and science. The specialist, to\nsucceed, must know something of each, else his wheels will not balance.\nOur woman's clubs, those great universities of unclassified educational\nadvantages, are frequently referred to as freaks of sentiment. I hope this\nis true and believe it is. Let us always be for sentiment instead of politics.\nSentiment should be woman's highest aim — her cherished ideal. There is\nenough of the prosaic in every life.\nFor my own part I should rather be able to create a great forceful sentiment, preach and practice it until it enters the hearts of my fellow-men,\nthan be the first woman president of the United States.\nIt is sentiment that is fast changing the public schools from stagnant\npools of decomposed matter, without a suggestion of inner activity, to\ngreat whirlpools of light and life and progress.\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nIt is public sentiment that carries presidential elections.\nThe press, that gigantic power which we all recognize, uses sentiment\nas its greatest weapon in those bloodless battles for the control of public\nopinion.\nThe National Education Association was banded together for the\nadvancement of education many years ago, with many rules and many\nregulations, but sentiment overcame those paper-made, hide-bound resolutions. Consequently we are greatly indebted to sentiment for the present\nprogressive spirit, wherein we as women may come, as live, active members.\nLet us go on creating sentiment. Let us fuse the parts as best we may,\nfor God will direct our efforts in this as in all other things. We shall\nmeet obstacles, but out of chaos will come order.\nArt, the great creative and inspiring element of human activity, is\ntoday hovering over the industrial life of our people, even as she hovered\nover the guilds of the past when every workman was an artist-artisan.\nThe only difference between the old and new is that the old centered about\nthe colonial home with its adjacent lands, supplemented by the schools,\nthe new centers about the schools and we hope it is or will be supplemented\nby the home.\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nMUSIC\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — C. A. Fttllerton, Iowa State Teachers College\nVice-President — Juua E. Crane, Normal Institute of Music\nSecretary — Arthur G. Wahlberg, supervisor of music\n\nFIRST SESSION— MoNBAY\n\nCedar Falls, Iowa\nPotsdam, N.Y.\nFresno, Cal.\n\nForenoon, July 8, 191 2\n\nIn the absence of the officers of the department, the first meeting of the Department\nof Music Education was called to order at 9:50 a.m. by Etta Q. Gee, principal of Franklin\nSchool, Chicago, 111.\nA. J. Gantvoort, president of the College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio, was elected\nchairman pro tempore.\nMr. Gantvoort assumed the chair and called for the paper of P. C. Lutkin, of the\nNorthwestern University School of Music, Evanston, 111., which should have followed the\npresident's address.\nMr. Lutkin not being present. Will Earhart, director of music, public schools, Pittsburgh, Pa., presented his paper on \"A Presentation of the High-School Course Which\nWas Adopted by the Music Supervisors' National Conference: What It Is and How to\nAdminister It.\"\nAt the close of this paper, C. A. FuUerton, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls,\nIowa, who had arrived, assumed the chair as president of the department.\nPresident Fullerton then announced that on account of the delay that had arisen\nhe would omit the reading of the president's address, and instead would make some\nremarks at the Wednesday morning meeting.\nIn the absence of Arthur G. Wahlberg, supervisor of music, Fresno, Cal., the secretary\nof the department, P. C. Hayden, supervisor of music, Keokuk, Iowa, was elected secretary pro tempore.\nA. J. Gantvoort, president of the College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio, and chairman\nof the Committee on National Songs, was then called upon for the report of this committee. Mr. Gantvoort made the following statement:\nA committee of three was appointed three years ago, and increased to a committee of\nnine, which committee made a report at Denver, Boston, and San Francisco. In previous\nyears, the committee has not been able to agree unanimously upon a report, but this\nyear a unanimous report is presented, and, as chairman of the committee, I urge that this\nreport be either adopted or rejected and the committee discharged. Most of the division\nin the committee has arisen in arriving at a suitable version of the \"Star Spangled Banner,\"\nbut finally it has been decided to leave out all dotted quarter notes.\nMr. Gantvoort then played the adopted version of the song. The committee\nrecommended that the first movement be sung in unison, the second by two voices — •\ntenor and soprano together, alto and bass together — the final phrase, or refrain, being in\nfoiur parts.\nAfter a brief discussion, a motion to the effect that the report of the committee on\nthe \"Star Spangled Banner\" be adopted, was carried.\nAfter making some announcements, the president suggested that the discussion on the\nnational songs be suspended imtil after the reading of a paper on \"Musical Appreciation:\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "I002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nHow Is It to Be Developed?\" by P. C. Lutkin, of the Northwestern University School of\nMusic, Evanston, 111.\nAt the conclusion of this paper, the report of the Committee on National Songs was\ncontinued with the consideration of \"Red, White, and Blue.\" P. C. Hayden, of Keokuk,\nIowa, suggested that the song would be improved and rendered more dignified by eliminating the syncopations wherever they occiured, as in the second and third verses, particularly since the sjmcopation produced an awkward accent. Edward B. Birge, supervisor\nof music, Indianapolis, Ind., moved that the song up to the chorus be adopted as reported\nby the committee. This motion was carried. The chorus was then played thru and on\nmotion the whole song was adopted.\nThe national song \"Hail Columbia\" was then taken up, and with very little\ndiscussion the version as recommended by the committee was unanimously adopted.\nThe motion was then made and imanimously carried that the report of the committee\nas a whole be adopted as the report of the Department of Music Education, and that the\nversion of the songs as presented by them should be oflBcially indorsed by the Department of Music Education.\nThe following Committee on Resolutions was then appointed:\nFrances E. Clark, head of Educational Department, Victor Talking Machine\nCo., Camden, N.J.\nCharles I. Rice, director of music, pubUc schools, Worcester, Mass.\nWill Earhart, director of music, public schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nThe president apipointed Charles I. Rice, of Worcester, Mass., Fannie E. Lynch,\nof Chicago, 111., and Jessie L. Clark, of Wichita, Kans., to serve on the nominating\ncommittee.\nIt was moved and carried that the thanks of the Department of Music Education\nbe extended to the Committee on National Songs, who had given so liberally of their\ntime diuring the past four years in attempting to formulate a report acceptable to the\ndepartment.\nThe meeting then adjourned,\nSECOND\n\nSESSION, ROUND\n\nTABLE— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July n, 191 2\n\nThe meeting of the department was called to order by President Fullerton at\n9 : 30 A.M.\n\nAfter making some announcements, the president called for the \"Report of the\nCommittee on Terminology,\" and introduced Charles I. Rice, director of music, public\nschools, Worcester, Mass., and chairman of the committee.\nMr. Rice stated that the Committee on Terminology was appointed in 1906, and had\nmade its first report in Los Angeles, and that it had reported annually at each meeting\nsince that time, usually having its reconunendations adopted. Much effective work had\nbeen done, the committee having served as a clearing-house where suggestions could be\nmade to bring about the same use of terms in different sections of the country, in which\nwork it is still engaged.\nMore than an hour was devoted to the discussion of this report, the discussion being\nparticipated in by A. J. Gantvoort, president of the College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio;\nH. E. Owen, director of music, pubUc schools, San Jos6, Cal.; P. C. Hayden, supervisor\nof music, Keokuk, Iowa; C. A. Fullerton, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falk,\nIowa; and Charles I. Rice, director of music, pubUc schools, Worcester, Mass.\nWith the exception of sections 3 and 11, which were referred back to the committee\nfor future report, the report of the Committee on Terminology was accepted as presented.\nThe attention of the department was then called to the matter of the expense of\nprinting the report. The necessity of having funds appropriated by the National Education Association to defray the expense of printing was urged. It was suggested that it\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n•\n\n1003\n\nwas an imposition upon the members of the committee that they should meet such an\nexpense, and that it might be possible to provide for the same from among the members\nof the department, if the general Association refused to appropriate the money.\nPeter W. Dykema, director of music and festivals. Ethical Culture School, New\nYork, N.Y., then presented his paper on \"Xhe Awakening Festival Spirit in America —\nAn Educational Opportimity.\"\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nP. C. Hayden, Secretary\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION — Friday Afternoon, July 12, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president of the department at 2:30 p.m.\nThe first number on the program was a paper on \"The Making of a Musician\" by\nEleanor Smith, Chicago, 111., illustrated by a class of twelve young girls from the Hull\nHouse Music School. These young girls presented the following program:\n1. a) Spring Song\nReinecke\nb) Gondoliers' Song\nReinecke\nThe Class\n2. a) Piano — Hexentanz\nb) Au Village\n\nMiss Esther Sopkin\n3. a) The Dark Blue Eyes of Springtime\nb) The Rosebud\nc) O Beautiful Earth\nThe Class\n4. Piano — -Were I a Bird\nMiss Gertrude Edmonson\n5. a) The Haymaker\nb) Hymn, Jesu Admirabilis\nThe Class\n6. a) Mondnacht\n.\nb) Volksliedchen\n\n■.\nMiss Kate Burkman\n\n7. Piano — Waltz\n\nMiss Blanche Ebert\n\nMacDowell\nTschaikowsky\nFranz Ries\nCharles Cornish\nMarguerite Mellville\nHenselt\nDvorak\nPaleslrina\nSchumann\nSchumann\nChopin\n\nPhilander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, followed with an\naddress on \"The Place of Music tn Education.\"\nA program of folk dancing was next given, with the aid of the Victor machine.\nStudents from the Chicago School of Physical Education and Expression gave the following program:\n1. Ace of Diamonds )\n2. I See You\n[\n3. Reap the Flax\n)\n\n.\n\n. Chicago School of Physical Education and Expression\n\nBlekm^^\"^\nt Shean\n6.\nTrews ( .\n7. Shoemaker's Dance\n8. Schottische\n\n.\n.\n\nKramer School of Dancing\nMr. McClennan, Premier National Dancer of Great Britain\n. Chicago School of Physical Education and Expression\nKramer School of Dancing\n\n( '\nchotdsche\nH?g\\fan?S\nlo! Motor\n11.\nDance\n12. Eightsome Reel .\n.\n.\n13. Russian Dance (Kamarinskaia)\n14. Hornpipe\n\n^^^'^^S^ School of Physical Education and Expression\nKramer School of Dancing\nChicago School of Physical Education and Expression\n....\nMisses Russell and Layman\nMr. McClennan\n\nAt the close of the program President Fullerton introduced Mrs. Elizabeth Casterton,\nsupervisor of music, public schools, Rochester, N.Y., who spoke of the National Supervisors' Conference, which will meet in Rochester next spring, and urged all supervisors\nto attend.\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "I004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nC. A. Fullerton, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa, then read his paper\non \"The Principles of Scientific Management Applied to Teaching Music in the Public\nSchools.\"\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted its report as follows:\n\nN.Y.\n\nFor President — Will Earhart, director of music, public schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFor Vice-President — ^Agnes Benson, supervisor of music, public schools, Chicago, 111.\nFor Secretary — Elizabeth Casterton, supervisor of music, public schools, Rochester,\n\nThe report of the nominating committee was imanimously accepted.\nA motion was then made that the incoming president be empowered to appoint a\ncommittee who should endeavor to have the subject of music completely represented on\nthe general program of the National Education Association; and who should devise plans\nto arouse sufiicient interest in the Music Department to secure fimds from the Association\nfor proper investigation of music teaching in the public schools.\nAn amendment to this motion was moved and carried to the effect that C. A. Fullerton, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa, be appointed a committee of one\nto carry out these plans.\nA motion was made and carried urging Commissioner Clazton to print his address\nand send it out over the coimtry.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nJessie L. Clark, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nA PRESENTATION OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE WHICH\nWAS ADOPTED BY THE MUSIC SUPERVISORS' NATIONAL\nCONFERENCE: WHAT IT IS AND HOW TO ADMINISTER IT\nWILL\n\nEARHART,\nCHAIRMAN\n\nDHLECTOR\nor THE\n\nOF MUSIC, PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH,\nCOMMITTEE\nTHAT PREPARED THE REPORT\n\nPA.,\n\nThe subject assigned me is very explicit: it calls for a statement of the\nprovisions of the report adopted at St. Louis and for some suggestions\nregarding the practical installation of the course that was there recommended. These legitimate demands of the subject will be taken up in this\norder, and, in addition, some argument will be made in favor of the course\nthat is thus presented for your consideration.\nThe principal provisions of the report we are to discuss are as follows:\n1. All study of music, or exercise in music, undertaken by any high school as part of\nthe scholastic routine, shall be credited by that school.\n2. The amount of credit so granted shall be equal in every case, hour for hour, to that\ngranted by the same school for any other subject; with this following qualification:\n3. All subjects, musical or otherwise, are imderstood in this report to be on a basis\nof double or single credit accordingly as they do or do not necessitate a period of study in\npreparation for each period of recitation. Thus, as applied to music, chorus practice,\nwhich requires no preparation, would receive equal credit with drawing, which requires\nnone. On the other hand, each recitation hour in harmony should receive double the\ncredit of each chorus recitation hour, inasmuch as harmony requires preparatory study\nthat can be certified; and again, harmony should be credited, hour for hour of scheduled\nrecitation, equally with mathemadcs or any subject similarly requiring outside study.\nRemaining articles of this report assvmie the foregoing plan of crediting.\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nSUPERVISORS'\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\n1005\n\n4. We submit the following as desirable and practical courses in music for high\nschools of the sizes specified:\no) For high schools approximating 100 students or fewer:\nEssential ^offerings: chorus practice, preferably required, may be elective.\nRecommended offerings: musical appreciation, elective.\nAlso, in order of rank, the following recommended offerings (any or all): orchestra\nensemble, elective; chorus of girls, elective; band practice, elective; chorus of boys (glee\nclub), elective.\nb) For high schools of more than 100 and upward to 250 students, approximately:\nEssential offerings: chorus practice, required, required and elective, or elective;\nmusical appreciation, elective; orchestra ensemble, elective.\nRecommended offerings (any or aU) : chorus of girls, elective; band practice, elective;\nchorus of boys, elective.\nc) For high schools approximating 300 or more:\nEssential offerings: chorus practice, required, required and elective, or elective;\nmusical appreciation, elective; orchestra ensemble, elective.\nRecommended offerings: harmony, elective; counterpoint, elective; chorus of girls,\nelective; band practice, elective; chorus of boys, elective.\n\nThe foregoing articles are quoted literally from the report, but should\nnot be understood as constituting the whole of the report. Many sections\nhave been omitted; and these deal mainly with the organization of the\ncourse with regard to the number of hours of recitation per week in each\nbranch, and the number of semesters thru which each is carried. These\nprovisions may be summarized by saying that they are framed so that they\neither require each student, or make it possible for each student, to gain\napproximately one twenty-fifth of his total of credits required for graduation thru the study of music alone; and they advise that he be permitted\nto gain a maximum of one-eighth of his total of credits in such manner.\nIt is obvious, from what has been read, that certain convictions, either\nnot generally held (if we judge from existing practice) or, at least, not up\nto this time openly declared for, underlie the report and shape its provisions.\nIt may be of value to state some of the more obvious of these; if not as\nthe entire committee saw them, at least as the present speaker sees them:\n1. The study of music in high schools should be serious as well as\npleasurable.\n2. Voice ensemble (chorus) is not the whole of musical practice, is not\nthe only musical practice possible to high-school students, and should not\nbe the only musical practice offered them by the school.\n3. Orchestral ensemble is as distinctly educational, musically and\ngenerally, as is chorus ensemble; and the practice of an orchestral instrument isas distinctly educational to the individual as is the use of his voice\nin singing.\n4. An education in music other than applied music (singing or playing)\nis possible and desirable. By means of it a body of cultured and appreciative hearers could gradually be formed; and all musical practice undertaken\nby any of these would be illuminated and informed by the knowledge and\ntaste acquired in their general or theoretical study.\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\n5. Musical appreciation (including study of history, biography, form,\ncontent, and musical aesthetics) and harmony are subjects of this general or\ntheoretical nature, and are appropriate and desirable for high schools.\nThe manner of administering the course needs little explanation, surely,\nexcept wath regard to the work in musical appreciation. Some suggestions\nare made in the report, under chorus practice, that this include, according\nto conditions, contributory instruction in sight reading, theory, ear-training,\nvoice management, and musical appreciation; and while the report makes\nno such suggestion as this next, which is therefore merely a personal belief,\nI would urge strongly that harmony be more than a mere presentation of\nthe harmonic material. In addition to this, the student should be guided and\nstimulated to using the harmonic material presented in tasteful and beautiful musical expression. The desire underlying these suggestions is simply\nthat the student be made truly musical. We have all seen that a person\nmay work along lines of musical practice interminably — as a student of\npiano, violin, harmony, or, most emphatically, of voice — and fail utterly\nand miserably in becoming a true musician, whose sense of the beautiful\nmay grace a world that is often so lamentably unbeautiful. It seems to be\nnobody's business, along with all this special teaching, to teach music.\nThe beautiful gets short shrift. It is precisely this fimction that the public\nhigh schools can most appropriately perform. Their aims are stiU primarily\ngeneral and humanistic, rather than special and technical, however broad\nand strong may be the foundations which they lay down under all special\nmusical development. Therefore the cultivation of taste, appreciation,\ndiscriminating perception of, and genuine love for the beautifvd should,\nwithout any sacrifice of technical thoroness and breadth, be the purpose\nunderlying all school study of music. The truly great teachers outside of\nschool are those who, whatever their special work, add this result to their\nteaching. In the schools, recognition of its importance and validity shovdd\nnever for a moment be absent.\nAnd thus we have come to the subject of musical appreciation, which by\nits very name is specifically dedicated to the purpose just described. What\nmaterial is needed for such a course, and how is the study to be conducted ?\nThese questions need practical answers.\nThe material must be compositions by the masters, showing their art\nat its supreme and most individual moments. Part-songs and choruses\nfrom operas, oratorios, and cantatas are available in great numbers, and a\ngoodly list of these is practicable in almost any modern high school. If\nyou are a pianist, or if you can secure the frequent services of a pianist, the\nworld of instriunental music, so different in its ideals from the world of\nchoral music, can be represented. Failing either way, you may still bring\nthis music before your classes by use of the player-piano. If you sing, or\ncan secure a singer frequently, solo songs and many of the great arias can\nbe given. If not, a few of these may be done in unison, and the victrola\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nSUPERVISORS'\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\n1007\n\nmay be brought in to present countless others. Orchestral compositions\nmay be studied to good result thru the player-piano; and, if you live in a\ncity blessed by a symphony orchestra, you may lead your students later to\nthe concert hall to hear, now glorified, these same compositions. Special\nlocal facilities may lead, occasionally, to other desirable presentations.\nYou may be a violinist; and then the Mendelssohn or the Beethoven\nconcerto would be a possible delightful addition. There may be a string\nquartet available; and if so Haydn, Mozart, and others could be understood\nin qualities that otherwise might go unrecognized. The essential factors,\nhowever, will always be the voices of the students and the piano, or playerpiano. With these alone the course can be made successful in all its essential\nfeatures.\nSo much for the material: but it must not be presented in haphazard\nfashion and without comment. Utterly barren, indeed, would be the\neducational result if this were the case. And how can the truth be driven\nhome forcibly enough, that here all rests with the teacher. If Felix\nWeingartner, Frederick Stock, Henry Krehbiel — if any musician of great\ninsight, profound knowledge, supreme musicianship, presented this material\nthru a series of lessons covering a period of two years, commenting, instructing, elucidating, what a wealth of understanding and appreciation would\nresult! What is to be said about the material? That is the one supreme\nquestion. If the teacher is not a true musician in feeling and knowledge, or\ndoes not try to become one, there is nothing to say, and the whole course is\nperfunctory, vapid — a journey without a goal, or a gluttonous devouring\ninstead of an epicurean feasting.\nThe material, then, must be presented according to some system, in\norder that certain general truths, judgments, criteria of appreciation, may\nbe left in the student's mind. But no arbitrary system, imposed from\nwithout and rigidly adhered to, will give the right quality of result. The\nsystematizing must result from the teacher's power and comprehensive\nknowledge, which will order all things into their proper classifications\nbecause of recognition of their innate qualities and specific traits. This\ndoes not mean that no order should be adopted; for instance, a historical\none. It does mean, however, that every musical fact is bound up with\nother musical facts that historically preceded and followed it; and that\nconsequently the musical numbers presented cannot be confined to one age\nwithout violence, and also without loss of that very historical perspective\nwhich such restriction to a limited historical period is designed to secure.\nAre you studying Wagner ? He cannot be understood without reviewing\nthe history of opera, its ideals and modes of expression, as these existed\nunder the Italian operatic composers, as Gliick saw and established them,\nas Weber modified them ; he cannot be understood and estimated unless the\nsubject of orchestral development is thoroly reviewed; again, he cannot be\nrightly comprehended unless the ideals of instrumental music, with its set\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "loo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nforms and necessary thematic treatment, as this had existed for long years,\nin opera as well as in sonata and symphony, are understood and sympathetically comprehended. We find ourselves placing Wagner in relation to all\nthat was past and all that was to come. Are you studying Mendelssohn ?\nYou cannot explain the present lapse of his piano compositions without\nreviewing the ideals and manner of piano music before him and referring\nto the achievements of Schumann, Chopin, and Liszt; you cannot explain\nthe present lapse of his orchestral music without discussing the orchestral\nmanner of Wagner and Berlioz; you cannot judge his oratorios but by a\nknowledge of what had been done in oratorio before his day; you cannot\nexplain his contemporaneous success and present comparative decline\nwithout investigating the rise and development of Romanticism.\nThus historical perspective must be secured in the instance, and must\nbe constantly renewed. It cannot wait upon slow chronological procedure.\nFurther, a material condition presents itself. New students elect, each\nsemester, the musical appreciation class. Unless they number forty or\nfifty they cannot become a class themselves, for the chorus illustrations,\nwhich are most important, demand such numbers. If they join the class\nalready organized, chronological order receives a shock. As a matter of\nfact, it is not in the least important that it does. You will agree, after\nsome experience. Let them join.\nOrder, then, is the systematic relating of one piece to another, to a\ngroup of others, and to all the remainders of music. As the relationships\nare in the teacher's head (if at all), artificial classifications are rather a\nhindrance. However, I would suggest a historical order, as a general\noutline, since some prearranged plan must be chosen; then let one part of\nthe course refer to, review, be compared with, other parts, sufficiently to\nmake the work live.\nIn addition to the musical numbers there should be textbooks individually held, where these can be found; for this material is woefiilly limited.\nA very fair substitute is a good music section in the high-school library, the\npublic library, or preferably, in both. Grove's Encyclopedia, the Oxford\nHistory, Upton's handbooks, Mathews' The Great in Music, Parry's works,\nbooks on form, the orchestra, etc., should be available here. Notebooks\nshould be kept, essays, biographical and historical, be written, and examinations should be held. Recitations are more difficult to hold, as the singing,\nhearing, and discussing of the music fill the recitation hours.\nLastly, it should be borne in mind that the important result is not\nfamiliarity with a number of pieces of music but understanding of music in\ngeneral: its aims or ideals, its laws of beauty, the nature of its appeal to\nman, and the necessary limitations of its field. Thus, Ernest Newman\nquotes Bumey as saying that music is the only presentative art; all the\nother arts are representative. An understanding of this saying will reveal\nthe difference in ideals between Wagner and most composers who have come\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nIS MUSICAL\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nTO BE\n\nDEVELOPED?\n\n1009\n\nafter him, and those who belong to the older classical school. An essay of\nMr. Mathews distinguishes three appeals that music makes: first, to the\near (sense appeal), as \"purified, crystallized sound\"; secondly, to the mind,\nas succession, beautiful relation of part to part, established thru the purely\nmental faculty of memory, without which there could be no recognition of\nconnection, relation, dependence, proportion, and thought or imagination,\nas exhibited in thematic development; and the appeal to the emotion or\nsoul — a more mysterious, but not unanalyzable appeal. A third investigation that can be made is with regard to the musical idea and the process of\nmusical thought. A fourth reveals the difference between folk music and\nart music. Out of all these a musical understanding may be developed.\nThe commonplace tune, with its cheap idea and its total lack of any grace\nof imagination or nobility of thought, is seen to be cheap and brainless; the\nnoisy pound of the ragtime, substituting rhythmic excitement for noble\naesthetic pleasure, is stripped of its courtesan rouge and tinsel, and shows its\nmeretriciousness and vulgarity. The result does not come at once; it does\nnot come always. But it does come in measure, and in that measure it\njustifies any conceivable effort.\nMUSICAL\nPETER\n\nAPPRECIATION— HOW\n\nCHRISTIAN\n\nLUTKIN,\n\nIS IT TO BE DEVELOPED?\n\nNORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY\nEVANSTON,\nILL.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF MUSIC,\n\nThere are few phrases, indeed, open to such a wide latitude of definition\nas the phrase \"being musical.\" In its narrowest sense it means a susceptibility tothe charms of music, even if the music is of rather an ordinary\ntype. In a larger sense it means a natural or acquired appreciation of\nmusic in its higher aspects, and more particularly of the kind of music\nknown as \"classical.\" Without \"being musical\" one can never arrive\nat a true understanding of the real worth and beauty of music. Nor\ncan music cast its beneficent spell over natures that are unresponsive\nor unsympathetic. To become \"musical,\" then, is a most desirable\nconsummation and it is the object of this paper to suggest ways by which\nmusical appreciation may be developed, especially in our public schools.\nMusic by virtue of its intrinsic merit has gradually won its way to a\nrecognized position in the educational world. It is no longer necessary\nto explain its intimate relation with life, its value as a refining influence,\nits worth as a disciplinary force, or its commanding position as an art.\nWe have arrived at that stage of development where we are seeking the\nbest methods of presenting it to the young, in order that the rising\ngeneration may come into the rich heritage that awaits an awakened\nmusical sense.\nWe must not forget that the processes of art are quite the opposite\nof the processes of science. Art is not the result of scientific procedure.\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "loio\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nOn the contrary, it is the product of highly endowed natures answerable\nat the time to no known laws and conforming to no preconceived plan.\nScience laboriously explains these creations of genius, formidates from them\nrules and principles which hold good until a new genius expands the old\nlaws or invents new ones.\nNow education in music must follow the same general plan; that is,\nmusic must first be presented as an art, the science to follow as soon as\nthe mind has some adequate comprehension of the art. Up to comparatively recent times, music in our schools has been taught more as a science\nthan as an art. The mechanical and unattractive symbols of music have\nbeen forced into the immatiire brains of our yoimg children before their\nimport was understood and often to the detriment of a love of music for\nits own sake. It is maintained that our children are sent to school too\nyoung, that if their entry were delayed a year or two the maturer minds\nwould easily make up the lost time and would assimilate their newly\nacquired knowledge far more thoroly. The same principle certainly\nobtains in the study of music, and a knowledge of the notation of music\nmay well be put off until the child has stored within him a feeling for chord\nand scale intervals and until his sense of rhythm has been quickened by\nan intimate acquaintance with varied examples of time combinations.\nWe start, then, with the proposition that the child, in order to become\nmusical, must become familiar, either actively or passively, with numerous\nexamples of good music. The active- participation, as in singing, will\nnaturally concern itself with simple material in order to meet thd limitations of the child's executive ability. The passive participation, as in\nlistening, is not so restricted, for a child can grasp and aesthetically comprehend music far beyond its ability to perform. In fact, the receptive capacity\nof the young is usually underrated. Their tastes, if unformed, are at least\nunspoiled. They have no prejudices to overcome and no preconceived\nideas to combat.\nUnfortunately \"house music,\" as the Germans style it, is little cultivated inthis country. In American homes it is indeed rare that musicmaking is pursued as a family function or that any direct effort is made\nto establish a love for good art in any direction. Even if the parents are\nmusical, they are apt to turn over the musical education of the children to\nthe music teacher or the school. The prevailing music in American homes is\nof a cheap and vulgar character. Our pianos are littered up with dance tunes\nand popular songs whose artistic value is well indicated by the atrociously\ncolored title-pages. Participation in either vocal or instrumental concerted\nmusic, that most delightful and improving occupation, is a form of enjoyment\nalmost unkno\\NTi among us. We still have to learn in our homes that there\nare other voices than the melody and other instruments than the piano.\nIf the home offers so little encouragement for musical culture we must\nturn to the school, and here, fortimately, we find a much more promising\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nIS MUSICAL\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nTO BE DEVELOPED?\n\nlOII\n\nstate of affairs. Thanks to those in charge of the education of our youth,\nthe value of music as an element of culture has been generously recognized,\nand few indeed are the places where some provision for its study has not\nbeen made. Many excellent textbooks have been published, the work of\nskilled musicians. But, as has been already intimated, the emphasis has\nbeen laid upon theoretical instruction. Happily there is a reaction in\nsome quarters and the newer books are devoting more and more space to\n\"art-songs,\" so called. This is excellent so far as it goes, but if we are\nto develop a truly musical nation the child must have a wider musical\nexperience than he can cover in his own singing. He must have good\nmusic and much good music presented to him thru the medium of hearing.\nExquisite enjoyment may be experienced by contemplating a rose and\ninhaling its fragrance without the slightest knowledge of its structure\nfrom the botanist's point of view. In like manner, the more attractive\npieces by the great composers can, if judiciously presented, give great\npleasure without the slightest knowledge of their structure from the\ntheorist's point of view.\nThe practical question arises, \"How are we to supply our school children with music calculated to enlarge their horizon outside of the music\nthey themselves perform?\" The situation has its difficulties, but they are\nnot insurmountable. The writer, in preparing the music for one of the\nchildren's concerts of the Chicago North Shore Festival Association in\nwhich fifteen hundred children participated, had an experience which\nmade a great impression on him at the time. In the course of his rehearsals\nhe visited one of the South Evanston schools. It was at the beginning\nof the morning session. The children, fresh and vigorous, were entering\nthe school building. On ascending to the upper floor, a young lad was\nnoticed seated at an old square piano on the half-landing. Promptly at\nnine o'clock there was absolute silence thruout the building and the young\npianist played a little piece quite acceptably. Suddenly it flashed across\nthe mind of the writer, \"What an opportunity to make all these young\nschool children truly musical.\" Here were several hundred children,\nglowing with health and good spirits after their morning play, in the most\nfavorable receptive condition possible, listening intently and with evident\nenjoyment to the music they heard. Imagine substituting for the young\nlad, the old piano, and the unpretentious piece of music a talented and\nexperienced player, a good piano, and music chosen with a well-defined,\npurpose! Such a musical diet, fed to the children but five or ten minutes\ndaily thruout the grammar-school period would <^o far to transform any\nnation into \"being musical.\" Eighth-grade children would distinguish\nMozart from Beethoven, Schumann from Chopin. They would be familiar\nwith scores of selections from symphonies, oratorios, and operas. Think\nwhat an audience such a plan would prepare for our future classical concerts,\nif it were once carried out in any comprehensive and thorogoing way !\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nBut like all problems having to do with fundamental improvement\nin the human race, it is not so easily worked out. Gifted performers and\ngood instruments are not always available, nor are the services of an experienced musician to plan out such a course. As for the performers, here\nis work, and grand work,, for the numerous amateur musical clubs thruout\nthe country. In most towns of considerable size, such organizations\nexist and they embrace in their membership most of the piano-playing\nand singing talent of the community. These clubs should supply the necessary performers without expense to the public schools and the co-operation\nof prominent musicians could doubtless be obtained to outline the programs\nof music.\nThere is even a more practicable plan than the above to bring music\nbefore the children in a larger way, and this is by means of phonographs\nor mechanical piano-players. These agencies for the reproduction of\nmusic seem to have entered the field at a psychological moment. Musically,\nwe are in a peculiar condition in these United States of America. In\ncertain directions we have made enormous strides in the past thirty or\nforty years. A generation ago we were looked down upon as an unmusical\nnation. Today the finest orchestras and perhaps the finest operatic\nproductions are in this country. A quarter of a century ago American\nmusicians had practically no standing in Europe. Today they occupy\nprominent positions as performers and teachers in the old-world capitals.\nWell-informed people are disposed to think that pedagogical methods\nwith us are decidedly in advance of those in Europe. But all this advance\nis largely confined to students of music, either professional or amateur.\nIt has not as yet permeated thru to the people at large. The crying need\nof America at present is an appreciative public to patronize her rapidly\ngrowing list of native musical artists, a public trained to enjoy music in\nits higher forms and trained to exercise a discriminating judgment.\nThe phonograph and the piano-players bid fair to bring this desired\ncondition of affairs to pass, for they supply ready-made music, so to speak,\nfor the masses. It must be confessed that up to date the music of the\ncomic opera and the vaudeville stage hold first place in the output of rolls\nand records, but there is an encouraging increase in the demand for music\nthat comes under the dread term of \"classical.\" A certain number of\npeople desirous of improving their musical taste are trying out classical\nselections to find out if they are really as \"bad as they sound,\" to quote\nan American humorist. But it is in the schools where the grand opportunity lies. These mechanical music-makers can serve an invaluable\npurpose here in acquainting the children with a wide range of music.\nThe phonographs, altho deficient in reproducing many phases of instrumental music, are more practical than the piano-players. They cost\nless, are portable, and give examples of both vocal and instrumental music.\nThe only objection that can be brought against their use is the fear that\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] HOW\n\nIS MUSICAL\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nro BE DEVELOPED f\n\n1013\n\nthey will be used as entertaining toys rather than as a medium for musical\neducation. Children need to be taught above all things that music is\nmore than a mere amusement, that in its truer expression it appeals to\nboth intellect and emotion, and that an understanding of the complexities\nof great music is as much of a mental achievement as an understanding\nof the higher forms of literature or science.\nWhile the study of music is richly worth while for its own sake, there\nis a negative side to the subject that deserves serious consideration. Wholesome entertainment is one of the great needs of our twentieth-century\ncivilization. The most frequented forms of public amusement — the\ntheater, the vaudeville, and the moving-picture show — all have a decided\ntendency to lower moral standards. The most sacred relations of life are\nmade light of and all the crimes of the Decalog, save murder, are at times\nheld up to ridicule. Language is used and ideas suggested that we would\nnot for a moment tolerate in our homes, yet these performances are patronized and supported by all grades of society. So-called \"advanced\" ideas of\nsex relation are exploited and substantially advocated, yet we permit\nour young people to attend without a protest.\nWhile an early injection of the musical microbe may not cure all our\nsocial ills, the pursuit of music unquestionably tends toward a love for\nthe pure and beautiful. It is an excellent counterirritant for the feverish\nrestlessness of the age. It invites contemplation and introspection. It\nexpands our emotional life and sharpens our sense-perceptions. It keeps\nalive our finer sensibilities which are so likely to become dulled and deadened\nwith the sordid contact of everyday life.\nThere is still another reason, if a less ethical one, why our children\nshould receive sound and effective training in the art of music. The\nolder arts, painting, sculpture, and architecture, seem in a sense exhausted.\nTheir greatest masters belong to bygone days. Music, on the contrary,\nis in the midst of tremendous development — some of her greatest masters\nbelong to modern times. Technical mastery, as regards both performance\nand creative ability, is at a marvelous stage of proficiency. The capacity of\nthe human ear has increased enormously in assimilating complex combinations of sounds. It is becoming more and more necessary that one have\nspecial preparation to grasp and comprehend this wonderful art, this\ndistinctive product of modern civilization, which typifies in artistic guise\nthe involutions and intricacies of twentieth-century life. Surely we owe\nit to the rising generation to give them every opportunity for appreciating\nthe art of the day.\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE MAKING\nELEANOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nOF A MUSICIAN\n\nSMITH,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nA protest sometimes made by grade teachers and superintendents\nagainst the more artistic ideals of music teaching in schools is that we are\ntrying to make musicians of the children. The fault of the specialist's\nview is undoubtedly to overestimate his importance to the general scheme,\nbut as yet the place of music in our curricula is too insignificant to give\ncause for concern on this score.\nAt present the average teacher of school music is expected to furnish\nspecial music for all occasions, to prepare cantatas and operettas, to train\nchildren's voices, to teach the technique of reading and writing, to give\near- training, and to co-ordinate songs to other subjects of the school program. The time allowed for these activities is from thirty to ninety\nminutes weekly.\nIt may be truly said that quality in teaching is more than quantity, but\nwhen we realize that instruction in at least one-half of the schoolrooms of\nthe country is given by teachers without musical ability or training, we are\nforced to conclude that at least half of this instruction is little better than\nno instruction at all?\nGranted that the musician has a fimction in the community as significant as that of preacher or plumber, the conservation of talent seems an\nimportant matter; but while much is said about the conservation of our\nnatural resources, while societies are formed to protect birds and forests,\nthere is little real concern for the nurture of artistic resources, so precious\nto older nations.\nThe schools of the country, the only democratic ground for the fostering of talent, too often fail in this regard. Paltry ideals are a cord for the\nstrangling of genius; cheap music is its scourge, mechanical methods its\ndeath warrant. The fantastic belief that children are made technically\ninvincible thru the enjoyment of rote singing is its poison cup. And of\nall the foes of talent, especially of vocal talent, perhaps none is more fatal\nthan the implacable patriotism which so often cracks the throats of infancy\n\\\\'ith burdens like that of the \"Star Spangled Banner.\"\nIt is sad to think of what becomes of all the tender shoots which might\nflower so sweetly in the schoolroom imder wise guardianship. Bound in\nso many cases to extinguishment later in the dust and heat of factories\nand workshops, these ideal strivings might long survive if teaching were\nbetter and music more pure.\nBut imperfect as is the music of the schoolroom, it is the one widespread\npopular agency which can be enlisted for the making of the musician.\nChurch music undoubtedly does much for individuals, but the effect of that\nother great popular influence — the music of entertainment — is almost always\ndebasing.\nThe good concerts, of which there are so many in our large\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMAKING\n\nOF A MUSICIAN\n\n1015\n\ncities, appeal to a very small public. The opera, with its high prices, is not\nfor the very poor, nor even for those whose purses are less narrow. The\ncheap shows, the vaudevilles, and the moving-picture entertainments contribute very little which can instruct or elevate.\nUntil recently, therefore, all serious work in the conserving and development of talent was done by private teachers and by the conservatories and\nmusic schools thruout the country. That many of these institutions are\ncompletely commercial in spirit is too true, and the pupil is often the prey\nof the unscrupulous instructor, whose only fitness for his work is a meretricious virtuosity.\nIt is true that many good music schools give scholarships and that\nmost private teachers are glad to grant reductions to an occasional pupil,\nbut the fact still remains that up to a few years ago there was no possibility\noutside of private munificence or occasional charity of a poor pupil's\nreceiving a thoro musical education.\nDuring the past fifteen years, however, a much-needed institution, the\nsettlement music school, has made its appearance in this country. The\nlargest and best of these are endowed, for no musician dependent on his\nown activities for a livelihood could long live from fees collected in such an\ninstitution. In nearly every case these schools have their beginnings in\nconnection with settlements.\nThe Hull House Music School, which is the oldest of the group, had\nperhaps the most unclouded beginning, having been founded thru the\ngenerosity of Miss Mary Rozet Smith, a trustee of Hull House. The New\nYork Music School Settlement, the largest and richest of all, had its beginning in connection with a college settlement, tho for a number of years\nit has had a separate existence.\nThese schools teach singing, the piano, the violin, and, in some cases,\nthe organ, and form orchestras and choral classes. The fees are nominal,\nbeing in some cases about one-tenth of the market price of instruction\nreceived.\nAt Hull House our object is to give as many children as our facilities\nallow a thoro musical training. As we insist upon a good general education for our children, we find our chief obstacle in the industrial conditions\nwhich send children to work at fourteen; but if the Hull House Music\nSchool has done nothing else worth recording, it has at least helped to keep\nmany children in school. To do this, of course, requires much education\nof parents.\nThe greatest advantage which we enjoy in our work is the sincere love\nof music which we meet in parents and pupils. This is not always unmixed\nwith the realization that music lessons for the children, like Nottingham\nlace curtains and plush furniture for the parlor, stand for a certain social\nadvance.\nBut music is, as it has always been, the chief delight and solace of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "iot6\n\nnational education association\n\n[Music\n\npoor, and her most ardent votaries as well as those high in her service have\nalways been the poor. A realization of this fact, and the conviction that\nmusic has supreme power to refine and elevate those who embrace it, lay\nat the foundation of our efforts to create a democratic school of music.\nThe successful direction of a musical education requires somewhat the\nkind of mental attitude necessary to skillful cookery; knowledge, taste, and\na general view of the subject must before all things be present. To cultivate technique without for a moment imperilling expressiveness; to know\ngood material and be able to adapt it to the purpose of the moment; these\nare as necessary to the good teacher as are quickness, skill, and the ability\nto keep half a dozen things going at once to the cook. We all know how\nsoon the steak will burn to a cinder if the seasoning of the vegetables absorbs\ntoo much attention; how the omelette will fall and the cake flatten if conditions for fluffiness and lightness fail at the critical moment thru attention\nto other details.\nI once heard some children formulate their teacher's theory of piano\ninstruction thus: \"Our teacher ain't like other teachers; they just believe\nin technique, but she believes in soul !\" This noble sentiment was embodied\nlater in the performance of a piano piece in which the left hand shook all\nresponsibility for the four sharps in the key while the right manfully\ngrappled with them.\nThe artistic ideal which animated the founders of the Hull House Music\nSchool was one of harmonious development of the intellectual, emotional,\nand technical in music. All instructors were imbued with the same spirit,\nand co-operation between departments was assured from the beginning.\nAll children entering the school were required to attend classes in singing\nbecause it was believed that the work done here in note-reading, eartraining, writing, vocal development, and song interpretation, would\nstrengthen the pupil for his study of an instrument. The necessity for\npiano lessons for the vocalist was equally clear. In short, it was believed\nthat, as the German saying has it, \"One hand washes the other.\" Only\nchildren with a normal ear were admitted, and those who showed talent\nand applicati n in singing classes were recommended for full tuition.\nThis plan has worked out admirably. A considerable degree of advancement has been accomplished in the instrumental departments, but in no\ncase has there been technical growth without artistic and intellectual\ngrowth. The young people who play the most fluently are those who do\nthe best work in theory, who most quickly grasp tonal relations and see\nthru rhythmic problems. That this is not commonly the case is a familiar\ntruth. How many accomplished pianists we have known by whom the\nstudy of harmony was approached with fear and dread and who could never\nlearn to distinguish by ear between the simplest musical forms.\nAs to vocalists, they are a byword and a reproach among their fellows.\nThe singing teacher is the only reputable music master who takes no respon-\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nMANAGEMENT\n\nAPPLIED\n\nTO MUSIC\n\n1017\n\nsibility as to the musical foundation of his pupil's education. This education, elaborate and expensive, often collapses miserably when confronted\nby the practical requirements even of choir singing or teaching.\nBut we all realize that the making of a musician is not only a matter\nof the ideal and interest of the teacher. The musician must truly make\nhimself, and pity is how seldom talent and opportunity fall to the lot of\nstudents who have the character and steadiness to do their part. George\nHenschel's rejoinder to the remark made to him that \"there are so few\ngood teachers,\" is historic. \"Plenty of good teachers,\" said he, \"but how\nfew good pupils.\" Rare as are both good master and good student, their\nmeeting is still more rare. It is the result of this happy meeting that we\ngreet in the real musician, the modest child-like man or woman we have\nall known and revered. No one who knows the power of music can question the value of the musician to the social fabric of which he is a part.\nEven when he was despised and rejected, when he ranked with acrobats\nand servants, his contribution was respected. And it is doubtful whether\nthe simplicity and ideality of the good musician was ever more needed in\nthe world than they are today.\n\nTHE\n\nPRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT APPLIED\nTO TEACHING MUSIC IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nC.\n\nFULLERTON,\n\nA.\n\nIOWA\n\nSTATE\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCEDAR\n\nFALLS,\n\nIOWA\n\nOne of the most significant movements of the present generation is what\nis known as scientific management. It is concerned largely with big\nmanufacturing establishments and other commercial enterprises. Its\ngeneral aim is to increase the efficiency. By applying the principles of\nscientific management, the quality of the laborer is improved, the quantity\nis greatly increased, and the laborer is in better condition after his day's\nwork. The result of this is that in the factory the workman gets better\nwages, the company gets more work done for its investment, and the public\ngets the product at a cheaper price. Scientific management is new. Some\nof its principles were first discovered about thirty years ago, but it is only\nduring the last few years that it has been reduced to a science and applied\nvery widely.\nThe most astonishing results are found in such simple and time-honored\noccupations as shoveling dirt and laying brick. Notwithstanding the fact\nthat millions of men in the course of the world's history have earned their\nbread as expert bricklayers, it was left for an enterprising American of our\nown generation to make a scientific study of the process. With stop-watch\nin hand, he reduced the entire operation to simple \"motion units\" and\nmade the sensational discovery that the eighteen motions made by a\nstandard workman in laying a single brick could with the co-operation of a\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOl8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ncheap laborer be reduced to five. By eliminating the thirteen extra motions\nand training the workman in the remaining five, he made a tremendous gain\nin the number of bricks laid by each man per day. Similar results have\nbeen obtained in other lines. By careful experiments, it has been found\nthat a laborer shoveling dirt will do a maximum of work with a minimum\nof energy if he lifts about twenty-one pounds on his shovel at one time,\nand the men who have learned to do this and who have submitted themselves to the training of the \"efficiency engineer\" so that they could do it\nin the most economical way, have had their wages increased to such an\nextent that they have been completely reconciled to the innovation.\nBut it is not alone in these elementary types of work that the application\nof scientific management is bringing such surprising results. The more\ncomplex operations have furnished an equally good opportunity. A stopwatch study of the movements of the entire force of workers, including clerks\nand stenographers, has often taken a factory that was running at a financial\nloss and enabled it to declare handsome dividends.\nThe first step taken in establishing scientific management is to conduct\na searching investigation. One of the most skillful workmen is selected for\nthe experiment. The waste of time and energy is located, the simple unit\nmotions are determined, and the one best way of performing the task is,\nafter exhaustive experiments, decided upon. This is then reduced to\nwriting and prescribed for general use. Then follows the training of the\nworkers to master the standardized methods.\nOur chief concern with scientific management at present is this: What\nhas it to offer in the way of increasing our efficiency as teachers of music in\nthe public schools ? The more we study it, the more I believe we shall be\nconvinced that it has a great deal to offer for the improvement of all educational work. The fact that we are dealing with immortal souls instead of\nbrick and steel is no argument in favor of false motions and clumsy methods.\nIf we can learn something of value from these manufacturers, why not do\nso ? The multimillionaire who has kept an expert scholar on high salary\nfor five years in order that he might minimize the waste in a large factory\nhas his reward, of course, in increased dividends, but incidentally he may\nhave made a valuable contribution to education. The efficiency engineer\nwho spent fifteen years, sometimes with two or three high-salar'ed assistants\nand with the co-operation of the leading mathematicians of the country,\nin seeking a solution for a very complicated problem in mathematics may\nnot have contributed anything to pedagogy when he evolved a method by\nwhich a skillful mechanic could solve the problem in less than thirty seconds.\nBut he furnished an exhibition of faith and persistence that should not pass\nunnoticed by the educator.\nI am not assuming that the educators of the country are in the rear in\nthe general march of progress, but I covet for the higher interests of the boys\nand girls all the aid we can get from all sources, and it is obviously true that\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nMANAGEMENT\n\nAPPLIED\n\nTO MUSIC\n\nlOiQ\n\nwhere dollars and cents are at stake there is a persistent interest in increasing efficiency and reducing waste that is worthy of the noblest cause.\nInstead of decrying the commercial prosperity of our country and the\nenthusiasm for increasing wealth, we can better improve conditions if we as\neducators put ourselves in possession of all the knowledge and skill which is\nbeing used so effectively in the commercial world, if it can in any way\nincrease our efficiency.\nIncreasing competition compels the factory management to search\neagerly for the best way of doing things. Their success depends upon their\nfinding the best way. If these factory men have been more successful in\neliminating waste than we have, we should not resent it. If a considerable\nproportion of the rural citizens of our country are better posted in regard\nto expert care of hogs than expert care of boys and girls, the fault is in them,\nnot in the hog department. If the farmer's hog begins to walk crooked\nthere is a stir in the camp, and if help cannot be secured nearer home, he\ncommunicates with the government at Washington and an expert is hurried\nto the scene on the next train with the best that the twentieth century\noffers on the care and treatment of hogs. It is a pathetic fact that sometimes the farmer is not so keen to detect a variation from the best interests\nof his sons and daughters. His training has not been such as to prepare\nhim to judge quite so successfully as in the case of the hog, and the fault is\nnot entirely his. In times past, he has not received much stimulus from\nWashington in regard to the best interests of boys and girls.\nNow scientific management is not on trial. It has already established\nitself in the factory and is making rapid progress .'n agriculture. Indirectly\nthe spirit of scientific management has done much for education, but the\nprogress that we have already made is not the topic before us at present.\nWe are clearly running our schools on a lower plane of efficiency than we\nare some of our factories.\nAs a nation we cannot afford to do this.\nAs sure as the daylight follows the dawn, this higher standard of\nefficiency will be applied to all phases of education, including religious\neducation, and the sooner the better.\nThe ''efficiency engineer\" who sets out to apply scientific management\nto music teaching will have no easy task, but he will have a tremendously\nimportant one, and the fact that it is difficult is no reason for backing away\nfrom it. Broadly speaking, the process will consist of two phases — the\nelimination of what is not worth while, and learning the most efficient way\nof doing what is worth while. Now with fifteen to twenty minutes daily\ndevoted to music, what would the scientific expert do? If he teaches a\nchild a song, what kind will he select? His fellow-laborer over in the\nagricultural department has worked for a whole generation to determine\nwhat constitutes the best ration for a hog. His problem has been to\nfind what has the best effect on the hog. The teacher's is to find what has\nthe best effect on the child. The answer to the one is expressed in pounds\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "1020\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nof pork. The answer to the other is expressed in ideals, in human happiness,\nin character, in citizenship.\nThe efficiency expert would then discriminate finely between the good\nsongs and the best songs. The cheap and the indifferent music would find\nno place in the building of this citizen of the future. If every song learned\nmust prove its right to a place in the child's life by possessing enough\nmusical and poetic beauty to give it lasting value, what will the scientific\nexpert say of the countless exercises written by the yard to serve as a\nmeans for teaching children to read music ? He is a scientist, therefore\nunprejudiced. The exercise and the song will be given an impartial trial\n— a test as searching as that used by the pure-food expert. A negative test\nwhich merely proves the absence of poison is not sufficient. There must be\npositive value there. A farmer might feed his stock on a mixture of meal\nand sawdust, but there is no argument in favor of using the sawdust.\nTo determine the best method for teaching sight singing is an inviting\nproblem for the efficiency expert. It includes all that there is in a bricklaying problem and much more, for technical skill is only part of the\nobject sought. One reason why better progress has been made in reducing\nthe technique of the factory to a scientific basis than in the technique of\npublic- school music is that success in the technique of the factory is measured by dollars and cents and the results are not questioned. It is not so\neasy to measure success in the development of an art — in the appreciation\nof beauty. Technical skill in the factory means the ability to turn out so\nmany articles per day. Technical skill in music means the ability to\nperform music, but its value depends on the power to interpret music in an\nartistic manner and also on the taste used in selecting music that is worth\nperforming.\nIf the United States could employ an efficiency engineer for a period of\nfive years to make a scientific study of music education in the public schools,\nthere would be some marvelous revelations. The position would be very\nexacting, for he would need to be a thoro musician, a psychologist, an expert\nteacher, and a thoroly trained scientist. There would be much left undone\nat the end of five years, but there would be much accomplished. If he were\nto devote all his energy to eliminating what is not worth while, and learning\nthe best way of doing what is worth doing, he would blaze a path in advance\nof any phase of education in the public schools. Then if he were to take\nfive years more and apply the principles of scientific management to music\neducation in general, including the nickel theater, the ragtime on the\nstreet, in the homes, and in the Sunday schools, he would start a movement\nthat would mean more to America than any tariff legislation that has ever\nbeen enacted or ever will be.\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nROUND\nREPORT\n\nTABLE\n\nON\n\nTERMINOLOGY\n\nI02l\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON TERMINOLOGY\n\nTo the members of the Department of Music Education of the National Education Association:\nThe subjects which were referred by the Department to the Committee on Terminology were pulse, beat, after-beat, half-beat.\nPULSE\n\nAND\n\nBEAT\n\nThe committee finds that the words \"pulse\" and \"beat\" are in general use as\nsynonymous terms, meaning one of the succession of throbs or impulses of which we are\nconscious when listening to music. Each of these pulses or beats has an exact point\nof beginning, a duration, and an exact point of ending, the latter coincident with the\nbeginning of the next pulse or beat. When thus used, both words are terms of ear and\nof feeling.\nBEAT\n\nOne of these words, \"beat,\" is also in universal use, meaning one of a series of physical\nmotions by means of which a conductor holds his group of performers to a uniform movement.\nWhen thus used it becomes a term of eye.\nThe conductor's baton, if it is to be authoritative, cannot wander about thru the\nwhole duration of the pulse, but must move quickly to a point of comparative repose,\nremaining until just before the arrival of the next pulse, when it again makes a rapid\nswing, finishing coincidently with the initial tone (or silence) of the new pulse.\nThus it is practically the end of the conductor's beat that marks the beginning of\nthe pulse.\nThe committee is of opinion that \"beat\" might preferably be used as indicating the\noutward sign.\nAFTER-BEAT\n\nThe bandmaster's direction, \"Play on the beat,\" is correct, meaning just what it\nsays; but when he says to the same player, \"Your note is a beat-note,\" he is not\nso exact.\nThe terms \"beat-note,\" \"after-beat note,\" and (to a limited degree) \"before-beat\nnote\" are in use by teachers and conductors, and are all valuable. To the bandmaster\n\"beat-note\" means the note that must be attacked at the instant of his beat or count.\nIt is entirely a matter of position in the printed measure and not at all a matter of\nnote value.\nBEAT-NOTE\n\nThis term \"beat-note\" is already in use in another important connection (see \"Terminology Report,\" 1911) and the committee recommends that those using the above\nterms shall say: \"This note is an on-the-beat note; this one is an after-the-beat note;\nthis one a before-the-beat note.\"\nDefinitions\nmatters of ear\nPulse. — The unit of movement in music, one of a series of regularly recurring throbs\nor impulses.\nMeasiire.—A group of pulses.\nPulse-group. — Two or more tones grouped within the pulse.\nmatters of eye\nBeat. — One of a series of conventional movements made by the conductor.\nThis\nmight include any unconventional motion which served to mark the movement of the\nmusic, whether made by conductor, performer, or auditor.\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "I022\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nBeat-note. — A note of the denomination indicated by the measure-sign as the imit\nof note-value in a given measure. Example: Given the following measure-signs, 2-4,\n2-2, 2-8, quarter, half, or eighth notes, respectively are beat-notes.\nBeat-group. — A group of notes, or notes and rests, of smaller denomination than the\nbeat-note, which represents a- full beat from beginning to end and is equal in value to\nthe beat-note.\n(A beat-group may begin with a rest.)\nOn-the-heat note {or rest). — Any note (or rest) ranging in value from a full beat down\nwhich calls for musical action (or inaction) synchronously with the conductor's beat.\nAfter-the-beat note. — Any note in a beat-group which indicates that a tone is to be\nsounded after the beginning, and before or at the middle of the pulse.\nBefore-the-beat note. — Any note in a beat-group which indicates that a tone is to be\nsounded after the middle of the pulse.\nTo illustrate terminology and to differentiate between \"pulse\" and \"beat\" as terms\nrespectively of ear and eye, the following is submitted :\nWhenever a brief tone involves the musical idea of syncopation, it may be regarded\nas an ofter-the- pulse tone, and the note that calls for it as an after-the-beat note; when it\ninvolves the idea of anticipation or preparation it may be regarded as a before-the-pulse\ntone, and the note that calls for it as a before-the-beat note.\nMEASURE\n\nAND\n\nMETER\n\n\"What is the measure-sign?\"\n\"What is the meter-signature?\"\nThese two words are used synonymously, and one of them is unnecessary. The\ncommittee recommends that \"measure\" be retained and used. \"Meter\" has its uses\nin connection with hymns.\nUNSHARPED\n\nAND UNPLATTED\n\n\"Sharps and flats make staff degrees represent pitches a half-step higher or lower,\nrespectively, than are represented by unsharped or unflatted degrees. ^^\nInstead of the itahcized phrase the teacher who uses the noun \"natural\" as the\nname of a well-known character will say — \"than are represented by degrees in natural\ncondition.\"\nThe committee suggests to those who use \"cancel\" as a noun, the use of \"primary\"\nas an adjective. It is the clef which gives the degrees their first definite pitch meaning,\nand \"primary\" seems to fit the case exactly.\nThe teachers to whom \"natural\" is objectionable can thus free their terminology\nfrom the undesirable negative statements.\nILLUSTRATION\n\nFOR\n\nBELIEVERS\n\nIN\n\n\"NATURAL\"\n\nIn the staff representation of the key of G major, the fifth line and its octaves are\nsharped, all other degrees are in natural condition.\nILLUSTRATION\n\nFOR\n\nBELIEVERS\n\nIN\n\n\"CANCEL\"\n\nIn the staff representation of the key of G major, the fifth line and its octaves are\nsharped, all other degrees are in primary condition.\nSUBJECTS\n\nFOR\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nIF\n\nTIME\n\nALLOWS\n\nDivided beats versus two tones to the beat.\nDivisions of the pulse versus groupings of tones within the pulse.\nRespectfully submitted,\nCharles I. Rice, Chairman\nP. C. Hayden\nWm. B. Kinnear\nLeo R. Lewis\nConstance Barlow-Smith\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\nPETER\n\nTHE\n\nAWAKENING\n\nFESTIVAL\n\nSPIRIT\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n1023\n\nAWAKENING FESTIVAL SPIRIT IN AMERICA— AN\nEDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY\nW. DYKEMA,\n\nDIRECTOR OF MUSIC AND FESTIVALS,\nSCHOOL,\nNEW\nYORK, N.Y.\nI.\n\nPRESENT\n\nETHICAL\n\nCULTURE\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nThe traveler passing thru the city of Philadelphia today sees from his\ntrain a large billboard which informs him that early in October the city will\npresent a great pageant, in which the significant events connected with that\nhistoric locality will be presented by no less than 5,000 performers. If\nhe is of a reflective turn of mind, and has followed closely this line of work,\nhe may begin to ruminate on the significance of this announcement. He\nmay first of all recall the series of notable pageants which have already\ntaken place in this country: the auspicious beginning at Boston in 1908\nwith the Pageant of Education ; the great panorama of events at the Quebec\nHistorical Pageant; the grand processional Founder's Week Pageant in\nPhiladelphia; the exquisite Pageant of the Renaissance given in 1909 by\nthe artists and students of the Chicago Art Institute; the Pageant of Illinois\nat Evanston in the same year; the Pageant of Westchester County, N.Y.,\nand Boston's Pageant of the Perfect City, in 1910.\nLeaving these large community affairs, he may recall the pageants of\nsmall villages such as Deerfield, Mass., with its moving picture of old\nFrench and Indian days; Ripon, Wis., with its story of settlement and\npioneer life; Peterboro, N.H., interweaving the simple events of its\ncareer with the noble music which Edward MacDowell composed there;\nNorthhampton, Mass., with its plain but impressive drama of local development; Thetford, Vt., realizing in the presentation of its pageant not only\nthe rich heritage of the past, but awakening to the unused opportunities\nof the present and the bright possibilities of the future, thus sounding\nstrongly the note which largely differentiates American from English\npageantry — the necessity of including industrial conditions in a representative scheme.\nThere may also pass before this well-informed traveler remembrance\nof some of the twenty or more celebrations of this present year — the\nPatriots' Day Celebration at Charlestown, Mass., on April 19; the Union\nCollege Pageant at Schenectady, on Memorial Day; the quaint reproduction at the same time at Croton, N.Y., of old Dutch days on the Hudson;\nthe historical pageant at Brattleboro, Vt., early in June; and so on to other\nplaces such as St. Johnsbury, Vt., Newton Centre, Mass., Portland, Me.,\nBillings, Mont., Frostburg, Md., Roxbury, Conn., Columbus, Ohio,\nEdwardsville, 111., and others which are in the midst of pageant preparations.\nFrom these occasional or special celebrations the thoughtful mind may\npass on to consider the changes that have been wrought during the past few\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "I024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nyears in our Fourth of July celebration. Repression or elimination of\nexplosives and danger has been only one phase of the movement; the necessary substitution has largely been supplied by pageantry. The afternoon\nsports of these safe and sane celebrations, involving organized tableaux,\nsham battles, games, and folk dancing, call attention to the fact that the\nplaygrounds and schools have of late been affected by certain elements in\nthese large pageants. Play and gymnastics no longer consist merely of\nSwedish exercises, wand drills to music, and games such as basket-ball and\nthe like. Folk dancing — miniature drama as it is— has invaded the land,\nand like the Pied Piper of Hamelin has led all the children willing captives\nin its train. Moreover the symbolic dance has made its way into many\nprograms.\nThe schools and settlements thruout our land have all been more or less\naffected by the dramatic spirit; the festival idea is sweeping the coimtry.\nLet us look at some of the more significant manifestations. A recent report\non the work in a typical New York City public school states that, besides\ncelebrating the principal holidays of the year with some play, festival, or\nspecial exercise, the regular assemblies and even the class recitations\nmake frequent use of dramatic work. In the list of material are found\ndramatizations of stories — such as Cooper's Spy, Longfellow's Hiawatha,\nHawthorne's Wonder Book, and Browning's \"Pied Piper\"; dramatic\nversions of great historical incidents, such as the signing of the Magna\nCharta, and the Boston Tea Party; and original scenes embodying general\nideas, such as the main \\'irtues of kindness, obedience, etc. Occasionally\nthe parents are invited to something elaborate enough to be called a pageant.\nOne such was given by the Little Mothers' League in which the children\nof a lower East Side school portrayed the mother caring for her little child\naccording to the customs in Palestine, Greece, Rome, Japan, China, in\nIndian North America, and on down to modem conditions. In a recent\nlist of plays given in schools and settlements thruout the country are no\nless than one hundred and fifty different titles of plays, ranging from the\nsimplest cantatas, fairy plays, comedies, and farces, to involved dramas by\nShakespeare, Tennyson, Browning, Ibsen, and the modern playwrights.\nIn addition to this work in already prepared material much has been\ndone with original material. I may cite original student plays at the\nWestern High School, Washington; the unique Appreciation Day given\nannually by 2,500 or more students in the Washington Irving High School,\nNew York City; the Indiana Historical Pageant produced by the English\nclasses of the Shortbridge High School, Indianapolis; and various festivals\ngiven by the children and practice teachers at the Kalamazoo, Mich.,\nOshkosh and Ripon, Wis., and Winona, Minn., normal schools. I might\nalso include the beautiful spectacles in some of our colleges and universities,\nsuch as the exquisitely beautiful masque of womanhood produced this\nspring at Berkeley. And I should be unfair to the situation as a whole if\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE AWAKENING\n\nFESTIVAL\n\nSPIRIT\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n1025\n\nI did not mention the Ethical Culture School, New York City, in which\nfor many years past constant attention has been given to the producing of\nfestivals as a part of the regularly scheduled work thruout the year in every\npart of the school from kindergarten thru high-school and normal departments.\nThis is a sketch of recent developments; it is incomplete for it has\nneglected some important phases. But what has been written is probably\nenough to show that our country is permeated with pageant and festival\nactivity, that more than ever before serious attention is being given to\nvarious kinds of dramatic representation both from the point of view of\nspectator and of actor.\nII.\n\nTHE\n\nCAUSES\n\nLet us now endeavor to ascertain some of the causes of this festival\nactivity. We may classify them under three by no means mutually\nexclusive headings; namely, (A) the industrial, (B) the social, and (C) the\neducational causes.\nA. Industrial. — Under the industrial causes we may mention the great\ntension at which work is being done today. Consequently, with the\nworker, too tired to think of ways to amuse himself, too limited in space\nfor the natural games and recreations of adults, and provided with ready\nmoney with which to purchase admission to something that will entertain\nhim, it is not surprising that, on the one hand, there should be an audience\nto greet any festival performance; and on the other hand, there should be\nneed of recreation which is so organized that it responds to the condition\nof such a worker, and helps to overcome some of the disadvantages that\nmodern industry has brought about. We may also state, incidentally,\nthat many a pageant has had as its main incentive certain financial interests\nwhich saw in it both a means of immediate money gain and effectual\nadvertising for future development.\nB. Social. — In our country there have been a number of social reasons\nfor forwarding the festival. There is, first of all, the great wave of social\nawakening in which the people as a whole are coming to self-consciousness.\nWe have, in our body politic, a most unique mingling of the races of the\nworld. Successful as we have been in assimilating these various elements,\nthe work is by no means completed. The festival, by making many people\ncoworkers, not only unites the strangers of different nationalities and\nmakes them feel the bond of brotherhood; but, more difficult than that,\nfrequently unites groups in a community who altho of like blood and of\nlong residence together have grown apart. We need to realize and utilize\nmore of the rich heritage of the past which America possesses — a heritage\nricher and more varied than that of any other nation in the world, ancient\nor modern, because it represents the sum total of all their possessions.\nC. Educational. — It is the recognition of these industrial and social\ncompelling forces which has led educators in and out of the schools — for we\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "I026\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nmust remember that many of our greatest teachers of democracy are not in\nthe ranks of the pedagogs — to turn with such earnestness to the new festival\nactivities. If we consider the reasons why interest in this work has become\nso strong in the past few years we soon see that credit must be given to\ncertain schools which have been pioneers in this line, in that for a decade or\nmore they have been working steadily toward the educational utilization\nof festivals. Still, probably most people would attribute the present wave\nof festival influence to the revival of the pageants in England, which began\nwith Mr. Louis N. Parker's Sherborne Pageant in 1905, and which led in\nits train during the succeeding years a score or more of gorgeous historical\ncelebrations. Undoubtedly this movement, with its continuation in this\ncountry, has been the largest factor in calling the attention of the general\npublic to the possibilities of great plays by the people. But other elements\nhave contributed their share. We may mention the illuminating work\ndone by the Ben Greet and the Cobum Woodland Players; the efforts of such\norganizations as the Drama League; the introduction of dramatic material\nin school readers; cheap acting editions of standard plays for older children,\nsuch as the newly appearing Ben Greet's Shakespeare; the regular attention given to dramatic work, accorded by leading educational journals,\nespecially the Atlantic Educational Journal of Baltimore; and finally in\nthe appearance of six books devoted to various phases of the subject;\nnamely. Festivals and Plays^ by Percival Chubb and his associates, Folk\nFestivals by Mary Master Needham, The Dramatic Festival by Anne Throop\nCraig, The Children's Educational Theatre by Alice Minnie Herts, Pageantry in America by Williams Chauncy Langdon, and Pageants and\nPageantry by Bates and Orr.\nAs a result of these various influences, great interest has been stimvdated\nin the production of various kinds of festivals. As is to be expected, the\nreasons for this interest differ greatly in depth and realization of the possibilities. Some of these may be stated, almost in the increasing order of\ntheir importance:\nI. Festivals may appeal because they offer a pleasant break in the regular routine of school, industrial, or monotonous civic life. All of this is, of\ncourse, a tribute to the fact that we have not yet learned how to do our\nwork, and, moreover, that we do not realize the possibilities that are in play.\nWork which contains in it no element of regeneration is not being carried on\nmost economically; play that is nothing but recreation, nothing but a change,\nis neglecting a large portion of its educational and cultural possibilities.\n2. The festival is looked upon, frequently, as a convenient type of entertainment. There are occasions when custom or other reasons require\nan entertainment of some kind; the festival is a help toward making these\nless of a nerve-racking process. Here again, as in the first reason, while\n» Music teachers will be interested to know that this volume, published by Harper, contains an extensive treatment of music in the festival, including a helpful bibliography of over five hundred titles\ncarefully classified under forty- two headings.\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAWAKENING\n\nFESTIVAL\n\nSPIRIT\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n1027\n\na valuable but incidental feature is considered, great possibilities are being\nneglected.\n3. The festival offers an opportunity for using large numbers of people\nwho might otherwise have no share in public life. Especially is it true in\nschools that in these occasional entertainments, the pupils who are dull in\nthe regular subjects frequently shine in these special and unusual lines.\nOne public-school teacher naively said to me, \"I like festivals because then\nI can find something to do for the pupils who can't get their arithmetic\nand grammar.\" In this declaration, typical of thousands of teachers,\nthere is only a slight recognition of what is being done, for there is scarcely\nany appreciation of the fact that the festival calls into being a large portion\nof the child which is almost neglected in most of our schools. The festival\nawakens the lyrical side. Only vaguely do such teachers realize the possibilities ofeducation along lines other than the intellectual. The festival\nis doing much to emphasize the various approaches to the development\nof man and woman.\n4. The festival is recognized as another manifestation of that approach\nin education which is so widely acclaimed of late, namely, motor activity.\nWe are only beginning to realize that only as we do things can we claim to\nknow them. The ultimate end of every type of instruction is not to make\nus know more or feel more, but to make us do more; only then is the\ncircuit complete when impression has found its necessary consequent in\nmotor expression. In every subject of the curriculum we are endeavoring\nto apply this idea. The festival is unparalleled in such opportunities.\n5. The last reason with which the festival makes its appeal, is as a\ncentral core— a basis for correlation — the having of which is absolutely\nnecessary if we are to retain in the school the vast number of subjects which\nclaim a place. The objection is frequently made that our school curriculum\nis overcrowded, that there are too many subjects. But no one ever thinks\nof objecting to the content of the child's life before he enters school, and\nyet, in these years appear the rudiments, at least, of every topic which he\nlater takes up in the schools. The great objection to the school curriculum\nis that it presents to the child such a multiplicity of separated and isolated\nsubjects. In the child's pre-school life the material is not analyzed into\nsubjects: it is all unified life. The festival gives an opportunity of reproducing these early conditions and of relating the school subjects so closely\nthat they lose their individuality as they are merged into one great theme.\nChildren, for instance, preparing a festival about the Crusades, make\ndemands upon history, literature, spelling and writing, arithmetic, naturestudy, music, art, manual training, dramatics, impersonation, domestic\nart, general management, and all the other subjects which go to make up\nlife. So long as the various kinds of material are called upon only as they\nfunction, as they are needed, there is no sense of confusion in the mind of\nthe child. The festival, in other words, has unified the curriculum.\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "I028\n\nNATIONAL\nIII.\n\nEDUCATION\nVALUES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nATTAINED\n\nAs our last division, let us consider some of the values attained and in\nview. We may review these briefly under four topics: (A) Amusement;\n(B) Social power; (C) Instruction; (D) Self-expression.\nA. Amusement. — The •festival, in its various manifestations in school,\nsettlements, playgrounds, civic and national affairs, and home, is teaching\nus how to play. It is making us use our opportunities more; it is helping\ntoward the wider use of the school plant, of the church, of the street, the\nplayground, and the park.\nB. Social power. — The festival is uniting institutions, bringing communities to a sense of brotherhood and showing the relation of the state to\nthe nation, and of the nation to the world. William Chauncy Langdon, in\nhis report on the Pageant of Thetford, speaks of the fact that this affair\nsucceeded in uniting into one community the people of six villages, who had\nbeen separated for years. He asks this pertinent question:\nWhat is a pageant for but to unite a town and keep it united and moving along the\nroad of its best welfare? The Pageant of igii, tho past, still abides; it is there in the\ntown, a spirit invisible but radiant, substantial and abiding, sweeping forward on its way\nthe whole hfe of the town.\n\nEvery pageant and festival is a lesson in co-operation.\nC. Instruction. — i. The new activities and unusual demands made by\nthe festival are frequently the means of that which is the preliminary to\nall instruction, the awakening of activity and interest. Just as we music\nteachers are familiar with the employment of song in order to awaken a\nclass, so is the festival worker aware that his powers may be employed to\nstir into new life a class or community which has fallen into lethargy. Not\nonly does the festival bring spirit and zest for the immediate tasks but it\nopens up long avenues of work in vital discipline and drill which the student,\nbecause of the relation to this live topic, pursues long after the festival has\npassed away.\n2. Moreover, purely formal, and in themselves uninviting, details\nbecome surprisingly necessary and hence interesting when they are related\nto a festival. The cost of costumes, the amount of material needed, the\ncomputing of space for various actions, the drawing of plans for the construction ofthe stage or peculiar types of stage property, the study of the\nworking-out of a program or an announcement, the balancing of the certain\nartistic questions — these, and other topics which frequently fail to arouse\nthe interest of the child because they have no real use, now become stimulating.\n3. Festivals make concrete and definite that which before was vague\nand unreal. Mary Master Needham, in her discussion of the pageant at\nDeerfield, shows that this festival gave to well-known incidents in local\nhistory an aspect of dignity and reality for the young people of the village,\nwhich frequent droning repetition had left dull and inert in their minds.\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nAWAKENING\n\nFESTIVAL\n\nSPIRIT\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n1029\n\nMany a teacher of literature has been surprised and delighted when she has\nfound what the presentation of a play by Shakespeare or a masque by Ben\nJonson has done in the way of interpreting the study of literature, and\nespecially the significance of the drama.\n4. The festival can intensify many events and sentiments in a way\nthat only the drama thruout the ages has been able to accomplish. Think\nfor how many of us, for instance, is Memorial Day, or Fourth of July, or\nthe birthdays of Lincoln and Washington, but another chance of escaping\nfrom the regular work, merely a day of rest; instead of being, as it is\nintended, of course, a time for renewing the spiritual significance of the\nevents connected therewith. The efforts of our sane Fourth celebration\nare not merely to stop the noise, but by means of pageants and festivals\nto increase patriotic devotion. Lincoln and Washington worthily presented\nin dramatic form have a never-ending appeal, an ever-new significance,\nfor even the oldest of us.\n5. The festival has, as already mentioned above, accomplished much\nin the way of correlation, and looks forward to even more. The head\nworker of the South End House in Boston says that in this settlement all\nthe activities of the summer classes during six weeks of a joyous session\nwere directed toward the preparations for a festival. This was the motive\nthat ran thru every type of work. Not long ago a third-grade class presented afestival of farm life, less than half an hour in length, which represented almost the entire work for the class for several weeks. As we obtain\nmore freedom in our educational administration we shall see even greater\nresults, for then we shall be able, not only to put substance and meaning\ninto our utilitarian subjects, but, more important still, to show the immense\nvalue to life of those arts which at present, on account of their isolation, are\nstigmatized under the term \"fads and frills.\"\nD. Self-expression. — The festival is the largest aspect of the great\nmovement toward self-expression in our education. In our drawing, our\npainting, our music, our literature, and, to some extent, our dancing, we\nhave felt the necessity, and have been making experiments with original\ncompositions. The festival now offers opportunities for self-expression in\nthe drama of humanity. It has well been called the great democratic art\nexpression. Here is an opportunity for the child, the group of children,\nthe community as a whole, to put its life into a drama. This is true both\nof the actors and of the writers. One of our leading novelists and poets,\nworking in the production of a pageant in New England, rejoiced in the\nopportunity which allowed him to develop one section of this drama of the\npeople. He said, \"What we writers want is the opportunity to express\nbig situations, great democratic ideas.\" As a result of this opportunity,\nhe produced one of the finest interpretations we have of the spirit which\nanimated American pioneer life. America includes both the writers and\nthe readers. The festival, by giving opportunities to the poet to produce.\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "I030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Musk\n\nand the people to interpret, is forwarding the best things in our life. Just\nas a child realizes himself in his games and plays, just as an actor learns to\nappreciate a character as he impersonates it, so can the community learn\nto understand itself and its history only as it performs this history. In\norder to know thoroly, we must do; in order to produce an ideal democracy,\nwe must appreciate the past and enter thoroly into the present. Moreover,\none great function of the festival is to point the way to progress in tlie\nfuture: to let the vision of the gifted few become the inspiration of the\nmany. Properly used, the festival can help mightily in forwarding our\ncivilization.\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nBUSINESS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Winfield S. McKinney, Englewood High School\nVice-President — Charles Hart, Business High School\nSecretary — Thomas L. Brecheen, Fremont High School\n\nChicago, 111.\nWashington, D.C.\nOakland, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 191 2\nThe first meeting of the Department of Business Education was called to order in\nthe Red Room of the La Salle Hotel at 2 : 30 p.m. by President Winfield S. McKinney,\nEnglewood High School, Chicago, 111.\nRegistration blanks were filled out, showing an attendance of 125.\nThe first paper was the president's address on \"A Partial Forecast of the Report of\nthe Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation.\"\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Efficiency in the Business Department of the High\nSchool\" by John H. Beveridge, superintendent of city schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa.\nThe next paper was by W. B. Towsley, manager of the Sales Department, Marshall\nField & Co., Chicago, 111., on \"Training in Salesmanship.\"\nThis was followed by M. E. Pearson, superintendent of city schools, Kansas City,\nKans., who gave a paper on \"An Education for Business.\"\nThe last paper was on \"Municipal Accounting\" by B. M. Rastall, director of Wisconsin State Board of Public Affairs, Madison, Wis.\nDehghtful music was furnished thruout the program, a victrola being generously\nprovided by the Lyon & Healy Music Co., Chicago, 111.\nThe meeting adjourned at 5:30 p.m.\nSECOND SESSION, ROUND TABLE— Wednesday Forenoon, July id, 191 2\nThe second session of the Department of Business Education was called to order\npromptly at 9:30 by President Winfield S. McKinney, with 135 persons present.\nThe first number on the program was a brief demonstration on the Dalton Adding\nMachine by Marie Sisson, a student in the Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal., showing\nthe adaptability of the machine as a laboratory instrument for the teaching of arithmetic^\nand its relation to accountancy in the public-school course.\nThis was followed by two papers upon the general subject of \" Shorthand and Typewriting,\" the first paper being read by George A. Bohlinger, New Trier Township High\nSchool, Kenilworth, 111., on \"Efficiency in Practical Details, or Technique, of the Highest\nImportance.\" The second paper, dealing with the same general subject, was by Selby A.\nMoran, Ann Arbor High School, Ann Arbor, Mich., on \"Specialization with Expert\nInstruction Requisite in Order to Meet the Needs of the Business World.\"\nThis was followed by a general discussion on a question asked by Emma M.\nJames, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111., as follows: \"What Means are Employed\nin Developing Character in Shorthand Students, and How Best Can They be Inspired ?\"\nThis discussion was participated in by the following: Selby A. Moran, Ann Arbor High\nSchool, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Emma M. James, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111,;\n1031\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "I032\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Business\n\nJames S. Curry, High School of Commerce, Cleveland, Ohio; Robert A. Grant, Yeatman\nHigh School, St. Louis, Mo.; Gertrude O. Hunnicutt, Bethany College, Lindsborg,\nKans.; T. L. Brecheen, Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal.; and R. L. Hamilton,\nRockford High School, Rockford, 111.\nThis was followed by a general discussion on the subject, \"Intercommunication\nBusiness Practice,\" which was led by Oliver D. Frederick, Tuley High School, Chicago,\n111.^ William A. Hadley, LakeviewHigh School, Chicago, 111.; F. D. Cross, Watertown\nHigh School, Watertown, Wis.; and W. S. McKinney, Englewood High School, Chicago,\n111., also took part in this discussion.\nThe last number on the program was a brief explanation by T. L. Brecheen, Fremont\nHigh School, Oakland, Cal., on \"How Best to Teach Touch Typewriting.\"\nThe following Committee on Nominations was then appointed by the president :\nMo.\n\nRobert A. Grant, head of Commercial Department, Yeatman High School, St. Louis,\n\nStephen Dwan, head of Commercial Department, Broadway High School, Seattle,\nWash.\nSherwin Cody, 141 1 Security Building, Chicago, III.\nThe following Committee on Resolutions was appointed by the president :\nJames S. Curry, head of Shorthand Department, High School of Commerce, Cleveland, Ohio.\nGertrude O. Hunnicutt, principal of Commercial Department, Bethany College,\nLindsborg, Kans.\nSelby A. Moran, Ann Arbor High School, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, Jxjly ii, 191 2\n\nThe third session of the Department of Business Education was called to order by\nPresident Winfield S. McKinney at 2 : 20 p.m.\nThe first paper was on \"The Educational Value of the High-School Commercial\nCourse\" by William B. Owen, principal of Chicago Normal School, Chicago, III.\nThe second number on the program was a paper by R. H. \\\\Tiitbeck, editor of the\nJournal of Geography, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., on \"Commercial Geography.\" This was followed by Ira B. Fee, superintendent of schools, Laramie, Wyo., with\na paper on \"Business Courses for High Schools of Smaller Cities.\"\nThe next on the program was a paper on \"Accounting in Relation to Business\nOrganization and Management\" by Seymour Walton, C.P.A., dean of the Walton School\nof Accounting, Chicago, III.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Essentials of Practical Penmanship\" by J. H.\nBachtenkircher, supervisor of penmanship, public schools, Lafayette, Ind.\nThe last number on the program was a paper by T. L. Brecheen, Fremont High\nSchool, Oakland, Cal., on \"A Practical Demonstration of the Relation of a Modern\nAdding Machine to Accountancy in the High-School Course,\" the demonstration being\ngiven by one of his students, Marie Sisson, Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal.^ on the\nDalton Adding, Listing, and Calculating Machine.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was next given, and on motion was\nunanimously adopted, as follows:\nThe Department of Business Education of the National Education Association\nhereby extends a vote of thanks to the oflacers and local committee whose untiring efforts\nare so largely responsible for the success of this meeting. A vote of thanks is also extended\nto the Chicago Association of Commerce and the Chicago park boards, whose courtesies\nhave contributed so much to the interest and pleasure of our meeting.\nWe rejoice in the rapidly growing interest in commercial education as is evidenced\nby the introduction of commercial courses in practically all classes of schools.\nIt is\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n1033\n\ngratifying to note the decreasing tendency of academic educators to look with disfavor\nupon commercial education. This is largely due to a more general recognition of the\nvalue of commercial education on the part of influential business men and progressive\neducators.\nWhereas, At the meeting at San Francisco in 191 1 a permanent conmiittee of four\nmembers, together with the three oflScers of the department ex officio, was appointed to\nbuild up the membership of this department and collect material that would aid in standardizing the commercial courses in high schools and private business colleges,\nBe it resolved, That this committee shall this year be reconstituted and increased\nto seven members besides the officers of the department, and the chairman shall be\nappointed by the president of the department.\nWhereas, The business section of the National Education Association ought to be\nrepresentative of the entire country including especially the high-school commercial\nteachers, and also the private-school commercial teachers, and\nWhereas, Money is required to build up the department and enable it thru its\npermanent working committee to accomplish some definitely useful work for the cause of\neducation, especially commercial education.\nTherefore be it resolved. That the president appoint immediately a delegation of ten\nmembers here present to wait on the Board of Directors of the National Education\nAssociation at its final meeting of this session, and request an appropriation of five\nhundred dollars ($500), in accordance with the resolution filed with that board in July,\n191 1, at San Francisco, this money to be placed at the disposal of the permanent committee for use in building up the membership of the department and collecting material\nthat can be used in making a report on standard commercial courses for different classes\nof schools, and standard methods of teaching successfully the individual subjects that\nsuch a course may comprise.\nj\nWhereas, The National Association of yrovertising Clubs has appointed a committee\nto co-operate with business colleges, commercial high schools, and Y.M.C.A.'s with a\nview to promoting a more effective teaching of business science.\nTherefore he it resolved. That the permanent committee be instructed to enter into\ncommunication with such committee of the Associated Advertising Clubs with a view to\ndevising a practicable course in advertising and salesmanship for commercial high schools\nand business colleges.\nThe nominating committee reported as follows:\nFor President — Thomas L. Brecheen, Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — C. H. Preston, Department of Commerce, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.\nFor Secretary — W. A. Sheaffer, head of Commercial Department, West Division\nHigh School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was unanimously adopted.\nThe president then announced the members of the Committee of Ten to wait upon\nthe Board of Directors and request an appropriation in accordance with the resolutions\npreviously adopted.\nThe following were named on the committee:\nRobert A. Grant, head of Commercial Department, Yeatman High School, St. Louis,\nMo.\nStephen Dwan, head of Commercial Department, Broadway High School, Seattle,\nWash.\nSherwin Cody, 141 1 Security Bldg., Chicago, 111.\nGertrude O. Hunnicutt, principal of Commercial Department, Bethany College, Lindsborg, Kans.\n\" Selby A. Moran, Ann Arbor High School, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nIsabella Fowler, Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, 111.\nMary B. Shelley, Bowen High School, Chicago, 111.\nThomas L. Brecheen, Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal.\nJames S. Curry, head of Shorthand Department, High School of Commerce, Cleveland, Ohio.\nWinfield S. McKinney, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nThomas L. Brecheen, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Busbess\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS— A PARTIAL FORECAST OF THE\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH, STANDARDIZATION, AND CORRELATION\nWINFIELD\n\nS. MC KINNEY,\n\nENGLEWOOD\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nI am glad to greet you upon this auspicioys occasion. You are well\naware that a great economic revolution in modes of production and distribution have wrought wonderful social and industrial changes, which in\nturn have made necessary a new kind of education and training in our public\nschools, in addition to that heretofore provided by private schools or business colleges.\nLike science and manual training, this new claimant has encountered\nstrong prejudice and pronounced antagonism. But the evidences of its\nadmission into the charmed circle of approved subjects are just cause for\ncongratulation, and indications of it^aving practically passed the probationary stage.\nNot content to develop power which shall expend itself merely in contemplative thought and produce only a sort of sublimated culture, free\nfrom all taint of utilitarianism, business education has for its aim the\ndevelopment of power which will \"translate its ideas into the practical\nwork of life.\" It has been said that \"without a training for service, there\ncan be no true culture.\" May we not, then, claim that adequate training\nfor service will result in culture as well ?\nThose even who may be reluctant to admit that culture may come\neven incidentally from commercial or business training must concede that,\nwithout the rewards of trade and commerce, that splendid institution over\nthere on the lake front — the Art Institute — could not exist. So of the\ntemples of music in our midst. We have many prominent business houses\nwhose specific undertakings are so to \"commercialize\" arts as to bring their\nrefining and uplifting pleasures to the enjoyment of the masses. The chief\naim of business education should be to produce the highest possible degree\nof efficiency and so increase the rewards in all pursuits — agricultural,\nindustrial, trade, professional, literary, and art — that their devotees, each\nreceiving his fair share of rewards, shall have the means and leisure to\nenjoy true living. Business education should not have for its purpose, as\nhas sometimes been mistakenly supposed, the aim merely to sharpen one's\nwits so as to give undue advantage in life's struggle; but rather to increase\nproduction, make a just distribution, and thereby promote social justice.\nIts aim should be to make a self-respecting, self-supporting, and contributing member of society out of the individual who from lack of such training\nmight be partially or wholly dependent, or else tempted to use questionable means of subsistence.\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFORECAST\n\nOF REPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON RESEARCH\n\n1035\n\nThe expectation of a high order of right living can be reasonably based\nupon only a proper provision for right physical living. It was a recognization of this basic truth by the Nazarene when he wrought the miracle of\nloaves and fishes in order to satisfy physical hunger in furtherance of his\nspiritual teachings.\nBut with apologies for this digression, we come to the proposed text\nof this paper.\nThe purpose of this committee has been to make research into the past\nhistory, immediate and remote, of business education and note the aims,\ndevelopment, and methods prevailing at different periods; and to give\nspecial consideration to aims and methods that have been discarded and\nwherein and why they have failed of their purpose; also to provide for\na careful analysis of the content of the several subjects, in order, if possible,\nto discriminate between the valuable and the valueless. Particular consideration has been directed to content and treatment that have persisted,\nif such there be, thru all the vicissitudes and changes of time and circumstance; also of such as have recurred from time to time, like history repeating itself — all this with a view to discovering, if possible, the vital things\nthat make for eflficiency and economy of time and effort as well as the\nnonessential and non-economic — things that might better be discarded.\nThis will apply with equal propriety to subjects intended for broad general\ntraining as well as to those of a strictly technical character.\nIt may be assumed that the normal starting-point of a business education should not be earlier than the practical completion of a fair grammarschool course, altho Dr. Herrick, president of Girard College, Philadelphia,\nsuggests that a half-year or a year of the grammar school might be devoted\nto commercial English, shorthand, and bookkeeping.\nIt is a proper field of investigation as to the eflSciency of a strictly\ntechnical course such as is usually given in business colleges, and the\ncombined technical and cultural course offered in the first two years of the\nhigh school as a vocational course. In order that this comparison shall be\nof value the efiiciency of instruction in both instances should be equal.\nSuch an investigation thoroly made by competent persons would disclose\nthe educational value of the purely technical business subjects, and the\ngeneral economic efficiency resulting therefrom. This should set the limit\nof specialization in the attempt to meet the business educational needs\nof \"all the children of all the people.\"\nStandardization does not imply a cast-iron limitation of subject or\ncontent without regard to length of time, previous preparation, maturity,\nor particular aims. There should rather be a system in which the content\nand aim, under some such classification as elementary and advanced\ntreatment of the several subjects, shall be properly designated. There is\nparticular need of some agreement as to suitable definitions, classifications,\nand terms of certain particular subjects; for example, in bookkeeping:\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nthe two groups of accounts from which are determined the condition of\nthe business at any particular time, and the progress, or results of the\nbusiness during a given period, are variously designated by different\nauthors as real and representative; nominal and real; financial and real;\nfinancial and speculative; financial and business; and so on thru the list;\nand similarly, the meaning of such terms as, capital; working capital; quick\nassets; wasting assets; reserve funds; sinking funds, etc.\nCorrelation has for its aim the determination of the relation of the\nvarious subjects and their order of sequence in a prescribed course. But\nhere we find that a great variety of courses is needed to suit the conditions,\ncapacities, and purposes of the various communities, schools, classes, and\nindividuals. Here, then, is need of one, like the skilled physician, master\nof his materia medica, expert in diagnosis, who is able to correlate the\nproper elements in due proportion as a prescription suited to the needs of\nthe particular case.\nIn accordance with the provisions of the resolutions creating this\ncommittee, its purpose was to seek an appropriation for the purpose of\ncarrying on the work of extending membership of the department; collecting information with reference to courses of study and methods pursued\nin representative public and private commercial schools, or departments;\nand considering the various phases of the supervision of commercial work\nin public schools.\nUpon the formation of the committee, an attempt was made to provide\nfor an early meeting at which to discuss and decide upon working plans.\nSuch a meeting not proving feasible for an early date, your chairman\nthereupon suggested that each member of the committee select one or\nmore subjects for special investigation to report upon at a proposed meeting, an adjustment to be made in case of the duplication or omission of\ndesirable subjects; and, in the event of any member not being able to\nattend such meeting, that such member should forward to the chairman\ncopies of reports on the special subjects chosen by him. It was likewise\nsuggested that each member of the committee confer by correspondence\nwith one or more of his personal acquaintances relative to the partifular\nsubject upon which he undertook to report. It was also proposed\nthat copies of reports by each member of the committee be furnished\nto all the other members for criticisms and suggestions which were to\nfurnish data for the committee's report.\nFor consideration with reference to subjects to be reported upon, suggestion was made of the following points:\n1. Scope, extent, and minimum attainment required.\n2. Fundamentals and supplementary matter.\n3. Logical order of presentation, systematic drill, comprehensive review, and development of initiative.\n4. The presentation of underlying reasons, rather than rote, or rule-of-thumb\nmethods.\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBUSINESS\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1037\n\n5. The acquirement of habits of accuracy and speed in processes applicable to the\nseveral subjects.\n6. Recognition of eye and ear processes of taking in knowledge.\n7. Co-operation of the hand in developing the reasoning processes and fixing in the\nmind basic things.\n8. The development of power of ready recall of the things constituting the \"working\ncapital\" in educational effort.\n9. Minimum requirement in courses of different lengths in the same subject.\n10. Relative merits of drill and inductive development and their proper combination.\n\nIn accordance with the resolution providing therefor, a supplementary\ncommittee was appointed, consisting of a state chairman, who should\ndesignate a representative for each county, or important city of his state,\nto co-operate with the regular standing committee in general undertakings.\nThis undertaking was carried out to the extent of securing over thirty\nsuch state representatives. But owing to lack of time and money necessary to carry on this campaign by following up closely and thoroly these\nlines of work, the results were not, as a rule, so general as was desired,\naltho there were several notable exceptions.\nYour committee may be said to have just made a fair beginning of their\nassigned work. But for their consideration and guidance, there is a wealth\nof information and suggestion in the many able papers and discussions of\nformer meetings of this department of the National Education Association,\nextending back to its organization in 1893. The report of the Committee\nof Nine is a most valuable contribution to the literature of business education, some of the fruits of which we are now enjoying.\nIt is recommended that the work of this committee be continued and\nthat a permanent chairman be elected by this department, or appointed\nby the incoming president; and that the efforts of the permanent committee\nbe especially directed toward a scientific analysis and classification of the\ncontent and methods of presentation of the several subjects properly\nincluded in any special or general commercial course for business colleges,\nhigh-school departments, or high schools of commerce; in order, as far as\npracticable, to prepare syllabi of varying scope and extent, such as may\nreasonably provide for the varying needs of more or less extended courses.\nThis plan, it is believed, will provide the needed elasticity and adaptability\nto meet all special conditions.\nEFFICIENCY\nJ. H.\n\nIN THE BUSINESS DEPARTMENT\nTHE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nBEVERIDGE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nCOUNCIL BLUFFS, IOWA\n\nCITY\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe purpose of this paper is to suggest a method of measuring the economic, social, and ethical efficiency of the business department of the high\nschool, by applying this method to a particular high school of the Middle\nWest, and to several high schools located in different parts of the United\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nStates, with the hope that some plan of testing the efficiency of the business department of high schools may be devised and applied to a sufficient number of schools to be of real value to students of education and\nschool administrators.\nA prominent educator of this country stated on one occasion that he\ncould get a pretty clear idea of the efficiency of a school system by looking\nat the teachers' pay-roll; another educator declared that the number of\npupils per teacher in a school system is a fair index of the efficiency of the\nschool; a third has said that 85 per cent of the efficiency of the school is\nto be found in the teacher; still others are inclined to measure the efficiency\nof the school by the splendor of the byildings and completeness of the\nequipment.\nWe will enter into no controversy with any of these educators. Let\nus admit that the teacher with few pupils may render better service than\nthe teacher with many. Let us admit that increased pay is a stimulus\nto better effort. Let us admit that fine buildings fully equipped furnish\na favorable environment to both teacher and pupil, and stimulate the\npride of the community.\nWhat is the real measure of the efficiency of the school ? The efficiency\nof a factory is measured by the quality of its output, the efficiency of a\nbank by the excellence of its credit, the greatness of a state by the quality\nof her citizenship. Why not measure the efficiency of the school by the\nquality of its graduates ? \"By their fruits ye shall know them.\" This is\nthe fundamental principle on which we shall attempt to measure the\nefficiency of the business department of the high school.\nIn determining the economic efficiency of the business department of\nthe high school under consideration a canvass was made of those graduating\nfrom this high school for the past five years for the purpose of determining\nthe exact salary received per month and per year by each graduate since\ngraduation.\nIn almost every case reported the graduate was employed for the full\nyear so that, in the organization of the material thus gathered, it is only\nnecessary to give the salary per month. In Table I below is given a brief\nsummary showing (i) the number of male graduates reporting for each of\nthe five years since graduation, (2) the number of female graduates, (3) the\naverage monthly salary of males for each year, (4) the average monthly\nsalary of females. It was impossible to get a reply from every graduate\nin the short space of time given for collecting these data. Some of the\ngraduates are working as members of firms where it is impossible for them\nto tell just what salary they are receiving, some are housekeepers — I\ncongratulate them — some failed to reply thru oversight. A sufficient\nnumber of replies were received to be of value. It must be observed that\nsince we are considering only those who graduated since 1907 the number\nreporting for each successive year will of necessity be less.\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBUSINESS\n\nDEPARTMENT\nTABLE\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1039\n\nI\n\n13\nShowing Average Salary of Graduates of the Business\nDepartment\nHigh School in the Meddle West\n\nFirst year after graduation ....\nSecond year after graduation. . .\nThird year after graduation. . . .\nFourth year after graduation. . .\nFifth year after graduation ....\n\nAverage\nMonthly\nSalary\n61.3\ns\nof Males\n\nNumber of\nMales\nReporting\n18\n\nNumber of\nFemales\nReporting\n18\n\n16\n\n16\n\n$48.52\n\n7\n6\n\n73-33\n85-07\n\n12\n\n9\n6\n\n70.22\n\nof a\n\nAverage\nMonthly Salary\nof Females\n\n$38.00\n56-33\n55-07\n44.62\n\nYou will observe that the number of males and females reporting\n55-00for\neach year is practically the same, thus furnishing a good basis for comparison in salary. The increase in salary of males is more uniform than that\nof females. After the third year there is practically no change in the\naverage salary of females. The increase in salary for both males and\nfemales is greatest during the first three years after graduation.\nLet us compare the average salary received by these female graduates\nand that received by those in one other line of endeavor. If a graduate of\nthe classical course in the same high school had decided to teach in the\npublic schools of the same city, under the most favorable circumstances\npossible she could not have commenced teaching until one year after\ngraduation. Her salary for the third year after graduation could not have\nbeen more than fifty dollars per month for nine months, or $450 per year.\nThe average pupil (female) who graduated from the business department\nof the high school would have received for the same year an annual salary\nof slightly over $660. A male graduate of the same year would have\nreceived an annual salary of slightly over $840. You may judge for yourself of the economic efl&ciency from the standpoint of salary. Other standards of economic eflficiency will be considered later.\nIf the eastern college president is correct when he states that a graduate of an eastern college is worth nine dollars per week at graduation, even\nif the western college president is correct when he affirms that the graduate\nof a western college is worth fifteen dollars a week at graduation, from the\nstandpoint of salary the showing is not unfavorable to the graduate of the\nbusiness department of the high school under consideration.\nLet us now consider a further economic point, the social and ethical\nefficiency of these same graduates.\nHow are we to measure such efficiency? The challenge is made: If\nyou want to know how poorly high-school graduates write English, spell,\npunctuate, solve elementary problems in arithmetic, how slow and inaccurate these pupils are, ask the hard-headed business man. I accept the\nchallenge. The hard-headed business man, the employer, is the very one\nwho has been consulted to secure the data by which this efficiency is\nmeasured.\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nI040\n\n[Business\n\nTo secure these data letters were sent to the employers of these graduates asking them to give percentage estimates of such graduates on the\nfollowing points: (i) accuracy, (2) neatness, (3) dispatch, (4) power of\ninitiative, (5) character and standing in the community, (6) possibility of\ngrowth.\nThe employers were asked to be perfectly frank in their statements.\n85\n\nTABLE II\nMale\nGraduates\n\nA\nB\nC\nD\nE\nF\nG\nH\nI\nKJ\nL\nM\nN\n0\nP\n\nI\n\n2\n\n3\n\n4\n\nPer cent\n\nPer cent\n\nPer cent\n\n100\n\n100\n\nPer cent\n95\n\n95\n\n95\n\n95\n\n95\n98 Very good\n\n95\n95\nRapid\n\n100\n99\nGood 90 Medium\n\nGood 98\n\nFine 98\n95\n90\n\n96\n\n94\n95\n\nAverage. .\n\nFair\n\n100\n\nGood\n98\n\n100\n\n95\nFine\n100\n100\n\n95\n\nGood\n\n97\n\nPer 95cent\n\nGood\n\n100\n\n98\n\nGood\nAverage\nGood\n\n98\n\nVery\npromising\nPromising\nPromising\n\n95\n100\n\nGood\nGood\nVery good\nUnlimited\n95\n\n100\n\n90100\n\n90\nVery good\n\nGood\n\n95\n\n90\n\n90\n\nPer cent\n\n100\n\n90\n\n90\n90\n\n6\n\n85\n95\nVery good\nGood\nGood\nGood\n95\nGood\nVery good\n85No opportunity\nGood\nExcellent\nFair\nExcellent\nNo opportunity\n100\n\nFine\n98\n\ns\n\nd\n\nGoo\n\n80\n\n95\n98\n\n94\n\n1\n\n95\n\n96\nFemale\nGraduates\n\nA\nB\nC\nD\nE\nF\nG\nH\nI\nAverage\n\n90\n\n1\n\n2\n\nVery good\n95\n\n98\n98\n\n90\n\n95\n\n100\n\n98\n98\n\n10\n\n97\n\n98\n\n95\n\n9090\n\n5\n\n4\n\nPer cent\n\nExcellent\nGood\nAverage\nt\nllen\nExce\nGood\nFine\nVery good\nExcellent\n100\n90\n97\n\n95\n95\nGoo0 d\n\n1\n\n96\n\nExcellent\n95\n\n100\n100\n\nVery good\n\n3\n\nPer cent\n\nPer 99cent\n\nPer cent\n\n97\n\n1\n\n93\n\nPer cent\n\n96Very\ngood\nExcellent\n\nExcellent\nBest\n91\n\nExcellent\nVery good\nGood\nExcellent\n99\n90\n90\n\n6\nPer cent\n\nGood\nFirst class\nPromising\nPromising\nAverage\nGood\nPromising\nExcellent\n95\n\n99\n\n•\nReports were received concerning sixteen males and nine females.95 The\nreport is significant. It is given in full.\n98 In these reports words were often\nused in place of percentages. They are given exactly as stated. In Table\nII the individual graduates are indicated by capital letters. Males are\nlisted first ; females second. Arabic numbers at the top of the table indicate\nthe points on which the graduates were graded and correspond with those\ngiven above: (i) accuracy, (2) neatness, etc.\n\n90\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBUSINESS\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 041\n\nI leave you to judge of the efficiency based on the judgment of the\nhard-headed business men.\nSo far the investigation concerning efficiency has been confined to one\nschool. This particular school is, perhaps, representative of many schools.\nLet us now endeavor to get some idea of the business departments of other\nschools situated in different sections of the United States in order that\nthe conclusions may be as fairly representative as possible.\nIn securing data for this purpose letters were sent to a selected list of\ncity superintendents, high-school principals, heads of departments of\ncommerce in high schools, university presidents, and heads of departments\nof commerce in other universities representing different sections of the\ncountry. An attempt was made to get those people who came as closely\nin contact with the graduates of the commercial departments of high schools\nas possible, tho, at the same time, giving an opportunity for those educators\nto express themselves whose experience and possibly prejudice were very\ndifferent.\nThese men were asked to give a percentage estimate of the graduates of\nthe commercial departments of the high schools with which they came in\ncontact on the following points, reckoning the classic graduate at 100 per\ncent: (i) initiative, (2) possibility of growth, (3) accuracy and dispatch,\n(4) definiteness, (5) ability to converse on ordinary topics, (6) character\nof the graduate, (7) economic efficiency.\nIn some cases the one who was asked to express an opinion did not\ncare to give percentage estimates. In almost every such instance a suggestive personal letter was received in response to the inquiry. I shall\nquote from some of these letters later. In some cases where the writer of\nthe letter gave percentage estimates there would be an omission on one or\ntwo of the seven points under consideration. Averages were made of all\npercentage estimates. The results of this summary follow: (i) initiative,\n119 per cent; (2) possibility of growth, 100 per cent; (3) accuracy and dispatch, 129 per cent; (4) definiteness, 119 per cent; (5) ability to converse\non ordinary topics, 94^ per cent; (6) character of the graduate, 98 per cent;\n(7) economic efficiency, 146 per cent. I recall one reply which had graded\n20 per cent on point No. (5). I gathered from a personal letter from the\nperson giving this low estimate that he found the cause in the home rather\nthan in the school. He further stated that the \"results obtained in the\ncommercial departments were incomparably better in comparison to the\nquality of the teaching force and the quality of the students selecting a\ncommercial course than that obtained in other departments.\"\nI have no desire to exploit any particular department of the high school,\nbut the composite photograph of the efficiency of the commercial department of these high schools so widely separated is, to say the least, not\nunfavorable.\nThe investigation thus far has been in line with the fundamental\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "I042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Businea\n\nprinciple set forth in the beginning of this address. But since all agree\nthat the teaching force is a large factor in making the school efficient, data\nhave been gathered relative to the teaching force from the same sources\nas that just given regarding comparative estimates of graduates of different departments of the high school. These same city superintendents,\nheads of departments, presidents, and professors were asked to rank the\nteachers of commercial departments as superior, good, medium, or fair on\nthe six following points: (i) scholarship, (2) ability to interest pupils,\n(3) general breadth of viewpoint, (4) tact and ability in management,\n(5) power of social contact, (6) character. On practically every point of\nthe six, the average ranking is between \"good\" and \"superior.\" The highest\nranking comes on \"breadth of viewpoint,\" and \"power of social contact.\"\nCommercial teachers seem from this report to be superior to other teachers\nin these two particulars.\nPermit me to quote briefly from some of these personal letters. (The\nauthors of these letters cannot be given for I have pledged confidence.)\nThe president of one of the leading colleges of this country (all of us honor\nhim) says:\nCertainly in economic efficiency, and ability to converse intelligently on ordinary\ntopics, the graduate of the commercial high school and business department would surpass the graduate of the classic high school. I believe also that the graduate of the\ncommercial department, speaking generally, would surpass the graduate of the classic\ncourse in definiteness of aim, and in accuracy and dispatch in doing work.\n\nAgain :\nUp to date I believe the commercial department has been under the disability of\ntaking teachers who were undertrained, and with too limited an educational outlook,\nbut in ten years there has been a most decided improvement in this particular.\n\nAnother gentleman of large experience stated in effect that the commercial department in too many schools had \"second place in the estimation of the faculty\" and that there are still among the faculty too many\n\"steeped in the traditions of higher learning.\"\nThe head of the department of commerce in a large high school in the\nEast writes that the teachers and students in his department are equal to\nthose of any other department in the school. All of his teachers are college\ngraduates, and many have taken graduate work. His students \"can enter\nany college and are prepared for a business career.\"\nFrom the data gathered, organized, and submitted to you this afternoon Ibelieve fair judgment will warrant the following conclusions — subject\nto such revision as further, more thoro and extensive investigation may\nsuggest:\n1. That the commercial department of the high school has passed thru the stage of\nstruggle for existence.\n2. That such a department is an important factor, that it is becoming more important every year, and that it should have equal recognition with other departments of\nthe high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN SALESMANSHIP\n\n1043\n\n3. That the graduates of the commercial department of the high school are reasonably\nefficient — economically, socially, and ethically.\n4. That the teaching force in the commercial department of the high school is\nimproving and is becoming more and more efficient year by year.\n5. That the future of the commercial department of the high school has great things\nin store for it; that instructors in such departments should take increased courage;\nthat school administrators are justified in giving their earnest support to such departments to the end that such schools shall train to broad usefulness in life, both cultural and\nvocational.\n\nTRAINING\nW.\n\nB.\n\nTOWSLEY,\n\nMANAGER\n&\n\nIN SALESMANSHIP\n\nOF THE\nCOMPANY,\n\nSALES DEPARTMENT,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nMARSHALL\n\nFIELD\n\nThe attitude in which I come before you today is not that of one who\ncan speak as having authority along educational lines. My understanding\nof the request that I address this convention was that you who are the\nauthority in this great country of ours in matters educational would be\ninterested in what Marshall Field & Company (with whom I have the\nhonor of being associated) are doing in the way of training their salespeople.\nIn the employment of help (the product of the public schools) we insist\nas far as practicable that all juniors be at least graduates of the grammar\ngrade and that seniors shall have had some high-school training. These\npeople as a rule know little of business; the atmosphere of the schoolroom\nis not a business atmosphere; many of the teachers have had no business\ntraining, and the daily program provides nothing that even suggests the\nlines of activity in which the pupil may be employed. Such a pupil cannot\nwell decide while yet in school as to what business he will make his lifework; he comes to us merely because we can give him employment and\nwages; he comes perhaps because it looks easy to sell goods — salespeople\nalways look as if they enjoyed their work, and customers never think of\nbeing cross (?). He soon finds that the life of the salesman is not all smiles\nand sunshine and that customers are quite human. His idea is no more\nincorrect than many people give expression to when they say that \"good\nmerchandise will sell itself.\" This is unquestionably true to a degree, and\nmerchants employ merchandise men at high salaries who devote their\nentire attention to good merchandising, but when the goods are once upon\nthe counters, the number and value of sales depend fully as much upon the\nsalesperson — upon his knowledge of those goods, upon his general intelligence, and upon his attitude to the customer. Another common error is\nto assume to have solved the question of salesmanship by saying that\n\" salespeople are born, not made\" ; this also may be true in a sense, but it is\nno more true than of any other profession. The physician, teacher, or\nlawyer born to the work which he has undertaken is a better physician,\nteacher, or lawyer if trained in the principles of his calling.\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "1044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nWhen boys and girls fill out application blanks with us they find the\nquestion, \"What grade were you in when you left school?\" This they\nfrequently answer with one word — \"Graduated.\" This necessitates our\nasking from what they graduated and we are told, \"From grammar school.\"\nWhen those having educational matters in charge introduced graduating\nfrom the eighth grade, they probably knew their business, and it may be\nfor the best. It is not within my province to discuss that question. We\nare inclined to be fearful, however, lest the fact of graduation at the close\nof the eighth grade causes many boys and girls to place that as the standard\nof education. They come to us, therefore, lacking in many instances\nthat which they most need; namely, a working knowledge of arithmetic,\npenmanship, spelling, and grammar. In times past we found it necessary\nto accept these people and allow them to improve as best they could thru\nthe process of absorption. When one had \"passed\" the junior stage and\nwas ready to sell merchandise he was taught the system, the art of salesmanship, and the merchandise which he was to handle by one of his associates.\nShould he learn his lessons improperly, the next one coming into stock and\nlearning it from him certainly would learn it improperly, and so on, very\nmuch as was the case with the old-time copy-book, when the child might\nhave his first Kne fairly correct because of the original copy, but became less\nperfect with each line, inasmuch as each was copied from its predecessor.\nYou will readily see that the tendency was to develop order-takers, not\nsalespeople. With eight thousand people on our retail pay-roll alone,\nprobably five thousand of whom are salespeople, this became a very serious\nmatter with us. If salespeople were doing their best (as they saw it), if\nthey were perfectly satisfied with that and expected us to be, how could we\nget them to see that there was something still better, how get them to\nunderstand that, as someone has wisely said, \" Good salesmanship is by no\nmeans a small rudimentary thing which anyone can perform; it is a\ncompound of some science and more art. The science can be taught in the\nform of certain rules and principles, the art can be developed thru experience, wisely supervised and interpreted.\" Our section managers, or buyers,\nwere too busy to attend to such supervision and others were oftentimes\nincompetent or unwilHng.\nAnother diflSculty rested with the employees themselves, who resented\nsomewhat the inference that they \"needed to be sent to school.\" We\ntherefore avoided very carefully the word \"school\" but introduced the\n\"Study.\" Before any employee is allowed to sell goods he is sent to this\nroom, where he is taught the system of the store; namely, how to make out\nchecks under any and all circumstances, and I may say here that there are\nnineteen different conditions to meet. This is taught him by means of\nblackboard charts ; in the afternoon he is given nineteen problems to solve,\neach problem covering a different angle in the system. If he can pass that\nexamination he is allowed to sell goods the next day, otherwise he stays in\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departraen ]\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN SALESMANSHIP\n\n1045\n\nthe Study a second day; if he is unable to pasS at the close of the second\nday, he is paid for his two days and told to go his way, he is not suflSciently\nbright for our business. This is followed up by a system which keeps the\nStudy posted as to all errors made in the house. Each person who makes\nan error is sent for, is shown his mistake, and is told how not to make\nit again.\nBefore the employee leaves the Study he is made to realize that the\nhouse is not arbitrarily forcing upon him information which he does not\nneed, but rather that the management is interested in him and seeks to\nhelp him to make the most of his calling. He comes to feel that, instead\nof working for Marshall Field & Company at so much per week, he and\nMarshall Field & Company are working together in an endeavor to build\nup the highest type of merchandising in the world. With that thought\nbefore him, he is glad to do anything needful to develop within himself the\nhighest type of salesmanship. Having \"passed\" the Study, he takes up\nthe art and science of salesmanship in the \"Conference Room.\" This is a\nschool very similar to that started by the Women's Educational and\nIndustrial Union of Boston, and was established under the guidance of a\ngraduate of that school. Lectures are given on the manner of approach,\nmaking the sale, closing the transaction, the study of character, courtesy,\nand all those things that make for better selling. Illustrative sales are a\nconspicuous feature, and special instruction on merchandise is given both\nby those in charge of the room and by buyers themselves. You may be\ninterested to know that the principal of the Conference Room today is a\ngraduate of the room itself. I mention this merely as evidence of the fact\nthat we appreciate the efforts of employees toward self -improvement.\nAdjoining our Conference Room, and closely associated with it, is our\nEmployees' Library. This is a branch of the Chicago Public Library and,\nthru a very competent librarian, our people have access to all the books of\nthat great institution as well as to the especially fine list of books on\nsalesmanship and merchandise already on our shelves.\nThus far I have spoken particularly of the training of adults. Plans\nfor the care of our boys and girls along educational lines are still immature.\nWe have for many years made it possible for any boy who wishes to join\nthe Y.M.C.A. to receive from the Manager's Office a letter entitling him\nto one-half his membership fee, and as far as we can do so consistently we\nurge upon him the taking-up of a course in grammar, spelling, penmanship,\nand arithmetic. In our efforts along this line we have enjoyed the most\nhearty co-operation of those in charge of affairs at the Y.M.C.A.\nRecently, thru the suggestion of Assistant Superintendent Roberts of\nthe Chicago public schools and the co-operation of the Board of Education,\nwe began sending girls to the Lucy Flower High School a number of halfdays each week, at full pay, there to be given a knowledge of textiles and\nto be taught in some of the common branches. This was a test case in\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "1046\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\norder that we may satisfy ourselves as to whether or not this system will\nresult in permanent good. I may say, however, that we began so late in\nthe season that the test can hardly be looked upon as a fair one. I believe\nthat this is one of the best ways, however, in which the schools and the\nmerchants may co-operate, but am convinced that we, thru our educational\nequipment, are better prepared to give our employees a practical knowledge\nof merchandise which they are to handle than are the schools, whose work\nmust be theoretical at best. My suggestion, therefore (and with this I\nclose), is that we give the half-day arrangement a more thoro test; that it\nbe made to apply to boys as well as to girls; that the hardware merchant,\nthe candy merchant, and other business houses be asked to join in this\nplan; that the school concentrate the instruction upon the four branches\nmentioned; and finally that each merchant be allowed to follow this up\nwith such special instruction as may be best suited to fit them for his\nown business.\n\nM. E. PEARSON,\n\nAN EDUCATION\n\nFOR BUSINESS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCITY\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nKANSAS\n\nCITY,\n\nKANS.\n\nIt is with a great deal of pleasure, I assure you, that I am to speak to\nyou about an education for business. Much has been written and many\nhave spoken about an education that fits for college. Others have spoken\nabout the preparation for the ministry, the practice of medicine, and the\npractice of law. For ten years all have talked about the necessary preparation for industrial life. It is a pleasure and a privilege to stand here as the\nadvocate of the right of a young person to be educated in the grammar\nschools, the high schools, the colleges, and also all manner of special schools,\nfor a business career.\nToday mankind is engaged in one of the greatest struggles the world\nhas ever known for food, clothing, and shelter. Our people in this country\nhave never had so many wants as they have today and have never tried\nso hard to supply them. The more we get the more we want. The\nvariety and the extravagance increase all the time as we struggle on.\nBusiness arises from man's endeavor to secure for himself and for his\nenjoyment the necessities and the luxuries in food, clothing, and shelter.\nIn this struggle for business there is at all times a very fierce competition.\nAn education for business is the fitting of a young man successfully to enter\nthis competition and secure his rightful share of the profits.\nIt has been said that 90 per cent enter unprepared and at some time fail\nbecause of this lack of preparation. Four years in a medical school is\nnecessary to make a doctor, three years in a normal school turns out a\ncommon teacher, and three years more, a college president. A lazy lad\ndropped from the grammar grades is sometimes supposed to have a chance\nto succeed in business. Later on he fails and involves a number of good\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nBUSINESS\n\n1047\n\nmen. The whole matter is passed over as an incident. The cause is not\nsought, there is no endeavor to fix the responsibility of the failure upon\nschool or society. No one names the failure a stupid blunder or perhaps a\ncrime. So many men have failed for so many years in so many kinds of\nbusiness that 90 per cent of failures is expected and no doubt would\nbe missed.\nThe business world must knock at the door of the schoolmaster and\ninquire for the educated man, the trained specialist in business. All\nsuccessful men in the future must be educated men. The business man\ncannot remain the sole exception. The schools must go to work. The\nincumbent job of sending every man to his work with an education for\nsuccessful business is a big one. To accomplish this our schools must have\na more definite purpose. There must be a more careful selection of those\npermitted to enter. There must be established standards for eligibility.\nThe rules of the game must be more clearly understood. Business values\nmust be recognized more readily and the measuring-rod of success must be\nsomething higher and better than the dollar mark.\nThe advisability of maintaining schools is no longer questioned by\nthoughtful persons. There are those who question the manner of organization, that criticize the methods employed, that object to the course of study\noffered, and, so far as practical, successful business is concerned, seriously\ndoubt the value of the results obtained. The many business and commercial schools outside of the regular schools stand as an index to the wishes\nof the people and the demands of the time. They stand also as a protest\nagainst the conventional course of the high schools and the colleges and also\nas an exponent of a new and more practical aspect in education. The\nunskilled, unprepared young man now entering a business career is a\ndisappointment to himself and an unfulfilled promise of universal education.\nEducation now and henceforth must stand for preparation as well as\ndiscipline and training in general powers. Every school and every teacher\nmust more and more realize the definite and personal responsibility for the\nsuccess of young people going out into business life. It is the business of\nthe school to teach young people, not some traditional subject according\nto some time-honored theory. Teachers must teach not for themselves or\nthe traditions of their school but for a guaranteed success of their pupils.\nThe patrons of our schools send their children to be educated, but more\nalso to be educated for something. They do not expect a boy to leave\nschool with a diploma that does not stand for some special form of preparation. This is pre-eminently the business man's age. All are looking to\nthe business man to make the world better. Man must have his wants\nsatisfied and his wants must also be regulated and modified. It is our\nbusiness as teachers to go to work for a better business man. The people\nwho are supporting our schools care little for our theories. They expect\nand demand results. We must break away from traditional and time-\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nhonored courses of study and take seriously upon ourselves the responsibility for education specially and definitely for successful business.\nNatural selection is as true in business as in nature itself. In order to\nhave a survival in business there must be a selection of the fit and this\nselection must be an honest one. Too many of the unfit have had a false\npromise given them. The boy unfit for business should have honest,\nscientific vocational guidance at once. Anything short of this is a crime\nto the individual and a menace to the business interests of the community.\nBefore the school can apply adequate training, great nature must supply\nthe man. There is an old saying that hints at the fact that all fools should\nbe farmers and by implication takes the same attitude toward business.\nIn this day of special training, scientific application, and strenuous competition, no fools are successful farmers and no defectives or untaught\npersons get the business.\nBurbank selects his plants, the stockman the progenitors of his future\nherd. The farmer gives careful consideration to the color, size, and quality\nof the corn for his anticipated harvest. The one who wagers his money\npicks the winner by the study of his history, by the use of weights and\nmeasures, and by the counting ^f promising points. There should be,\nthere must be, some psychological, pedagogical, or scientific method by\nwhich and thru which a school man may have wisdom enough to give\nvocational guidance to a young man looking toward a business career.\nDr. Fernald describes in a recent article an apparatus designed to test the\nwill-power and physical endurance. It was to be placed under the raised\nheels of the patient standing on tiptoe. A trigger was fixed so that the\nlowering of the heels would ring a bell. It is hard work to stand a long\ntime with raised heels. In a large number of tests, results showed that in\nmost cases the will-power necessary did not in any way reach the limit of\nphysical endurance. Those tested simply quit. A boy who has not the\nwill-power to hold on even tho it hurts should not be allowed to claim the\ntime of his school or teacher in trying to educate him for business. The\n''quitter\" should be cured or eliminated. Too much effort has been\nwasted and too many persons have gone into bankruptcy because schools\nhave vainly tried to make successful business men out of pale-faced,\nweak-kneed, cold-footed quitters. It is the work of those interested in\neducation for business to at once organize tests for eligibility to business\ntraining.\nThe teacher in the school for business must be both teacher and business\nman — actual experience in both gives strength and effectiveness. The\nteacher must teach in the schoolroom what is required down the street in\nbusiness. What is needed down the street unfortunately is not often\nknown to the school. There must be a more systematic, scientific study of\nthe necessary personal equipment for the successful, positive, aggressive,\npolite, amiable, gracious, well-mannered, well-poised business man.\nMany\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nBUSINESS\n\n1049\n\nschools have for the teaching of physiology and anatomy a manikin showing\nall parts of the human body. There should be for the use of the business\nteacher a kind of business manikin showing all the parts of a business\nequipment for the ideal business man.\nIt is certainly incumbent upon an}» school, special business or otherwise,\nto put into this business anatomy all the bone and the sinew, the muscle\nand the tissue, the blood and the brains, the mental acuteness and the\nmoral uprightness, necessary to present to the world a stalwart worthy to\nenter business or commercial life. Every school must sooner or later\nrecognize in its attitude, in its course of study, and in its teaching, that a\nlarge number of its boys and girls are to enter business pursuits and that it\nrests with the school whether they enter prepared or unprepared. The\nbusiness course that does not contemplate a thoro study of a code of business\nethics certainly dwells only on the letter of the law and impoverishes the\nstudent by omitting the spirit thru which there is the only promise of an\naroused and quickened business conscience.\n\"Put money in thy purse\" was good advice and is still worth every\ncent of its face value. To be successful in business, money must be accimiulated, for nothing makes money like money and nothing gives more confidence than money in the treasury. The oft-quoted words, \"Who steals\nmy purse steals trash,\" show how little the dollar mark represents in\ncontrast with a man's ethical business standards as they relate to honor,\nreputation, fairness, regard for the rights of others, square-dealing, duty\ntoward home and«country, and the proper relation of man to his fellow-men\nand to his Maker. The ethics of law will not allow \"snitching\"; of medicine, advertising; of the ministry, heterodoxy; of the sportsman, poaching.\nNor will the ethics of the game of business allow a man to \"shinny on the\nwrong side.\" Misrepresentation in business is the greatest crime and\nlikewise the greatest temptation. It is a big job to impress this fact in\nregard to misrepresentation in business. Nevertheless, all of our schools\nin any way interested in the business man should strenuously endeavor to\nturn out pupils who know the value of honesty in business most thoroly,\nbelieve in it most sincerely, and are prepared to practice it most religiously.\nThe psychologist, the teacher, and the business man must unite in a study\nand an endeavor to arrive at some kind of ethical standard to measure the\nright and wrong of the rules for business.\nIt is very difiicult accurately to set forth actual business values. The\nfacts are complex and variable. We have no standardized units of measurement in business education. It is as diflScult as the fixing of units for\nentrance requirements of colleges. The best and the wisest in the teaching\nprofession have worked on this for fifty years. The best expression to date '\nis that \"fifteen units are required, of which the following may be offered.\"\nPeace and harmony vanish in the argument that follows on what shall be\noffered.\nHowever, the study and the continuous discussion of entrance\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "I050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nrequirements has been of great profit, as the measuring-units now in use\nhave a definite meaning in the minds of all. They are the best measuringrods that we have of the required ability and power to do college work.\nIn this discussion I propose fifteen credit units which our schools shall\ndevelop for the entrance requirements to business and offer the following,\nhaving the value of one credit each:\n1. Thoroness in the fundamentals of the conventional course of study in our public\nschools.\n2. Ability to work hard, to remain at a task until its completion.\n3. General information of the world, its people, and their struggle for food, clothing,\nand shelter.\n4. Familiarity with the forms and details of some kind of specialized business.\n5. Skill and tact in management and direction.\n6. A knowledge of local customs and special laws.\n7. Power to change environment and to establish new conditions.\n8. Power to decide quickly and to act promptly.\n9. Willingness to co-operate.\n10. Ability to appropriate, power to initiate and originate.\n11. Well-developed, thoroly trained, morally clean physical manhood.\n12. Fixed habits of conduct, courtesy, and manners.\n13. Personal appearance, dress, and carriage.\n14. Proper attitude toward ethical concepts.\n15. Good plain gumption, whatever that means, and including all that it implies.\n\nWe may well ask ourselves the question, What shall be the measure of\nsuccess; first, for the school in the training for business; second, for the man\nin active business; third, for the one ripened and matured in experience,\nadvanced in years, and retired from business ? Success cannot be measured\nin money values. To accumulate money may require only craftiness; to\nspend money requires wisdom. To direct the influence of money makes a\nheavy demand on true manhood. To give largely is to have brotherly love\nand patriotic devotion. To live, not without money but above it, is to be\nthe highest type of a true business man.\nThe experts crowded round an object of interest. They were grading\nthe points of a splendid animal to be sent to the cattle herds of some great\nwestern pasture. It was commencement day. Friends were gathered\naround the young man graduating from school. An expert teacher was\ngrading his preparation for business. The success of the teaching in the\nschool was measured by the height of the score. It was a crowded market\nplace. A busy man was in the thick of the struggle. The measure of his\nbusiness success, as the score was read by all his competitors, was the life\nhe was leading, the amount of his enjoyment, and the good he was able to\ndo. It is an old man alone in his comfortable library. It is the measure\nof his success, as recorded in the history of an active, happy, successful life,\nthat he is at peace with himself and his fellow-men, that memory brings\nno unpleasant recollections, and that he is cheered and sustained by an\nunfaltering confidence in the good that men can do.\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL VALUE\nCOMMERCIAL\nWILLIAM\n\nB.\n\nOWEN,\n\nCOURSE\n\n1051\n\nOF THE HIGH-SCHOOL\nCOURSE\n\nPRINCIPAL OF THE CHICAGO\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe subject of this paper was chosen with reference to a definite situation in the American high school. It is the purpose to present the elements\nof that situation with the view of reaching a clearer understanding of its\nsignificance. If the analysis given proves to be approximately correct,\nit should indicate what attitude the organizers of school systems and the\nteachers of commercial subjects should take toward the work. The\nimmediate practical reason for discussion of the topic of the paper is the\nfact that the educational value of the business course in our high schools\nis questioned by some and overlooked by others. We need as a part of our\neducational theory a rational and consistent doctrine to support our use\nof money, men, and material in imparting the knowledge and technique\nof the commercial arts in a school whose confessed aim is to make men and\nwomen, rather than clerks, stenographers, and bookkeepers. If thru our\nbusiness course we produce the former but not the latter, we ought to know\nit. If we produce both, we ought likewise to know it, and because of this\nknowledge take courage and renew our efforts. If we cannot by any means\nproduce the one by the process by which we produce the other, we ought\nfirst to do the greater task and later turn our hand to the lesser.\nLike every other part of our educational system, the business or commercial course has its history, and that history explains, in part at least, the\naccepted valuation of the course. The practical arts have always had\ndifficulty in gaining admission into the curriculum since Aristotle pronounced against them. The conception of education embodied in the\nseven liberal arts of the mediaeval schools was the product of the fourth\ncentury B.C. and has persisted to our own day. It is a conception that at\nbottom no one has reason to object to. But it is a conception that demands\nprogressive restatement and interpretation in the light of changing social\nconditions. Above all, that conception must not be identified with a\ngiven content, curriculum, subject-matter, or whatever you please to call\nit, nor again with a method or procedure associated with the use of that\ncontent. All true education must be liberalizing and humanizing. The\nhistory of secondary education among the peoples with whose culture our\nown is one presents these constant features. On the one hand, there is a\ncurriculum already in the field hallowed by an age-long tradition, institutionalized in schoolmaster, schoolbook, and school practice, prescribed\nby the learned professions, serving as a mark of social distinction, and withal\nmeeting in a large and true way the needs and aspirations of those whose\nlot in life permits them to move steadily and leisurely thru its length.\nOn the other hand, there is the accretion of new subjects, the product of\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOS2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Busbess\n\na complex and developing social life, created to meet immediate practical\nneeds and ending as accepted practical arts and sciences. These new arts\nand sciences are the indispensable tools for meeting pressing and insistent\npractical demands. The young man or woman who would earn a living\nmust be able to use them. There is no school or similar institution to give\nhim the requisite knowledge and training. The demand is met, so far as\nit is met, at first by private teachers and pri\\'ate schools. The teachers\nare without special training for their tasks as educators. They possess a\ncertain knowledge of technique. They are ready to impart it as best they\nmay. They make no other pretensions or claims. Their work, if honestly\nperformed, like any other service is paid for in accordance with terms\nagreed upon at the start. It is a simple commercial transaction from beginning to end. In this way, the practical arts of writing and arithmetic were\ntaught at the period of revival of commerce in Europe. For-a time these\nprivate teachers and private schools were ignored. Gradually they came\nto be looked upon as rivals of the established institutions and were forbidden\nto teach by church and state acting together. Finally for self-protection\nand in deference to increasing public demand, the existing schools took over\nthe task of giving instruction in these subjects, which now occupy an\nunquestioned place in the curriculum.\nThis process of incorporation of new subjects into the curriculum finds\nan illustration in the case of the sciences. The struggle was more protracted\nand more diflScult because the traditional curriculum of the secondary\nschool and college was more firmly intrenched. Nevertheless, the nature of\nthe contest was the same. On the one hand, there was a curricvdum which\nutilized the full time of the pupils, a method of instruction reasonably\nfitted to the studies pursued, a body of teachers, themselves the product\nof the curriculum which they belie^•ed in, an educational theory which fortified them in their resistance to change. On the other hand, there was a\nrapidly increasing body of new knowledge pointing to a new world-industry,\na new medicine, a new society, a new cosmology — in short, a new world.\nThe sharp and fierce contest ended in the final admission of the sciences into\nthe curriculum.\nIt is a similar situation in our schools that prompted the choice of the\nsubject of this paper. On the one hand, we have a time-honored curriculum,\nadministered by a set of trained teachers, adapted to achieve certain results,\nfortified by social forces, and buttressed by the weight of institutional\nauthority, a curriculum which utilizes the time and energy of those that\npursue it. On the other hand, there is the insistent demand of the commercial world for better-trained workers, and the necessity that the boys\nand girls should make a living. The question then is, Can we meet this\nimmediate practical demand upon our educational system and at the same\ntime justify our course from a broadly human and educational standpoint ?\nThe answer to the question has two aspects, a theoretical and a practical\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSE\n\n1053\n\none. In the first place, we must if possible get a basis for the valuation of\nthe new studies, and in the second place, we must see to it that our practice\nleads to the realization of these values in the lives of the boys and girls\nwho take the business course in our schools.\nWhat then is the educational value of the high-school commercial\ncourse? The answer will depend upon the standard of value which we\napply to it. The test of educational value is twofold — individual and\nsocial. This twofold test must be applied as one; that is, to neglect either\naspect or phase of it is to run the risk of invalidating the results obtained\nin the use of the other.\nOn the individual side, we ask of a given subject-matter, activity, or\naim if the growth and development of the pupil demands or is stimulated\nby the use of the new material. Contribution to and regulation of growth\nis the criterion, then, on the individual side. It has been the great fundamental achievement of the last century and a half to have secured the\nrecognition of this criterion. All the battles of all the educational reformers,\nfrom Rousseau on, have been waged to secure the freedom and opportunity\nto apply it in the organization and conduct of schools. Applied to the\nsubject-matter of the curriculum, it has led to the rejection of material\nunfitted to the age and powers of the children, to the creation of a genuine\nchildren's literature, to graded textbooks, to the expansion of the curriculum\nof the elementary school with its meager content of the school arts of\nreading, writing, and arithmetic, into the present course of study with its\nenrichment of history, geography, nature-study, the industrial arts, and the\nlike. Applied in determining the activities of children in the school, it\nhas led to the introduction of the plays and games of the modern school\nwith their inj:alculable increment of educational gain. Applied to the\ndiscipline of the school, it abolished corporal punishment, created a new\nsympathy for children, established the principle that the moral growth of\na pupil is the chief concern of the teacher and the school, and that selfrespect is the organizing nucleus of personality, to foster which all other\naims of the school should at critical times be sacrificed. Applied to the\nschool as an institution, it has Drought us to recognize that individual\ngrowth is possible only within a wholesome and stimulating social medium,\nwhere standards of personal behavior and ideals of personal achievement\nfind realization in the habits, intercourse, and activities of teachers and\npupils; it has within late years forced us to see that schoolrooms and schoolhouses must be lighted and ventilated so that the growing children who are\nforced to occupy them may not be hindered but helped in their physical\ndevelopment. Now this individual criterion has been applied more consistently and thoroly in the lower grades of the elementary school than in\nthe higher, and again in the higher grades of the elementary school than in\nthe high school. Some signs there are that we are just on the eve of a\nperiod of positive constructive effort to give us a high school whose curri-\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOS4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nculum, organization, and administration A\\ill make the principle of growth\nfundamental.\nOn the social side of our test of educational value, we ask of a given\nsubject-matter, activity, or aim if the growing individual will at maturity\nfind thru these an abundant entrance into the social world which is to be\nhis world. Social utility, then, is the criterion on the social side. This\nhas in reality been the criterion applied in the upbuilding of all our\nschool curricula. The difficulty has been, however, that while it served\nto secure the introduction of subject-matter into the curriculum, when the\ncurriculum was once established this criterion was lost sight of and the\nmaterial came to be looked upon as being educative per se, instead of being\neducative in a definite social situation. Herein lies the cause of the everrecurring conflict between the old and the new in school curriculum, school\norganization, and school administration. This criterion, applied to existing social conditions and the school, led to the formation of the curriculum\nthat had its origin in Greece and Rome, and which remained the curriculum\nof Europe and America until modem times. The classical curriculum in\norigin and intent was practical, designed to fit its students for the successful\nconduct of their lives in the station or profession which their economic and\nsocial status warranted them in aspiring to. The limits of this paper will\nnot permit the attempt to set forth how this much-abused curriculum as\nonce conducted was truly educative on tlie individual side. It is sufficient\nto recognize that it no longer meets the demand of social utility.\nNo one of you is likely to interpret the meaning of social utility as\nequivalent to the satisfaction of immediate and changing wants. No such\nlimitation is to be placed on the scope of the word. But it is absolutely\nnecessary to recognize an order and scale of importance, if we are to apply\nthe criterion with definiteness and prospect of success. The first and\nfundamental question, then, to ask of a course of study on this social side\nis whether it enables a child to make a living. There is a vast deal of halftruth talked by educators and others on this score. One hears that studies\nor curricula should be pursued just because they have no practical value.\nYes, but the question is by whom ? By all, or by some ? If by all, why\nspend our time discussing a kind of education that is beyond the reach of\nvast numbers of our children ? Let us not stultify ourselves. If by some,\nare they not those \\yhose fundamental needs of food and shelter and clothing\nare supplied already ? Every child begins his education in a definite economic situation which with iron rigidity conditions his health, his happiness,\nhis ambitions, his prospects. This situation he may work out of, but he\ncan do so only by working with it. Lay it down, then, as the first article\nin our educational creed that our course of study should fit every chUd into\nhis economic world. It is a narrow if not contemptible view of our economic\nlife to see in it only a highly organized means of gratifying our more elemental desires. Not only are our sky-scrapers, our railways, our automo-\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSE\n\n1055\n\nbiles, and great cities, with their luxury and vice, the characteristic product\nof this life, but our universities, our schools, our art museums, our government, our culture, rest and depend on its solid substructure. To introduce\nevery boy and girl of this land into our economic life is the basal demand\nmade upon our school.\nAgain, we should ask of every course of study on its social side whether\nit introduces the pupil to social service. Perhaps this will be taken to\nindicate some distinctly different line of social utility than that of earning\na living, but it need not be so taken. There is a social life that is over and\nabove, rather than contradictory to, our economic life. The sordid and\nunlovely character which finds its total interest and activity inside the\neconomic process is to be taken as a case of arrested development. The\nnarrow-minded business man is not so much on the wrong way, but he has\nnot gone far enough. Our course of study, if it is to be educative, must\nopen the way to social service for every boy and girl, not necessarily by\ntaking them out of the life of commerce and industry, but by leading them\nto realize how that life is a life of social value and meaning. Nay, it should\nmake them feel that their life in business and industry opens up to them\nthe very means and the way into social service.\nAgain, and briefly, the criterion of social utility would prescribe that\nthe curriculum and the school provide the possibility of social expansion.\nPerhaps this is the finest thing that education can do for a boy. It must\nenable him to earn a living in a definite place, in a definite way, by definite\nputting-forth of effort. It should also make it possible for him to escape\nthe limits of time and space, and, by the use of other men's work recorded\nin books, find joy and encouragement, ideals and purposes, information\nand taste, by which he may realize his higher self.\nPerhaps the conclusion of the paper is already in your minds. I could\nnot come before you as an expert in your field, which is not mine. My\nexperience with schools of the old sort and the new has made me bold to\naddress you. I thought that I might at least set forth what views I have\ncome to hold of the work to which you are devoted. In so doing my purpose\nwas not so much to point out new paths as to disclose old values. Applying my twofold criterion, then, I should like to mention one or two great\nadvantages that you have as teachers of the commercial branches.\nIn the first place, the high-school commercial course has the advantage\nof immediacy. The pupil who because of home needs or personal inclination\nis eager to turn his thought and his hand to something that promises\nfinancial return is able to see the connection between his school work and\nthe world which he is soon to enter. He is not dealing wath a system of\npostponed values. He can test the practicability of the classroom work by\ncomparison with the business world about him. Finding himself in a situation essentially like that in which he expects to labor, he senses the reality\nof the demands made upon him, learns to measure his own capacity and\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nliking for the work he does, and, stimulated by the prospect of definite\nachievement, he puts his best efforts into his work. It is just this real\neducational opportunity that comes to the teacher of the commercial subjects, an opportunity which the teacher of more abstract or less practical\nsubjects often seeks for in vain.\nAgain, the high-school commercial course takes account of individuality.\nIt attempts, at least, to meet the pupil as he is. Its demands upon him\nare not the unusual requirements of the learned or academic world. It\nasks of him definite and skillful performance of outward, tangible acts.\nHe is equipped for the performance of the duties imposed upon him. He\ncan work therefore with the assurance of a reasonable success. From day to\nday, he can measure his progress by comparison with his own past performance. It is his skill, his industry, his attention that read themselves into\nthe record of his achievement. If he is slow in one part of his work, he\nmay be unusually rapid in another. All the time there is presented for his\nstudy the objective evidence of his defects and his excellences. All the\ntime, therefore, he is wrestling directly and concretely with the problem of\nself-improvement. Thus the motive of self-improvement is made effective\nthru a course of study that affords concrete self -revelation. The reality\nof this situation carries with it the maximum of educational opportunity\non the individual side.\nFinally, the high-school commercial course takes account of an actual\nsocial world. To be sure, it does not open up a comprehensive view of that\nworld. But it does afford an entrance into one important phase of social\nlife, the one that perhaps is most attractive and most insistent from the\npupil's standpoint. Moreover, it is a part of that world that can be brought '\ninto the schoolroom with the least departure from reality. The methods\nand processes of the world of commerce become the methods and processes\nof the schoolroom. Whatever meaning they can have for the pupil later,\nthey can easily be made to bear for him now. The standards of promptness,\naccuracy, definiteness, and responsibility of the business world are not\ninterpreted as exactions of the artificial world of the schoolroom, but as a\nchallenge of one's fitness to enter into the real order of things. It can\nalways be said to him that this is the way the world does its business. If\nthe instruction is what it can and should be, there need be little danger of\nmaking the work of the pupil a mere mastery of routine. It is the high\nduty and the rare opportunity of the teacher to make the course educative.\nHe has the great advantage of beginning with the pupil where he is, of\ndealing with him as he is, and of introducing him to a world that is.\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\nR. H.\n\nWHITBECK,\n\nEDITOR\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n1057\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nOF THE \"JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY,\"\nWISCONSIN,\nMADISON,\nWIS,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOf late commercial geography has been attracting more attention\nthan ever before. An author who has written a successful textbook in\ncommercial geography, and also one in physical geography, recently said\nthat the sales of his physical geography were declining, but the sales of his\ncommercial geography were increasing at about the same rate. In the\nstate of Wisconsin, the reports show that there is a gradual increase in the\nnumber of schools which teach commercial geography, and several book\nmen have given it as their observation that there is a steadily growing\ninterest in the subject the country over.\nThere is a general belief among school men that some phase of geography\nought to be taught in the secondary schools. Pupils do not retain a very\nlarge proportion of the geographical knowledge which they acquire in the\ngrammar grades. If they go from the high school into the active affairs\nof life or enter higher institutions, they find themselves handicapped by\nthe lack of general knowledge in the field of geography. In the last few\nyears several universities have reported the results of examinations which\nthey have given to their classes, examinations covering only the elementary\nphases of geography. Without exception these examinations have revealed\nan unbelievable ignorance of geography among college students. Similar\nreports come almost invariably from the normal schools. The history\nteachers in normal schools and universities complain because their students\nknow so little about geography. There is no escaping the fact that unless\ngeography is taught somewhere in the secondary-school course, the pupils\nwho go out from these schools are going to be inexcusably ignorant in a\nbranch of study which an education is supposed to include, and is duty\nbound to include. Perhaps an educated person may be excused for not\nknowing how to compute interest on a note, or how to find the number of\nyards of carpet necessary to carpet a floor. Perhaps he may be excused\nfor not knowing the elementary facts of the history of his own country.\nPerhaps he may be excused for ignorance of spelling and English generally.\nIf so, then he may be excused for ignorance of the common matters of\ngeography. But until we are willing to excuse the schools for turning out\npupils ignorant of English, of history, and of elementary mathematics,\nwe shall not be willing to excuse them for turning out pupils who are\nignorant of the common matters of geography.\nSo insistent have been the demands of the advocates of new branches\nof study that the grammar-school and high-school curricula have become\nmore than crowded. There is no place for a study in either of these schools\nunless it can justify itself by its fruits; and unless geography can show that\nit gives training and knowledge worth the time spent, then geography\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "1058\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nhas no claim to a place in the schools. But no person is willing to advance\nsuch a contention. As an instrument of training and as a study yielding a\nkind of knowledge which even moderately educated people desire and\nconstantly make use of, geography scarcely needs defense. The question\nbefore the secondary schools is not whether they ought to teach geography\nat all, but what phase of geography they shall emphasize. In some schools\nthe question may be, \"Can we afford to teach commercial geography in\naddition to physical?\" for there is a widespread belief that physical geography is the best of the physical sciences for the first year of the high\nschool.\nMore and more, of late, commercial courses are being introduced into\nthe secondary schools, and where a commercial course as such is not offered,\na considerable number of commercial studies may usually be found; among\nthese is commercial geography. The reports of the United States cofiimissioner of education give no data regarding the number of high-school\npupils who study commercial geography. If such figures were available,\nwe should find that the study, altho growing in favor, is, as yet, taught in\na minority of high schools.\nI purpose to ask and answer three main questions:\nFirst, what claim has commercial geography to a place in a secondaryschool curriculum ?\nSecond, why has it not been held in more general favor ?\nThird, how can it be made a more satisfactory, a more efficient educational instrument ?\nThe demand for commercial geography is a logical outcome of the\ngrowth of commercial courses. Why is there a growth in commercial\ncourses? Doubtless because the age is dominated by commercial ideals;\njust as we ^ad in the past an age of faith, an age of feudalism, an age of\nchivalry, so we have now an age of business. The best ability and best\nblood of our period is being, to a noteworthy extent, attracted into the\nfield of business. The dominant nations are seeking in every possible way\nto extend their commercial domains — to expand commercially. The\ngravest of our national problems are in the field of industry and commerce.\nA very considerable proportion of our school graduates are looking forward\nto business careers. Our people are extensive readers of newspapers,\nmagazines, and books. All of these facts tend to draw the attention of\npeople toward matters of commerce and of industry and to make them\ndesire to know about the commercial affairs of the great nations of the\nearth, about their resources, their relative strength, and other similar\nmatters. So long as commercial interests dominate our people, so long will\nthere be a demand for studies which make people intelligent about commercial activities. This is the reason why commercial geography is growing in favor.\nIt must be said, however, that educators generally, including geog-\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n1059\n\nraphers themselves, have not looked with high favor upon commercial\ngeography. Somewhat reluctantly do geographers recommend it. The\nreasons are easily discovered. Commercial geography includes so many\nstatistical matters, that, in the hands of the untrained teacher, the study\nis ever in danger of degenerating into a memorizing by pupils of many\ndisconnected and disassociated facts. The subject-matter of commercial\ngeography lends itself more readily to mere memorizing than does physical\ngeography; unless carefully safeguarded, the study may become scarcely\nmore than a momentary committing to memory of many facts, without\nmuch thought of their underlying causes, or of their interrelations.\nA study which is entitled to a place in our schools must do for the pupil\ntwo things, at least. It must train him in good mental habits and it must\ngive him a body of knowledge which in some useful way functions in the\nafifairs of life. There is no denying that the subject-matter of commercial\ngeography, wisely selected, is worth teaching and worth knowing. The\nquestion is: Can the study be so taught that it shall require pupils constantly to use other faculties than the memory ? Can it be so handled that\npupils will observe, reason, compare, judge, and perform other mental tasks\nwhich they need to perform if they are to secure a well-rounded mental\ndevelopment ? Because commercial geography is not generally so taught\nthat it does accomplish these ends, educators have looked askance at it.\nThe questions before those of us who believe the study can be made a\nvaluable and efficient educational instrument are: What shall we do to\nmake it such an instrument of education? How can the tendency to\nmemorize without thinking be overcome ? How can the study be rationalized?\nAt the outset, we must recognize that the main aim is not to learn a\nmultitude of ever-changing facts about exports, imports, manufactures,\nand the like. It does not matter much whether France is the third or the\nfourth country in the production of wheat, or whether or not Java exceeds\nCuba in the production of cane sugar. It does not matter much whether\nLille makes more laces than Berne, or less. It does not matter much\nwhether Japan produces more rice than India, or less. Such knowledge\nis of comparatively little use, for a Statistical Abstract, or a Statesman's\nYearbook, or a textbook can supply this information when wanted. It\ndoes not pay, as a rule, to burden the memory with very much of such\ninformation.\nHerein lies one of the faults of commercial geography: it tempts the\nteacher to lay emphasis upon such questions as. What city of France produces the most lace ? or. What city of England manufactures the greatest\nnumber of pocketknives ? or. Where in Ireland is the most linen made ?\nI do not intimate that such questions must be excluded. A certain number\nof such questions have a legitiijiate place. The criticism is that such\nquestions are likely to occupy too prominent a place in the study of com-\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "I060\n\n.\n\n-NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nmercial geography. There are other fields of inquiry which yield more\nvaluable returns.\nTo me it seems that the real purpose in the study of commercial\ngeography is to get an intelligent understanding of the basal reasons which\nmake one country a great producer of certain commodities or a great\nexporter, importer, or carrier. These reasons may be climatic, or historical,\nor racial, or otherwise; and this leads me to the point which I think is\nsometimes overlooked — that commercial geography is interwoven closely\nwith elementary economics, with the facts of political geography, with facts\nof history, as well as with facts of climate, physiography, and geographical\nsituation. A pupil well trained in commercial geography is the one who\nunderstands, for example, not only that Great Britain produces and sup^\nplies cotton goods in great quantities to the world, but why the people of\nGreat Britain have devoted themselves to this line of industry. It is the\npupil who understands that, on one hand, the resources, climate, coastline,\nsoil, and other geographical factors are important in directing a nation's\nactivities, and, on the other, that racial traits and inheritances, stage of\ncivilization, and character of government, also, are factors of consequence.\nA commercial nation is not made simply by the possession of great\nresources, or a favorable geographical position, unless the people who\noccupy this land have the abilities and the energy to develop and utilize\nwhat nature has provided them. Doubtless the growth of Great Britain,\nGermany, and the United States as commercial nations has a close and\nimmediate relation to the resources of coal and iron which these nations\npossess: but it is also true that Spain, Cuba, and Brazil have vast resources\nof iron, and China of coal; and yet these countries are not industrial\ncountries. There is something in the people and institutions of the latter\ncountries which unfits them for the utilization of their resources, and on the\nother hand, there is something in the character of the German, the Englishman, or the American which leads him to discover, to develop, to utilize\nthe resources and forces of nature about him.\nThe effective teaching of commercial geography requires that the\nteacher himself appreciate in some degree the various factors which are\npotent in the commercial life of a people. Frequently the best way to\nget at the underlying causes which make for or against commercial development is to select two countries which are commercial rivals and then compare and contrast them. The comparison of France and Germany with\nregard to climate, resources of soil and minerals, favorableness of geographical position, character of coastline, racial traits, education, and\ngovernment, will help to impress the reasons why one of these countries\nsurpasses the other in industry and commerce. A comparative study of\nBrazil and Argentina, of Canada and Mexico, of Norway and Sweden, of\nChina and Japan, of Australia and South Africa, is a useful exercise. The\naim is so to attack the subject that pupils must think, must exercise judg-\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n1061\n\nment, must make comparisons, must balance an advantage or disadvantage\nin one country over against a corresponding advantage or disadvantage in\nthe other country. As a method of stimulating pupils to make this comparison inmy own classes, debates are held in which three or four persons\non a side present arguments for and against such a resolution as this:\n^^ Resolved, That France possesses natural advantages for international\ncommerce equal to those of Germany.\" These debates never fail to create\ninterest, and to lead the more thoughtful pupils to a fuller appreciation of\nall the factors which make for commercial growth.\nAnother device has been borrowed from the agricultural college. One\nof the activities in which students of agriculture engage Is the judging of\nfarm animals, the judging of the quality of butter, of cheese, or of seed corn.\nSometimes it is conducted in this way. A perfect dairy cow, for example,\nis assumed to deserve a score of 1,000. Then each of the different important qualities which make up the perfect animal is weighed. The cow\nwhich is to be judged is inspected by the student, and each of the different\npoints enumerated on his score card is considered with respect to that\nanimal, and a numerical value is given to each point, and finally the sum\nof all these points is obtained. This sum constitutes the score given to\nthat animal, say 800 or 825 out of a possible 1,000. In a similar way our\nstudents in commercial geography are asked to score or judge various\ncommercial nations. Possibly our scheme of weighing the different points\nis not so good as might be devised, for it is still in the experimental stage.\nWe conduct the exercise as follows: The ideal commercial nation is arbitrarily given 1,000 points. It is not assumed that an ideal commercial\nnation actually exists. We have, however, generally given our own\ncountry about the highest score received by any nation, altho it is not\ngiven the full 1,000 points.\nThese thousand points are divided thus:\n1. Climate in all its bearings combined with area receives 350 points.\n2. Natural resources, 300 points.\n3. Natural advantages for carrying on international commerce, including physiography, boundaries, coastline, situation with regard to other commercial nations, receive\n150 points.\n4. The people and the intelligence with which they utilize their advantages and\nresources, receive 200 points.\n\nA country, Germany, for example, which has been previously studied,\nis taken up and members of the class are called upon to work out a score for\nGermany. The climate of Germany in all its bearings is considered.\nGermany is compared with a country otherwise like it, but having an ideal\nclimate, that is, ideal in every particular. The ideal country would receive\n350 points; Germany is given such a part of that number as the student\nbelieves it to be entitled to. That is, he thinks over the various elements\nin the climate of Germany, both favorable and unfavorable, and judges\nhow nearly Germany approaches the ideal in this particular. Then the\nsame is done with reference to area and natural resources, and Germany\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "I062\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nis compared with the ideal country in these particulars; the ideal country\nof course must have a very large proportion of its area made up of productive soil, yet it must have some mountains, for metallic minerals are seldom\nfound extensively except in mountainous regions. Forests are considered,\nfisheries, water-power, .and natural waterways. When the pupil has formed\nhis mental concept of the ideal country, he compares Germany with it and\ngives Germany such a proportion of the 300 points as he thinks it deserves.\nIn the same way the other two points are handled, and the total score is\ncomputed. The students are then asked to defend the score which they\nhave given to the country on each of these points.\nBy such exereises it is hoped that the pupils may be compelled to\ndigest the information which they have gathered, to judge, to compare,\nand to exercise reason. I am able to testify that the device works well.\nThe device is used only now and then; and it occupies only a small fraction of the time devoted to commercial geography. It forms a review or ,\nsummarizing exercise rather than the initial study of any country.\nThe rationalizing of commercial geography may be further accomplished\nby emphasizing such questions as the following:\n1. In your judgment, has Canada or Argentina the more promising future as an\nindustrial and commercial nation ? Give the reasons for your answer.\n2. Forecast the future development of Australia. Along what lines is that development most likely to take place ? Give your reasons.\n3. Compare the resources of Brazil with those of Argentina; also compare the ability\nand efficiency with which the people of these two countries are developing their resources.\nHow do you account for the difference ?\n4. Contrast the commercial activities of Japan and China in the last half-century.\nHow do you account for the difference ?\n5. Compare the tariff policy of Germany with that of Great Britain, To what\nextent do you think each country is wise in the policy which it has adopted, and why ?\n6. What are your best arguments for or against reciprocity between Canada and\nthe United States ?\n7. Why are coal deposits more valuable to a country than gold deposits?\n\nSuch questions imply some maturity of thinking and possibly some of\nthese are too difficult for consideration in elementary' classes. They will,\nhowever, suggest lines of inquiry which may be used in modified form in\nany class. The purpose is ever to get pupils to think, to use the information which they have acquired, and thus to make their knowledge dynamic\nrather than merely static. Questions which ask \"how much\" or \"how\nmany\" are likely to be overemphasized in commercial geography; while\nquestions which ask \"why\" are likely to be neglected because they are more\ndifficult and because they do not admit of definite answers. Lest I be\nmisunderstood, permit me to repeat that it is not advisable to omit the\nordinary type of questions, such as, \"What countries are the leading producers of wheat or of gold?\" or, \"What is the character of the export\ntrade of Great Britain, and of the import trade?\" or, \"WTiere does the\nworld get its supply of rubber, or cane sugar, or cacao, or cork ?\" All of\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n1063\n\nthese questions are legitimate, providing they do not constitute an undue\nproportion of the whole, and providing those questions which demand\nthinking rather than memorizing are freely introduced into the class work.\nBesides these fundamental considerations, there are certain incidental\nmatters which I desire to present without elaborating. Commercial\ngeography offers the teacher an opportunity to give pupils certain incidental forms of instruction and training which will prove exceedingly\nvaluable in after-years. Dealing as the study does with many statistics,\nit is desirable that pupils learn some method of presenting them which\nshall impress the story that they contain. More and more, men are\nemploying curves and diagrams, by means of which statistical matters\nare presented graphically. Graphics appeal at once to the eye; they make\nan impression which is likely to remain, and by means of them one may\npresent many facts in small space. I strongly recommend that you give\nyour pupils frequent opportunity to represent significant statistical matters\nby curves and by other forms of diagrams. Such work appeals to students\nand, having once learned the practical value of graphic representation,\nthey have at their disposal a most effective method of presenting statistical\nfacts.\nGovernment reports and publications freely employ these graphic\nmethods. Magazines and textbooks are using them. Scientific men are\nemploying curves to present graphically the ideas which the mind could\nscarcely grasp in any other way. The use of outline maps or base maps\nupon which pupils plot facts involving both quantities and distribution\nis a profitable exercise; such, for example, as the distribution of the coal\nareas of the United States, or by circles of different sizes representing the\nrelative production of wheat or corn or cotton in the different states, as\nBrigham has done in his Commerical Geography.\nWhile the textbook will supply the larger part of the subject-matter,\nyour pupils should learn during the course how to find and where to find\nadditional information pertaining to industry and commerce. They ought\nto become familiar with the most useful of our government publications, to\nlearn how to get them and how to use them. Your reference shelf should\ncontain both the regular and special publications of the Census Bureau,\nnot simply the reports of the decennial census but the serial reports which\nare being issued nearly every month and which often contain the newest\ninformation about some industry. Pupils should know of the existence\nof the Statistical Abstract; of the publications of the Bureau of Manufactures; of the various bureaus of the Department of Agriculture; of\nthe Department of Commerce and Labor; of the Commissioner of Corporations; of the Geological Survey; of the Reclamation Service, and others\nof the government departments from which bulletins are issued periodically.\nUnless one has systematically sought to get from the government its wealth\nof publications in these lines, he does not realize what a storehouse of\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "io64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nmaterial is at his command simply for the asking. It may take some\ncorrespondence and time to acquaint oneself with what is available, but\nit is time and money well spent. Pupils who use these publications derive\nas much advantage from learning of their existence as from the actual\ninformation gained at the time.\nThe teaching of commercial geography should also form in the pupils\nthe habit of using the encyclopaedia and atlas. Maps should be used freely\nand systematically. Locational geography should not be neglected. All\nof these things cannot be done by one teacher. Each teacher will decide\nwhich of these incidental activities he will emphasize. It cannot be\ndoubted that a pupil will get more from commercial geography thru such\nmethods as these than by the more intensive study of a textbook, even tho\nthe latter method might better fit him to pass examinations.\nI wish also to recommend that you interest your pupils in doing a\ncertain amount of voluntary outside reading of a semi-popular character.\nThe World's Work, for example, publishes excellent articles which pupils\nin commercial geography will enjoy and profit by. . Many supplementary\nbooks exist; such as the series entitled Great American Industries, published by Flannagan, of Chicago, or a more scholarly series on The Story\nof Sugar, The Story of Oil, The Story of Gold, and others, published by\nApple ton, or books like McMurry's Larger Types of American Geography,\npublished by Macmillan, or Brigham's little book From Trail to Railway\nthru the Appalachians, published by Ginn. These are only a few of the\ninteresting books which almost anyone would enjoy reading.\nThese latter recommendations I have called incidental matters, and yet\nif sanely handled they may prove to be of as great benefit to your pupils\nas the more serious work of the class. All of us know from our college\nexperience that those courses which taught us where to find material, how\nto find it, and how to use it were on the whole more valuable than the\ncourses which at the time gave us predigested information. The same\nmethods will not necessarily prove equally successful in the secondary\nschools, but the efficiency of those methods in the university suggest that\nwith wise modification they may be effective in the secondary school.\nIf commercial geography can be so taught that pupils are required to\nthink, reason, judge, and compare, are taught to use reference materials,\nare trained in presenting statistical matters graphically, learn the value\nof the use of base maps for showing distributions, and gain an interest in\ninternational affairs, then commercial geography will commend itself to\neducators everywhere, and it will win a permanent place among the studies\nof the secondary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nBUSINESS\n\nIRA\n\nCOURSES\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nCOURSES FOR HIGH SCHOOLS\nSMALLER CITIES\n\nB. FEE,* SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nLARAMIE,\n\n1065\n\nOF\n\nWYO.\n\nOnly within recent years has there been any general demand for\nvocational courses in the high schools of the country. In former years\nthe academic courses monopolized the attention of school authorities.\nGradually there developed a sentiment favoring the inauguration of courses\nthat were utilitarian in character — courses which tended to train pupils\nfor some rather definite occupations. One of the first to receive this\nstimulus was the business course, and it is of this I wish to speak. I shall\nfurther confine myself to the business course as I believe it should be in\nsmaller cities — that is, in cities of from six thousand to eighteen thousand\ninhabitants.\nThose who attended the San Francisco convention of the National\nEducation Association last year, and who were present at the meetings\nof the Department of Business Education, will recall the excellent address\ngiven by Principal Charles H. Murphy, of San Francisco, on the subject,\n\"Curricula for High Schools of Commerce in the United States.\" The\nsubject was well handled, and the inquiry might well be made why there\nis any excuse for presenting a discussion on a subject so nearly identical\nat this time. A careful examination of Mr. Murphy's paper will reveal\nthe fact that it discusses chiefly commercial subjects as they should be\nscheduled in the largest school systems of the country. The ideal conditions possible in a large city can seldom be realized in the smaller cities\nof the country. The limited amount of money generally available makes\nthe organization of three or four courses about all that can usually be\narranged, and the same cause limits the teaching force so that often only\nthose subjects deemed most essential to a business training are offered.\nThat I might learn with some degree of accuracy what other school\nsystems are doing in the way of educating pupils for commercial pursuits,\non May 17, I addressed letters to superintendents of schools in forty representative cities ranging in population from six thousand to eighteen thousand.\nI asked for their courses of study, particularly the business or commercial\ncourses. I asked whether both shorthand and typewriting were required,\nif either was scheduled. The number of typewriters used, the number of\npupils enrolled in the business course, the proportion of total enrollment\nin the business department, the system of shorthand used, whether a\ntwo-year course were offered, and reasons for or against a two-year course,\nwere other items of information requested. To forty letters written thirtyone replies were received. Nine of these replies stated that no commercial\ncourse was offered. The other twenty-two replied with more or less\nfullness to the questions asked.\nThe one thing more noticeable than anything else is the lack of any\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "io66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nuniformity in arrangement of the course. In about half of the twenty-two\nreplies stenography and typeTVTiting were offered first in the third year\nof a four-year course. Many of the schools offered stenography and typewriting inboth the third and fourth years of the course. A number offered\nbut one year of stenography and typewriting, and of those offering more\nthan one year many required only five recitation periods for the work in\nboth branches each week. Bookkeeping in several of the courses was\nfirst offered in the first year, and continued in the second. In other coiu^es\nbookkeeping was scheduled in the third, and again in the fourth year.\nIn some courses bookkeeping was scheduled for but one year of five periods\nper week. Bookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting were the only subjects that the superintendents seemed to agree should be taught. Commercial geography, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, spelling,\ncommercial forms, general business practice are other subjects offered\nin as many schools, and with no uniform arrangement. Fully 50 per cent\nof all replies from those having a business course stated that stenography\nand typewriting were both required when either subject was scheduled.\nOf the remaining replies most stated that all those taking shorthand were\nrequired to take typewriting, but pupils were allowed to take typewriting\nwithout being required to take work in shorthand. The percentage of\ntotal enrollment in the business courses varied from fifteen to fifty. The\nquestion as to the desirability of a two-year commercial course was answered\nalmost invariably in the negative. With reference to this point I wish\nto quote from a few of the letters:\n1. We do not have the two-year course in our department. The board of education\ntalked about one but it was counted out on the basis that it would not pay, as everyone\nwould want the people who have finished the four-year course. Personally, I think\nthey are wise.\n2. We have an arrangement by which all the work offered may be taken in two\nyears, but we do not encourage this plan. Practically not one is taking advantage of\nthe opportunity. Personally, I do not consider such a plan desirable, except where\npupils are mature and have had thoro education before taking the commercial course.\nEven in this case, I think that commercial schools or business colleges are better equipped\nto give this work in one or two years, and we advise pupils of this class to go to the business college.\n3. We have a four-year course designated \"commercial course,\" but we allow the\nboys and girls who think that they have not time to complete a four-year course to take\nthe two years of commercial work designated in the course.\n4. We do not beUeve that a two-year course would be satisfactory for the reason that\nthe boys and girls are too young and have not had sufficient training in Enghsh to do\nthe work, either as a stenographer or a typewriter. And they have not had the necessary\nreasoning secured by the study of geometry and higher mathematics or of the sciences.\nI believe thoroly in a four-year high-school course for any line of work.\n\nThe reply of one superintendent who wrote me concerning the subject\nof this paper shows how large a place this course occupies in his system,\nand I feel it will be of interest.\nI wish to quote rather fully:\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nCOURSES\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1067\n\nWe use the Gregg system of shorthand. We have twenty-five typewriters, twenty\nof which are visible Underwoods and five are visible Remingtons. All are of recent\nmodels. Nearly one-half of the students in our high school are enrolled in the commercial\ncourse and of the graduates last year one-fifth were in the commercial course, and this\nyear about one- third. Our enrollment this year is five hundred thirty-seven. In last\nyear's class there were fifty-seven Seniors, of whom twelve completed the commercial\ncourse and of this number six were boys and six girls. In this year's Senior class there\nare seventy-five students, of whom twenty-eight are finishing the commercial course,\nand of these seventeen are boys and eleven girls.\nWe consider the commercial course a very desirable course. First, because it prepares students for the ordinary business transactions which they must inevitably meet\nin life; second, because students feel that it is a practical course and are interested in\nit for that reason; and third, because it furnishes them a preparation which has an immediate commercial value upon graduation.\n\nThat school men should disagree about the arrangement of subjects\nin a course is but a sign of a desirable difference in personalities. That\nthey should not agree on the intensity of the work done in the major\nsubjects of the course that make it a business course is not so satisfactory.\nFor example, is it not futile to assume that a pupil can acquire a good\nknov^^ledge of bookkeeping taken five periods a week for one year, and is\nit not further complicated if that one year is taken at or near the beginning\nof the course ? It is my belief that if but one year's work is to be done in\nbookkeeping, the subject should be scheduled in either the third or fourth\nyear of the course, and that two periods each day, five days each week,\nshould be devoted to the subject under the direct guidance of the teacher.\nI further believe that stenography and typewriting should be studied at\nleast two years and that usually they should be credited as one subject,\nwith satisfactory work required in each branch to entitle the pupils to\ncredit.\nIt is difficult, I know, to offer a course that will be at all agreeable to\nschool men. I therefore propose a course with considerable trepidation.\n1. The course should be four years. More emphasis should be laid\non sending from the schools graduates well qualified from the standpoint\nof both culture and business efficiency. A wider knowledge is needed by\nclerks and business men than that indicated by mere ability to write\nlegibly, spell glibly, and do bookkeeping neatly.\n2. The course should be planned so that it will not be regarded as a\nsnap course. The teachers planning commercial courses have frequently\nleft themselves open to the charge of conducting courses for the mental\n\"lame ducks\" by acquiescing to a shifting from the college-preparatory\ncourse to the business course of those that have been failures in the collegepreparatory, or really making the business course so easy that it has\nundoubtedly been a snap. The business course ought to offer as strong\na training as does any other course in the curriculum.\n3. If writing is not made a separate and special subject it should be\ncarefully taught in connection with all the written work of the department.\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "I068\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nPoor writing should be discouraged at all times, and doubly so in the\nbusiness department.\n4. Here is offered in outline a suggestive course, the figures following\nthe subjects indicating the number of forty-five minute periods per week\nthat should be devoted to each subject:\nProposed Business Courses for Smaller Cities\nfirst year\nFirst Semester\n\nEnglish\nAlgebra\nGreek and Roman History\nBusiness Forms, Spelling, Penmanship\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nSECOND YEAR\nFirst Semester\n\nEnglish\nPlane Geometry (El)\nCommercial Arithmetic (El)\nHistory of Commerce\nStenography and Typyewriting\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\n10\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nS\n8\n5\n10\n5\n\n5\nS\n5\n5\n10\n\nSecond Semester\n\nEnglish\nPhysics (El)\nModern Language (El)\nStenography and Typewriting\nHistory (El)\n\nFOURTH YEAR\nFirst Semester\n\n5\nS\n5\nS\n\nSecond Semester\n\nEnglish\nPlane Geometry (El)\nCommercial Arithmetic (El)\nCommercial Law\nStenography and Typewriting.\n\nFirst Semester\n\nEnglish\nPhysics (El)\nModern Language (El)\nStenography and T)^ewriting\nHistory (El)\n\nSecond Semester\n\nEnglish\nAlgebra\nGreek and Roman History\nCommercial Geography\n\n5\n8\nS\n10\nS\n\nSecond Semester\n\nEnglish\n5\nEnglish\n5\nModem Language (El)\nS\nModern Language (El)\n5\nBookkeeping\n10\nBookkeeping\n10\nChemistry (El)\n8\nChemistry (El)\n8\nAlgebra (El)\n5\nSolid Geometry (El)\n5\nCivics\n5\nEconomics\nS\n\" El \" stands for elective.\nIf third-year modern language is elected, it shoidd be carried in fourth year.\nIf the mathematics is elected in fourth year it presumes a previous election of plane\ngeometry.\nFour subjects should usually be carried each semester.\nI believe that the course above outlined is sufficiently strong to prepare\npupils well for the work expected of the course. The purely commercial\nbranches are interspersed with subjects generally informational and cultural\nin character. The amount of time that is devoted to the major subjects\nof the course seems sufficient. Naturally the success or failure of this\ncourse, as in all teaching, rests largely with the teacher. If the teacher\nis earnest, sincere, and faithful, and, above all, requires exact and neat\nwork of his pupils, the course ought to be able to train boys and girls\neffectively.\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nACCOUNTANCY\n\nACCOUNTANCY\nSEYMOUR\n\nAND\n\nBUSINESS\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nIN RELATION TO BUSINESS\nAND MANAGEMENT\n\nWALTON, C.P.A., DEAN OF THE WALTON\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\n1069\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nSCHOOL OF ACCOUNTING,\n\nThe establishment upon a firm foundation of the profession of accountancy has had a marked effect upon business methods, both as regards the\norganizing of an enterprise, and its subsequent management. The influence of the new profession will continue to increase in importance as its\nprinciples become better understood by the general public, whose information on the subject at present is vague and uncertain.\nAs a first requisite to a proper understanding of the subject, it is\nnecessary to differentiate between bookkeeping and accountancy. Bookkeeping deals with the facts that are presented to it, records them as they\noccurred, and renders a correct mechanical statement of them. Accountancy deals with the far more difficult task of ascertaining upon sound\ncommercial and financial principles the actual facts connected with any\nbusiness whether they have been recorded on the books or not. The bookkeeper writes the diary of a business, the accountant writes the philosophy\nof its history. The accountant must thoroly understand the processes of\nbookkeeping, the bookkeeper does not need to know anything but the merest\nrudiments of accountancy.\nSuch being the case, it is manifest that the accountant who is worthy\nof the name is something more than an expert arithmetician, capable of\nmaking additions and other calculations with lightning-like rapidity and\nabsolute accuracy. This sort of proficiency is valuable, especially to the\njunior, who is called on to do the routine work in an accounting investigation. Far more essential to the scientific accountant is, as Dr. Henry\nVan Dyke says, \"the power to apprehend and distinguish, to weigh evidence and interpret facts, to think clearly, to infer carefully, and to imagine\nvividly.\"\nIt has taken the professional accountant a long time to show the business public the true meaning of the word accountancy, and still the lesson\nis only partially learned. The business man who would not think for a\nmoment of intrusting an important legal case to some youth because he had\nbeen a clerk in a lawyer's ofiice for a year or two, will depend upon the\nadvice of some bookkeeper out of employment, who styles himself an\n\"expert\" accountant because he can add three figures at once, or will\nreorganize his factory at the instance of some man who, because he is\nfamiliar with a successful cost system in a single line of manufacturing,\nimagines that he has a complete grasp of all manufacturing problems that\nmay be presented to him.\nThe bookkeeper who thus undertakes a task that is beyond his powers\nis not always to blame for the results of his temerity.\nIt is more than\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "IC70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nlikely that he has never been told that there was any such thing as a science\nof accounts. He has been taught how to do certain things, but not why he\ndoes them, possibly because his instructor did not himself know why. If\nhe has the curiosity to ask why, he may be vouchsafed the answer that was\nactually given by a professor in one of our most prominent business colleges: \"We make the entry in that way, because that is the proper way\nto make it.\" He is given endless rules that he is expected to memorize\nand to apply in a proper manner, but is not told the principles on which\nthe rules are founded, so that he may have an intelligent idea in regard\nto them. He is told to credit the purchases account at the end of a fiscal\nperiod with the inventory, but is not shown why that action causes the\ncomparison between the purchases account and the sales account to show\nthe gross profit on sales. Until the instructor learns to replace his mere\nipse dixit with the scientific reason for his teaching, the pupil cannot be\nexpected to know anything but his blindly applied rules. We need less\nbookkeeping by rvdes and more knowledge of primary accounting principles in our offices.\nBy showing the business man the bearing of some of these accounting\nprinciples upon practical business questions, the professional accountant\nhas been able to demonstrate the value of his services. In the organization of a business to be conducted by a partnership, it is very seldom the\ncase that an attorney will have sufficient accounting knowledge to express\nproperly all the conditions embodied in the articles of partnership, so that\nthey can be understood plainly by all the parties in interest. Not being\nconversant with the accurate definition of accounting terms, the attorney\nm§.y, and frequently does, use them in an entirely wrong sense, with the\nresult that a quarrel between the partners causes vexatious and expensive\nsuits at law to determine what is the real meaning of the phraseology\nused. If the attorney should submit the articles to the scrutiny of a competent accountant, he would avoid the danger of such ambiguous phrases\nand of the consequent litigation.\nIn the drawing-up of other contracts which are to form the basis of a\nnew business, the services of an accountant are, indispensable. Neither\nthe attorney nor the business man has a sufficiently broad view of the subject covered to insure an accurate description of the points involved, nor\nthe ability to express himself in language that cannot be mistaken. The\nexperience of the accountant has given him an opportunity to observe\nthe different ways in which certain terms are construed by different persons,\nand has taught him to use only those terms about whose meaning there\ncan be no dispute.\nThe most important service rendered by the accounting profession to\nthe business world in connection with the organization of new enterprises has\nbeen the insistence upon scientific principles in the valuation of the assets\nupon which capitalization is based.\nWhile it is true that the accountant\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nACCOUNTANCY\n\nAND\n\nBUSINESS\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n1071\n\ncannot always make a board of directors or a promoter adopt his views, he\ncan put himself on record in regard to them. In this way he is gradually\neducating the general public as to the proper treatment of good will and\nits valuation in the accounts, of the discount on stocks and on bonds, and\nespecially as to the nature of capital stock, as representing the undivided\nownership of the net worth of the company, and not necessarily the amount\nof money called for by the face value of the certificates of stock outstanding.\nThe importance of this education is shown by the fact that the postal\nauthorities have discovered that one hundred million dollars are lost to the\nsmall investors of this country every year thru the purchase of worthless\nstock offered in a most alluring form by unscrupulous promoters. If the\ninvesting public could be taught to demand the preparation of a proper\nbalance sheet and revenue statement by a competent public accountant\nbefore they would consent to invest money in any such enterprises, great\ngood would be accomplished, not only in saving money to those who can\nill afford to lose it, but also by turning the money into the treasury of really\nmeritorious enterprises. In the cases where no statement of operating\nconditions is possible, as in undeveloped mines, the accountant can point\nout that the putting of money into such schemes is not in any proper sense\nan investment, but is a speculation which does not differ very much from\ngambling. In cases where several businesses are merged into one, or where\nan old business is reorganized, the accountant can render invaluable assistance to the investor by presenting him with a true statement of the conditions, showing how much real value is represented by the stocks and bonds,\nand how much the stock has been watered by the inclusion among the\nassets of false values for the good will, the franchise, or the patents and\ntrade marks turned over to the new company. While it is not within the\nprovince of the accountant to prophesy as to the future of any business,\nespecially when the conditions have been changed by merger or reorganization, it.is his duty to give such a history of the old business that an\nintelligent idea can be obtained of its conditions, both as to the value of\nits assets and as to its earning power. He must go even farther, and refuse\nto certify to undoubted facts, if he has any reason to believe that his having\ndone so to a limited elxtent may be made the excuse by unreliable promotors for the statement that the company has been investigated by him,\nleaving the intending investor to infer that the investigation has been a\nthoro one, amounting virtually to an indorsement of the enterprise by the\naccountant.\nThe value of the services of any man depends upon his professional\nability. While the fact that a person is a certified public accountant is\npresumptive evidence of his ability, it is not necessarily conclusive. His\ngeneral reputation must be inquired into. There is a safeguard offered to\nthe investing public by the supervision that is exercised over their members\nby the state societies of certified public accountants and the American\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "I072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nAssociation of Public Accountants. These organizations are interested in\nkeeping up the standard of the profession, and will voluntarily proceed\nagainst any accountant who has been guilty of misconduct, if adequate\nproof of his delinquency is obtainable.\nAs the organization of any business occurs only once, when the enterprise isinaugurated, while the management of the business continues during\nall the years of its life, the influence exerted by the accountant is most\nimportant when its effects are apparent in the routine course of the business.\nFrom his know-ledge of the fundamental principles governing all comimxrcial\nconditions, he is able to give the manufacturer and the merchant reliable\nadvice, which will show them not only where they can stop leaks and institute economies, but also w^here they can add materially to the earning power\nof their business. By insisting upon a proper method of stating conditions,\nthe accountant can show the business man the direction in which he is\nunconsciously drifting, and can perhaps warn him to change his course\nbefore it is too late.\nIgnorance of accounting principles often leads a business man into selfdeception, the effect of which may be disastrous in the extreme. In fact,\nerrors arising from ignorance are more likely to be a source of disaster than\nwillful pursuit of a course that is known to be incorrect. The man who\nknows that the steps he is taking are leading him in the WTOng direction\nusually intends to change his methods, whenever it becomes convenient or\npossible for him to do so. The ignorant man does not know he is making\nmistakes, and therefore does not take any steps to correct them. He goes\nblindly on his way, serenely confident that all is well, until he is suddenly\nconfronted with irretrievable disaster.\nThere are so many ways in which men deceive themselves about the\ncondition of their own affairs that only a few of them can be mentioned.\nAmong them are a lack of due regard for the effect of depreciation, ignorance about the proper methods of taking and valuing inventories, the lack\nof ability to distinguish between a real and a fictitious profit, and a total\nignorance as to the cost of the goods they manufacture. The trained\naccountant should be able not only to formulate rules for their guidance,\nbut also to give them intelligent reasons for the methods that he may install\nin factory or office. He should be able to institute such comparisons\nbetween the results of successive years that the cause of an increase or a\ndecrease may be readily ascertained, so that those things which make for\ngreater profits may be stimulated, while those that tend to diminish profit\nmay be, as far as possible, eliminated.\nIn all these things the accountant is not restricted in his conclusions\nmerely to the information that he can obtain from the books and the\naccounts. If he finds from the manufacturing statistics that the raw\nmaterial cost is increasing, he must try to ascertain the reason for the\nincrease. It may be that it is caused by the exhaustion of near-by sources\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nACCOUNTANCY\n\nAND\n\nBUSINESS\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n1073\n\nof supply, necessitating the paying of excessive freight on heavy material.\nIt may be that the quality has deteriorated, necessitating the use of a\ngreater gross quantity to produce the desired net result. It may be that\nproper arrangements have not been made for the purchase of material for\nfuture delivery to meet the requirements of contracts that it may take a\nlong time to fill. Whatever the cause, he should be able to point it out,\naltho he may not be able to suggest a remedy. It is sufficient if he is able\nto indicate where the trouble resides, leaving to the practical business man\nthe task of finding an adequate remedy, if such is possible.\nIn regard to labor, he must not be satisfied with surface indications.\nThe mere fact that daily wages are higher in one place than in another does\nnot necessarily mean that the work of the higher-paid men is more expensive than that of those whose wage is lower. The higher-paid men may be\nmore economical on account of their greater efficiency. The 'conditions\nsurrounding the workmen are potent factors in determining the amount of\nwork that they can accomplish. While the accountant is not a philanthropist, the inexorable logic of his calculations will show that more and\nbetter work will be done in well-lighted and well-ventilated shops than in\ndark ones full of impure air and noxious vapors. Even the conditions that\nsurround the men outside of the shop are important. If their homes are\nlight and cheerful, they will find rest there that will fit them for better work\nas they return to their daily toil in the factory. Accountants have been\ntaught that a proper care of the machinery of a factory is essential to its\nbeing kept at the requisite standard of efficiency. They are now beginning to see that a proper care of the human element is no less important,\nif wasted energy is to be prevented. Quite apart from any altruistic\nmotives of humanity, they are teaching the large employer of labor that\nit pays to be humane.\n^\nThe accountant may go farther than this. He is accustomed to teach\nthat, altho a machine may deteriorate little or nothing in the first period\nof its existence, the inevitable depreciation must be provided for from the\nvery beginning, and that a certain reserve must be taken out of the yearly\noperating profits to provide for this depreciation. It is only a slight extension ofthis principle to apply it to the human beings whose usefulness\nis being exhausted equally with that of the machinery under their charge.\nIf a reserve is set up against the eventual loss of the machine out of the\nprofits which the machine has helped to make, it is equally logical to set\nup a reserve against the eventual loss of the laborer out of the profits to\nwhich he has contributed, so that in the end he may not be thrown into the\nhuman scrap heap, but may enjoy the benefits of the reserve that has been\nestablished for him in the form of a pension that belongs to him in pure\naccounting justice, and not one that is given him as charity.\nAgain, the business is obliged to meet the expense of sudden and unexpected losses by unforeseen accidents.\nIf a careless workman causes the\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "I074\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ndestruction of a costly machine by his neglect of duty, the business cannot\nrefuse to charge oflf the value of the machine because- it was not the fault\nof the management that it was destroyed. If the accidental destruction\nor injury of a machine is so much a contingency of the business that it\nmust be provided for in the accounts, it is no less in accordance with accounting principles that unforeseen accidents to workmen rendered almost, if\nnot quite, unavoidable by the complex nature of modern machinery should\nbe equally considered a charge against manufacturing costs.\nIn these and many other ways, such as the proof from accounting\nstatistics of the false economy of child labor and of excessively long hours\nfor women workers, the accountant is able to give valuable aid to the\nphilanthropist and the economist in their endeavors to ameliorate the conditions under which modern business is being carried on.\nA volume might be written on the various ways in which the accountant can be of value to the business man both in the organization and\nmanagement of complex modern enterprises. Enough has been said to\nprove the point. The practical side of the question is that the accountant\nneeds more help in his work than he has been receiving from the educators\nof the country. He finds that the business men have so little knowledge\nof accounting principles that they are often totally unable to understand\nthem when they are asked to apply them. He finds that very few bookkeepers, however expert they may be in their routine work, have any real\naccounting knowledge.\nIt is not too much for the accountant to ask that scientific accounting\nshould be taught in the high schools and business colleges at least. This\ndoes not mean that every student of these schools should learn advanced\naccounting, and be prepared at once to pass an examination before the state\nboard of examiners foj admission to the ranks of the certified public accountants. It does mean that he should be taught something more than the\nrules of bookkeeping, that while he is learning these rules, he should also\nlearn the principles that underlie them. He should not only know how to\nkeep correct accounts, he should also know why they are correct. Only\nin so far as he knows the reason for what he does, does he really know how\nto do his work most effectively. This form of education would be essential,\neven if the only objects were to make thoro bookkeepers. It is much more\nimportant if the aim of the schools is far higher than this, if their object is\nto furnish an education that will enable a person to understand the processes and results of bookkeeping, whether he intends to keep books himself or not. The business man in charge of an oflSce should know how his\naccounting staff conducts its work, and should be able to understand the\nstatements that are laid before him, and should know whether those statements are made up on the right principles. Unless he is possessed of this\ngeneral knowledge, he is in the position of a master builder who knows so\nlittle of carpentry or masonry that he cannot tell what is wrong with the\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nOF PRACTICAL\n\nPENMANSHIP\n\n107$\n\nwork of the carpenters or masons, and cannot instruct them as to the correct\nway in which their work should be done.\nIf every business man had this fundamental training in accounting\nprinciples, he would avoid many mistakes that now seem inevitable. At\npresent it becomes the task of the professional accountant to give him this\ninstruction, but, unfortunately, the accountant is frequently called in too\nlate to prevent the mistakes being made, and often too late to suggest and\napply the proper remedies. In many cases the accountant is not consulted\nat all, as he would have been if the managers of the business had been\ntaught originally that there was such a science as practical accounting as\ndistinguished from bookkeeping.\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nOF PRACTICAL\n\nPENMANSHIP\n\nJ. H. BACHTENKIRCHER,\nSUPERVISOR\nOF PENMANSHIP,\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS, LAFAYETTE, IND.\n\nSomeone has said, \"The greatest gift to mankind is speech; the most\nuseful art is writing. Speech distinguishes man from the brute creation;\nwriting from the uncivilized savage.\" If this be true I am sure I could\nname some savages who are not residents of the National Indian Reservations. In a recent investigation conducted by the Department of Child\nHygiene of the Russell Sage Foundation, writing is divided into three\nclasses: vertical, medial, and extreme slant. Penmen may be divided\ninto standpatters, progressives, insurgents, and pit-a-patters. The first\nmay be those who like the all-copy book method form with little or no\nfreedom; the second, those who believe in teaching form, freedom, and\ncontrol at the same time; the third, those who teach movement regardless\nof form or neatness; the fourth, those who think any old way will do.\nHandwriting is but a mechanical device. It is but the record of the\nmovement of a set of muscles which cause the recording implement, the\npen, pencil, or crayon, so to move over the paper that a series of symbols\nis produced and the symbols record a thought, fact, or message. Considering the essentials of good penmanship, legibility is of first importance,\nspeed or freedom second, and beauty is of little value. However, any\npenmanship that is written with ease and rapidity usually is beautiful,\ntho sometimes illegible. Our unconscious movements naturally are\ngraceful; therefore, a record of these movements naturally would show a\ncombination of graceful curves and lines suflSciently beautiful to harmonize\nwith the average business man's idea of the ornate.\nIn some occupations and positions the beautiful in penmanship is\nessential, such as policy-writing in the insurance business; but in the general\nbusiness world little or no premium is placed upon beautiful writing.\nIn the social world women of fashion would scorn to acquire a pretty hand.\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "IC76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nIt would not be considered smart; their writing might be taken for that\nof a teacher, bookkeeper, or tradesman. Writing presupposes a reader.\nIn the usual run of circumstances there are two parties to a written piece\nof paper, and each is entitled to a certain amount of consideration. If the\nwriter has little or no regard for the opinion or convenience of the reader,\nhe may show it in his slovenly, tangled-up handwriting, while in proportion\nto the opinion he desires to create, will he use care in his writing. Most\ncases of \"handwriting horrible,\" such as is popularly believed to be resultant\nof ultra-mental development on the part of lawyers, university graduates,\nhigh-school teachers, and some college and imiversity professors and other\nnotoriously bad writers, is really a selfish disregard of the rights and comforts of readers, or professional mannerism.\nNo doubt there comes a time in the life of nearly every student when\nhe feels that there is a certain amount of prestige attached to the ability\nto create an indecipherable signature. It is said that the penmanship\nof Horace Greeley was so famous for its illegibility that they still tell in\nPrinting House Square the story of how he wrote a note of dismissal for\none of his men and the victim of it ever afterward used it as a letter for\nrecommendation. No one could read it, and the claim of the man who\npresented it, that it was a certificate of good character and unquestioned\nability, was as indisputable as the facts in some of the works of Rider\nHaggard. The following anecdote related in Human Life may be appropriately quoted in this connection.\nDr. Edward Everett Hale used to tell of an amusing letter once sent\nby Thomas Bailey Aldrich to Professor E. S. Morse, whose handwriting\nwas very illegible. According to Dr. Hale, Mr. Aldrich wrote as follows:\nMy dear Morse:\nIt is very pleasing to me to get your recent letter. Perhaps I should have been\nmore pleased had I been able to decipher the same. I have not been able to master any\nof it beyond the date, which I knew, and the signature, which I guessed at. There is a\nsingular and perpetual charm in a letter of years; it never grows old, it never loses its\nnovelty. One can say to one's self every morning: \"Here's that letter of Morse's. I\nhaven't read it yet. I think I'll take another shy at it today, and maybe I shall in the\ncourse of a few months be able to make out what he means by those ^'s that look like\nw's and those i's that have no eyebrows.\" Other letters are read and thrown away,\nbut yours are kept forever — unread.\nOne of them will last a reasonable man a lifetime.\nAdmiringly yours,\nT. B. Aldrich\n\nIn good penmanship the curves and straight lines which the writer\nputs together to express his thoughts must be so ordered that they can be\neasily read. The forms of the letters must follow established standards\nso as not to compel the reader to acquire the art of interpreting as many\nmodes of writing as he has correspondents. It is of the greatest importance\nthen, that the handwriting shall be so sure, so readable, so distinct, that\nit is as easily read as the columns of the daily paper.\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nOF PRACTICAL\n\nPENMANSHIP\n\n1077\n\nSecond in importance in the essentials of good penmanship is speed.\nWhy ? Well, if John can accomplish more work of the same quality in a\ngiven time than James, he will, if other things be equal, be more successful\nthan James. Good penmanship should make for expeditious writing so that\nthe flow of thought may not be interrupted. The greater the effort required\nto write, the slower and more disconnected the thought. Labor in penmanship isnot unlike the efforts of a man who tries to write a letter on a\ntypewriter before he has trained his hands automatically to locate the\nkeys. Freedom in writing is liberated ideals set in motion, that act of\nself-consciousness which gives relaxed action of muscles; that' mental\nconcept of the thing to be made which gives confidence and ability to\nwrite; that understanding on the part of teachers and parents which takes\nadvantage of the motor sense in the student or child and guides his efforts\nalong the line of least resistance until power to write legibly, easily, and\ncontinuously is acquired.\nFreedom comes with correct mental ideals. Freedom in writing can\nonly keep pace with mental and muscular growth. It may be likened to\nlearning to walk, play the violin, dance, skate — ^a matter of repeated\neffort until the muscles co-ordinate and involuntarily produce definitely\nwhat the mind conceives and the brain wills. Movement or freedom in\npenmanship, therefore, can be attained only by much patience, painstaking\nand thoughtful practice with proper, intelligent method and materials.\nTechnically speaking, speed or freedom in writing means power and skill\nto write letter forms and words.\nGetting freedom has to do with the muscles and is, therefore, a muscular\nprocess. Form is intellectual acumen. Freedom is muscular training.\nForm requires thought and memory. Speed requires thought and action.\nWriting without form is impossible. Writing without freedom is impractical. Legibility and speed, we must conclude, are the prime\nessentials of good penmanship. Beauty may be a desirable quality altho\nnot essential. Quoting further from recent investigations by Dr. Ayres of\nthe Russell Sage Foundations: \"The investigation developed several\nimportant facts as to the relation between legibility and general appearance\nof handwritings. The most important of these is that, whereas extremely\nlegible writings are almost invariably of good appearance, many writings\nof good appearance are of relatively low degrees of legibility.\"\nAnalysis of good-looking writings of low degrees of legibility shows\nthat their most common shortcoming is the crowding together of words\non a line. This indicates that those systems of penmanship are vicious\nthat teach children to space their words so closely that the final stroke\nof the last letter of one word extends over the initial stroke of the first\nletter of the following word. Also crowding the letters on a line so that\nthe elements and principles are thrown out of position, as to form and\nslope, is another common fault. Next to close spacing of letters and words\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "io78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Business\n\nhorizontally, comes too close spacing between lines as a characteristic\nmaking for illegibility.\nAnother common fault in good-looking writings that are difficult to\n.read is the breaking of lines in the middle of words in such a way as to make\none word look at first like two words. The absence of dots over the i's\nand crosses on the /'s is also a common and important shortcoming of\ngood-looking writings that are difficult to read.\nSLANT\n\nAND\n\nQUALITY\n\nQuoting further from the same report: '*A preliminary study of the\nrelation between the several slants and the quality of the writings indicates\nthat in general the vertical writings are the most legible, the medium\nslants next, and the extreme slants next. The following figures show\nmedian rates in words per minute at which the writings of each style were\nread:\nVertical\nMedium slant\nExtreme slant\n\n| 255 samples\nj 670 samples\n1 580 samples\n\nSLANT,\n\nSPEED,\n\nAND\n\n180 words per minute\n176 words per minute\n172 words per minute\n\nQUALITY\n\n\"The comparison shows that there is a slight but steady falling-off\nin the average number of words written per minute as we pass from the\npoorer writings to the better ones.\nNumber of\nSamples\n\nof Words\nin Ten117.\nMinutes\n9 r\n,Numbe\nTotal Number !i„y-«^\n\n46,535\n\nFirst quarter of distribution\nj\nSecond quarter of distribution\n|\nThird quarter of distribution\n1\nFourth quarter of distribution\nj(First quarter's distribution, poorest writings) j\n(Second quarter's distribution, best writings) !\nSLANT\n\nAND\n\n394\n395\n395\n394\n\n118. 1\n108.4\n\n45,449\n46,592\n\n115. 1\n\n42,728\n\nSPEED\n\n255\n\"The figures with respect to slants and speeds\nare as follows:\n\nNumber of\nSamples\n\nTotal Number\nof Words\n\n670\n\n76,779\n67,369\n29,402\n\nAverage\"5-3\nNumber\nof Words Written\nper Minute\n\nVertical\nMedium slant.\nExtreme slant .\n\n114.8\n116. 1\n\nThe foregoing figures make an even showing for the different styles,\nwhich comes as a distinct surprise to the writer of the present report.\n580\nThe comparison of qualities showed that the vertical\nwritings are the most\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nADDING\n\nMACHINE\n\nAND\n\nACCOUNTANCY\n\n1079\n\nlegible of the different styles. The figures just cited show that the extreme\nslant writings are a little ahead of the other styles with respect to speed\nof writing. In short, the meaning of the figures is that the different writings\nare surprisingly equal as to legibility and the speed at which they are\nwritten.\nFrom the foregoing I am constrained to believe that good penmanship\nis that which can be easily and quickly read and easily written. It should\nbe simple in construction, easy in execution, well spaced, both laterally\nand horizontally — normal in slant and normal in action.\n\nA\n\nPRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION OF THE RELATION OF A\nMODERN ADDING MACHINE TO ACCOUNTANCY\nIN THE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE\nTHOMAS\nL. BRECHEEN,\nFREMONT\nHIGH\nSCHOOL,\nDEMONSTRATION BY MARIE\nSISSON, STUDENT,\nHIGH\nSCHOOL,\nOAKLAND,\nCAL.\n\nOAKLAND,\nFREMONT\n\nCAL.\n\nWe are in an age of conservation of time and labor. The busy business\nman is on the lookout for systems and appliances for increasing the productivenes ofbrain and brawn. He is willing to pay the price for laborsaving machinery and anxious to employ the engineer to operate it. He is\never alert to stop losses and increase net income by avoiding mistakes,\nstopping leaks, and improving service. He is seeking for men and women\nof intelligence with specialized education and training, and has found by\nexperience that the best investments in the long run are the wages paid to\npeople who know their business thoroly and \"get there\" with results.\nToday no one would for a moment think of conducting a merchandise\nstore without a cash register, and where any weighing of consequence is\ndemanded, the computing scale is considered a necessity. The cash carrier\nhas replaced the cash girl, and writing machines are as common as sewing\nmachines became years ago.\nAs typewriters have displaced penmanship in wide fields, increasing the\nscope and possibilities of written language, without detracting from the\nvalue and importance of rapid, legible, artistic chirography, so are modern\ncomputing machines sure to supersede the old pencil method of accounting\nand handling all mathematical problems, without, in the slightest degree,\nlessening the absolute need of proficiency in mental and written arithmetic.\nJust as the experienced mechanic, skilled in manipulating and controlling\nwonderful machinery doing the work heretofore requiring the hands of\nmany men, is more valuable and paid a higher wage for his intellectual\nefficiency, so will the accounting clerk of the future knowing and experienced in the use of these most valuable of all office -appliances command an\nadvanced position in salary and general estimation.\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThe development of de\\dces of this kind, in results and adaptability,\nrequires time and experience in their use. So many possibilities are opened\nup by the suggestions of the public user, that ofttimes the original type or\nmodel is so changed that it is no longer recognized.\nThe earliest adding-machine efforts were those of the non-listing class\nand aimed at nothing but adding or accumulating nimibers and indicating\nthe resulting totals by dials. Later, machines were placed upon the market\nwhich recorded upon a slip of paper the items listed or added — a very\ndecided advantage in checking the work. Until very recently all (or both)\nof the above types were planned and equipped with a separate set of numeral\nkeys for each column, requiring very large keyboards, thus making touch\nmethod of operation impossible. The necessary omission of the cipher, or\nspace bar column-mover, in the large, so-called 8i-key machine, with no\nsubstituting provision, confined its use to listing and adding only, and\nprohibited its practical and more extensive adoption in the schoolroom in\nhandling all four elementary principles of arithmetic. In fact, attempts to\nuse these types of adding or computing machines in the schoolroom have\nthus far not proven satisfactory and in many instances brought them into\nactual bad repute, for the reason that, while the student was quite walling\nto use it to save labor, he learned nothing by the operation.\nThere is now being extensively introduced into business colleges and\npublic schools an adding, listing, and calculating machine, resembling the\nmodern visible typewriter, which first attracted my attention because of its\napparent simplicity of plan and construction — a machine with but ten\nnumeral keys, operated at high speed by touch method and capable of\nhandling multiplication, subtraction, and division with equal celerity and\naccuracy. From an examination of this machine I was persuaded that it\nwas peculiarly adapted as a laboratory instrument in illustrating the\nprinciples of arithmetic and the processes of applying the same, and about\nthree months ago two of these machines were installed in the John C.\nFremont High School, of Oakland, with which I am connected, by a school\nrepresentative of the Dalton Adding, Listing, and Calculating Machine\nCompany, with class demonstration of the uses to which it might be put in\nthe schoolroom, as well as in the business world.\nFrom the very start I found among the pupils of my department, as\nwell as from other departments that had access to this machine, increased\ninterest in the science of mathematics, with consequent better progress by\neven the very dullest pupils. I was surprised and gratified to have discovered an instrument that, if it had not taken the place of the ordinary\ntext, was certainly a wonderful help to both tutor and pupil. The book of\nhigher mathematics appeared by this instrument to be brought so much\ncloser and its hidden beauties made so transparent, that the pupil was able\nto make marvelous progress from the very start and his further progress\nwas accelerated beyond any previous experience in the schoolroom.\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nADDING\n\nMACHINE\n\nAND\n\nACCOUNTANCY\n\nio8l\n\nMost, if not all of us, realize that, as arithmetic is being taught, too\nmuch time is necessarily consumed in memorizing tables and in learning to\nmentally add and multiply several columns at one operation, and other\nprocesses depending upon laborious repetition, rather than upon logical\nreasoning; methods that absorb the best efforts and energies in committing\nto memory, instead of developing the ability and disposition of the pupil\nto think for himself. It would seem that we have been forced by past\nconditions in teaching arithmetic, to work against and to the disadvantage\nof the best aims in other directions — the development of the mind of the\npupil as a thinking being.\nI therefore hailed with delight a machine which, by eliminating\nunnecessary, unprofitable drudgery of the study, presented increased\nopportunity for more intellectual treatment and growth; and the results of\nthe few months' drill in the progress of my pupils has been most extraordinary and has proven beyond any doubt, in the minds of those who have\nwatched the work, that the introduction of such an instrument means great\nthings for tutor and pupil in the commercial schools of the land, as well as\nin all departments, including the lower grades, where arithmetic is taught.\nIn short, experience thus far has very positively indicated that the student's\nprogress would be even more marvelous if these improved methods of\nteaching with the machine the elementary principles started from the very\nbeginning of the study. It is specially noticeable that those students\nwhose accumulated energies — ^physical and mental — are given simultaneous\nplay in pleasing occupation of both mind and hand (that human instrument\nsecond in importance to the intellect itself) get along best, and that the\npresent-day methods of teaching the technique and culture of written\nlanguage with the writing machine has greatly increased the quantity and\nquality of results attained in a given time with a given amount of effort\nof tutor and pupil.\nThis is but an advanced extension of kindergarten methods into the\nhigher grades and the introduction of the elements of play into work, the\nmaking of study a pleasing pastime, instead of a tedious task. So, increased\ninterest in mathematics upon the part of pupils having access to the adding\nand calculating machine is explained partially by this principle of modern\nteaching methods, and partially by the facility with which tutor and pupil\nare able to examine, illustrate, and understand the mathematical principles\ninvolved in each process of every computation.\nBy the use of this complete mathematical instrument in the schoolroom\nand the methods necessarily pursued in its operation, an entirely new view\nof arithmetic is brought out, and many interesting features of the science\nthat otherwise usually remain little realized or appreciated are made plain\nas day. The exactness of the science in the matter of column position and\nits progression in the carrying of tens from right to left in accumulating\nnumbers and from the left to right in extracting numbers, in addition.\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "I082\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n.multiplication, subtraction, and division — the fixed power of each of the\nunit numerals i to 9 and the relationship of each to the cipher or mathematical space bar column-mover, are illuminated as seldom seen by a\nstudent of past methods of study and teaching.\nOne interesting feature of the science of mathematics almost wholly\nobscured in ordinary methods of teaching is that necessarily employed with\nthe adding machine in extracting numbers by the use of the \"complement.\"\nSince the wheels of the machine turn but one way, forward, accumulating\nnumbers in a direct manner but not extracting them in a similar way, a\nmethod has been pro^^ded for subtracting (taking away) numbers by adding\n(putting in) instead, certain others, which method accomplishes the same\nresult in a very expeditious, correct, and satisfactory manner.\nAnalysis and complete understanding quickly reached by the student\nof the difference between the use of the mathematical complement to clear\ncolumns occupied by the nimibers to be extracted and of the prefi:xed 9's in\nthe remaining column capacity of the adding machine, in order to carry to\nthe left entirely out of the machine the accumulated unit i of the lo's, have\nproven most beneficial in school work and comprise one explanation of the\nmarvelous progress made by our pupils who have had an opportunity to\nlearn the adding and calculating machine with the systems inaugurated\nfor its use.\nAnother noticeable benefit is the increased occasion and opportunity to\nillustrate and apply the principles of mathematical inversions or transpositions, equally dependent upon the decimal principle of the science, by\nconverting into a decimal fraction form the common fraction composed of\nthe divisor as the denominator under the unit i as the numerator. Students\nare with the adding and calculating machine much more easily led and selfinclined to make use of the quickest method of reaching correct results,\nwhether the process be addition, multiplication, subtraction, or division.\nThe process of multiplication is ofttimes greatly expedited by short\nmethods involving the use of the repeated complement, and problems\nconsisting of numbers vastly exceeding the column capacity of the machine\nare by new systems made easy.\nDivision is the most tedious of all processes, including, as it also does,\nmultiplication and subtraction. Multiplication being an extremely speedy\nprocess upon the Dalton, affording a constant, perfectly visible check upon\nthe work, it is found frequently desirable, where the decimal equivalent\n(reciprocal) of the divisor is known or may be quickly arrived at in the mind\nor in tables, to use the reciprocal multiplier, instead of division.\nAbsence of common fractions from the adding and calculating machine\nincreases the keenness of the pupil in converting them into decimal equivalent forms and instantly bringing to his mental vision the corresponding\n(dual) figures of each.\nTeaching from most modern mathematical textbooks is thus made\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nADDING\n\nMACHINE\n\nAND\n\nACCOUNTANCY\n\n1083\n\neasier and much more productive and satisfactory by the use of the adding\nand calculating machine from the very start, and results attained in more\nadvanced work, in short-method systems by the machine, are simply\nwonderful, amounting almost to mental and mechanical jugglery of numbers.\nThe universal demand for adding and calculating machines manipulated\nby people educated and trained in machine mathematical systems, and able\nto perform much more work with accuracy and increased satisfaction to all\nconcerned, is conceded sure and certainly immediately at hand. Commercial schools must, therefore, face this evolutionary front, regardless of\nhow much or how little older methods may necessarily be departed from.\nRealization of this inevitable future first interested me in this device\nand to my intense satisfaction I have found such changes as have been\ninaugurated automatically bring with them unexpected relief to both tutor\nand pupil, with unforeseen benefits to the latter heretofore just out of his\nreach. Believing that it is the duty of the educator to be constantly alive\nand alert to progressive methods, and to investigate and, if they appear\nworthy, test, prove, and report their merits or defects, I have taken it upon\nmyself to bring with me to this convention one of the pupils of our John C.\nFremont High School, of Oakland, and to give physical demonstration of\nher performance upon the Dalton Adding, Listing, and Calculating Machine\nin touch method of adding, multiplying, subtracting, and dividing, with\ninteresting illustrations of results in computations obtainable by the machine\nand modern machine mathematical systems.\nIn order to save time a schedule of these demonstrations has been outlined, starting with the simpler work and proceeding by progressive stages\nto more complex processes, as well as practical examples arising in commercial business, which I hope wilf be found as interesting to this convention\nassembled, as they have constantly been to myself. There will be abundant\nopportunity for personal inquiry and examination of this work while this\nyoung lady is here, and both she and I will be pleased to discuss and explain\nthe use made of this instrument, especially in the schoolroom.\nI have pleasure in introducing to you Miss Marie Sisson, of Oakland,\nCal., who has come a long way from her home in the Golden West, the land\nof ceaseless spring weather, thru the scorching plains, sandy deserts, and\ncorn-making land and season, to show any from Missouri or elsewhere, who\nmay wish to know, how we won the pennant in three months by playing\nball on the Dalton Adding, Listing, and Calculating Machine.\nIn adding and listing by this machine I remind you that the keys are\ndepressed for proper figures just as they would be written in regular order\nfrom left to right with pen, pencil, or typewriter. Absolutely no attention\nis paid to any column position, the machine automatically performing this\nfunction. Thus the operator is relieved from attention to the mechanical\npart of the work, free to watch the copy and the results printed in full view.\nNote position of operator at left of machine in front of the table leaf\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "10^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nupon which copy rests, the left hand keeping track of the items, while the\nright hand operates by touch method the ten numeral keys. The smallness\nand simplicity of this keyboard, and the light touch and slight depression\nrequired to manipulate them result in great speed, with slightest likelihood\nof error.\nOn electric Daltons a small space bar performs the work of the operating\nlever, with maximum speed and minimum effort.\nDictation to the Dalton operator is particularly convenient, on account\nof its simplicity, visible printing, and absence of colimin position requirements; and numbers may be listed and added or not added, at the will of\nthe operator.\nNote. — ^The demonstration consisted of exercises in addition in which the amounts\nwere copied in one case and taken from dictation in another; exercises in eliminating and\ntesting; exercises showing the various methods of correction; exercises in subtraction,\nwhere the extractions were made by adding the complement and also illustrating the use\nof repeated complement; exercises in multiplication, examples within the capacity of the\nmachine and extended examples beyond the machine's capacity which had to be divided\ninto sections for completion; exercises in conunon fractions and decimal fractions; exercises in division showing the use of mathematical complement, decimal equivalent, etc.\nThe demonstration was exceedingly interesting to those who were present, but cannot\nbe reproduced in its entirety.\n\nROUND\nTOPIC:\nA.\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nGEORGE\n\nA.\n\nTABLE\n\nSHORTHAND\n\nCONFERENCE\nAND\n\nTYPEWRITING\n\nIN PRACTICAL DETAILS, OR TECHNIQUE,\nHIGHEST IMPORTANCE\n\nBOHLINGER,\n\nNEW\n\nTRIER\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF THE\n\nKENILWORTH,\n\nILL.\n\nIn wording the above topic the author of the same was no doubt impressed with\nits vital importance. He tells me that it took some efiFort on his part to find someone\nwho was wiUing to face the subject. The subject is indeed highly important to me, too,\nand if there is anything I can say that will give my audience some inspiration on this\nphase of the work I shall feel amply repaid for my efforts in trying to put into presentable\nform what I consider a few practical ideas. In my thirteen years' teaching experience\nas a shorthand teacher I feel that I am in a position to convey a message to my devout\nlisteners. It has always been my consistent practice to make a marked distinction\nbetween the theory or beginning course of shorthand and typewriting and the advanced\ncourse. I have seen teachers who have tried to introduce innovations into the beginning\npart of the shorthand course. Such a procedure is not only impracticable but unpedagogical as well. The student must have a clear conception of every individual detail\nof his course covering the principles. He must not only have the most vivid and clear\nconception of the principles but unhesitatingly be able to express in written form the\nmatter embodying the principles, first under their various chapters and then miscellaneously. The simpler processes of invention must be cultivated from the very start\nbut advanced and perplexing forms should not be attempted. Even in the advanced\nwork the drills on invention must be natural so that the principles involved are at once\napparent.\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN PRACTICAL\n\nDETAILS,\n\nOR TECHNIQUE\n\n1085\n\nShorthand and typewriting are inseparable. At least we do not think of teaching\none exclusive of the other. The processes involved for the mastery of one are equally\nrequisite in the mastery of the other. The wording of my subject would seem to involve\ntwo distinct ideas. Is there any marked difference in emphasizing the necessity of\nbecoming efficient in the practical details of shorthand and typewriting or the acquisition of the technique, the technicalities, the theory, the science of the subject without\nthe practical side of it, if you please? There is a distinction between the technique\nand the practice of shorthand and typewriting but the practice is so closely allied with\nthe technique or theory that we cannot conceive the idea of teaching the subjects theoretically only. If we were to teach the technique only, we should tell the student all\nabout the typewriter, the position of the keys, how to use the fingers, the mechanism\nof the machine, how to take care of it, how to insert the paper, how to manifold, tabulate,\netc., but without putting him to actual work and causing him to become an accomphshed\noperator by following a fixed course of instruction, training him to use the fingers of both\nhands correctly, cultivating a required touch, etc., we should be wasting ours and\nthe student's time. Likewise in shorthand we may merely teach technique and the\nstudent may get the theory by simply acquiring the principles and by reading shorthand\nmatter from books and magazines, but unless he gets down and uses his pencil he will\nnever become a stenographer, not even a poor one. A man may know much about\nmusic theoretically yet not be a musician.\nIn regard to the two subjects under discussion, technique and practice are inseparable.\nWhen the first lessons in shorthand and typewriting are presented to the student he is\nat once supposed to practice them over and over a certain number of times until he can\nrecite the shorthand lesson and be able to write readily and without hesitation every\nword, phrase, and sentence in it, and do his typewriting lesson by writing by touch, using\nhis fingers correctly, the required exercises. Others before me have, no doubt, discoursed\nlearnedly on the subjects of typewriting and shorthand and what to do and how to do\nit and all this and that. I have read some of these articles and listened to many talks\nand papers on the subject but as a rule they dwell too much on generalities. I have seen\nshorthand teaching good, bad, and indifferent. It would seem that in many business\ncolleges and high schools the idea prevails that there is no pedagogy involved in the\nteaching of shorthand and typewriting; that anyone who has a smattering knowledge\nof the subjects, as is often the case in our high schools, one with an A.B. or some other\nappendage to his name, but who has never specialized in the subjects, is qualified to\ntrain stenographers. The shorthand teacher must be a speciaUst. As a specialist he\nshould be enthusiastic over his subject and this enthusiasm he should impart to those\nunder his instruction. He must be able to show his students that there is more in typewriting than merely to punch the keyboard and that writing shorthand is more than\nmerely to make nonsensical illegible marks on paper. He must be able to make his students understand that there is a science in typewriting; that the touch, the same as in\nmusic, must be cultivated; that getting out a clean, evenly written page at a certain\nrate of speed means accomplishment; that in shorthand to comprehend clearly and distinctly the entire technique of the art is the foundation of success; that the training of\nthe mind and hand to act quickly, and the training of the eye and the hearing mean\nsomething in his vocational pursuits after he is thru with his cQurse.\nAs a specialist the shorthand teacher is very often handicapped in his work. Too\nmany students are put in his care. Students come to him who lack the common-school\neducation or while taking the course carry other subjects which distract their attention\ntoo much from their shorthand work. It is my firm belief that shorthand, like surgery,\ndentistry, pharmacy, and law, must be specialized in and really ought not to be considered\non the same basis as other school subjects. While the student is pursuing his shorthand\ncourse his attention should be entirely centered on three things; viz., shorthand, typewriting, and spelling, and the only attention given to English, if any is given at all, should\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nbe in connection with his advanced course or dictation work where business English\nshould merely be taught incidentally. Since shorthand is only another way of expressing\nlanguage in written form, the student should understand the use and application of the\ncommon words. Thruout his theory course the speller and dictionary should be inseparable companions. Drills under the various principles and miscellaneous drills should\ncomprise syllabication. Students should be able to group consonants, in the words,\nproperly in longhand and then transpose these syllabicated forms into correct shorthand\nforms. There must be no hesitation in grouping consonants correctly in shorthand,\napplying the principles quickly, i.e., indicating simple, compound, and triple consonants,\nprefixes, and affixes, and in the correct positions, if a system of shorthand is being used\nwhich has position writing. The student should be drilled in reading the separate words\napart from their use in sentences. He should first read the words vocalized or partly\nvocalized and then unvocalized.\nWord signs, contractions, and phrases occurring thruout his course should be so\nthoroly memorized that they can be reproduced unhesitatingly. The student should be\ncompelled to write every shorthand exercise and typewriting exercise a certain number\nof times with the greatest care and the teacher must not tolerate slovenly or careless\npractice work. No student should be permitted to take dictation on an exercise unless\nhe has written it the required number of times.\nThere is no one tendency that is more characteristic of all shorthand students than\nthe desire to rush into dictation practice before they are properly prepared for it. There\nis no more important subject to the pupil than dictation and none which is more abused.\nIt is regarded by most students, and unfortunately by many teachers also, as the magic\nmedium thru which good, bad, and indifferent shorthand writers will in some mysterious\nway become rapid and efficient stenographers.\nUntil the shorthand student is able to write any word in the vocabulary of an ordinary,\nweU-educated man without exertion or hesitation he is not properly prepared for general\ndictation. This presupposes a real mastery of every principle in the system so that the\nprinciples required for the representation of any word can be formed into that word\nnaturally and easily as the letters of the alphabet slip from the pen point in writing a\nword in longhand. To acquire speed in shorthand with legibility, without which speed\navails nothing, the student should first make himself thoroly famiUar with the shorthand\nsystem which he uses, mastering each principle thoroly before taking up the next. Always\nuse the same outline for a word and be so familiar with it that there will be no hesitation\nin writing, for hesitation is the enemy of speed.\nAs a rule we find that the average shorthand student while trying to take dictation\nwrites one or two simple words, that he has \"had\" before, easily and without hesitation;\nbut the moment a somewhat unusual word is encountered his brow becomes wrinkled\nand knotted with an effort to bring together hazy and half-mastered principles, his pen\nor pencil is gripped with desperation, and after wasting enough time to have written a\ndozen words he evolves an outUne, comes out of his trance, and makes a wild scramble\nafter the words that have been accumulating during his struggle over a single outline.\nAfter writing a few more monosyllabic words with reasonable facility he repeats the\nspectacle just described and so on. What does all this mean ? It shows that the student\nis not ready for general dictation; that he should return to his principles and master them,\ncombining his review of the principles with cop>ing practice, which should be closely\nsupervised by the teacher. Thruout his theory course or when compelled to return to it\nfrom his dictation course, he should constantly bear in mind several distinct and definite\nideals to improve his writing methods, which may be stated thus:\n1. The cultivation of an extremely light touch.\n2. Elimination of hesitation in the formation of the outlines and between outlines;\nin other words, smooth and instantaneous transition from one outline to the next.\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN PRACTICAL\n\nDETAILS,\n\nOR TECHNIQUE\n\n1087\n\n3. The ability to grasp mentally and reduce to shorthand a string of from three to\nhalf a dozen words with a continuous impulse — just as continuous as if the words were\nactually connected together in a phrase. Other details should be taken up and specially\nstudied from time to time, such as an erect position of the body at the table while writing,\nholding of the pen or pencil, etc. Thruout the theory course there must be close attention\nto and mastery of details or the superstructure will not stand.\nWe have heard much of the superior training which Germany has provided for almost\nevery human vocation. We have already learned much from Germany and are constantly\ntaking instruction from her master minds. In Germany as well as other European\ncountries there is much for us to learn — but the one lesson that they most forcibly teach\nus is the lesson of thoroness. It is this factor that our own schools have grown to neglect,\nand to get back to this fundamental basis is just now our most perplexing problem.\nThe principal shortcomings of stenographers are: first, their modern \"education\" —\nthey have heard of the nebular hypothesis and have .been taught many of the popular\nfads of the day, but they do not know how to write English understandingly; second,\nignorance of the principles of punctuation and capitalization; third, inability to spell\ncommon English business words; fourth, lack of knowledge of the geography of this\nor any other country^ — -they cannot spell the names of the principal cities and do not\nknow the names of the states in which they are situated; fifth, meager knowledge of the\nsystem of shorthand they pretend to write; sixth, lack of general information; seventh,\nfailure to give intelligent attention to business.\nThere is a demand for competent stenographers; men and women of judgment,\ndiscretion, common-sense, and ability; men and women who can write good shorthand\nand who are able to read what they have written — not after the fashion of translating\nEg3T3tian hieroglyphics but with ease and dispatch. Stenographers who can pass high\nan examination along these lines do not complain of poor pay. \"Those who never do\nany more than they are paid for are never paid for more than they do.\"\nMany stenographers have developed into poor stenographers not from the lack of\noriginal ability but from the failure to place the mind in a receptive condition so that\nevery detail of school instruction would be assimilated as a law. There can be no latitude\nof thought or practice on the part of the students when absorbing the principles of a\nshorthand system. The application of a principle never changes, even after years of\nexperience. The shorthand writer who does not make outlines legible to another writer\nof the same system cannot hope to become a good stenographer. We often hear young\npeople say, \"What's the difference how my shorthand looks as long as I can read it?\"\nBut the fact is that such cannot read their shorthand. Deplorable blunders are made by\nyoung stenographers in transcribing conjunctions, articles, and prepositions, showing\ndistinctly that they have not mastered the details of a certain phase of their shorthand\nsystem.\nWe cannot emphasize attention to details thruout the entire shorthand course too\nmuch, and most emphatically must it be emphasized when acquiring the principles of a\nshorthand system. Some practical illustrations may not be out of place to impress this\nmore forcibly upon the minds of my hearers. The French attempted to build the Panama\nCanal but they failed, and why? The chief difference between what the French tried\nto do and what we Americans are doing is that our men have mastered the details of the\nwork, while they went at the job in a sort of wholesale way without knowledge of, or\ncare for, the little items which the whole success of the enterprise is based on. We began\non the mosquitoes and other supposed insignificant things and by looking after them,\n\"according to the perfect law of the Lord\" we are winning out. The whole difference\nbetween the two attempts to do exactly the same thing is a mere matter of detail. So\nmuch for that.\nWhen my dentist set a \"gold inlay\" in one of my back teeth a few days ago and\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "I088\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIBusiness\n\nhanded me a hand mirror to look at his work with, after I had expressed my admiration\nof his skill (for it was a most perfect job), he said: \"Once I couldn't have done it. It\nhas taken years of the most careful and patient practice on the thousand and one little\nthings which must every one be perfectly done that enables me to merit your good words.\"\nIt is all a matter of detail. And so much for this also.\nOur present telephone system was not as perfect years ago as it is now. Some years\npast ten miles was about the limit for good results. Now you can talk a thousand miles\nas easy as turning j'our hand over. But it has taken an infinite deal of patient and persistent looking after what once seemed insignificant things to get such service. The\nwhole difference between what we could do at the start and what we can do now is entirely\na matter of detail. And that is that.\nConsidering these things, it occurred to my mind that attention to, and mastery of,\ndetails is the secret of all the wonderful progress that marks this day and age. It is the\ngroundwork of modern scientific methods.\nEdison, Morse, Bessemer, Pasteur, and all their tribe devoted their lives to attention\nto, and mastery of, details. And then things began to move, \"according to the perfect\nlaw of the Lord.\"\nThe daily routine in the household, the oflSce, the factory, and the thousand and one\ndifferent occupations in life is made up of attention to, and mastery of, details. Let us\ntrain our students from the start to attention to, and mastery of, details if we do not wish\nto add some more failures to the hosts of those who have fallen by the wayside.' This\nturning out every year, by the wholesale, of reckless scribblers who are doomed to certain\nfailure should they attempt to enter the stenographic field is a most deplorable condition\nin our day and age. Young people regardless of their previous condition of servitude or\notherwise are made to believe that if they learn shorthand in from six to nine months'\ntime they will be in a position to amass fortunes by means of it. They are crowded into\nschools in large numbers and practically herded instead of being instructed and trained.\nThe ideal way of training stenographers is by the private individual method where a\nteacher trains from start to finish a limited niunber of students. It would be a blessing\nto the profession of stenography if a large number of private teachers who are conscientious in the admission of students to the shorthand course would engage in the work of\ntraining stenographers by this method.\nWe realize the importance of specialization in medicine, pharmacy, law, and other\nvocational pursuits, but have we come to the realization of the fact that shorthand must\nhkewise be specialized in? The stenographer's profession is equally as important as\nthat of the dentist, pharmacist, lawyer, and doctor. I do not strictly class as stenographers the hosts of pretenders at the art who crowd our typewriter offices, but those\nwho know how and can do it.\nIf we wish to train competent stenographers we must begin to eliminate all the drawbacks to success from the very start, such as indisposition to follow implicitly the teacher's\ninstructions, giddiness, laziness, slovenliness, and the hundred and one things that are\ntolerated in many schools at the beginning of the course and thruout, and which are the\nbasis of failure; viz., the lack of attending to details.\nB.\nSELBY\n\nSPECIALIZATION\nWITH\nORDER TO MEET THE\nA. MORAN,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nEXPERT\nINSTRUCTION\nREQUISITE\nNEEDS OF THE BUSINESS WORLD\n\nIN SHORTHAND,\n\nANN\n\nARBOR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nANN\n\nARBOR,\n\nIN\nMICH.\n\nThis subject is not of my choosing, but rather to my liking, as it affords me an opportunity to present some ideas which I believe deserve more attention than they usually\nreceive.\nWhat are the needs of the business world ? Does it need human machines trained\nmainly to do some one particular thing, or does it need well-rounded men ?\n\nBefore we can\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSPECIALIZATION\n\nREQUISITE\n\nIN BUSINESS\n\nWORLD\n\n1089\n\nconsider the subject intelligently we must answer this important question. Does it need\nboth ? I believe it does. Then it would seem that our subject should be discussed from\nthis twofold standpoint. While I admit that the expert or specialist as well as the welldeveloped man is needed, I believe that in the matter of his preparation the training of the\nspeciahst is of such slight importance as compared with the development of the wellrounded man that the former may be considered as almost a negligible quantity. In this\nstrenuous business age in which we live the world needs, more than all else, that we develop\nstrong, forceful, honest men and women of big caliber, men who have a grip upon things\nand upon situations sufficient to enable them to step into the shoes of those who are\npassing off the stage of action. It needs men who are able to lead our march of progress\nto a point in advance of what their predecessors have done. It is true that for every\ngreat organizing genius in commerce, finance, manufacturing, sociology, education,\nstatecraft, and religion, we must have an army of human machines well trained and willing\nto obey orders, to perform the vast volume of routine work in which specialists are indispensable, without whom the efforts of the leader in any line would be futile.\nThe question naturally arises. Why not train those especially fitted for th'fe higher\npositions to do the constructive work and those suited only for the rnachine work to\nperform the routine task in the best and most efficient manner? That would seem an\neasy solution of the problem.\nBut who shall decide which individuals are to become the great captains of industry,\nwhat men or women are to take the lead in educational progress and pilot us safely thru\nour threatening conditions of social and political unrest, and who shall be the human\nmachines and devote their whole lives to the daily routine in the service of these leaders ?\n\"Aye, there's the rub.\" Has a teacher, especially the teacher of shorthand, the right to\nsay, if not in so many words, by the ideals which underlie his teaching, that this one\nshould be prepared for the more exalted place while the nine hundred and ninety-nine are\nto be fitted only for the monotonous grind of daily routine year in and year out until\nthe end ?\nIs not this latter preparation, however, the very thing, and in fact the only thing\nthat many of our shorthand teachers are able to give their pupils ? Is not this just what,\nordinarily, would be implied by my subject as it appears in the announcement of this\nmeeting ? I desire to protest against such a condition of things and such ideals. First\nof all, the teacher of shorthand should fully realize that he is fitting men and women for\ntwo entirely distinct lines or kinds of life-work: developing men; making machines. If\nthe teacher has in view only the idea of training specialists, he is almost certain in every\ncase to produce a mere machine and nothing more. Where the idea is primarily to\ndevelop men, the training for the necessary special routine work, which is always of\nsecondary importance, will in most cases take care of itself. Should we then make the\ndevelopment of specialists, or in other words, human machines, our primary aim? I\nthink not.\nThere are two serious objections to our stopping at this point. Unless a teacher be\nan unusually skilled psychologist and an expert in understanding human nature — and\nvery few of us are — he cannot make even an intelligent guess in the majority of cases as\nto which one or ones of his students will make great leaders and which ones are fitted\nonly for routine work. I doubt if there is a teacher anywhere with extended experience\nwho has not had many surprises along this line. Every teacher sooner or later discovers\nthat many of his students whom he believed had brilliant careers before them have failed\nwretchedly. Others whom he had hesitated to recommend as being even poor machines\nhave later on often forged to the front and become great leaders in their chosen fields.\nIn addition to the fact that we cannot forecast the future of our students sufficiently\nwell to justify our attempting to decide \"who is who,\" there is another and far more\nimportant matter to be considered. When we emphasize the need of specialization to the\nexclusion of higher ideals and as teachers strive to fit our pupils to meet merely the narrow,\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOQO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Susiness\n\ntechnical requirements, we cannot obtain the best quality of work. This principle\napplies in a greater or less degree to teachers in every branch of learning, but pre-eminently\nto teachers of shorthand.\nDo not think that I fail to appreciate the value of the most careful and expert training\nwhich it is possible for the well-equipped and scholarly teacher to give. I object only to\nthe teacher who goes no farther than to impart high technical skill, because I feel sure he\nis making a serious mistake.\nWhy is it that there is today such a dearth of able men, men in the broad and comprehensive sense of the term, in every great field of human effort? It is because too\nmany of us teachers are still trying to develop mere specialists or human machines rather\nthan aiming primarily to develop men. This idea is confirmed by the recent statement\nof one of our leading educators. He says, \"We are making a mistake by simply training\nour students to be clerks instead of training them to be leaders and executives.\"\nHow may the teacher remedy this ? By making every possible effort on every possible\noccasion to fire his students with this idea of Andrew Carnegie, who says, \"Be a king in\nyour dreams.\" We should, however, keep before our students aU of the time the vitally\nimportant idea that to rise to the higher positions, to succeed to leadership, always\nrequires the most careful and painstaking training in small as well as in large things.\nWhen once you get a student fired with an ambition for something really worth while,\nyour trouble about getting him to devote the necessary time and effort to become an\nexpert in his particular line will immediately vanish. WTiat is more, the work of the\nstudent with such an ambition will always be infinitely better in every detail of the training\nthan it would be if he were looking forward only to a clerical position. This has been\nillustrated times without number in my own experience. I believe it is the experience of\never>' teacher who has made a real effort to fire each of his pupils with the ambition to\n\"be a king,\" if only in his dreams.\nI admit it is true that the very large majority of our students will never be able to\nrealize such an ambition. That is not especially to be regretted. In fact, very few if\nany of us ever fully realize our dreams or ideals. But are we not all the better for having\ndreamed of great things for ourselves ? We have all risen higher than otherwise we should\never have done. The teacher, however, should never forget that a fountain never rises\nabove its source. No man ever rises above his ideals. Everyone will admit, however,\nthat the higher one's ideals the higher he is sure to rise, whether he ever attains to them\nor not. Let me repeat that I firmly believe in the great need of the most careful training\nin details by skilled teachers, but I believe that that part of the teacher's work will take\ncare of itself just in proportion as the teacher is able to enthuse his pupils with an ambition\nto be something really worth while. The teacher should not fail for an instant to keep\nconstantly before the minds of his pupils the vital fact that success in the higher things\ndepends very largely upon the most careful and painstaking training to do routine or\nmachine work; that this is true not only while acquiring skiU in doing a thing but also\nlater on while practicing his art. This is the foundation upon which one must build\nbefore he can hope to reach the higher things to which his ambition caUs him.\nBut you have no doubt all heard it urged that to fire one with an ambition for something which is beyond him is almost sure to result, when he fails to reach it, in his becoming\ndiscouraged and pessimistic and dissatisfied with life. I do not believe this is true, for\nif it were, we should all be pessimists and I know we are not. The young man or woman\nshould, if possible, be made to realize that it is not necessarily failure if he does not reach\nhis ideals. He may and often will reach something else which is quite as well worth while.\nIn fact, there is a great deal even in the routine work of life which really has much of\ninspiration in it, if one can only see it in the right way. This is well illustrated by the\naction of a superintendent of construction of a great cathedral. He had noticed that\nthe stone-cutters on a certain part of the work were indifferent and seemingly rather\ncareless. He called the men into his office asking each to bring with him the drawing for\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSPECIALIZATION\n\nREQUISITE\n\nIN BUSINESS\n\nWORLD\n\n1091\n\nthe particular task he had in hand. Then showing them a beautiful drawing of the front\nelevation of a magnificent cathedral with an imposing and beautiful arch over the main\nentrance, he asked each one to find in that grand arch the particular stone upon which\nhe was at work in the dingy yard. The result was that each one immediately gained a\nnew vision of the work he was doing and the importance of it. Immediately each workman realized, as he had not been able to realize before, that his individual work as well as\nthat of the great architect was necessary to the success and completeness of that vast and\nperfect whole, and when he returned to his task it was with a new spirit and greater\ndetermination to make his particular contribution worthy of the exalted place it was to\noccupy. ,The teacher may easily fortify his pupils against possible discouragement by\nmaking it plain to them that, even tho it should become their fate to do machine work\nall thru life, such work is all-important to the success of some great undertaking of which\neach one is to be a part. The men who are at the head of the two-billion-dollar Steel\nTrust are by no means the only important men in that great corporation. The humble\nstenographer and for that matter every man from the day laborer to the president has his\nimportant place to fill, and without each one's place being filled regularly and promptly\nand efficiently, the whole organization would be weakened.\nFirst^et your pupils to want to be something worth while and then they will be\nperfectly willing to do whatever you require in the way of learning shorthand principles\nthoroly; taking dictation patiently until they can write rapidly and correctly; reading\ntheir shorthand exercises over and over again until they can read them like print, and\ndoing everything possible to enable them to increase their vocabulary both of English\nwords and of correct shorthand outHnes.\nThere are a dozen good methods by which one may successfully learn the principles\nof his system. One will be suitable to one teacher and prove a failure in the hands of\nanother. There are many ways by which pupils may master their wordsigns. One may\nbe well adapted to one teacher, while another will utterly fail in attempting to use it.\nThere is more than one good method of working up speed in shorthand and typewriting.\nThere are different and equally commendable methods for becoming skilled in business\nEnglish. There are various methods by which one may learn to read shorthand with\nease. There are several good methods for increasing one's usable list of shorthand\noutlines for words and phrases. There are numerous good methods for becoming proficient inall the details of the stenographer's duties. But none of them can be made to\nsucceed in the most complete way, no matter how skilled the teacher, no matter how\nperfect the method, nor how great the native ability of the pupil, unless the teacher is\nable to appeal to the best that there is in the pupil, to move him to long for higher things\nthan the work of a mere human machine. On the other hand, the teacher may be poor,\nhis methods not the best, and his pupils of very ordinary ability; but if he can in some\nway enable his students to catch a vision of the possibilities that are within the reach of\nevery man or woman, willing to aim high and work, their success in the best sense is sure\nto be much greater than that of those whom fortune may favor in every other conceivable\nway. Abraham Lincoln, Booker T. Washington, Dwight L. Moody, in many ways three\nof the great men in the world's history, had but little schoohng and very poor schooling;\nbut somebody touched their lives; somebody guided their thoughts to higher things.\nNaturally their lives and their great achievements followed as day follows the night.\nWho are to be the great leaders in the various fields of human effort ? Are they to be\nmen sent out as human machines, by skilled teachers who think only of developing\ntechnical experts as a machinist constructs a fine watch, and nothing more? Unfortunately our modern education is drifting too much in the direction of machine-made men\nand women. The inevitable result is that the leaders of the future will continue to be\nmen who have been inspired by the few teachers of this higher order, often from schools\nof small repute, to make the most of themselves and their opportunities. This human\ntouch, this disposition and ability to inspire, is a thing, strange to say, all too infrequently\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 092\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[business\n\nfound in our so-called best schools. Technique without inspiration is barren. Inspiration without technique will, in most cases, see to it that the latter is acquired and this\nlucky combination is what produces the men who move the world. With in^iration it is\neasy for the teacher to secure the hearty co-operation of his pupils, to make them wiUing\nto be governed by his advice in preparing to do the machine work so essential to the\ngreatest success, to have the right attitude toward their employers and not to think only\nof today, the quitting hour, and the pay envelope. Inspiration is what develops initiative,\nwhich is vitally essential to real success in every kind of leadership.\nWhen teachers realize the vital importance of giving their students a \\nsion in life,\nthey will not be nearly so likely to make the serious mistake of producing mere clerks, fit\nonly for routine work, out of those capable and worthy of better things. Then there will\nbe a far greater nimiber of men and women prepared to meet Xhe insistent demands of\nour times for men and women with large ideas and high ideals. Then there will be plenty\nof men prepared to meet the most numerous and the most urgent calls that have ever\nbeen made in the world's history for men of character and real efficiency.\nINTERCOMMUNICATION\nOLIVER\n\nD.\n\nFREDERICK,\n\nTXJLEY\n\nBUSINESS\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPRACTICE\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nFor one I am disappointed that the paper on this subject was unavoidably omitted\nfrom the program of this section. It is a phase of training in bookkeeping in which I\nam interested and the importance of which I should like to have emphasized. It is\nembarrassing to attempt a discussion of it before an audience that has been listening\nto such carefully prepared papers and it is equally impossible to do the subject justice\nwithout careful preparation. It is with the hope that others will add to what I say that\nI undertake it at all.\nFrom an investigation made some time ago it is evident that bookkeeping material\nof this form is not used by high schools as extensively as its merits deserve. From the\nsame source of information it appears that this condition of affairs is largely due to two\ncauses. In the first place teachers do not seem to have had time and opportunity to\nbecome acquainted with courses of this character, and in addition to this many teachers\nwho appreciate the practical and the educational value of this form of business practice\nare deterred from using it thru fear of failure because of apparent obstacles that present\nthemselves.\nAn informal discussion is always more or less lacking in continuity and some important\npoints are likely to be omitted, but it is my hope that at least some of the merits of the\nwork under consideration will be brought to the attention of those present. I shall\nnot undertake to give in detail the features a set of transactions should possess in order\nto be suited to this kind of work. But care must be exercised or they will be too ciunbersome to yield the best results. The entire plan of the work must be sufficiently elastic\nto meet the various contingencies for which provision must be made.\nAt the very beginning of such a course the pupil meets with a new experience. The\ntransactions originate and come to him as they do to the office worker. Immediately\nhe becomes conscious of his power to influence the trend of the business and also of his\nresponsibility in directing it wisely. Wh&t he must do no longer comes to him in the\nformal statements of the textbooks or the studied language of the teacher.\nHe realizes that the incoming business forms have been prepared esp)ecially for him\nby p>ersons whom he has probably never seen, yet whose instructions he must interpret\nand follow. In return he prepares other forms and issues other instructions, upon the\ncorrectness and exactness of which others must rely in carrying out his wishes. In each\nstep of his work he recognizes the existence of a real individual to whom he is under\nobligation to p)erform his part of the transactions correctly.\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTERCOMMUNICATION\n\nBUSINESS\n\nPRACTICE\n\n1093\n\nIt is this strong personal element that enters into ahnost every act of the pupil that\nrenders this form of business practice so superior to anything that has thus far been\nsuggested to take its place. A form of business practice in which pupils of a class carry\non business with each other has been very highly recommended because of this same\nfeature, but it should be observed that the relation existing between the parties to transactions in this form of work differs very materially from that under discussion. The fact\nthat pupils of a class come into daily contact with each other removes a powerful incentive\nfor exactness, because there is always the opportunity for oral explanations if definiteness\nin the written instructions is lacking. It is also a well-established truth that pupils do\nnot have the same respect for the opinions and criticisms of their classmates as they do\nfor those of others of equal attainments.\nNothing can be better suited to test a pupil's ability to do practical bookkeeping\nand look after the other details of office work. Nowhere are the conditions under which\nhe works so similar to what he will meet after he leaves school. It may be humiliating\nto some of us to question whether a particular form of training prepares the learner\nto profit financially from his efforts. But the fact remains that many of the pupils in\nthe commercial departments of our high schools have selected this work because they\nhope to make use of their training in earning a hving. It is a part of the teacher's business to discover how well those under his care are equipped for their work and to provide\nthe material and the form of instruction best fitted to make them efficient.\nIt is conceded that this is not the proper material thru which to acquire proficiency\nin the theory of bookkeeping, but having obtained a thoro grounding in the principles\nof the science this work offers a splendid means of applying this knowledge to the problems that arise in business. Experience and observation have given me a very high respect\nfor its cultural value, but aside from this or any other purely educational consideration,\nI believe it justifiable to devote a limited time to this kind of business practice because\nof the excellent test of the pupil's efficiency it provides to both the teacher and the pupil.\nIn recent years educators as well as laymen have voiced repeated admonitions to\nmake school work, especially the so-called vocational courses, more effectively practical.\nBookkeeping, altho it possesses in a high degree the time-honored educational virtues,\nis pre-eminently a vocational subject; and we as teachers are remiss in our duty if we\nfail to present the subject in a thoroly practical manner, and to test our pupils' efficiency\nbefore they enter the business world. I, for one, recommend intercommunication business\npractice as an aid to both these ends.\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nHYGIENE\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — William H. Buknhau, professor of pedagogy, Clark University\nWorcester, Mass.\nVice-President — William C. Bagley, School of Education, University of Illinois\nUrbana, III.\nSecretary — Theda Gildemeister, supervisor of training, Normal School\nWinona, Minn.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, July 8, 191 2\n\nThe meeting of the Department of Child Hygiene was called to order at 10:00 a.m.\nby the president, William H. Burnham, professor in Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nA paper on \"The Problems of Child Hygiene, and the Contribution of Hygiene to\nEducation\" was presented by President Burnham.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"The Hygiene of Rural Schools\" by Fletcher B.\nDresslar, specialist in school hygiene, United States Bureau of Education, Washington,\nD.C.\nArnold L. Gesell, assistant professor of education, Yale University, New Haven,\nConn., who was to present a paper on \"Child Hygiene in the Primary Grades\" was\nabsent; consequently Frank G. Bruner, assistant director of the Department of Child\nStudy, pubHc schools, Chicago, III., was obliged to omit the discussion of this paper as\nappointed.\nOn request of the president. Dr. Bruner read a paper on \"The Testing of Children\nfor Mental Efficiency.\"\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the chair:\nLinnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nDaniel P. MacMillan, director of Department of Child Study and Pedagogical\nInvestigation, public schools, Chicago, 111.\nNebraska Cropsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\nAfter a general discussion, the meeting adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION, ROUND\n\nTABLE— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 10, 191 2\n\nThe Department met in round-table conference and was called to order at 9:30 A.M.,\nby the president.\nThe topic, \"How Far Are Teachers Responsible for the Morbidity and Mortality\nof School Children?\" was discussed in papers presented by the following: W. A. Evans,\nM.D., Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.; Isaac A. Abt, M.D., Chicago, 111.,\nand Hyman Cohen, M.D., assistant chief of Bureau of Medical Inspection, Chicago, 111.\nA general discussion followed the reading of 'these papers.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July ii, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 9:45 a.m. in the Red Room\n1095\nof the La Salle Hotel, Chicago.\nEdwin O. Jordan, professor of bacteriology. University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.,\npresented a paper on \"School Diseases.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nLinnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Cra^vfordsville, Ind., who was on\nWednesday's program in the round-table discussion, having been detained on other\nofficial business on that day, was then introduced as the next speaker. His paper was\nunder the general topic of Wednesday's conference, \"How Far Are Teachers Responsible\nfor the Morbidity and MortaUty of School Children ?\"\nA general discussion followed the reading of this paper.\nA paper on \"Child Hygiene in the Bureau of Education\" was next read by Philander\nP. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\nAfter introductory remarks. Dr. Claxton asked the privilege of calling upon Fletcher\nB. Dresslar, specialist in school hygiene. United States Bureau of Education, Washington,\nD.C, to speak on this subject.\nAfter this speaker. Dr. Claxton continued his paper.\nWilliam C. Bagley, professor of education. University of IlUnois, Urbana, HI., opened\nthe discussion on this paper, which was continued by Daniel P. MacMillan, director\nof the Department of Child Study, pubUc schools, Chicago, 111.\nA paper on \"Stoop Shoulders and Flat Chest in School Children\" was then presented\nby Charles A. L. Reed, M.D., professor in the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nA general discussion followed the reading of this paper.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report :\nFor President — W. A. Jessup, dean, School of Education, University of Indiana,\nBloomington, Ind.\nFor Vice-President — F. B. Dresslar, speciaUst in school hygiene, United States\nBureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\nFor Secretary — Mabel Williams, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.\nFollowing the reading of the report, it was moved and carried that the report be\naccepted, after which the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot, and these officers\nwere declared elected for the ensuing year.\nThe president then announced that an informal reception would be held at the\nChicago Women's Club, Fine Arts Building, at 4:30 p.m. to afford an opportunity for\nmembers of the National Education Association who had not met Ella Flagg Yoimg,\nsuperintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., to do so.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nLuELLA V. Little, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nPROBLEMS\nH.\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCHILD HYGIENE,\nAND\nTHE\nBUTION OF HYGIENE TO EDUCATION\n\nBURNHAM,\nPROFESSOR\nOF PEDAGOGY\nCLARK UNIVERSITY,\nWORCESTER,\n\nAND\nSCHOOL\nMASS.\n\nCONTRIHYGIENE,\n\nI do not know the reason for the change in the name of this department\nfrom that of Child Study to Child Hygiene unless it was that so much of\nthe work in child study and so much of the interest of the workers now\ncenter upon problems of child hygiene. I was not present at the San\nFrancisco meeting, and the records are meager.\nI am sure, however, that the aim was not to minimize the importance\nof the scientific study of children. All child study is significant for hygiene;\nand child hygiene covers an important part of child study.\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nHYGIENE\n\n1097\n\nIt is fitting, as I trust you will agree, that there should be formal\nrecognition of child hygiene in the National Education Association. The\ngeneral and departmental programs this year bear evidence to the interest\nin the subject. Next year the International Congress of School Hygiene\nis to meet in this country, holding its sessions in Buffalo in August. The\nimportance of the subject I need not emphasize at length. Your interest\nin it is proved by your presence; but I will beg you to notice a few of the\ncontributions of hygiene to pedagogy and some of the problems that this\ndepartment may well investigate.\nIt is customary for the presiding officer of each department of the\nNational Education Association to give an address. I have chosen for my\nsubject \"The Problems of Child Hygiene, and the Contribution of Hygiene\nto Education.\"\nThe first contribution to which I would call attention is the evidence of\nthe vital relations of hygiene and education. Let me illustrate somewhat\nin detail some of the wider of these relations and the need of recording them.\nSchool laws, for example, for the spread and improvement of popular\neducation, altho framed with the best intentions in the world, are liable to\ncause grave harm unless regard is had also to the principles of social hygiene !\nFor illustration, let us consider for a few minutes the experience of England.\nAs people in England in the last century began to feel the necessity of\npopular education and the evils of child labor, certain important legislation\noccurred. From 1864 to 1867 there were a series of acts of Parliament\napplying to the iron, steel, and copper industries, and finally the Workshop\nRegulation Act of 1867, which forbade the employment of children under\neight years of age and from eight to thirteen except as half-timers. In\n1870 the Foster Act was passed which provided for the formation of board\nschools where necessary, and in 1877 the Compulsory Education Act was\npassed. Again in 1887, the Mines Act was passed, and in 1899 an Education Act which forbade the employment of children under twelve in any\nway to interfere with attendance at school.\nEach of these acts was passed of course with the best of motives, for the\nsake of protecting the children and of fostering popular education. What\nwas the result ? After each one of them, in the localities especially affected\nby the factory laws, the birth-rate went down. This was true in the mining\ndistricts of Cornwall after the Act of 1867; it was true in the factory towns\nof Bradford, Bolton, and Leeds after the Compulsory Education Act of\n1878, and in general thruout the country after the Factory Act of 1891, and\nI think also after the Education Act in 1899.\nWhy did these results follow from such apparently excellent laws?\nThe investigations by Karl Pearson and his associates have apparently\nshown the reason. As a result of such legislation the children could no\nlonger add to the family income. The economic value of the child was\ndestroyed. The father was handicapped as against the childless — the\nmother was handicapped as against the childless.\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "logS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nThese studies indicate that whenever legislation takes away the economic value of children to their parents, the supply of children diminishes.\nThe direct significance of this for hygiene is shown by another fact\nobserved by Karl Pearson. For some reason in England apparently the\nfirst-born and second-born of a family are of less stable constitution; and\nthe neurotic, the tuberculous, and the insane are more frequent among the\nelder bom. This means that if you decrease the size of families you increase\nthe proportion of the physically and mentally unsound in the community.\nAt the same time that England thus handicapped the fathers and the\nmothers of the fit, it took care of the children of the paupers and criminals.\nOf this Karl Pearson says:\nI do not speak lightly; there is very definite evidence to show that the terrible fall in\nour birth-rate since 1878 has been a differential fall. It is a fall which concerns chiefly the\nfitter members of all classes. The fitter of all classes, from the artisan to the executive,\nhave fewer and fewer children, but the unfit maintain their old nvmibers; nor is the reason\nhard to seek — income and wages are no longer proportioned to physical or mental fitness.\nThe man and woman who cannot afford to marry are now taxed for the education, the\nsanitation, the medical pro^nsion, and very often the nutrition of the offspring of those\nwho ought not to marry. The policy of bettering the environment has been carried out\nregardless of the fact that it has checked the reproduction of the essentially abler and more\ndesirable members of the community. Our ignorance of the relative intensity of nature\nand nurture has led us in political and philanthropic action to disregard nature in the\nbehef that improved niu-ture must involve steady racial progress. If the view I have\nattempted to put before you be a correct view, then we have spent our energies on grindstone and oilstone, when the first need was good steel. [Nature and Nurture, pp. 27-28].\n\nI am well aware that some of you maintain that the checking of the\nbirth-rate is a good thing. Others may exclaim, as I do, against the evils\nof child labor. Others will perhaps point out that conditions in this coimtry\nare different. Very good; but all this is aside from my point, which is\nmerely to illustrate how the best meant legislation that ignores hygiene\nmay have quite different results from those intended. The essential facts,\nto sum them up in few words, are these:\nEngland, by her legislation, took away the economic value of the child\nwithout compensation. She thus handicapped the parent as compared\nwith the childless. This decreased the number of children in a family and\nincreased the proportion of the diseased and defective. At the same time,\nshe provided for the children of the pauper and diseased classes, and thus\nput a premium upon the production of the unfit. I use this merely as an\nillustration.\nThe first contribution of hygiene, then, is to show that if we are to have\ngood raw material for the processes of education, we must have regard to\nthe laws of biology and social hygiene, and that even the noblest aims of a\npedagogy that ignores hygiene may be dangerous. The first problem is,\nHow can we put a premium on the production of healthy children and avoid\nin all our educational and philanthropic efforts putting a penalty upon the\nparentage of the fit ?\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nHYGIENE\n\n1099\n\nThe second contribution is. to show the significance to education of the\nhygiene of infancy. The second problem is how to save the 20 per cent to\n30 per cent of children that die in the early years, and how to avoid tuberculosis, rickets, and the like, that cause so large a part of the so-called\nschool diseases later.\nA very significant example of the relation between school hygiene and\nchild hygiene in the broader sense is furnished by recent studies of rickets\nand scoliosis. Rickets is a disease that falls usually between perhaps the\neighth and twentieth months of infancy. The discussion of this disease is\nnot likely to be included in the books on school hygiene. It is not supposed\nthat teachers are concerned with it, but it is especially significant in its\nrelation to the health of the school child, and scoliosis, which has erroneously\nbeen supposed to be especially a school disorder, cannot be understood\nwithout knowledge of the facts concerning this disease of infancy.\nIt is said by many authors of textbooks on school hygiene that scoliosis\nis specifically a school disease, but recent studies indicate that in 50 per cent\nof the cases scoliosis is caused by rickets; that in 15 per cent it is caused by\ncertain innate abnormalities; and that of the remainder 35 per cent many\ncases are due to various causes, so that only a small minority remain which\ncan be due to the conditions of school life, and here apparently it is only the\ncases of functional total scoliosis that can be traced to the school.\nWithout the study of the wider subject of child hygiene and such\ndiseases of infancy as rickets and the like, school hygiene is not likely to be\nrightly understood and grave errors are likely to be made. We are devoting\nmuch attention to corrective gymnastics and the like; but if we would\nprevent scoliosis we must go back and provide for the hygiene of infancy.\nThe third contribution of hygiene is to show that the primary aim in\nthe early years of the kindergarten and primary school should be health\nand normal development, and the emphasis placed upon developing the\nbasal structures and fundamental nerve centers, and the habits of health\nthat shall be a defense during the later years.\nLet us recall certain facts and look them squarely in the face. First of\nall, there is widespread dissatisfaction with our present school system.\nBoth parents and teachers are very largely dissatisfied. Parents point to\nthe small amount of useful knowledge that pupils bring away from the\nschool, and they point to the injury to the health that frequently occurs, and raise the query whether the reward of this modicum of knowledge is\nworth the sacrifice that is made. Teachers, on the other hand, especially\nin the higher grades, complain that children have small desire and little\nability for work — they cannot do anything difficult; they lack stamina and\nefficiency. Usually they lay the blame on instruction in preceding grades\nor on lack of training in the home. With all this we are not directly concerned; but the fact of the widespread dissatisfaction, among both teachers\nand pupils, cannot be ignored.\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nNow the causes of all this are a long story which cannot be told here, but\none feature of it we are concerned with. It may be put briefly as foUows:\nIf children are to do the work that the school requires satisfactorily, they\nneed better health, clearer minds, and more desire to work. Not only is\nthere enormous waste because of the absence from school on account of\nillness, and in the school on account of bad methods, but a large part of the\nchildren are handicapped by disease or physical defects. They need a\nbetter foundation of physical health and development. The point to be\nemphasized here is that they need this for pedagogic success.\nFrom the point of \\dew of hygiene, the whole aim of education in the\nearly years should be modified and the emphasis placed primarily on health\nand normal development. This is emphasized both from the point of view\nof hygiene and from that of pedagogy. Hygiene shows the vital importance\nof normal development in these early years and protection from disease.\nPedagogy, on the other hand, shows how little in the way of formal training\nis likely to be received and how wasteful is the process of instruction likely\nto be in these years, and that the net increment of knowledge is very small.\nFourth, hygiene has shown the tremendous significance of the development at the adolescent years, and the importance of this period for health\nand education. Here a whole group of problems is presented — ^problems\nin regard to the emotional life and sex hygiene, as well as problems of\ngeneral, somatic, and mental health. It would be the gravest mistake to\nsuppose that these questions are already settled. Here many more investigations are needed and only in a general way does hygiene now point out\nthe pathway of normal education. This general contribution is to\nemphasize the need of training as compared with mere instruction, training\nin healthful interests of manifold character, and in habits of health, both\nphysical and mental.\nFifth, studies of modem hygiene have shown that the most efficient\nschool work must have regard for the optimum conditions of brain activity,\nthat education must be adapted to the stages of physiological and psychological development, that regard must be had for the fundamental psychological laws of learning and retention and the proper alternation of periods\nof work and rest, and that haste and premature and imrelated development\nare liable not only to do great injury to health, but to defeat the very\nends of education. Here again a whole group of problems in regard to the\nbest periods of study and the best conditions for brain work, and the like,\nare presented.\nStrangely enough, the opinion seems to prevail in some quarters that in\nsome way hygiene is in conflict with pedagogy. Many years ago in Germany, when Kraepelin uttered his oft-quoted words to the effect that the\ninattention of children is their salvation and uninteresting teachers a\nhygienic necessity, forthwith there was a hue and cry from the teachers as\nif in some way pedagogy had been attacked by hygiene. There is no sort\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE PROBLEMS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nHYGIENE\n\nnot\n\nof conflict between the demands of the two sciences, or the two arts, if you\nplease. Hygiene, in fact, is ah essential condition of efficient pedagogy,\nand the only way children will be able to meet the growing demands of the\nmodem curriculum efifectively is by regard for the laws of the hygiene of\ndevelopment in general, and the hygiene of the nervous system as regards\nwork and rest, and mental hygiene as regards the training to habits of\nattention and orderly association. We boast of our schools, but many of\ntheir graduates have to be re-educated in the sanitarium or the hospital.\nSixth, are all the problems of the child's school environment — including\nthe hygiene of the schoolhouse and the playground — the problems that our\nBureau of Education has begun to study so auspiciously.\nSeventh, one more fundamental problem is presented of a practical\nnature. Nowhere perhaps more than in hygiene is there such a gulf\nbetween our knowledge and our practice, between knowing and doing.\nSystems of medical inspection that do not inspect, the best systems of\nventilation that do not ventilate, adjustable seats that are not adjusted, the\nbest playgrounds that are not used, the best conditions for work and study\nwhich are not regarded, are of little value. Hence we have the great practical problem of how to bring about the actual practice of hygiene in the\nschools.\nProbably we must struggle with this practical problem for a long time.\nWe are yet far from settling the many practical questions involved here.\nHygiene does, however, emphasize a few general points. First, it is\nimportant that teachers should receive adequate instruction and training\nin modern child hygiene. Second, it is necessary that the emphasis in all\nour hygienic education should be placed upon training, the actual practice\nof hygiene, rather than upon mere instruction, and as a means of bringing\nabout such training, a special organization, a militia of hygiene, if you\nplease, may well be established.\nA few weeks ago it was my privilege to witness the parade of the highschool cadets in the city of Boston, a parade of two or three thousand school\nboys. It was an excellent exhibition of the results of careful drill and\norganization. The cadets did credit to themselves and to their military\ninstructors. But as I observed them as they marched, I noticed how many\nwere sallow in countenance, anaemic, or flat chested, or mouth breathers, or\napparently suffering from some physical disorder or defect or bad condition ;\nand how few had the ruddy glow and the general aspect of health that the\nadolescent should exhibit. These were, however, in a certain sense, the\npick of the pupils in the public schools.\nIf this is the price that must be paid for education, it is no wonder that\nparents are dissatisfied and that they ask whether the reward is worth the\nsacrifice. What man of sense would bargain vigorous health, normal\ndevelopment, and a few motor accomplishments like those of the Boy\nScouts for a little conventional book-knowledge and anaemia and ill health\nand mal-development ?\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": "II02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nWhy should not the health training which is now so large a part of the\nmilitary training in the regular army be emphasized in the training of\nhigh-school cadets? Instead of special drill in military tactics, why not\nlet the emphasis be placed on drill in the habits of health, and gradually\nchange the high-school cadets from a purely military organization, omitting\nthe formal technique of an organization which in the near future is likely to\nbe little more than a general police force, to a militia of health trained to\nfight the conditions of disease by the methods of modern science ?\nSuch are some of the larger aspects of school hygiene and such the\nrelation of hygiene to pedagogy. The time is long past when education\ncould ignore hygiene. The time has come when we need a better perspective and a clearer view of the essentials in education.\nThe problems outlined in this general way are, I am convinced, the\nsubjects which this department should carefully investigate. Each one of\nthese great topics includes a score of more concrete problems. In each a\nlarge collection of facts and careful study are needed. The general points\nmay be summed up briefly as follows:\n1 . How in all educational and philanthropic legislation to put a premium\nupon the production of healthy children.\n2. How to protect infancy so that we may save the lives of the healthy\nchildren that are bom and how to protect them from contagious diseases,\nrickets, and the like, so that when they come to the period of school life\nthey may not be the inevitable candidates for the so-called school diseases.\n3. How in the early years of school life so to place the emphasis upon\nhygiene that, by co-operation with the home, normal development may be\ninsured, the foundation laid for future health, and the children saved from\nthe common school defects, defective sense organs, decaying teeth, deformed\njaws, defective speech organs, adenoids, and the rest.\n4. How at the period of adolescence to develop such healthful interests\nand such habits of healthful activity that the youth may be saved from\nemotional neurosis, social evils, and the like, and both morals and health\nbe insured.\n5. How in all grades to develop such habits of work and rest, of attention and orderly association, and such normal habits and interests in\ngeneral, that the graduates of the school may no longer become candidates\nfor the hospital but develop into normal healthy workers.\n6. How to provide a sanitary school environment.\n7. Finally, how to bridge the gap between knowing and doing so that\nour hygienic knowledge may be utilized everywhere and every school\ngraduate become a teacher and a soldier in the army of health.\nSuch are the great problems with which we have to deal. They are\nfundamental to education. We talk of education for citizenship, education\nfor life, education for efficiency and for character, but if we ignore the laws\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1 1 03\n\nof biology and of social hygiene, if we penalize the parentage of the fit, with\nthe best possible education the race will degenerate. If we disregard the\nhygiene of infancy, an enormous percentage of the best children born will\ndie, and a large percentage will survive as candidates for scoliosis, tuberculosis, and imbecility. If hygiene be not emphasized in the early years of\nthe kindergarten and primary grades, then the long list of physical defects,\nadenoids, decayed teeth, deformed jaws, and the like, will continue. If our\nyouth at adolescence are not morally and hygienically trained, social vice\nwill remain with us. If the conditions of efficient brain activity and the\nprinciples of mental hygiene are not regarded thruout the whole system of\neducation, and if positive habits of healthful activity are not formed,\npublic education will remain unsatisfactory, and the product be ineflicient,\nunreliable, and continue to furnish candidates for the sanitarium and\nhospital for the insane; and, finally, unless we can devise methods of\ntransforming our hygienic knowledge into hygienic doings, our science will\nremain futile.\nTHE HYGIENE\nFLETCHER\n\nB.\n\nDRESSLAR,\nBUREAU\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSPECIALIST\nIN\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL\nHYGIENE,\nUNITED\nWASHINGTON,\nD.C.\n\nSTATES\n\nI wish to present at this time some facts obtained by an investigation\ninto the hygienic conditions of typical rural schoolhouses in nineteen\nstates, and to comment briefly on these facts. But before presenting the\nresults, it will be well to indicate the method used in getting the facts:\nI sought and obtained the co-operation of the state superintendents of\nthese states, and asked each to select two counties of his state which would\nbe typical, progressive counties. I then secured the addresses of the\nteachers of the rural schools in these counties and sent each one the following\npersonally directed letter, and list of questions to answer:\nThe United States Bureau of Education is very desirous of getting reliable and\nup-to-date information concerning the hygienic condition of typical country schools\nand asks your co-operation in the work. Two counties in your state have been designated by your state superintendent, from which this material is to be gathered.\nPlease fill the inclosed question-form as carefully as you can and return it in the\nenvelope inclosed, which requires no postage. Get one or two of your larger boys or\ngirls to help you to do the measuring and calculation required. They will enjoy it and\nit will do them more good than an ordinary lesson in arithmetic. Make your answers\nas clear as you can, yet short. If you have a photograph of your building, or can get\none, it would help us very much if you would send us a copy. The Bureau is planning\nto publish a bulletin on country schoolhouses, and is hunting for all the good features\navailable.\nIf you desire it, a copy of the bulletin will be sent to you when it is ready.\nPlease answer the questions fully, whether your conditions are good or bad. No\nindividual answers will be published, and neither praise nor blame will appear charged\nto any persons or locality. We simply want the facts as they are and we trust that\nyou will help us immediately.\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "II04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CMd Hygiene\n1912\n\nSurvey of the Hygienic Condition of Rural School,\nDistrict No\n, County of\n, State\n,\nSurvey Made by\n, Teacher.\nSchool grounds: Length,\nfeet; width,\nfeet.\nSize of playground,\n;\nsquare feet; space for garden or agricultural\nwork,\nsquare feet.\nGround:\nLevel ?\n; rough or hilly ?\n; well-drained ?\n;\ntrees ?\nBuilding: Wood?\n; brick?\n; cement?\n; stone?\n;\nnew ?\n; old ?\nSize of schoolroom:\nLength,\nfeet; width,\nfeet.\nLight from one side ?\n; two sides ?\n; three sides ?\n;\nfour sides ?\nToward what direction do the windows face ?\neast ?\n; west ?\n; north ?\n; south ?\nFrom what sides do your pupils get light ? Left ?\n; right ?\n;\nrear ?\n; front ?\nWhat is the total area of all the windows ?\nsquare feet.\nFloors: single thickness ?\n; double ?\nBlackboard : Area,\nsquare feet; where placed ?\n;\nheight from floor,\nfeet; of what material ?\nAre the desks single ?\n; double ?\n; adjustable ?\n;\nsufficient in number ?\nHave you window shades ?\n; what color ?\n; do they\nrun up from the bottom, or down from the top ?\nWhat is the color of the schoolroom walls ?\nHave you cloakrooms ? One ?\n; two ?\n; none ?\nBriefly describe any special means you employ to secure ventilation\n\nHave you tested the eyesight of your pupils ?\n; if so, by what\nmethod ?\n^ Have you tested their hearing ?\n; if so, by what method ?\nWhat is your water supply ?\nFrom spring ?\n\nFrom well on school grounds ?\n; how far distant ?\n\nFronj neighbor's well ?\n; how far distant ?\nDo you consider water pure ?\nAre you furnished drinkingfoimtain ?\n; individual cups ?\n; one or\ntwo cups for all ?\nHow do you heat your schoolroom ? Common stove ?\n; jacketed\nstove ?\n; where located ?\n; do you biun\nwood or coal ?\nDo you have special janitor service ?\nDo you use dry sweeping ?\n; sprinkle floor with water ?\n;\nscatter damp sawdust on floor before sweeping ?\n;\nuse any prepared dust-gathering material ?.....\n; are your floors oiled ?\n;\ndo you use a feather duster, or dust cloth to keep the furniture clean ?\nDo you have a thermometer ?\nin your schoolroom ?\n\n; what temperature do you strive to maintain\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1105\n\nAt what hour do you begin school in the morning ?\n; at what time do\nyou dismiss for the day ?\n; how much time do you give for recess\nin the morning ?\n; afternoon ?\nToilets: One ?\n; two ?\n; none ?\n; are they protected\nagainst flies ?\n; are they made with deep excavations ?\n;\nno excavations ?\n; septic tank disposal ?\n;\nwashout system ?\n; how far are they from the well, if\nyou have one ?\nDo you do any of your regular school work out of doors during pleasant weather ?\n\nDo you have medical inspection of your school children ? .\nIf so, how is it managed ?\n\nHas any provision been made in your county or township for the care of the teeth of\nschool children ?\nIf so. describe it\n\nDo you wish a copy of the bulletin on country schoolhouses when completed ?\n\nI preferred to send these questions to the teachers instead of to the\ncounty superintendents, for tvi^o reasons: First, the questions required\nmore specific and definite facts for their answers than a county superintendent could ordinarily command. Second, it was hoped that thru these\nquestioijs many suggestions would be lodged in the minds of the teachers,\nand that thereby some good might be accomplished in addition to getting\nthe facts.\nIn all, 3,300 letters and lists were sent out, and about 50 per cent of\nall these were filled out and returned. The results I here present were\ntabulated from 1,292 returns representative of the 19 states. Lack of\ntime prevented a complete tabulation of all the returns received. But\nthe relative results would vary but little had I been able to finish the work.\nIt will be impossible for me, within the time at my disposal, to present\nall the facts brought out in this investigation, and so I have selected just\na few of the more important ones to present for your consideration.\nIn all, we have examined 1,296 returns. Naturally, some of the\nteachers did not answer all the questions propounded, and hence the\nfigures for each topic will vary slightly in accordance with this neglect.\nOut of 1,244 returns giving figures regarding the area of school grounds,\n727 had less than one acre, and nearly half of this number, or 321, had\nonly a half-acre or less. Only 124 of all these schools were furnished with\ngrounds equal to two acres or greater in extent. It seems practically\nuseless to say a great deal at this point concerning this phase of ruralschool development, and yet I cannot forbear to say that all this cry\nconcerning agricultural education and the adaptation of rural schools\nto rural life will amount to very little unless our rural schools are furnished\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": "I ic6\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nmore ground for such work, as well as for larger playgrounds and all\nthose amenities which will appeal to the heart and life of school children.\nIt seems foolish to expect any sort of worthy teaching of agriculture to\nemerge from our district schools when they are so conditioned.\nTurning to the character of the ground, as represented by the returns,\nit seems that of the 1,283 answers, 1,030 rural schools of this group have\ncomparatively level land, while 253 are situated on hilly, rough land.\nAbout the same proportion of the school grounds, or 1,134, are reported\nas well drained and 234 are wet and undrained. Nine hundred and thirty\n(930) say they have one or more trees on their school lots, while 340 report\nno trees at all. I am not able to say whether these trees are natural forest\ntrees, or whether, for the most part, they have been planted. Yet I\ncannot help feeling, from the general tenor of the reports, that where\nmany trees are found on school lots, they are natural forest trees which\nhad been left standing when the schoolhouses were located. However,\nas I say, no definite conclusion on this point can be reached.\nIn connection with the size of the school grounds and the general\nnature of the school lots, it will be well to say that the measurements\nwere taken in feet and these have been reduced to acres in making the\ntabulation. The reason for asking for returns in feet was to forestall any\nwild guessing as to the size of the school lots. It also should be remembered\nthat the size of the school lot includes the ground upon which the building\nis situated as well as that about the building.\nIn order to get some composite notion of what a rural school is at this\ndate, the letter called for returns on the material of which the buildings\nwere made. Eleven hundred and thirty-four (1,134) were reported as\nwooden buildings, no as brick, 37 stone, and 7 cement. Of these, 464\nwere listed as new buildings, while 805 were tabulated as old. I wish to\ncall attention here to an important consideration: more than 63 per cent\nof the buildings included in this survey are old, and a little less than 37\nper cent are new. But \"new buildings\" does not in any sense of the word\nmean buildings constructed according to modern demands of school\nhygiene. The hatchet-and-saw carpenter of the country is generally\nunable to read architect's drawings or to follow his specifications. Rural\nschoolhouses are, for the most part, attempts to copy some existing school house in the township or county. It happens very often, therefore, that new\nbuildings are very little better from many points of \\dew than the old\nones. Especially is this true in the older sections of the country.\nWhen we attempt to look on the inside of these buildings, the following\nsignificant facts come to light: twenty-five (25) of them receive light\nfrom one side only, 880 from two sides, 346 from three sides, and 35 from\nfour sides. In other words, a little less than 2 per cent of the buildings\nunder consideration receive the light from one side. The prevailing\ncustom, representing over 68 per cent, is to have light from two sides.\n\n"}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nllO^\n\nBut this tells less than half the story of the lighting of the schoolrooms.\nFourteen (14) per cent have less than one-tenth as much glass area in\nthe windows as floor surface within the room. A little over 46 per cent\nhave an area of glass surface between one-sixth and one-tenth as great\nas the floor surface. Combining these, you see that more than 60 per cent\nof all the rural schools included in this survey have an insufficient amount\nof glass surface to furnish proper lighting, even if the windows were properly\nplaced in all particulars. But those who are acquainted with rural-school\nconditions know full well that even this amount exaggerates the amount\nof actual glass surface which is effectual in the proper lighting of schoolrooms.\nUnder a separate question, facts were gathered relative to the proper\nuse of window shades, and while the returns are not sufficiently satisfactory\nto come to any final decision, it is very plain that the upper part of a great\nmajority of the windows are handicapped by badly located shades and those\nwhich cannot be easily adjusted to suit conditions. Therefore, in order\nto picture to yourselves something of the hygienic conditions of rural\nschools, with reference to lighting, you will know first that the windows\nare wrongly placed, that insufficient glass surface is furnished, and that\nthe best arrangements of window shades is not often found. It will not,\ntherefore, be far from the truth if we were to say that the rural schools\nreceive only about 50 per cent of as much light as they should, and this\nis improperly distributed.\nWith reference to the floors of school buildings, our returns show that\na little more than half have single floors, while the rest have some form\nof double floors. I cannot forbear emphasizing the importance of double\nfloors for school buildings in any part of our country. Naturally in cold\nclimates double floors are more necessary, and yet in the Southland I\nhave found that during periods of sharp weather children suffer more\nintensely from the chill and cold than those who are located in buildings\nmore equably heated. It is practically impossible to equalize the heat in\nschoolrooms during cold weather if the floors are not practically air-tight.\nIf you consider for a moment that during cold weather a warm room acts\nas a sort of exhaust to gather in from all directions drafts of cold air, and\nespecially up thru the floor, unless the floors are double and properly\ndeadened, the temperature at the floor line will almost invariably be several\ndegrees lower than that at the breathing-line. This, I believe, is one of\nthe reasons why children and teachers complain when the thermometer\ngoes as low as 65° at the breathing-line. If the floors were properly protected, and the heat of the building properly distributed, I feel certain\nthat it would be comparatively easy for us to reduce the temperature in\nmost of our schoolrooms without objection, and gain thereby from the\nhealth point of view. Many of these rural schools reporting single floors\nar? not only uncomfortable but dangerous in cold weather because of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "lio8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\ndrafts and the dust brought up in this way. Perhaps it would be just as\nwell, in this connection, to speak of the method of caring for the schoolhouse, and especially the floor. Out of 1,262 replies only 213 teachers\nstated that there was any janitor service furnished. In other words,\n1,049 teachers out of i\"262 are not only required to teach school, but also\nto keep their school buildings clean. As a result, the following methods\nof cleansing are used: Five hundred and forty-eight (548) sprinkle the\nschoolroom floor with water before sweeping, 417 use dry sweeping,\n227 use damp sawdust or other dust-absorbing materials, and only 199\nhave oiled floors. It seems unnecessary to discuss these facts at any\nlength, but such sprinkling as is done, and the amount of dry sweeping,\nwarrant us in saying that 965 schools, out of approximately 1,200 that\nanswered these questions, must have dirty, dusty floors for a large part\nof the year, not to mention the dust on benches, desks, window-sills, and\nall possible ledges thruout the room. In this one particular, it seems\nalmost inexcusable that teachers should not be furnished sawdust at\nleast, by the use of which they may be able more easily to cleanse the floor\nand prevent the great clouds of dust that must necessarily arise with the\nsort of sweeping here indicated.\nIt seems to me, then, that two of the important things in connection\nwith the proper hygienic conditions of rural schools are those having to\ndo with carefully constructed floors and the insistance on the proper sort\nof sweeping and disinfection.\nThe water supply for country schools is far from satisfactory. I found\nthat, from 1,267 returns on the topics under this general heading, only\n567 schools were supplied with well or running water on the school ground,\nwhile 700 schools, or nearly two-thirds of all reporting, had to depend on\nsprings and wells outside of schools grounds; and of these 226 were more\nthan one-fourth of a mile from the schoolhouse.\nIt is obvious that under such conditions as these the children will be\ndeprived not only of fresh water but also of clean water. Where no\njanitor is furnished, it is clear that the children will have to be largely\ndepended on to carry the water. It would be much more sanitary and\nacceptable for each child to bring a bottle of water from his home for his\nown needs, and in a few places it has been necessary to resort to this method.\nThe receptacle for the water in the schoolroom is generally an open\nbucket, and approximately half of those reporting use a common drinkingcup or dipper. Recently there has been a rapid growth in the use of individual drinking-cups. This is due chiefly to the laws in many states\nmaking it mandatory to avoid common drinking- vessels. In this connection, should\nI\nlike to say that individual drinking-cups in rural schools\nare, however, not generally in a sanitary condition. They are frequently\nmixed up, badly kept, and indiscriminately used. The only safe method\nis the bubbling fountain connected with a covered water can or jar, or\n\n"}
{"page": 1125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n'\n\n1 109\n\nbetter still connected with a pressure-tank supply. These are found in\nonly five of the schools reporting.\nThe toilet facilities of the rural schools are, generally speaking, not\nonly a disgrace, but they are a menace to public health and decent morals.\nNot over i per cent of rural schools are furnished with sanitary toilets.\nThis is a liberal estimate. From the descriptions given in the returns,\nit has been comparatively easy to decide between those which are passably\nsanitary and those insanitary. The figures are these: out of 1,296 replies\nexamined, 50 schools have no toilets at all, 52 have only one, and the rest,\nor 1,174, have two. Nearly half (601) have no pit at all for the refuse,\nwhile 631 have an open pit. Not 20 in the whole number are protected\nagainst flies, or can be cleaned with any sort of success. Particularly\nis this true of the South and Southwest. The Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradication of Hookworm Disease has recently concluded\nthat it will inevitably fail in eradicating this devitalizing disease unless\nrural communities institute some form of septic toilets both at their homes\nand at their schools. Likewise, there is little hope of keeping down typhoid\nepidemics when insanitary toilets, or none at all, are so universal. The\nbiggest problem for the rural communities to solve is the problem of domestic and personal hygiene. The rural school ought to lead in this movement, but you see how far away we are from what ought to be. Every\nstate and county health board having to do with rural or village conditions\nought to institute a persistent campaign for better hygienic toilets. Models\nought to be available for every community. In this connection, I want\nto commend especially the great services state boards of health are rendering in this regard. They are doing many fold more to interest and instruct\nthe people in these matters than are the county superintendents and\nteachers.\nThe rest of the time at my disposal must be taken up with a mere\nrecital of facts, but all who have had any experience in country schools\ncan see the significance of these facts and fill in the details.\nCountry schools are about as liable to get north and south light as\neast and west. A little over half have slate boards, and the rest have\npainted wood, canvas, painted plaster, or some one of the various preparations of paper or pulp. More than half have their blackboards set three\nfeet or more above the floor, or too high for the primary classes to use\nproperly. Seventy-four (74) begin their work at 8 o'clock, 117 at 8:30,\nand 1,102 at 9 o'clock. Only 167 dismiss before 4 o'clock. The reports\nshow no cloakrooms of any sort in 537 schools, while 418 have one cloakroom, and 308, two. Where no cloakroom is available, clothing is hung\ninside the room, or piled up on benches in the corners.\nNo thermometers are found in two-thirds of the buildings, and even\nwhere they are supplied it is manifestly clear either that many teachers\nknow next to nothing about keeping a schoolroom at the proper temperature.\n\n"}
{"page": 1126, "printed_page": null, "text": "mo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nor else the conditions of the buildings are such that they cannot keep their\nrooms at even temperature. For example, not a few say, \"I am supplied\nwith a thermometer, and strive to keep the temperature at 75° to 90°\nin winter.\" This may not be so bad as it seems. If the thermometer\nis above the breathing-line, the temperature a foot above the floors may\nbe as low as 65°. Until the buildings are more carefully constructed, the\nheating of rural schools wdll be necessarily very unsatisfactory.\nOf 1,268 reports on method of heating, 765 use the common stove,\nand for the most part (604 cases) locate it in the middle of the room.\nThere are practically no workrooms furnished, not one-fourth of the\ndesks are adjustable, and few of the buildings are properly decorated.\nIn conclusion, I wish to say that it is very important at this time to\nrender helpful service to the rural schools. They are eager for better\nthings, but sadly ignorant of what ought to be. Much of the back-to-thefarm movement will be disappointing, unless the rural schools are remodeled\nand revivified.\nTHE\nFRANK\n\nTESTING\nG.\n\nBRUNER,\n\nOF CHILDREN\nASSISTANT\nPUBLIC\n\nFOR MENTAL\n\nDIRECTOR,\nSCHOOLS,\n\nDEPARTMENT\nCHICAGO\n\nEFFICIENCY\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY,\n\nFrom the viewpoint of child hygiene it should not seem unreasonable\nto insist that it is the right of every child to be permitted to do his school\nwork with the least possible expenditure of time and effort consistent with\nthe highest degree of acquisition and mental development. But if on? is\nto accept, even with large discount, the results of scores of investigations\non school children, it would appear that scarcely half of the pupils attending\nour schools are sufficiently free from physical defects alone, so that their\nschool progress is not seriously handicapped. These investigations have\nshown that defective eyes, ears, teeth, poor digestion, circulation, elimination\nand nutrition, obstructed breathing, grave nervous disturbances, etc., are\ndissipating the energies of children and are the sources of economic waste\nas regards school funds and the future possibilities of those who are to\nbecome our producers.\nThose of us who have occasion to examine into the physical status of\nchildren are often surprised that, considering the impedimenta which\nchildren frequently bear, their frail organisms do not sooner break under the\nrack and strain incident to any kind of schoolroom effort, and that their\nminds are not driven to imbecility because of the enforced inaction that\ntheir physical condition often impels upon them.\nHappily the time is not distant when this state of affairs will be for the\nmost part historical. In most of the progressive communities certain\nnatural standards have come to be recognized by school and health authorities which shall govern the conditions under which children shall do their\n\n"}
{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTESTING\n\nCHILDREN\n\nFOR\n\nMENTAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIII I\n\nwork in school, at least in a negative way. It is conceded on all hands that\na child's health shall not be injured by school attendance, his body weakened,\nhis eyesight, digestion, and other physiological functions impaired, and\nthat he shall not be made nervous and sleepless by an overtaxing of his\ncapacities, or by being compelled to work under unfavorable conditions as\nregards schoolroom lighting, ventilation, heating, seating, etc. The\nleaven which has been working during the past two decades so effectively\nhas spread its activity until the entire educational body is just about completely leavened. It is gratifying to feel that this matter is no longer in a\npropaganda stage, and that school people, whether they have medical\ninspection of the children of their schools or not, recognize this as a desideratum. By a recent action of the Board of Education, every child entering\nthe Chicago schools for the first time next September, will be compelled to\npresent a physician's certificate indicating the condition of his health and\nthe character of his physical defects.\nBut there is another aspect of child hygiene to which I desire to call\nyour attention, one which to my mind is fully as important as these matters\nof general health, but which up to the present has received relatively little\nconsideration. I refer to what Professor Burnham of Clark University\nhas designated in his writings as ''mental hygiene.\" Altho as yet their\nnumber is small, there are nevertheless those educator prophets who\npossess; sufficient foresight to see the day dawning when the mental side\nof the child's make-up will receive just as careful study and special attention as is now accorded the physical. It is, of course, obvious that mental\nexaminations will have to be made by those who have been especially\ntrained for this type of work, those who have been trained exhaustively in\nthe principles and methods of child psychology and pedagogy.\nThese trained child psychologists will examine into the mental content\nof children's minds and will discover any deviation that may obtain from\nthe average or normal mind of the child of the same age and social status\nand will prescribe courses of training that will tend to normalize unfavorable\ntendencies and habits. They will give expert advice regarding children\nwith special gifts in this or that direction. They will outline a system of\ntraining that will tend to a healthy mental growth and development, just\nas the practicing physician offers suggestions looking to children's physical\nbetterment. They will give expert advice that will give definite direction\nto those interested in vocational guidance, so that a child's likes and dislikes will not be so large a determining factor in deciding his future\nvocational career as his native capacity and his native tendencies. They\nwill learn to recognize those peculiar marks and characteristics which indicate the direction of certain strong, instinctive tendencies, those which so\nprofoundly influence morals and conduct, and which, when known and\nintelligently directed, make unnecessary the pain and patient labor required\nto eradicate unfavorable habits after they have become fixed.\n\n"}
{"page": 1128, "printed_page": null, "text": "1112\n\n.V^ TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nIt would not be far wrong to designate such individuals as doctors of\nmental therapy, and the time, I believe, is ripe when such individuals can\nlaunch a work of such vital significance without arousing the suspicion of\nquackery. Lest those of you not thoroly familiar with the recent results\nof child psychology should think that all this is idealistic, I desire to assure\nyou that what I have been speaking of is not simply an inchoate dream,\nbom of the faint hope of something which the future may consummate,\nbut an actual possibility and, indeed, one which is being carried into execution daily in the Child Study Bureau of the Board of Education, with which\nI have the honor to be connected.\nTime will not permit me to outline except in briefest form the methods\nthat are employed in mental and physical examinations of children.\nWe are concerned with data relative to children's physical condition\nprimarily, only in so far as these data reveal imperfections or irregularities\nin the workings of bodily organs of such character that they significantly\naffect the mental or moral efficiency of the thinking organs, or perhaps will\nafford secondary evidence of physical or moral degeneracy.\nThe physical measurements which we make are similar to those ordinarily taken in gymnasia, with the addition of a rather wide range of\nobservations on the character of the growth, movement, and the condition\nof the senses. A list of measurements made follows:\nWeight; height; height sitting; length, breadth, and circumference of head; girth\nof chest (compressed and expanded); girth of waist; girth of right forearm; girth of right\narm (biceps, contracted, relaxed); capacity of limgs; strength of back, and of legs; grip\nof both hands; motor ability (rate of movement) ; accuracy of movement; vision of each\neye (distance, near, astigmatic) ; acuity of each ear.\n\nThe observations on growth included:\nSize and shape of head (macrocephaUsm, microcephalism, doUchocephalism, bracycephalism, cranial asjTnmetry, and retreating, narrow, or low forehead); malformation\nof the palpebral fissures, the bones of the nose, or the maxillaries; irregularities in the\nform of the palate and ears; spinal curvatures (lateral or dorsal); deformities of Umbs,\nchest, face, or head; evidences of obesity, emaciation, rachitis; extreme pallor and\nanaemia; enlarged tonsils; adenoids; and furrowed, misformed, or papillated tongue,\nkyphosis, rickets, deformities, etc.\n\nOn the side of nervous organization, the range of observations included:\nSluggishness; restlessness; asymmetry of posture, head balance or hand balance,\nmuscular tensity, as instanced by the overaction of the frontal muscles, corrugation of the\nbrow, twitching of the finer, or secondary muscles when the body is held rigid (fingers,\neyeUds, tongue, lips, facial muscles, etc.) ; relaxed or flabby state of the muscular tissues\nin general, and particularly that about the eyes and mouth; and deficiency of motor\ncontrol or co-ordination, as exhibited in awkwardness of movement, lack of precision in\nadjustments, and one or the other of the commoner speech defects — hesitation, lisping,\nstammering, stuttering, defective articulation, phonation or breathing, tic, chorea,\nmuscular spasms, epilepsy, etc.\n\nHeight, height sitting, and weight are perhaps the best indices of growth\nthat we possess at present. They afford some criterion of the rate of\n\n"}
{"page": 1129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTESTING\n\nCHILDREN\n\nFOR\n\nMENTAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n1 1 13\n\ndevelopment and evidence as to whether there are now, or have been in the\npast, any serious nutritional disturbances, such as to aflfect directly or\nindirectly school work. The measurements of chest, waist, forearms, and\nupper arm, together with those of vital capacity, strength, motor ability,\nand accuracy, serve to give a more accurate statement of a child's fund of\nvital energy than is possible from mere observation. Moreover, they make\nit possible to suggest lines of necessary corrective treatment and indicate\ncertain physical limitations which children possess and their liability of\nfatigue in the pursuance of various kinds of work. It is altogether obvious\nthat moral training and correction too, to be most lasting, must be in\nkeeping with the physical organism upon which thinking and conduct rests,\nand in full recognition of the physical handicaps under which children are\ntrying to live moral lives.\nNo one, perhaps, more clearly than the diagnostician himself, recognizes\nthe inadequacy of physical measurements imsupported by observation,\nwhen trying to size up a child's physical possibilities. The observations\non growth thus supplement the information gained thru the quantitative\nmeasurements. But these observations have a wider meaning, in that\nthru them it is frequently possible to learn something, in the absence of\naccurate history, of children's heredity, and the physiological factors which\nhave been operative in making them what they are, both physically and\nintellectually. A poor heredity is almost certain to leave certain marks\nin the nature of irregularities of growth and deformities of one kind or\nanother.\nNutritional disturbances, in the form of rachitis in infancy and the\nextreme anaemias in later childhood, are such that a wholesome dietary\nand hygienic regime will for the most part counteract. Altho certain malformations inbones and some abdominal features cannot be entirely corrected or obliterated, their influence on conduct and scholarship may be\nlargely nullified. Enlarged tonsils and hyper trophied adenoidic tissues,\non the other hand, are recommended for removal by surgery or cauterization, inasmuch as both directly and indirectly they tend to dampen intellectual ardor, cause nervousness, and induce petulance and irascibility.\nAlmost any hypertrophied tissue, too, acts as a veritable intake of contagion— bacteria, toxins, etc. — thru its loosely constituted and diseased\ncellular tissues.\nDefects in movement or motor control of course have their basis in a\nmore or less disorganized state of the nervous system, and nervous disturbances are always slow to yield to treatment. In many instances, too, the\nbad posture, head and hand balance, the spinal curvature, and the muscular\ntensity and inco-ordination are of long standing, and therefore their early\nrecognition and treatment are the more necessary. Irregularities of the\norder just indicated, moreover, are such as will not yield to medicinal\ntreatment alone. Indeed a wholesome hygienic care, and a repertoire of\n\n"}
{"page": 1130, "printed_page": null, "text": "II 14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nphysical exercises adapted to the needs of each individual child must supplement the physician's prescription to attain permanent results.\nIn the same category with nervous disturbances, that is, with reference\nto their effects upon scholarship and conduct, are defects of hearing and\nvision. It is not infrequently that a child's inability to hear and see well\nin itself results in his becoming irritable, restless, resentful, and dull, and\nconsequently a truant or incorrigible.\nJust so far as possible it has been our aim to employ only such tests for\nmeasuring children's capacities as will not be affected by their schoolroom\nstandings, and especially is this necessary of boys who find their way to\nthe Chicago Parental School, since, on account of irregular school habits,\nand the want of effective co-operation on the part of the home with the work\nof the school, their mental ability is ordinarily far in excess of what their\nschool standings would seem to indicate. Manifestly teachers should seek to\nfurther children's school attainments as fast as their capacities for learning\nand the limit of time will allow, and certainly, too, better results can be\nobtained if they are clearly conscious of the directions of these mental limitations, so that their teaching may be modified in kind and direction so as\nto be in keeping with them. The mental tests, therefore, form the most\nprominent features of the testing of children and, in point of fact, the purpose of the physical observations, as has already been said, is in no small\ndegree to make more perfect the mental diagnosis.\nA preliminary word is perhaps necessary with reference to the particular\nmental tests made. Many of the children we are called upon to assist are\nschool laggards, grading from one to five years lower than normal, as regards\nschool standing, than their respective ages would warrant. Take the\nthirteen-year-old boys in the Chicago Parental School on a certain date,\nas an example: only one was in grade VII or above, 7 in grade VI, 7 in\ngrade V, 18 in grade IV, 27 in grade III, 17 in grade II, and 4 in grade I.\nBoys of younger years showed a distribution, in every essential respect,\nsimilar to that of the thirteen-year-olds, so that it is evident that all mental\ntests which in their performance call for familiarity with the arts of the\nschoolroom would, by the very nature of the case, have to be discarded\nin a testing of them; and this has reference to a large number of the tests\nof association and reasoning frequently employed in pedagogical laboratories. Such tests had to be selected and de\\ased, consequently, as would\nbe suitable for use with children who are unable to read the simplest sentences in English, and to whom, in many instances, even the letters of the\nalphabet and the Arabic numerals, from one to ten, are wholly unknown.\nIn examining the children of the lower grades of intelligence, the tests\nfrequently have to be limited to those of imitation and suggestibility.\nThis may consist merely in ha\\ing the child hold a stick, pencil, or object\nso that its general direction will correspond with one which the experimenter holds or to which he points. They grade in complexity then, from\n\n"}
{"page": 1131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTESTING\n\nCHILDREN\n\nFOR MENTAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n1115\n\nthis up to those calling for a drawing from sight of the ''treble clef\" or a\ncomplex maze without raising the pencil from the paper. The sorting of\ncards, blocks, sticks, yams, according to the color, size, and shape of the\nobjects themselves or of their pictures, are other suggestibility tests used.\nAnother test along the same line requires the child to place a mark thru each\nof one hundred a's arranged, orderly in rows, which calls for nothing further\nthan to follow out a repetitive process.\nAfter the imitation and suggestion tests come those which seek chiefly\nto test abUity to perceive objective differences, and this requires a slightly\nhigher order of intelligence. In this line are such tests as call for the discrimination ofsmall differences in color; or the bisecting of a line; or in the\nmarking-out of each of one hundred a's distributed indiscriminately thruout\na paragraph of print; or in placing a stroke with a pencil thru all the\ngroups of four ^'s in a paragraph made up of groups of one, two, three, four^\nfive, and six ^'s respectively; or in placing the appropriate numeral into\neach corner of four, dissected from the oblique cross, and distributed promiscuously inrows;^ in discriminating the least perceptible difference in\nweight and in size, etc.\nIt is always important for a teacher to know in what terms learning\nis best accomplished, whether thru seeing, or thru the sense of hearing, or\nwhether by the more fundamental method of manipulation, i.e., activity,\nthe process of doing. To determine this point, one must ascertain what is\nthe child's prevailing form of imagery, and for deciding this question there\nhas been suggested a number of methods, but none, perhaps, better than\nthat of measuring the rate and ease of learning, thru test problems and\nquestions; appealing in turn predominantly to each of the three major\ntypes of imagery and association, the visual, the auditory, and the motor.\nThe superiority of motor over visual methods of learning, or vice versa,\nmay be tested by having boys learn to draw from memory a complex maze,\nfirst as the result of simply having looked at it, and again after having\ncopied it. This method has been applied, by some experimenters, to\nspelling tests in order to determine the most advantageous ways of teaching\nspelling, but in the case of spelling the mechanical work of making the lettersis in itself such as to distract attention and interfere with the normal\nlearning process.\nThe determination of the memory span for numerals, or words heard,\nseen, and spoken or written, is another method which is used to get at the\nprevailing type of an individual's mental imagery. Still another, and to\nmy mind a better one, consists in determining the number of repetitions\nnecessary to repeat one numeral or one word more than the normal memory\nspan, each for auditory, visual, and motor memory.\nIn testing memory, the method of the memory span, that of connected\n' The test consists in recognizing the similarity between the corner in the row and the one in the form at\nthe top of the page and placing within it the numeral which is in this comer in the form.\n\n"}
{"page": 1132, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 16\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\ndiscourse (descriptive and logical), and that of ascertaining the number\nof repetitions required to repeat one in excess of the normal memory span\n(just described above) are employed. • All of these methods, moreover,\nare too familiar to require any elaboration or further description.\nThe terms \"learning\" and \"association\" are equivalent in the sense in\nwhich they are here employed. Learning in school, during the first years,\nis concerned in large measure with getting possession of the mechanical\nsymbols employed in written language and numerical operations, and hence\nit is altogether fitting that the tests of learning employed with children\nshould be in terms of associations which are more or less conventional and\nabstract. Of the large number of learning tests we employ, I shall offer\nonly four or five samples.\nThe first test of learning is as follows: On a test form before the child,\nappear in rows in haphazard order, one hundred geometric figures: (i) right\ntriangle resting upon its base, the right angle at the right; (2) the same\nwith the right angle at the left; (3) a circle; (4) a square resting upon one\nside; (5) a square resting upon one angle. The same forms appear at the\ntop of the test sheet in a row by themselves, and within each is a numeral\nor letter. With this row in direct vision, the boys are required to place\nin each geometrical figure on the page the numeral or letter which is within\nthis figure at the top of the test form. The time required to complete each\ntwo rows is then taken, and the rapidity of making associations or learning\nmeasured by the diminution in time required for the successive performances.\nThe second learning test is fundamentally similar to the above. In\nplace of geometrical figures, however, numerals and letters are associated\nwith colors, and instead of writing, the boy repeats audibly, as fast as he\ncan, the numeral name of each color. The time is taken as before.\nIn the third test a transition is made from forced arbitrary associations\nto arbitrary logical associations. This test is identical with the last one\ndescribed, in connection with suggestion, except that here the work is\ndone from memory, and not perceptually, as before.\nThe fourth association test involves part-whole associations, and\nsimple perceptual reasoning. The situation is that of the ordinary crisscross, the several parts of which — nine in all — duplicated to the number of\nfifty, appear in indiscriminate order, upon a regular test sheet. Within\nthe angles or parts of the criss-cross, appear the numerals one to nine, in\nregular order. This situation appears upon a separate sheet, is thoroly\nexplained to the boy, and then removed from sight. The boy must keep\nthis situation in mind, and, from memory, write into each of the fifty forms\nthe numerals associated with it in the criss-cross.\nLastly, associational ability and reasoning power are measured by the\nchild's facility in solving certain practical problems, involving cause and\neffect, the genus-species relation, part-whole, antithesis, etc. Some of these\n\n"}
{"page": 1133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTESTING\n\nCHILDREN\n\nFOR MENTAL\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n1117\n\nwere adapted from tests of intelligence formulated and used by Professor\nBinet, of Paris, and Professor de Sanctis, of the University of Rome.\nWhere they are adaptable, use is made also of both the Binet-Simon and\nthe de Sanctis tests as a whole. However, our experience with these has\nnot been, on the whole, very favorable.\nI wish I might say that we are able to diagnose infallibly the mental\nand moral status of all children and that in individual cases we are able\nto determine with finality the significant deviations which large numbers of\nchildren show in mental balance, mental capacity, and moral poise, and,\nhaving diagnosed them, to formulate a set of rules and guiding principles\nwhich, if followed in the home, at play, and in the classroom, result in a\nmaximum of mental and moral growth, with a minimum expenditure of\neffort. Alas, we are not yet able to make easy and effortless the discipline\nand instruction of every child, for in some instances these come only with\nstruggle and worry. Unfortunately, too, our psychologists have not yet\nlearned enough about the workings of children's mental machinery and the\nmethods to employ in testing it, so that one may dogmatize to any extent.\nBut is a physician's diagnosis of internal diseases definite ? Do physicians\ndo more than make a series of scientific guesses? In psychology, as in\nmedicine, we as yet know only in part. Nevertheless, psychology has that\nto offer to the careful student who will give enough time and energy to it\nto master it— and it cannot be accomplished in one or two summers — which\nwill make it possible for him to determine fairly accurately the degree of\na child's mental defect or the character or degree of the mental deviations\nor the nature of a child's moral tendencies. It is possible for him to inform\nhimself, likewise, so that he may prescribe lines of treatment which shall\nbe particularly applicable to the peculiar needs of any individual case.\nThe economy resulting from knowing children's mental and physical\ncondition, accurately, as early as possible after their entrance into school\nis, of course, patent. When it is understood that until a child's eccentricities are recognized and taken account of, his handling and instruction\nmust of necessity be indefinite, it is clearly evident that a foreknowledge,\neven tho incomplete, will obviate the expenditure of needless time and\neffort. Certain other characteristics of children's minds are closed books\nto those who are not expert child psychologists, and yet they are important\nfor teachers to know if their teaching is to be most effective, and particularly\nis this true if the children are in corrective institutions, where the training\nis concentrated and intensive. The knowledge of certain subtle peculiarities has a tendency to put a teacher en rapport with a child possessing\nthem, with the result that teaching is simplified, effort is not misdirected,\nthe pupil is better behaved, he makes faster progress, and both teacher and\nchild are happier. This, briefly, is a suggestive field for a mental hygiene.\nI am aware of only one place where the program I have just outlined\nis carried out so as to include every child under instruction. This is at the\n\n"}
{"page": 1134, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 18\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nChicago Parental School, where every boy on admission is subjected to\ncareful and exhaustive physical and mental testing. On the findings of\nthese testings there are prepared written reports for the information and\nguidance of those having the boys in charge — the superintendent, teachers,\nand family officers. This report on each boy points out his physical imperfections, any peculiarities in the workings of his mind which may require\nspecial methods of teaching and discipline, and a description of the nature\nof his moral instincts and tendencies. There is outlined also a suggestive\ncourse of training, mental, moral, and physical, which is suited to accomplish the best possible results in each particular case.\nThe effect of this expert work at the Chicago Parental School has been\na considerable shortening of the necessary period of detention of the boys,\nand in consequence a very obvious economic gain to the taxpayers of the\ncity of Chicago. And what about the boys themselves ? They are being\nhelped intelligently to break up their bad habits, their misdirected lives\nare being transformed, and their interests turned into wholesome channels.\nThe boys are saved to society instead of being repressed for a time; institutionalized, perchance, and then set at large as social misfits.\nWe believe that the time is not distant when such a program will be\ncarried out with reference to every child in the public schools. The\nsuggestion is economically sound and is a moral obligation which society\nowes to its children.\nThis is an illustration of only one of the many possibilities of the application ofmental hygiene. Chicago has been doing pioneer work along this\nline for a number of years, but we have faith to believe that not many\nyears hence, there will be universal recognition of the fact that the hygiene\nof mind is as great a social necessity as is the hygiene of the body.\nSCHOOL\nEDWESf\n\nO. JORDAN,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nDISEASES\n\nOF BACTERIOLOGY,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF CHICAGO,\n\nThere is no doubt that children of school age contract such diseases as\nmeasles, scarlet fever, and diphtheria much more frequently than older\npersons. Sharp difference of opinion exists, however, as to the actual part\nplayed by school attendance in the transmission of these diseases. Some\nobservers maintain that while the maladies in question are diseases of school\nchildren, they are not properly to be regarded as school diseases. From\nthis standpoint diphtheria, scarlet fever, and the like are especially prevalent\namong school children, not because school conditions favor their transmission, but simply because children of school age are more susceptible to\ninfection. On the other side are those who hold that school attendance\nplays a large part, if not the chief part, in the dissemination of infectious\ndisease among groups of children of susceptible ages.\n\n"}
{"page": 1135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISEASES\n\nIII9\n\nViewed broadly, there is much to favor the latter opinion. All that has\nbeen learned about the modes of transmission of certain diseases, notably\ndiphtheria, indicates that taking a large number of children out from their\nrestricted family and neighborhood relationships and bringing them into\ncontact with a much larger group will increase the opportunities for infection. In some other fields of investigation this fact is well established.\nThe advent of a typhoid-carrier in a military encampment will give rise to\nmore cases of disease than if the carrier had remained by his own fireside\nin contact with relatively few persons. In the same way, it may be assumed,\na convalescent or carrier attending a school has a wider sphere of influence\nthan in his own block; that is, he may be the means of conveying the spark\nof contagion to a larger circle. As regards specific opportunities for infection furnished by the school, it must be admitted that while the slate, the\ncommon drinking-cup, and the roller- towel are fast passing away, sufficiently\nadequate facilities for the transfer of disease germs still exist in the friendly\nexchange of pocket handkerchiefs, lip-moistened lead pencils, chewing-gum,\nand the like. One danger peculiarly difficult to guard against is the\ndischarge of minute droplets of spray from the mouth or nose in the act of\nsneezing, coughing, or speaking. These \"infectious droplets\" may float\nabout in the air for some minutes and, as shown by experiment, can be\nborne by air currents to a distance of several feet. In the opinion of some\ninvestigators they are the principal factors in the spread of tuberculosis.\nThe school playground as well as the schoolroom must be considered in its\nbearing on the subject of school diseases. The significance of school\nattendance on the public health side lies not only in the assembling of\nchildren in a room, but also in the bringing into more or less intimate\nassociation a number of children who would otherwise not have met at all.\nIncreasing the number of associates must necessarily increase the chances\nof infection.\nThere can on the whole be no doubt that school attendance favors in\nsome degree the transmission of disease. The real point at issue is the\nimportance of school infection compared with other sources of infection.\nIf the cases of infectious disease for which the school can be held responsible\nare relatively few in number in comparison with the cases contracted thru\nother channels, then it is manifestly wrong to speak of such diseases as\nschool diseases; they are rather diseases to which school children are liable\nbecause of their age predisposition. The controversy is therefore over the\nactual proportion of cases contracted thru the agency of the school.\nHere there is a wide divergence of opinion. Some observers point to the\nfact that cases of diphtheria and scarlet fever show a marked increase in\nthe autumn when the schools open and an equally definite decrease in the\nsummer when the schools are closed, as evidence of the importance of school\ninfection. Others regard such fluctuations as merely the expression of seasonal influences, with which school closings and openings happen to coincide.\n\n"}
{"page": 1136, "printed_page": null, "text": "II20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Child Hygiene\n\nClose analysis of the statistics is thought to support the latter \\dew. Kerr,'\nin London, and Chapin,* in Providence, R.I., as the result of statistical\nstudies, believe that diphtheria and scarlet fever are rarely spread in schools\nand that the great mass of cases originates independently of school conditions. After a careful ' examination of the weekly numbers of reported\ncases of diphtheria and scarlet fever in Chicago for 1908-12, I have been\nunable to detect any well-marked variation in the nimibers of cases at the\ndates of the opening and closing of schools in September and June or at\nthe time of the Christmas and spring holidays. Other investigators, handling other statistical data, have reached opposite conclusions. In some\ncases the Christmas and Easter holidays have been observed to cause\napparently a diminution in the number of diphtheria cases. The whole\ninquiry undoubtedly presents serious statistical difficidties. Attention, for\nexample, has been drawn to the fact that both diphtheria and scarlet fever\ncases in children grouped according to age gradually increase in munber\nup to four or five years of age and then begin to fall off. As Chapin\nexpresses it:\nIt is remarkable if school attendance has sufficient influence to cause the autumnal\nincrease in these diseases as is so often alleged, that it has not sufficient influence to at\nleast keep up the disease after children reach the age when they begin to go to school.\n\nIt is possible, however, that factors operative in early life but disappearing later, such as great age susceptibility and great liability to milk-borne\ninfection, may be in some degree replaced later on by the danger of school\nattendance. In other words, scarlet fever and diphtheria may be much\nhigher in children of school age than they would be but for the influence of\nschool attendance in multiplying chances for infection. Chapin's tables\nshow that there were in Pro\\adence during a period of 21 years 813 diphtheria and 1,171 scarlet fever cases reported in four-year-old children as\ncontrasted with 565 cases of diphtheria and 868 of scarlet fever in eightyear-old children. Such figures do not necessarily prove, however, that the\nnumber of eight-year-old cases is not in part or even in large part due to\nschool attendance.\nWe need not assume that conditions are alike in all infectious diseases.\nMeasles, scarlet fever, and diphtheria seem to stand each on a somewhat\ndifferent footing. Measles appears to be generally regarded by school\noflScials as commonly contracted at school. Unfortunately few exact\nstatistical studies have been made. In a recent epidemic reported by RaflSe\nin the Lancet,^ yjS cases occurred in a susceptible school population of\n2,180. These might of course have been contracted either at school or at\nhome. After closing the schools and making allowance for the incubation\nperiod only 75 cases occurred among 1,400 susceptible children. There are\n' Report of Medical Officer [Education], London, 1909, Vol. 63.\n'American Journal of Public Hygiene, 1910, Vol. XX, p. 813.\n'Lancet, Februaiy 3, 1913, p. 394.\n\n"}
{"page": 1137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISEASES\n\n1 12 1\n\nobvious sources of error in statistics compiled in this way, but Raffle's\nresults are at least suggestive. According to Kingsford,' in Liverpool the\nconnection between school attendance and measles is very clear. In\n1909-10 in studying the occurrence of measles in individual school children\nthere was a history of a recent case in the house in which the child lived\nin only i . 5 per cent of the school cases. Kingsf ord also states :\nWhere there is a susceptible school child in the family, it is found in practically every\ninstance that this child is the first to contract the disease and is the one chiefly responsible\nfor handing it on to the younger members of the family who do not attend school.\n\nOther observations, like those of Royer on an epidemic of measles in the\nHaverford School,^ tend to emphasize the importance of school attendance\nin spreading this disease, but further and more comprehensive studies\ndirected toward a definite end are needed.\nScarlet fever seems to be less generally considered a school disease.\nMany investigations point to milk supply as a prominent factor in the\nspread of scarlet fever, and there is a growing disbelief in the importance of\nschool infection. D'Ewart^ has recently questioned the responsibility of\nschools for the spread of scarlet fever on the basis of a careful school canvass\nin Manchester, England. He points out that in Manchester summer closing\nof the schools can hardly account for the summer drop in scarlet fever cases,\nsince in summer the number of children in the city is reduced by about 37\nper cent while the scarlet fever decrease is only 17 per cent. As in Providence and some other cities, so in Manchester there is no jump in scarlet\nfever cases at the age when school-going begins. While this fact is suggestive, itis, as already pointed out, not a conclusive argument against the\nimportance of school infection, since a rapid waning in the number of cases\ndue to infected milk might completely mask a slighter increase due to school\ninfection. The question is really to what extent school-going keeps the\ncases at a higher level than would otherwise be maintained. D'Ewart,\nafter surveying the whole ground, assigns little weight to school attendance,\nand states that\nwhen the series of cases is complete, evidence will be produced showing that the bulk of\nthe cases occurring in school children can have nothing directly to do with school.\n\nSuch instances, however, as the one described by Roach^ show the important\npart sometimes played by the school in the spread of scarlet fever.\nIn both scarlet fever and measles unfortunately we have not yet discovered the specific cause and know little or nothing about modes of\ninfection and points of entrance. This uncertainty robs even carefid\nstudies of a large part of their value and reduces much of our discussion of\nthese two diseases to the level of conjecture.\n' The Medical Officer, 1912, Vol. VII, p. 237.\n'Report of Commissioner of Health of Pennsylvania, 1909, p. 219.\niThe Medical Officer [London], March 2, 1912; Abstract in American Journal of Public Eeallh 1912,\nVol. II, p. 313.\n* American Journal of Public Health, 191 2, Vol. II, p. 410.\n\n"}
{"page": 1138, "printed_page": null, "text": "1122\n\nNATIONAL\n\ni:DUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nDiphtheria in this respect stands on quite a different basis from scarlet\nfever and measles. Here we have a mass of exact and detailed bacteriological observations which we might suppose would enable us to approach the\nproblem with fuller understanding. It is somewhat surprising to find here\nalso the same difference in opinion as to the importance of school infection.\nKerr^ and Chapin* apparently regard diphtheria as being, like scarlet fever,\nlittle affected by school attendance. Huls,^ fortified by eleven years'\nexperience as school physician, goes so far as to say flatly that \"diphtheria\nis not spread by schools,\" and Versmann,'' while admitting that occasional\noutbreaks of school diphtheria occur, believes that these are exceptional.\nOn the other hand, a considerable number of investigators have recorded\noutbreaks of diphtheria where the connection with school attendance could\nnot be doubted. Many of these epidemics are so typical of diphtheria\noutbreaks in general as to arouse suspicion that the same factors are at\nwork in a large proportion of the uninvestigated cases. Macdonald,^ after\nstudying a recent outbreak states:\nAll school carriers were found to be intimately associated at play with other cases and\ncarriers, and mere classroom proximity was foimd to be of little importance in spreading\nthe disease.\n\nIn England Thorne-Thome^ long ago called attention to the influence\nof school attendance upon diphtheria and cited numerous instances where\nschools were plainly implicated in the diffusion of infection. The same\nwriter also points out the coincidence between the putting into effect of the\ncompulsory education act in 1870 and the increase in diphtheria prevalence\nwhich began in England and Wales about the same time. It is interesting\nto note that altho Thorne-Thorne made his observations before precise\nbacteriological methods were in use he clearly recognizes on epidemiological\ngrounds the part played by carriers in disseminating infection. Ward and\nHenderson^ in this country, Vervoort* in Amsterdam, Seligmanfi\" and Frank\"*\nin Germany, and many others have shown the reality of school infection in\ndefinite instances. Frank, for example, in studying an epidemic of diphtheria in 1910-11 among the pupils of a girls' school in Charlottenburg,\nfound that conveyance of infection must have taken place in the school,\nsince the children were recruited from all parts of the city, some of them\ncoming from districts where at the time no diphtheria cases were known to\n» Loc. cil.\n' Loc. cit.\n> Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, 1911, No. 3. Cited by Goldstein, Vierteljahrsckrift fur gerichtliche Medicin, 191 2, Vol. XLIII, p. 150 B.\n* Zeitschriftftir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1910, No. 3.\n'Lancet, March 25, xgii, p. 795^Diphtheria, London: Macmillan & Co., 1891.\n» California State Journal of Medicine, August, 1907 .\n• Eygienische Rundschau, 1908, Vol. XVIII, p. 14S9.\nf Zeitschrift fiir Hygiene, 1911, Vol. LXX, p. 35.\n\"Eygienische Rundschau, 1912, Vol. XXII, p. 325.\n\nCited by Goldstein.\n\n"}
{"page": 1139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISEASES\n\n1 1 23\n\nexist. In 1909 the number of children in this school developing diphtheria\namounted to only o . 7 per cent, which was about the average for the other\nschools of the city, while in 1910-1 1 the number of diphtheria cases increased\nto 14 per cent. Detailed investigation of the school by classes showed\nalways a certain relation between the number of new cases and the number\nof diphtheria-carriers; most of the cases occurred in the classes in which\ndiphtheria-carriers were detected. In those classes where carriers were\nlacking there were only one or two cases or none at all. Westenhoefler\npoints out that in the Berlin epidemic of 1911-12 the schools played the\nchief role in the dissemination of infection. Among other recent writers\nGoldstein' has laid stress on the importance of the healthy diphtheriacarrier in spreading disease.\nThe discovery of the part played by the healthy germ-carrier throws\nlight on the probable origin of certain obscure cases of infection. A child\nin a family in which a case of diphtheria exists may bear in its throat living\ndiphtheria bacilli without manifesting any sign of disease. If this child is\nallowed to enter school, a playmate may acquire the bacillus without in its\nturn becoming definitely ill. This second child, however, may take the\ngerm home and pass it on to a non-school-going child in the same family,\nwho then may develop a typical case of diphtheria. In this and even more\ncircuitous fashion a diphtheria bacillus may be handed around until the\noriginal source is difficult to trace. Variatiohs in the virulence of the germ\nand in the favorableness of the soil in which it lodges determine the actual\ndevelopment of a ''case.\" If a large number of children in a school happen\nto be in a susceptible state from climatic or other reasons, or if a diphtheria\nbacillus introduced into the school happens to have unusual infective power,\nthen a school epidemic will result.\nMethods of control of school and institutional outbreaks of diphtheria\nare therefore coming to be focused on the detection and exclusion of the\ncarrier. Summary disinfection of innocent chairs and tables and enforced\nschool closure are in general found to be less effective than the discovery\nand isolation of the living bearer of diphtheria baciUi. When school attendance is regulated by bacteriological findings, school epidemics quickly\nsubside.\nAltho we must freely admit that for diphtheria, at all events, evidence\nof infection thru school attendance is entirely convincing, we are as yet not\nin possession of sufficient information as to the relative importance of this\nsource. Our knowledge of the mode of spread of scarlet fever and measles\nis in a still more imperfect condition. It would seem desirable if thru the\nauspices of this Association an extensive and searching investigation under\nexpert supervision might be made of this question. To what extent and\nunder what conditions are the infectious diseases of childhood spread by\nschool attendance?\nAt present in combating the spread of infectious\n' Viertdjakrschrift JUr gerichiliche Medicin, 1912, Vol. XLIII, p. 136.\n\n"}
{"page": 1140, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\ndisease without adequate knowledge of the channels of infection we are in\ndanger of wasting our strength in misdirected efifort, and the conservation of\nhuman effort is certainly one of the most desirable forms of conservation.\nExperience has shown us that not all theoretically possible methods of\npreventing infection are. equally efficacious in practice. For each disease\nwe should aim to adopt special methods carefully devised to produce the\nmaximum effect with the smallest amount of injury or disturbance to the\nnormal relations of human life. To this end it is essential to discover the\nways in which infectious disease is commonly spread as well as the ways in\nwhich it might conceivably be spread. The abolition of the common\ndrinking-cup is a highly desirable procedure even if only an occasional case\nof infectious disease is prevented, but has anyone ever put on record whether\na measurable diminution in disease has taken place in a school after the\nintroduction of bubbling fountains ? In point of fact we do not know to\nwhat extent the various influences summed up under school attendance are\na factor in the dissemination of infectious diseases. The question should\nbe investigated.\nDISCUSSION\nDaniel P. MacMillan, director of the Department of Child Study and Educational\nResearch, public schools, Chicago, 111. — ^I think that it is indeed a fortunate circumstance\nthat there is already established a central bureau for child hygiene in the department\nof the United States commissioner of education, and our chief duty may, in a word, be\nsaid to be concerned with the desirability and necessity of keeping its interests and\nactivities living and worth while, and in turn of sharing in its strength and serviceableness\nthru active co-operation.\nI am very glad to learn of the scope of its plan of organization relative to child hygiene,\nand if carried out it is easy to forecast its future invaluable fimction in the life of the school\nchild. I personally am hopeful that the bureau will prove to be not only a valuable\nclearing-house on all matters relating to the child himself and the medium in which his\nlearning must be carried on, but also a collector and conservator of the best known about\nthe topic, a distributor of literature and information, and finally a stimulator in the line\nof research and suggestive improvements of all kinds.\nIn line with this general topic I am asked to tell you something of our own work\nin the Chicago public schools. According to the original plan of organization in 1899,\nthe Department of Child Study and Educational Research of the Chicago public schools\nwas designed to give its attention to three more or less distinct functions represented\nby: (a) original work of investigation of school children and school problems for children,\nnot only to subserve such local interests as might be represented in the problems of teaching and a^inistration, but such as might prove of general scientific importance; {b) dispensing information to the teaching body of the city concerning children and their education, gleaned from the results of other investigators as well as from our own, such\ninformation to be given in any one or all of the following ways: detailed and formal\nreports, lectures, and private conferences with mothers, teachers, social workers, and\nthe like, on particular cases or with reference to child problems of all sorts; (c) giving\nactive assistance in the practical problems of the school system that center about special\nand exceptional children.\nThe emphasis that has been placed on each of these three aspects of the work has\nvaried from time to time.\nAt first it was necessarily concentrated more in research:\n\n"}
{"page": 1141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTOOP\n\nSHOULDERS\n\nAND\n\nFLAT\n\nCHEST\n\nH2\n\nin feeling out the fields of greatest serviceableness, in establishing our own rules of work,\nand in determining the natural order and rate of development of the physical and mental\npowers of children other than their known ability or inability to make regular school\nprogress.\nThe second feature of our duties has necessarily changed somewhat in line with the\ntemporarily enforced obligations devolving upon us. The lengthened formal reports\nhave been largely of local interest about special problems, but I am still sanguine of securing adequate time in the near future for more detailed investigations of the normal child's\nlife and conditions of learning. Moreover, it should be mentioned that for every child\nexamined, a special report is sent to the person or organization calling our attention\nto the case, detailing the findings, describing the needs of the child both physical and\nmental, and telling how and where such physical care can be secured, and where he can\nbe placed to obtain the educational opportunities best adapted to his requirements as\noutlined in his pedagogical program. In this way the department is, to no small degree\nunder the necessity of acting in the capacity of a special bureau of information on the\ntwo sides of child life.\nWith regard to the third main division of work — that is, giving practical assistance\nwith special and exceptional children — it should be stated that this feature has had\nphenomenal growth. In behalf of certain of these children, such as the deaf, the blind,\nthe crippled, the truants and incorrigibles, the subnormals, and children afficted with\nminor speech defects, special provisions are made by the Board of Education. With\nreference to others investigated, there are no special opportunities furnished in the form\nof schools, centers, special teachers, and the like, so that advice must be given relative\nto their disposition in the regular grades. They may need only special physical care, or,\nin addition, some adaptive educational requirements such as the flexibility of the general\ncourse of study will permit; or it may be necessary for them to be taken out of school\nfor a short time because of the ill effects upon them mentally and physically; or, perchance,\nthey must be excused from attending public school for the sake of other children, since\ntheir low grade of mentality renders them incapable of taking advantage even of the\nspecial provisions of a public-school education, or because of the menace which they\npresent to other children in the way of epileptic attacks, grave moral offenses, and the like.\nFurther, it must conduct, with the co-operation of physicians from the civil service\napproved list, all physical examinations of persons securing certificates to teach in the\npublic schools, teachers returning to service after a definite period of absence, and all\ngraduates of the high schools who enter the normal school.\nFinally^ it should be noted that the Board of Education has made its first step to\nguard against the charge of paternalism, sometimes heard against boards of health or\nof education, and with the opening of the next school year the adopted plan will be\ninaugurated of having each child entering school for the first time, physically examined\nat the parents' order, on a uniform plan, by the family physician or other legally qualified\npractitioner of medicine. These records are to be kept by the Board of Education, and\nit is hoped that, in time, valuable information can be secured to supplement the often\nrapidly executed and cursory examinations of the regular medical inspectors of schools.\n\nSTOOP SHOULDERS\nCHARLES\n\nA.\n\nL.\n\nREED,\n\nAND\nM.D.,\n\nFLAT CHEST\nPROFESSOR\nCINCINNATI,\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nIN UNIVERSITY\nOHIO\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\nCINCINNATI,\n\nThe school-teacher is today the primary factor in the new and beneficent regime of the medical inspection of schools. Where medical inspection is not provided by law, the teacher is the exclusive factor. She is\n\n"}
{"page": 1142, "printed_page": null, "text": "1126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nthe protector of the pupil, the school, the community, and herself against\nany deleterious influence that may become operative within or thru the\nschool. She needs, therefore, to be apprised of the significance of every\ndeparture from the normal that may be manifested by any pupil under\nher care, I shall show some charts which will explain the not usually\nunderstood significance of one of the most serious conditions that can\nexist in school children. I allude to \"stoop shoulders and fiat chest,\"\nspecifically mentioned under this title in the textbooks on school inspection.\nI can, however, better present the essential features of this condition, as\nit manifests itself in my practice, by alluding to the following example:\n\nFig. 3\nFig. I\n\nFig. 2\n\nA young woman, aged eighteen, was sent to me by Dr. Libbert. She\nwas of only medium height, weighed ninety-two pounds, and was poorly\nnourished. She was stoop-shouldered, flat-chested, with a tendency to\nprotrusion of the lower half of the abdomen (Fig. 3).\nShe had been constipated from early life and was almost daily the\nvictim of severe headaches. Her eyes had been examined and glasses\nadjusted, but the headaches continued. She had a poor appetite and could\nnot sleep well. She complained of frequent abdominal pains, especially\nin the lower right quadrant, and the upper left quadrant of the abdomen.\nShe suffered from frequent gaseous distention, especially in the left side\nof the abdomen.\nShe had been treated for years with cathartics and enemas. They\nbrought temporary relief from headaches which, however, soon returned\nworse than before. She had run the whole gamut of digestants and tonics.\nFruits without meats, meats without fruits, proteids without carbohydrates,\ncarbohydrates without proteids, the domestic cuisine and the foodless\n\n"}
{"page": 1143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTOOP SHOULDERS AND FLAT CHEST\n\nfoods of commerce had characterized her dietetic experiences. Finally,\nat school, she, with all the other pupils, was put thru a course of calisthenics including violent flexions and extensions of the body, dumb-bells,\nIndian clubs, ropes and pulleys, and all the rest. Dr. Libbert stopped\nthese practices and remanded her for diagnosis.\nI found that she had marked displacement of the colon. This diagnosis\nwas confirmed by X-ray examination. Fig. 4 is an accurate drawing\nmade from the X-ray plate. It shows the colon extending up the right\nside to the hepatic flexure; there it is acutely angulated upon itself and\n\nFig. 2\n\ndrops sharply downward into the pelvis; there it is kinked upon itself\nseveral times; then it arises to the splenic flexure where it is again acutely\nangulated. Thence it descends in a normal way to the sigmoid, which is\nabnormally redundant.\nThe abnormal condition of the colon as shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 9 may\nbe appreciated by a glance at Fig. 5, which shows the normal course of the\ncolon. This drawing was also made from an X-ray picture in my possession.\nIt is a front view and shows (i) the ascending colon going up to the hepatic\nflexure; (2) the hepatic flexure as really a curve, without obstructive\n\n"}
{"page": 1144, "printed_page": null, "text": "II28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nangulation; (3) the transverse colon crossing the upper zone of the abdomen\nfrom right to left obliquely upward to the splenic flexure; (4) the splenic\nas really a curve without obstructive angulation; (5) the descending colon\nextending down to the sigmoid flexure; (6) the sigmoid as a letter S with\ncurves, but without redundancies or angulations.\nIn contrasting these two colons, it is easy to see why, in Fig. 4, there\nshould be constipation, absorption of poisons, headaches, mental depression,\nand nervousness. It is equally obvious why, in Fig. 5, there should be no\n\nFig. s\n\nmechanical obstructions, no constipation, no hyperabsorption of poisons\nfrom the intestines, no headaches, no nervousness.\nBut there is another aspect of these cases that is of special and practical\nimportance to teachers, to medical inspectors, and especially to physical\ndirectors of schools. It becomes evident if it is remembered that, when the\nabdominal organs sustain their proper relations to each other, as shown in\nFig. 7, the posture of the body is erect, and its contour normal.\nWhen, however, the abdominal organs, especially the stomach and\ncolon, are displaced downward, as shown in Fig. 6 and Fig 8, the lower\n\n"}
{"page": 1145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTOOP SHOULDERS AND FLAT CHEST\n\nthorax caves in to a certain extent, thus throwing the shoulders forward in\na stooped position, and flattening the chest, as shown in Fig. 3. It becomes\nequally obvious that any force, the incidence of which causes either downward traction or pressure upon these already displaced viscera, is calculated\nto aggravate the condition.\nMy object in placing emphasis upon this class of cases that are finding\ntheir way to my operating room with rapidly increasing frequency is that\nthe cause of \"stoop shoulders and flat chest,\" as I have here outlined it,\n\nFig. 7\nFig. 6\n\nis not taught in the standard works on the medical inspection of school\nchildren. Thus one work, one of the very best, one that ought to be in\nevery school-teacher's hands, publishes an excellent drawing of correct\nposture (Fig. i), and an equally excellent one of \"stoop shoulders and\nflat chest,\" illustrative of incorrect posture (Fig. 2).\nThis incorrect posture (Fig. 2) is attributed to obstructions in the\nupper air passages and to difficulty of hearing. It is true that these conditions do cause stoop shoulders and flat chest, but they are not the causes\nof possibly a half of the cases. Diseases of the spine, redundant shoulder\n\n"}
{"page": 1146, "printed_page": null, "text": "II30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nblades, and other conditions are to be taken into account. In instances\nin which displacement of the stomach and colon is the cause, as it is in\nprobably half of aU the cases, the treatment prescribed by the author\nof the book in question would be most disastrous, as it was in the case\nthat I quoted, and that inspired these observations.\nThus, he advises calisthenics and goes to the extent of specifying extreme\nextension practiced even by bending backward over a large quarter hoop.\n\nFig. 8\n\nThe whole plan of treatment suggested, one that could be carried out in\nany school equipped with a gymnasium, is calculated to aggravate the\nvery conditions to which I have just invited attention. My apology\nfor this most excellent author is that the relation of cause and effect that\nI have demonstrated is only just being taken up and generally recognized\nby the medical profession at large. Of course, the majority of persons,\nespecially grown persons, who have displacements of the stomach and colon,\ndo not have stoop shoulders and flat chest, for the simple reason that\ntheir bony frame was matured and their poise and carriage acquired before\ntheir gastro-intestinal displacement.\n\n"}
{"page": 1147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTOOP SHOULDERS\n\nAND FLAT CHEST\n\n1131\n\nIn conclusion, I wish to emphasize a few practical points:\nFirst: The teacher and, for that matter,. the medical inspector, should\nrecognize every case of stoop shoulders and flat chest as presenting possibilities of stomach and intestine displacement. This is especially true\nwhen the condition is associated with constipation, headaches, and nervousness.\nSecond: While the symptoms presented by these cases are sufficiently\ndistinct to enable any competent physician to make a presumptive diagnosis,\n\nFig. 9\n\nthe X-ray, in the hands of an expert, affords a ready means of making a\npositive diagnosis. There is no reason why these cases should be left to\nguess-work and chance.\nThird: No course in physical training or other treatment should be\nprescribed or practiced until this phase of the case has been investigated\nand a diagnosis arrived at by a competent practitioner of medicine.\n\n"}
{"page": 1148, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 13 2\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nROUND\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nTOPIC:\n\nHOW\n\nFAR ARE TEACHERS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE\nAND MORTALITY OF SCHOOL CHILDREN?\n\nMORBIDITY\n\nI. A.\n\nM.D.,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nABT,\n\nOF\n\nPEDIATRICS,\n\nNORTHWESTERN\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nILL.\n\nDiseases among children of school age would be an interesting subject for inquiry,\nparticularly in such cases where the morbidity was caused or directly influenced by school\nconditions.\nRecent investigations by school physicians in various parts of the world point to\nthe fact that many children who are suffering from some form of disease attend school.\nFor example: some figures taken from Berlin statistics during the school year of 1906-7\nshow that 34,880 children were examined and of these 3,027, or 8.68 per cent, were\nexcluded from school on account of severe bodily or mental defects. Furthermore,\namong 8,176 of the children who were examined, 23.43 per cent remained under medical\nsupervision on account of minor diseases or physical defects. The diseases from which\nthe children suffer mostly may be enumerated as follows: general debility, anaemia,\nrickets, scrofula, tuberculosis of the bones, diseases of the heart, diseases of the nose\nand throat, diseases of the eyes, of the ears, and curvature of the spine. It is interesting\nto note that in Strassburg 90 per cent of all school children have defective teeth. It is\nrecognized, too, that carious teeth may lead to infection in neighboring glands and may\nresult in more widespread disease processes. So far as the mortality among children\nis concerned it is well known that the highest death-rate occurs during the first year.\nAfter this time the death-rate diminishes, tho if compared to that of adults, it remains\nrelatively higher. Mortality of childhood reaches the lowest point from the tenth to\nthe fifteenth year. In looking over the causes of death in the various statistical tables\nwhich are furnished, we find that the children from the fifth to fifteenth year die in\nconsiderable numbers of scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, croup, whooping-cough, typhoid\nfever, tuberculosis, pneumonia, diseases of the circulation, and diseases of the digestive\ntract, including appendicitis. It is a fact that has been long recognized that the acute\ninfectious and contagious diseases among children, in so far as their frequency is concerned,\nreach the low point during the summer, a period which corresponds with school vacation,\nand gradually begin to appear after the opening of the school, reaching the high point\nduring the colder portion of the year, when the school is artificially heated and the windows\nare more or less closed and the ventilation consequently poor. There are many who\nfeel that the school becomes the distributing-point for the acute infectious and contagious\ndiseases. It is necessary, consequently, that school authorities, boards of health, with\nthe co-operation of parents, should guard against the admission of children who are\nactually sick, and should exclude from school children who come from infected homes.\nTeachers are frequently in a position to estimate the health condition of their pupils,\nwhose appearance often indicates the state of their health. Almost every teacher of\nexperience recognizes as an unhealthy pupil the pale, dull child, who almost involuntarily\nshirks his school work and avoids physical exertion. She can also see at a glance whether\nthe child is suffering from enlarged glands, whether there is a defect of vision, whether\nthe child has a goiter, and she knows, too, how important it is for the hygiene and health\nof the child and the school that it should come to class with clean skin, clean clothes, and\nfree from offensive odor.\nThe teacher may also be an important factor in protecting the health of the child,\nor in preventing disease by insisting on the proper position of the pupil in reading, and\nparticularly while writing, because it is a well-recognized fact that pupils who hold them-\n\n"}
{"page": 1149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR\n\nMORBIDITY\n\nAND\n\nMORTALITY\n\n1 133\n\nselves in faulty position become short-sighted, or those who stoop become predisposed\nto pulmonary afifections and curvature of the spine.\nThe hygienic condition of the classroom is not of the least importance, so far as the\nhealth of the child and prevention of disease are concerned. The cleanliness of the rooms,\ntheir ventilation, the heating and lighting, the position of the children in their seats,\nthe condition of the seats and desks are matters which are too well known to require\ndiscussion; nevertheless they are of great importance.\nSchool authorities should interest themselves in the water supply used for drinking\npurposes. Infectious diseases, such as typhoid and dysentery, are frequently communicated thru drinking water. On the other hand, the drinking-glass should be banished\nand the bubbling fountain should be substituted in every school. Children when entering the schoolroom should be directed to clean their shoes and remove the street dirt,\nthus avoiding the contamination of the schoolroom with filth and possibly infection.\nIt would be well to require children with wet feet to change shoes and stockings before\nentering the classroom.\nMuch could be done toward improving the sanitation and hygiene of schoolrooms\nby improving the condition of the floors. Some years ago Dr. Emerson, of Johns Hopkins\nUniversity, made an investigation of the children's hospitals in Europe. He found that\noutbreaks of infectious diseases in the hospitals were mor6 common in those institutions\nwhich had rough, dust-laden, and worn wooden floors which were difficult or impossible\nto clean, than in institutions where smooth floors of stone or linoleum were provided.\nIt is well known to sanitarians that materials which collect dust and are difficult or\nimpossible to clean, harbor disease germs, and for this reason the floors of schoolrooms\nfrom the standpoint of sanitation require much attention.\nThe physical and mental health of the school child is frequently influenced by the\ncondition of the nose and throat. Enlarged tonsils, particularly those which are diseased,\noffer a menace to the child, not only on account of mechanical interference with respiration,\nbut also because these glandular structures are subject to recurrent attacks of inflammation. These attacks may lead to infections in remote parts of the body, not uncommonly\nproducing diseases of the heart and kidneys, and also producing attacks of acute rheumatism which are nearly always of serious import on account of the cardiac complications\nin childhood. The presence of adenoids and abnormal accumulation of lymphoid tissue\nin the naso-pharynx causes obstruction of respiration thru the nose and produces secondary\nsymptoms, such as a nasal voice, recurrence of colds, and catarrh, frequently a slow mentality, pallor of the skin, earache or more severe disease of the ear, and deafness. Such\nchildren will improve in health and will develop more normally if the obstruction, is\nremoved.\nThose who are suffering from diseases of the ear usually do poor work. Owing\nto the pain, purulent discharge, and deafness, they are inattentive, suffer from headache,\nand the speech is inarticulate.\nDefective sight frequently interferes with the progress of children in school. I well\nremember a strong and well-developed boy who was brought to me because he was doing\nvery poorly at school. His father had moved him from one school to another because\nof his apparent inability to learn. He was regarded by teachers and companions as\nhalf-witted. On more careful examination it was found that he was suffering from\nlamellar cataract, a condition which probably occurred as a result of nutritional disease\nduring his infancy. Correction of the visual defect and treatment by an oculist produced\nthe most striking change in the mental condition of this boy and his improvement in\nschool work was so marked as to cause surprise to teachers and physician.\nSo much is expected of the ordinary teacher that it seems almost unfair to ask her\nto deal with the problem of the nervous child. If we are to make provision for this type\nof individual in the public school it would seem that we must revise the system of instrucMany forms of nervousness\ntion, by providing either separate classes or smaller classes.\n\n"}
{"page": 1150, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chad Hygiene\n\npresent themselves; for example, chorea, or St. Vitus's dance, is a type of disease which\nnot infrequently is a manifestation of rheumatism. The nervousness of these children\nis often misinterpreted by parents and teachers. They are frequently reprimanded\nat school and sometimes harshly disciplined at home. These children are frequently\nirascible, nervous, given to fits of crying, with motor inco-ordination, muscular spasms\nof various parts of the body. They should be removed from school at the earliest possible\nmoment, kept in bed under the most quiet surroundings, and given skilled medical treatment.\nThose who suffer from epilepsy, in either its mild or severe form, should be removed\nfrom school and placed in special school homes which should be provided by the state.\nThere is a group of children whom we designate as nervous children. Frequently\nthey come from neuropathic parents. They may also be spoken of as children with\npsychopathic constitutions. Very frequently they suffer as a result of environmental\nconditions. The training has sometimes been neglected by the parents, sometimes been\nmarked by excessive severity, or again by coddling and spoiling. This tjpe of children\nbecomes easily fatigued. In proportion to the degree of fatigue they show various\nsymptoms: loss of memory, inattention, violent outbursts of temper, or excessive hilarity.\nSome lose all interest, while others are easily frightened and show great fear; others\noverestimate their mental strength. Another group deprecates itself and underestimates\nits ability. Many show frequent changes in feeling, while some are excessively sensitive\nand others are easily elated; a large number show tremor, or coarser twitchings. Disturbances ofspeech are not infrequent; many speak very rapidly or seem to swallow\nsyllables or stutter. Analogous with these disturbances in speech are disturbances in\nwriting; in some cases the writing is very indistinct, or certain letters are omitted or\nmisplaced.\nIt has been thought that the infectious diseases, irregular meals, or disturbances\nin the nutrition and feeding during infancy are factors in the causation of nervousness.\nThe question of fatigue in relation to the cause and treatment of nervousness among\nschool children is one of widespread importance. While it is generally conceded that\nevery individual is subject to mental as well as physical fatigue, it must be admitted that\nnervous children are most susceptible. Professor Czertiy says that in his experience he\ndoes not know of a single case where injury has occurred to a normal child on account\nof overwork. WhQe this statement may not meet with universal acceptance, nevertheless the following proposition of Czemy will undoubtedly be corroborated by most teachers\nand phj'sicians. He says all children who seem to have suffered injury from fatigue\ncaused by school work belong to the group of original psychopathies or neuropathies,\nin whom it may be demonstrated that some neuropathic taint was present before school\nattendance, probably owing to hereditary conditions and unwise training at home. For\nexcessively nervous children, the school is unsuitable and private or special institutions\nbecome necessar>\\ In the milder cases the task is one of correcting the perm'cious\ninfluences which prevail at home. It is a problem of re-education to teach the little\nfellow unselfishness, a feeling for the welfare of others, love of truth, and to inculcate\nin him the knowledge that he has duties to perform to others as well as to himself. Frequently the contact with normal children of the same age, the discipline of the schoolroom, and a strict obedience which has heretofore been unknown are potent factors in\nthe correction of the milder cases.\nThe management of this class of cases is a fine art. The recognition of the exact\ncondition requires a keen insight into the processes of the human mentality. Its correction demands the most thoughtful guidance; to know how much sympathy, how much\nseverity, how much encouragement to give such a child calls for genius itself. How\nmuch school work and how much home work should be assigned without causing fatigue\nis a problem in education and should be considered individually in every instance and can\n\n"}
{"page": 1151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR MORBIDITY\n\nAND\n\nMORTALITY\n\n1 135\n\nbe solved only by long experience, patient observation, and intimate knowledge of mind\nand its making.\nTuberculosis is at the present day a very live subject. Strenuous attempts have\nbeen made for the last decade to popularize the knowledge concerning the white plague.\nIt need only be emphasized in this connection that every case of open tuberculosis is a\nmenace to all who come in contact with it. It is only necessary to say that cases of\nopen tuberculosis or florid cases which are characterized by cough and the production\nof sputum, or by the discharge from tuberculous lesions, which contain the bacillus,\nshould be isolated. Anyone ill with this disease, whether it be teacher or pupil or janitor\nor sweeper, should be positively excluded from the precincts of the schoolroom and the\nschoolhouse.\nBut when all is said and done, perhaps we are asking too much of the teacher; we\nshould go farther. The system of school instruction should consist of more intimate\nco-operation of the various forces that are interested in the great problem of education,\nin race betterment and child welfare. It is asking almost too much of the overworked\nand underpaid teacher that she should assume the responsibilities of parents and supplant\nthe function of the physician. Here there should be the closest co-operation. It would\nbe well if parents obtained clews from the teachers concerning defects or deficiencies in\nmatters pertaining to the school life and education of the child. The school physician\nand the family physician should give aid and direction in all matters that pertain to the\npreservation of health, prevention of disease, and in the mental and physical training of\nschool children. If this co-operation could take place the physician would profit because\nhe has much to learn from the teacher and educator; the teacher in turn might gain\nvaluable advice from the medical attendant if he were properly equipped and the advice\ngiven in the proper spirit; the parent would benefit frequently because his child would be\nhealthier, and happier, and better prepared for his school work and his life's work.\nIn summing up, one feels constrained to say that the teacher in the public school\nis restricted in as far as the prevention of disease, and possibly death, of her pupils is\nconcerned. She cannot easily go beyond the precincts of her schoolroom. Even here\nthe sanitation and hygiene are not altogether within her province. Certainly she has\nno jurisdiction over the child at home or at play. She will recognize the delicate child,\nthe nervous child, possibly the one with special sense defects or physical ailments. These\nchildren she can report to the parents, to the school physician, or to the family physician.\nWhen occasion offers, especially in the cases of older children, she can give brief health\ntalks on the dangers which occur from infection, the pernicious effects of tobacco and\nalcohol, the dangers resulting from insanitary homes, improper feeding, unphysiological\nmanner of eating, the necessity of bathing, the health advantage of cleanliness, and one\nmight continue suggesting almost innumerable topics. But to this, her power to improve\nthe health of the pupils is limited, on account of the very nature of school conditions.\nWhile in most cases she will take a personal interest in the health of each individual\nchild, nevertheless it is almost impossible for her to do more than to offer suggestive\nadvice.\nIn short, it is the prime function of the school-teacher to teach. It is my own opinion\nthat the final responsibility for the morbidity and mortality of school children is in the\nleast part to be assumed by the school-teacher. The relation of the school to morbidity\nand mortality, if there be such, must be referred to those higher up: to the school system\nitself, the administrative boards, and the highest officials.\nAs an outsider, one who is not in live touch with educational problems, I venture\nto say that the modem tendency which would place everything that would relate to the\nphysical, mental, and moral welfare of a child within the province of the school, is in the\nline of overtaxing the school with the effect of lightening everyone else's labors and duties.\nIt is sound philosophy to say that we will teach our children to think and to play, rather\n\n"}
{"page": 1152, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nthan attempt to crowd into a few years all the facts of the universe, for even if we should\ntry, some must be omitted and many will be necessarily forgotten.\nIs it not enough that the teacher should instruct in the three R's, in music and drawing, without asking her to specialize in the teaching of morals, the care and feeding of the\nbaby, the hygiene of the home, as well as the school, the chemistry of cooking, the art\nof sewing, besides being a quasi-physician and an undenominational minister of the\ngospel? In the meantime the mother is entertaining at the country club, reforming\nother people's wayward children, organizing large movements for the enfranchisement\nof women, while the father is pljang his vocations and recreations in directions away from\nthe home and schoolhouse. Let us acquit the teacher in almost every instance of being\nan accomplice to the demon of disease and death.\n\nHOW\n\nHYMAN\n\nFAR ARE\n\nCOHEN,\n\nM.D.,\n\nTEACHERS RESPONSIBLE\nMORTALITY OF SCHOOL\n\nASSISTANT\n\nFOR THE MORBIDITY\nCHILDREN?\n\nCHIEF, BUREAU MEDICAL\nHEALTH,\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nINSPECTION,\n\nAND\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nIn order to lend the question greater significance, the term \"teachers\" must stand\nnot for a collection of individuals exercising an ordinary influence as such; nor even for\na class of trained and directed instruments of education. In connection with the subject\nhere discussed, the term teachers must be used in a more comprehensive sense, embracing\nthe individual, in whatever capacity he or she may exercise an influence, as well as the\nforces directing the exercise of his or her duties. It is not only a question of ascertaining\nthe ability and skill, the acuteness of observation and the degree of interest that the\nindividual teacher may exercise in the early detection of disease, which is the first step\nin the remed>'ing of the same and one of the important steps in its prevention. It is\na question touching upon the training of teachers, their attitude toward such a vital\nproblem, and their willingness and wide-awakeness to join the forces of health conservation. In the final analysis the question concerns itself, not merely with the \"teacher\nbehind the child,\" but also with the authority behind the teacher. Only thus understood\ncan the question be one for profitable discussion.\nThe morbidity of school children as such falls within the following disease groups:\n1. The communicable diseases.\n2. Physical defects.\n3. Nervous and mental diseases.\nWith respect to the commimicable diseases, it is diflicult to say what the relative\nshares contributed by the school, the home, and the general environment are. It is a\nwell-established fact that neatly all of the contagious diseases show an increased incidence\nafter the opening of school and a marked subsidence after the schools are closed. That\nthe increase and decrease are entirely due to the opening and closing of the schools is\nquestionable. There is good ground for the conviction that other coincidental factors\nplay an important part in this well-known phenomenon. The influences of seasonal\nchanges and the periodic accumulation of a mass of unprotected, disease-inflammable\nchildren are certainly important factors. There is no doubt, however, that the school\ncontributes its share, large or small, in spreading the communicable diseases. It is not\nso much the school, in the indefinite sense of an unfavorable something, as used to be\nthought and taught, but the personal contact, the mouth-to-mouth and nose-to-nose\ninfection of children, if one may put it so, which large numbers and close intimacy breed.\nThis is particularly true of the three diseases most prevalent among school children,\nmeasles, diphtheria, and scarlet fever.\nMeasles is well-nigh uncontrollable on account\n\n"}
{"page": 1153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR\n\nMORBIDITY\n\nAND\n\nMORTALITY\n\n1137\n\nof its infectiousness in the early stage before it can be diagnosed. In diphtheria and\nscarlet fever the onset is usually pretty well marked and no time, ought to be lost in excluding such children from school where the disease has escaped the attention of unobservant\nor careless parents. Also in the two last named diseases the infectiousness or noninfectlousness can be more definitely ascertained before readmission to school. Particularly isthis true in the case of diphtheria.\nThe next large group of diseases, the physical defects and developmental imperfections, are also partly coincident and partly attendant upon school life. I am inclined\nto think that in this case the influence of school life, regimen, and discipline is not less\naccountable than in the case of the contagious diseases. Spinal curvatures, anaemia,\nheadache, and lack of vitality due to the usually overheated and ill-ventilated schoolroom are at least in part directly due to school life. On the other hand, there are a host\nof other defects that are brought out by the physical examination of school children\nthat have no possible relationship to school life as far as their origin is concerned. The\nthird group, that of the nervous and mental diseases: such as chorea, hysteria, and epilepsy,\nand the less well-defined nervous states produced by fear of examinations, overstrain,\nand the molding of many minds to one uniform task, can certainly be ascribed, in large\npart, to school life.\nThe mortality is considerable in the case of the contagious diseases. What part of\nit is directly due to school life is, I believe, not possible to tell. In the case of the physical\ndefects and the nervous and mental diseases it isn't a question of mortality but one of\nvitiated vitality which may, and does eventually, contribute premature deaths to the\nmortality tables.\nWhat shall we say is the share of the teacher's responsibility in the broadest sense ?\nIt is readily apparent that responsibility in this connection must be measured by the\ndegree of preventability. Again, responsibility may be measured not only by the strict\nadherence to the rules prescribed for detecting and eliminating diseases among school\nchildren but also by the willing readiness to push all possible measures for their protection,\nor, on the other hand, by the failure to take the necessary initiative for the same purpose.\nThe responsibility of the teacher does not end with the execution of orders, with making\na number of superficial routine examinations, and with preparing a statistical report.\nI think it is fair to charge teachers not only with the responsibility of omission but also\nwith that of non-commission — -with failure, where it exists, to formulate, agitate, and\napply progressive health measures to the problems of school life. The teachers are\nresponsible if they fail to carry out measures prescribed for the health of their charges.\nThe teachers are, in part, not the less responsible for the absence of such health measures\nwhere that is the case.\nSpecifically, the teachers are primarily responsible for the detection of communicable\ndiseases in the classroom both where medical inspection is in existence and still more\nso where it is non-existent. Whereas the first case of a contagious disease in a classroom\nmay not always be possible of detection, the second crop of cases should always be prevented, and no one's influence, ability, and promptness of action can tell more in a situation\nof that kind than that of the teacher. It has been proved statisrically that many cases\nof contagious disease are found in school for several days after the onset of the same.\nA better acquaintance with the early symptoms of the several contagious diseases and closer\nobservation on the part of the teacher would have made it impossible. In the case of\nphysical defects the teacher is to be held responsible, in part, for the co-operation necessary\nbetween teacher, physician, and parent to secure correction of defects found. Where no\nprovision for the physical examination of the school children exists, the teacher or the\nteaching fraternity cannot escape responsibility for its non-existence.\nIn the case of the nervous and mental diseases the power and influence of the teacher\nis far greater than it can possibly be over the child's physical state, and hence the teacher's\nresponsibility is naturally greater.\nNervous and mental diseases are largely hereditary.\n\n"}
{"page": 1154, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 138\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nHeredity being accumvilated environment, it can be, where unfavorable, considerably\nmodified and improved by favorable surroundings. No one is more potent in this respect\nthan the teacher. The responsibility of teachers is commensurate with their power for\ngood; their power being great, their responsibilities also are great.\n\nHOW\n\nFAR ARE\n\nLINNAEUS\n\nTEACHERS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE MORBIDITY\nMORTALITY OF SCHOOL CHILDREN?\n\nN. HINES,\n\nStn»ERrNTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCRAWTORDSVILLE,\n\nAND\n\nIND.\n\nThere is an ever-increasing tendency on the part of the public to hand the duties\nand responsibilities of the parents and the home, toward the children, over to the school .\nOriginally the pubUc school was supposed to give only the rudiments of an education\nin a few branches. It is a far cry from that earlier day to the present when to the original\nthree R's have been added perhaps a dozen subjects, with more knocking for entrance\nall the time. In addition to intellectual training, the school in this latter day must look\nafter the moral training of the student and after his physical welfare as well. Never\nhas the world seen such a campaign as there is at present, looking to the preservation\nof the health of the public. Both expert and layman feel it everywhere. \"Swatting\nthe fly\" has become a national pastime because people believe that the fly ought to be\n\"swatted.\" There is a continual national campaign against dirt and disease-producing\nconditions. The school naturally feels this nation-wide agitation. It is inevitable that\nthe school must respond and do its share. Not only must the conditions surrounding\nthe child in the school be right — 'the school must go farther and see that the child has\nthe right conditions of living outside the school, so far as that is possible. The teacher,\nthe school doctor, the school nurse, the home visitor must all do their share in seeing\nthat the child is given the best chance possible. In the present scheme of things, the\nteacher's responsibility is a great one and the tendency is to make it greater all the time.\nThere is a limit to this responsibility of course, but the limit is not well defined. The\nteacher must do ever>'thing possible to preserve the health of those under her care.\nMore than ever before the teacher holds the destiny of the coming generations in her\nhands.\nIf the average teacher is asked whether she thinks it is her place to take on added\nduties in regard to the health of her children, she will probably say that she has all that\nshe can attend to now. She will say that the mental needs of her thirty to sixty children\nare a big enough burden; that the nervous wear and tear of her accustomed duties are\naging her prematurely; that teachers' meetings and examinations, the constant snarling\nof parents of a certain class over the alleged injustices done their children, and the constant fear of loss of position make her earn her meager salary two or three times over;\nthat the financial vicissitudes incident to trying to make her income cover her necessities\nwith a small margin for the luxuries of life and a still greater margin for the funds that\nmust be saved for old age fill up her measure of responsibility to overflowing. The\nprofessional lives of tens of thousands of teachers in this country are summed up in the\nsentence above. There is much virtue in the defense that the average teacher might\nmake against having more duties thrust upon her. And what is to be done? We are\nto do the best we can — that is all. Those that do the thinking about school problems\nof all sorts must continue to blaze the way into the frontier of higher ideals and greater\nendeavor. The school long ago took up its responsibilities in regard to the mental and\nmoral welfare of the child. There is an insistent demand that the school shall lift to\nits broad shoulders this new burden. We may complain and say that to add more to\nthe teachers' duties is not fair, is useless, is nonsense, and all that, but the work lies directly\n\n"}
{"page": 1155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR\n\nMORBIDITY\n\nAND\n\nMORTALITY\n\n1139\n\nin the path of the school, the public demands that it shall be done, and what the public\nwants long enough and hard enough it will get. The only thing for the physician, the\nsuperintendent, and the school board to do is to lay out plans for this work and ask the\nteacher to help do it. The only question that remains is as to how much and what the\nteacher can do.\nAs one authority (Dr. Ernest Bryant Hoag) says:\nThe most natural method of securing proper physical attention to defective school\nchildren is thru the teacher.\nWhether a school has medical inspection or not, the teacher can accomplish a great\ndeal, and where a medical officer is in general charge he must of necessity depend to a\nlarge extent on the teacher's aid if he is to get much done. It is too much to expect one\nmedical officer to properly supervise the physical conditions of six or seven thousand\npupils or more, as is often if not usually the case. On the other hand, with the teachers\nas properly qualified assistants, one medical officer may easily handle a very large number\nof children.\nAs things stand then today, practically every city, town, or country district, whether\nmedically inspected or not, finds itself in need of the co-operation of the teacher in matters\npertaining to school health.\nHow then may teachers be:ome either (i) independent health supervisors, or (2) able\nassistants to school medical officers and nurses? The problem is rather an easy one to\nsolve, and the following plan is now offered as a reasonable solution:\n1. Every teacher before certification should be obliged to give evidence of practical\nelementary knowledge of the functions of the body.\n2. Every teacher should be obliged to give evidence of practical knowledge of the\nordinary physical defects of children in the schools, which interfere with school progress.\nEveryindicated\nnormal above\nschool and teachers' college should provide adequate instruction\nin the3. lines\n4. Teachers already certificated should be instructed by properly qualified medical\nmen who are specialists in child hygiene.\nIn making a health survey the teacher may take her own time. If a survey is made\nof a room of the average number of twenty to forty pupils in a month or six weeks, it\nwill be quite satisfactory. Any teacher will be able to accomplish this without feeling\nthat she is imposed upon. After a pupil's survey is completed a notice should be sent\nto the parent in those cases where physical difficulties appear to exist. This notice may\nbe very general and noacommittal in character, and should always be signed by the\nschool nurse and the principal of the school.\nAll must agree with the thought that in this day, if a teacher is to serve her school\nin the best way, she must have some training along the line of the detection of physical\nailments in her pupils. It is not practicable to have every teacher become an \"independent health supervisor\" but every teacher can and should have the training that will\nenable her to be an \"able assistant to school medical officers and nurses.\" In addition\nto this, evefy teacher should have the willing, helpful spirit that will make such work\neasy for her and make it effective as well.\nEvery school system should have enough medical inspectors to look carefully after\nthe health of every child. There can be no exact number set down as being the number\none school doctor should look after. Experience in each system must point the way in\nthis matter. The system of inspection should be so organized that every teacher would\nhave her part to do. She can, by her daily observations and by inquiry of the children,\nfind out whenever there is a case that needs attention. She can make reports to the school\ndoctor and to the parents as well. She can do a work that no number of school doctors\ncan do in that she is a mother to her children and is with them constantly. Every effective\nsystem of medical inspection must be founded on the skill and willing spirit of the teacher.\nHers is a great part in the detection and prevention of disease. And with the detection\nand preventio.i of disease, child mortality becomes less and the nation becomes the richer\nbecause of the conservation of its coming generations.\n\n"}
{"page": 1156, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1157, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— WiLBXTB. P. Bowen, Michigan State Normal College\nVice-President— GzOKGE E. Johnson, University of Pittsburgh\nSecretary — Blanche M. Trilling, University of Wisconsin\n\nYpsilanti, Mich.\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nMadison, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION — ^Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 191 2\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of School Patrons.\n(For program see Department of School Patrons.)\nSECOND\n\nSESSION — Friday Afternoon, July 12, 1912\n\nThe meeting was held in the Ballroom of the Blackstone Hotel, Chicago, 111., and\nwas called to order at 2 : 30 p.m. by the president, Wilbur P. Bowen, professor of physical\neducation, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nThe general topic of the session was: \"Relation of Physical Education to Moral\nDevelopment.\"\nThe following Committee on Nominations was then appointed:\nClayton B. Simmons, director of physical education, State Normal School, Kirksville,\nMo.\nMr. Ray, public schools. Canon City, Colo.\nLillian H. Bruce, Department of Physical Education, Chicago Teachers College,\nChicago, 111.\nPresident Bowen then delivered the opening address on \"The Influence of Play\nActivities on Racial Physique and Morals.\"\nOn account of illness, E. B. DeGroot, of the South Park Playgrounds, Chicago, 111.,\nwas unable to present his paper on \"What the Public Playground Suggests.\"\nC. S. Hicks, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass., then presented\na paper on \"The Influence of Faculty Supervision on the Moral Effects of Athletics in\nHigh Schools and Colleges.\"\nThe last address on the program, \"Athletics an Essential Moral Factor,\" was\ndelivered by George W. Ehler, professor of physical education. University of Wisconsin,\nMadison, Wis.\nThen followed a discussion of the papers, led by Clayton B. Simmons, director of\nphysical education. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.; and participated in by the\nfollowing: George W. Davis, principal of Hawthorne School, Chicago, 111.; H. B. Lathe,\nprincipal of high school, Ridgeway, Iowa; Miss Shortall, principal of State Training\nSchool for Girls, Geneva, 111.; J. H. McCurdy, director of the Physical Department,\nInternational Young Men's Christian Association Training School, Springfield, Mass.;\nand others whose names it was impossible to procure.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report:\nFor President — George W. Ehler, professor of physical education. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nFor Vice-President — W. E. Day, director of Deseret Gymnasium, Salt Lake City,\nUtah.\nFor Secretary — 'Mabel M. Wright, director, physical education for girls, Carl Schurz\nHigh School, Chicago, 111.\n1141\n\n"}
{"page": 1158, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe report was accepted and the nominees were declared elected.\nThe following motion was then made: \"That a committee be appointed to consider\nand frame a report on moral education by means of play and athletics.\"\nThis motion was passed and the chairman instructed to appoint the committee.\nBlanche M. Trilling, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE INFLUENCE OF PLAY ACTIVITIES\nPHYSIQUE AND MORALS\nWILBUR\n\nP.\n\nBOWEN,\n\nON RACIAL\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,\nNORMAL COLLEGE,\nYPSILANTI,\nMICH.\n\nMICHIGAN\n\nSTATE\n\nWe are just beginning to see plainly that play can make or mar physique\nand character as well as work. Play has always existed, but it has not\nalways done all it might do in the education of the race. The play of children has not always done all it might have done because of lack of opportunity and guidance; the play of adults has not done all it might have done\nbecause they choose wrong kinds of play. Here is one of the instances\nwhere \"wisdom hidden from the wise and prudent has been revealed imto\nbabes.\" The child chooses his plays by instinct and usually chooses well;\nhis play is an all-round activity of motor, sensory, intellectual, and emotional powers, resulting in balanced development of all these powers.\nThe grown-up looks upon play as a sort of dessert — something useful only\nto please the taste — and usually chooses ill; his play is organized idleness\nwith a thrill; the more complete the idleness and the more intense the\nthrill, the more popular it is. The adult secures this combination of idleness and thrill in the automobile, at the ball game, in the ballroom, banquet\nhall, saloon, gambling-den, or brothel — according to taste and pocket-book.\nThe consequence is that the plays of children are almost universally educative to a high degree and in the best sense, while those of adults more\noften lead to physical and moral degeneration than to development. It\nmust be admitted that there have been exceptions. It is true that for a\nshort time in the golden age of Grecian history, the play of youth and man\nalike served as a splendid preparation for war, which was then the chief\noccupation of a citizen. It is true that for a short time in western Europe,\nin the days of chivalry, the play activities of knights and squires served the\nsame purpose. Such are but the exceptions that prove the rule. No fact\nof history is more plainly written than that, as a general nile, the play\nactivities of adults have been destructive rather than helpful; work has\nbuilt nations and play has destroyed them.\nRome is a faijiiliar example. The citizens of the Roman republic were\ndeveloped by strenuous work in camp, field, and forum; the result was a\n\n"}
{"page": 1159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF PLAY\n\nACTIVITIES\n\n,\n\nII43\n\nstrong type of manhood that not only conquered the world, but represented\nhigh ideals of physique and character. When the world had been conquered, and wealth and leisure acquired, it took but a few years of play\nto reduce the citizens of Rome to helpless and useless degenerates, gifted\nonly in vice and dissipation. History is full of such instances. The world\nis strewn with ruins that are but the gravestones of races and nations\nwhose history may be summarized alike in a few lines: hard conditions\ndeveloped vigor and character; these resulted in success, prosperity,\npower, culture, wealth, and leisure; in the period of wealth and leisure,\nvicious play activities undermined the physique and character of the people,\nand absorption or annihilation by a superior people completes the story.\nWar, pestilence, and famine have been called the great scourges of mankind\nand the chief destroyers of nations, but it is hard to find a case where any\nof these, or all three combined, have been able wholly to annihilate a nation\nuntil its vitality had been sapped by the unwholesome amusements that\nusually accompany wealth and leisure.\nUnwholesome play activities have not only had a large part in the\ndownfall of nations and the extinction of races, but they have also done\nmuch to retard primitive races in their advancement toward civilization.\nIt is well known that primitive people, lacking self-control, fall easy victims\nto the ruinous effects of drug habits and gambling, two forms of play that\nare popular everywhere. A scientist who investigated the games and\namusements of the American Indians for the Smithsonian Institution reports\nthe following incident in the life-history of the red man: Two small\nfriendly tribes in Washington state were observed during an annual festival\nheld by these tribes during the time of our Christmas holidays. One\ntribe took bag and baggage and canoed thirty miles down the river to the\nvillage of the other tribe, where the festivities were to be held. After two\ndays of feasting and idleness, the implements of a simple guessing-game\nwere brought out and all began the favorite play, staking money and\nproperty on the winning. This innocent amusement continued day and\nnight for nearly a week, when the home tribe had gained possession of all\nthe belongings of the visiting tribe except their canoes and a scant supply\nof clothing. A sleet storm came on and in the midst of it the visitors left\nfor home, without paddles to propel their canoes or clothing to keep the\nless vigorous from freezing. They reached their own village after two days\nand nights of indescribable suffering to find neither food, fire, nor fuel,\nand without means of securing any. In spite of all the assistance that the\ngovernment agents and white settlers in the vicinity could give, the tribe\nnarrowly escaped extinction from cold and starvation; many of them died\nand all endured great hardship during that winter, which was unusually\nsevere. While this is undoubtedly an extreme instance, it is an illustration\nof how customs and play habits common among primitive people drive them\nback to poverty and weakness as soon as they reach a sufficient stage of\n\n"}
{"page": 1160, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nprosperity. Drug habits and gambling are well known to be important\nagencies in the retardation of the Negroes of our southern states from achieving abetter physical and moral condition.\nVicious forms of play claim their victims today among our neighbors\nand acquaintances. When a man or woman goes wrong morally, we usually\nfind that some bad form of play lies at the bottom of the trouble, and when\nsomeone goes wrong physically, it is often due to the same cause. When a\ntrusted bank official disappears or commits suicide, it is usually foimd to\nbe a story beginning with amusements and ending in disaster; that he\ncarried gambling, one of his play habits, into his business and lost his own\nmoney and that of others. The courts explain divorces by the legal term^s\n\"non-support\" and \"cruelty,\" but the real cause of domestic discord\nunderneath these legal phrases is too often some vicious form of play persisted in by one party to the marriage contract. The venereal diseases,\nnow for the first time fully recognized in all their horror, have resulted\nsolely from the so-called \"social evil,\" which is only a polite name for one\nof the worst forms of play, still exceedingly common among civilized and\ncultured men. However great the need of improving the working condition\nof our people, it is plain that there is also a great need of improving their\nplay habits.\nNow it may be said that the case has been exaggerated; that the\nprevailing forms of play among adult Americans are not gambling, drug\nhabits, and sexual vice, but rather reading the newspapers, attending ball\ngames, concerts, moving pictures, and the theater, cards, dancing, and\nother innocent social pleasures. It is true that the better classes of society\nhave play activities less vicious than those we have been discussing, but the\nlatter are too common even in the best society, and the better forms that\nare most popular are still to be characterized as \"idleness with a thrill\" —\nnot one of the common forms of play just mentioned being of a nature\ncalculated to develop a sturdy race of people. It is better for a man to\nattend a ball game than to drink and gamble in a saloon, providing he does\nnot drink or gamble at the ball game; but to play ball for his amusement is\nstill better. The specialized forms of work we now have demand forms\nof play better than the non-\\icious, idle amusements now imiversal, if we\nwould save our race from the fate of other races that have played as we do.\nSedentary work, or no work, coupled with innocent but idle amusements,\nhas already caused the extinction of many of the best families of our old\nAnglo-Saxon stock, just as completely as if they had been exterminated by\nAlgonquin savages in the early Colonial days. It is only necessary for\nthe women of our race to become physically weak, to the extent that they\nno longer are willing and able to bear more than three children to the family,\nto blot out that race from the people of the earth. This method of extermination isnot so spectacular as the methods of Tiglath-Pileser, or Attila\nthe Him, but it is more effective and really more tragic. Slavs and Semites\n\n"}
{"page": 1161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF PLAY\n\nACTIVITIES\n\n114$\n\nand Celts, with a vitality bom of the hard conditions of life in the Old\nWorld, are today peacefully subduing the races that made this country\nwhat it is, by quietly taking the places of these races as they slowly ascend\nthru the stages of prosperity, culture, wealth, and leisure to the vanishingpoint.\nReform of our play habits began many years ago in the attempted\nsuppression of gambling and the social evil by legal prohibition, and is\nbeing continued in the wave of legislation now sweeping over the country\nin the effort to suppress the saloon. Such methods of reform can never be\nwholly successful alone, for two reasons: first, because they are wholly\nnegative, prohibiting a form of play without doing anything to satisfy\nthe play instinct that led to it; second, because they can do nothing to\nsupplant the play forms that are only mildly harmful or useless, and which\nare promoted by persons who see in them an easy way to make money.\nThe commercialization of our play that has taken place so rapidly in recent\nyears makes prohibitive and regulative measures necessary and at the same\ntime ineffective, because it pays so well to evade the law. It is practically\nimpossible to suppress even the most vicious form of play by prohibitive\nmeasures alone. Just as a thirsty man will drink from a spring he knows\nis reeking with disease if he can find no other, so men choose vices as amusements, not because they are naturally vicious, but because they crave play\nand have learned no better form. This is why prohibition so often \"does\nnot prohibit.\"\nRight here is where the playground movement, with its active, positive\npromotion of wholesome plays for both children and youth, is doing what\nwas always lacking. The first and greatest step in reforming the play habits\nof a people is to teach them early a wide range of good forms of play.\nSuch play is more fun to a normal person than vice, when he has learned\nto play well. By thus adding competitive measures to prohibitive ones,\nthe play habits of the race may be greatly improved.\nBesides teaching better forms of play, and so improving the tone\nof popular pleasures, the playground is a good place to teach moral\nprinciples. It may be true, as the psychologists teach us, that conchict\nresults from ideas, and that if we will implant a moral idea in the mind of a\nchild, we may take for granted that it will work itself out in conduct and\ncharacter, but I doubt it, if we are to consider the child as having the idea\nwhen he can recite it to us. The school child has been trained in the art\nof reciting and does not practice as well as he is able to preach. This is\ntrue in all lines of study. For example, in a course I give in the teaching\nof school gymnastics, I find that almost any one of a class of fifty students\ncan describe fluently how a certain exercise should be taught and discuss\nthe theory underlying it quite thoroly; but when I ask one of them to do\nit, not more than one or two out of the fifty can do it as all agree it should .\nbe done, imtil they have had practice and training in doing it. Study,\n\n"}
{"page": 1162, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ndiscussion, and practice are all needed properly to implant the idea. In\nthe words of the old maxim, \"Things to be done must be learned by doing\nthem,\" and this applies to conduct and the teaching of morals as well as\nanywhere.\nFor this reason, I believe that the course of moral education outlined\nand published last year by a committee from the National Council of Education isdeficient, in not making a definite use of the play life of the pupils\nas a means of moral instruction, above the second grade. It is in the competitive plays of grammar- and high-school pupils that moral principles are\nmost plainly involved, and these plays should be used in connection with\nthe moral lessons outlined. Questions of conduct arising in the games they\npractice on the playground will be discussed with more interest and profit,\nin my opinion, than the conduct of characters in history or fiction. Let\nthe members of a team discuss with the teacher such questions as these:\nWhat is gained and what is lost by winning xmf airly? Should we play\nunfairly in self-defense if we think our opponents are doing so? Why?\nHow far should the spectators go in aiding the home team ? Shall we object\nto the decisions of the umpire in hope of making him favor us ?\nOur high schools and colleges are using athletic sports as a means of\nphysical training, but few of them realize the possibilities for moral training\nthese sports afford, and in many cases the players are left to pick up such\nmoral principles and habits of conduct as they may chance to get from\nspectators and from professional coaches employed to put out a winning\nteam. Of what trivial import is the championship of a state or the success of\nAmerican athletes in the Olympic contests compared with the higher grade\nof moral character that might be fostered if the educators of the country\nwould unite in using the physical sports and games as a laboratory for\ntraining in that direction ?\nAre the experts in playground instruction prepared to outline such a\ncourse in moral training and instruction ? If so, they should do it at once.\nI suggest that a committee be named in this meeting to prepare such a\ncourse as a supplement to that given by the committee of the National\nCouncil.\nTHE INFLUENCE OF FACULTY SUPERVISION ON THE\nMORAL EFFECTS OF ATHLETICS IN HIGH\nSCHOOLS AND COLLEGES\nC.\n\nS. HICKS,\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAMHERST,\n\nMASS.\n\nThis topic brings us face to face with the fact that there has been an\nactivity developing in our educational institutions, which has not been\nrecognized and developed by the faculties as a part of the training for\nthe student. This activity has grown from small beginnings until today\ncollege and preparatory-school faculties are compelled to consider the\n\n"}
{"page": 1163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF FACULTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n1 147\n\nwisdom of refusing to recognize it as a legitimate function of the institution, or accept and control it. The attitude of the majority of institutions\nfor many years was the first named; that is, they did not consider the\nathletic activities as in any way associated with the education of the\nstudent; therefore, why should they be recognized?\nThe purpose of education today is in a great measure directed to the\nmaking of good citizens. To do this there must be a three-sided development of the student, that is, the mental, the moral, and the physical.\nAthletics, when pursued with moderation, to a great degree solves the\nproblem of physical development. It also becomes the laboratory where\nmany of the good and bad traits of character are acquired — ^therefore\nits office in the moral training of the student. We hear the statement\nthat this school is a poor loser or a good one; a player is a gentleman or\na \"mucker.\" Take the same individuals under almost any other circumstances, and they would all be classed as gentlemen. In the excitement\nof physical contest, men act and appear as they really are, and not as\nthey assume to be. The athletic field is the great common ground where\nevery man proves his merit or worthlessness. It is the final analysis of\ncharacter, and he succeeds or fails because of what he really is. Therefore, isit wise for faculties to refuse to superintend the athletics of their\nschools? Are they not blasting one of the most fertile fields for moral\ntraining ?\nFifty years ago the athletic games in our schools and colleges were\nvery few. The boys played baseball, but every school had its own rule.\nThere were no organized teams to play with other schools. A few games\nwere played between schools, but a team was chosen for each occasion.\nThere were no hired coaches, training-tables, or expensive outfits for\nplayers. Stadia and athletic fields were unknown. They played on the\nmost convenient vacant lot, much as the small boy does today. Now,\nwe must acknowledge that things have changed.\nToday a school is considered poor that does not have a student athletic\nassociation organized to support teams to play with rival teams in each of\nthe several sports. Members of the teams are supplied with outfits which\nare made for them, and have their expenses paid to travel to other schools\nand play. Our universities have built great athletic fields costing thousands of dollars. Their receipts from a season's sport, in many cases,\namount to several thousand dollars. Players on these teams, many of\nthem boys who have never enjoyed luxuries, have more money spent\nupon them than they have ever seen before. Is there any chance that\nthis player will get a wrong estimate of values in his college course ?\nWho is the business head controlling the expenditure of this money ?\nIn many cases it is a boy whose own father, if he is in business, would not\nconsider him as having judgment to do business for him. This is the\ncase of the student manager, with plenty of money to spend, money that\n\n"}
{"page": 1164, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nis not his own; and no one asks why or where it is to be spent. Is this a\nnormal training for the young man ? Is it not possible that he may find\nit easy to use some of this money for his own purposes? Further than\nthis, the student manager carries on business correspondence with other\ninstitutions, arranging his schedules of games, making contracts amounting\nto hundreds of dollars, buys supplies, and does all this with but the training and ability of a boy. Is there anything absurd about this? .He is\ncertainly given too much responsibility without experience. _ Nearly every\nstudent manager means well and does the best possible. They are as\nfine a group of boys as any that we can select, but we cannot give them\nexperience and business ability. Their acts are too easily influenced by\nfellow-students. They have control of but one season's sport, and therefore give too much attention to temporary advantage. The selection of\nofficials for games is too often made for the immediate advantage to be\ngained. This, in many cases, works greatly to the detriment of their\nown institution in following seasons.\nIn contrast with this unsupervised condition of student management,\nI wish to state the case of the director of athletics, a member of the faculty,\nor the graduate manager. This office has been created in the majority\nof cases as a result of the activity of the national collegiate athletic association. They have stated the case as follows: \"The colleges and universities enrolled in this association severally agree to take control of student\nathletic sports, as far as may be necessary, to maintain in them a high\nstandard of personal honor, eligibility, and fair play, and to remedy whatever abuses may exist.\"\nThe head masters of many of our preparatory schools and presidents\nof colleges are alive to existing conditions and the resulting evils. The\nsolution which they have made is the recognition of athletics as a part of\nthe college and school training and the creation of the office of either\ndirector of athletics or general or graduate manager of athletics.\nThe qualifications of a person for this office are in many ways quite\ndifferent from those for other college and school offices. He must be a\nman with general knowledge of the sports and their needs, with high\nideals as to sportsmanship, easily approached by the students, but firm\nin his control of the situation. In many cases the graduate manager has\nfilled the position better than any other officer because of his undergraduate\nexperience in that particular institution.\nIn speaking of the student manager and his work, I stated that he\nwas given too great a responsibility with little or no experience. I do\nnot believe that the manager of athletics should come in and take upon\nhimself all the duties of the several student managers. He should be in\nclose touch with all of their work, to assist and advise. He should make\nthe student managers feel that it is co-operation and not absolute direction.\nThen he is sure to obtain their support and cpnfidence.\nUnder these\n\n"}
{"page": 1165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF FACULTY\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n1149\n\nconditions the student managership means a business training to the\nstudent.\nThe relations of colleges and schools, whether friendly or otherwise,\nare in a great measure determined by their athletic relations. When the\narrangement of contests and the selection of officials is left to men who are\nabove the influence of excited undergraduate opinion, the matter is simple\nand fair to all parties concerned. It is here that I feel that the director\ncan do the most for the improvement of sports.\nTo support this I wish to relate the following case: In a football\ngame between two large colleges, one team scored upon the other by a\nfield goal. The ball struck the ground before going over the goal and the\ndecision was questioned, but allowed to pass, and the game was won by it.\nThe management of the college which lost by this decision insists that the\nsame ofiicial must referee the game between the two institutions next\nautumn. They realize that the official decided as he believed was right,\nand they are strong enough to insist upon the retaining of such an official.\nWould a student manager, influenced by undergraduate judgment, sustain\nan official who had caused his team to lose? He could not if he would.\nFrom my own experience I can say that many of the misunderstandings\nbetween student managers are over the most trivial points. By taking\nmatters of this kind entirely out of their hands, I have cleared up these\ncases with little or no trouble, and the students soon forgot their grievance.\nIn speaking of the athletic director and the general or graduate manager,\nI have spoken in favor of either of these as compared to the student manager.\nIn doing this I have thought more particularly of the condition in our\ncolleges and universities. In the preparatory and the high schools, I\nbelieve there should be one man as director of athletics, who has charge\nof both the management and actual play of the boys: this athletic director\nto be a member of the school faculty and in complete accord with the\npolicies of his institution. More particularly is this true for schools than\nfor colleges, for here you find students far too immature to attempt to\nmanage teams.\nA game of baseball between two public high schools of one of our\neastern cities was visited. The whole arrangement of the game on the\npart of both institutions was in the hands of students. Faculty supervision\nwas not evident upon the field. About the middle of the game the umpire\nwas insulted by a player, and before the close of the contest the police\nwere compelled to act. The masters of the schools were consulted and\nthey stated that they had not as yet decided to interfere with the boys\nin their games. This is only one instance of a very bad condition of\naffairs among some of our public high schools.\nThe New England College Conference on Athletics has appointed a\ncommittee to endeavor to arouse those who are at the head of our public\nschools and show them the necessity of controlling the athletics. At the\n\n"}
{"page": 1166, "printed_page": null, "text": "II50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nlast meeting of this society it also gave much time to the consideration\nof the systems of management in the several New England colleges. At\nthe present time five New England colleges have graduate or general\nmanagers of athletics, while in fourteen, students managers are conducting\nall of their business. Many of the colleges in the last-named group realize\nthe necessity of changing their system of management, but fail in that\nthey cannot aflford to support an officer for this purpose.\nThe difference in the business conditions where the student manager\nis in power, and where the general or graduate manager has been in power,\nis conclusively shown by the attitude of the manufacturers who sell athletic\ngoods. The five colleges having graduate managers pay most if not all\ntheir bills within the ten-day discount period, while at least one of the\nother colleges cannot buy goods from certain firms except for cash and\nseveral of them have bills that have been running for several years.\nIn this paper I have attempted to show the conditions as they exist\nin many schools and colleges and how these conditions work, both directly\nand indirectly, harm to the institutions and their individual students;\nthat the presence of an older person in control removed many of these\nconditions and introduced influences for good.\nI hope that I may be pardoned for drawing most of my illustrations\nfrom one part of the country. I feel, however, that New England is far\nfrom being progressive in this matter, and we have much to learn from the\norganizations of the West, and especially of the Missouri Valley Conference\nand similar associations.\nThe place for athletics in the school and college is secondary; however,\nit cannot be ignored, but must be handled with tact. Give athletics full\nrecognition as one of the activities of the institution and control it so as\nto set the student right as to its values and the relation which it bears to\nother parts of his education.\n\nATHLETICS\nGEORGE\n\nAN ESSENTIAL\n\nW. EHLER,\nU>fIVERSITY\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nOF WISCONSIN,\n\nMORAL\n\nFACTOR\n\nPHYSICAL\nMADISON,\n\nEDUCATION,\nWIS.\n\n[Abstract]\n\nMoral education to most people means the presentation to boys and\ngirls by teaching and preaching the precepts and maxims of a moral or\nethical or religious code of conduct, the exhortation to act in accordance\nwith such a code, and the leading of an exemplary life by the teacher and\npreacher. This is good as far as it goes. In most cases it fails at the\npoint of application — the practice of moral and ethical principles in the\nreal life of the boys and girls.\n\n"}
{"page": 1167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nAN\n\nESSENTIAL\n\nMORAL\n\nFACTOR\n\n1151\n\nThe boy and girl in the school or the home are under authority — what\nthey may or may not do here is determined for them — they act as they\nmust, not as they will. Strong character was never the product of imposed\nrestraint and repression or prohibition.\nThe real life of the child or youth from his point of view is the one\nthat he lives out with his fellows. Here he is free to pick and choose, to\ndetermine for himself what he will or will not do, swayed by his own deepest\nfeelings and sentiments, influenced by those of his own kind — his gang.\nThe character of the boy is determined most largely by the habits\nand ideals that are prevalent among those with whom he associates, the\nenvironment of his real life. Here is where he goes wrong or works out\nhis own salvation.\nIt is in the activities of this free life of play and thru the associations\nand relationships that are here formed, that fundamental virtues or vices\nget their grip upon mind and heart.\nAt the period when the shackles of home and school begin to bear\nheaviest upon the boy, and his instincts to lead his own life and develop\nhis own character tend to drive him out into the world of his own kind,\nwe find competitive play — athletics in its many forms — to be his dominant\ninterest. This form of activity presents daily innumerable opportunities\nfor the practice of the precepts and maxims that home and school have\ntaught. If the environment is favorable, the reactions tend to the establishment of right habits of thought and action. If the environment is\nunfavorable, anti-social, unethical, and immoral habits are the result.\nThe environment is determined by the character of the leadership\nsupplied. At the time when every other activity of the child or youth\nis subjected to some form of adult supervision with a view to constructive\nguidance and helpfulness, only a police supervision is provided for this\nreal life, and that in accord with a policy of repression and prohibition.\nUnder this policy we see juvenile delinquency, misdemeanor, and crime\nsteadily increasing.\nWhere opportunity is given the boys of a community to live out their\nreal lives as expressed in competitive play — athletics, under a wise leadership that drives home the lessons of right and wrong at the psychological\nmoment of their occurrence in practice — juvenile delinquency, misdemeanor,\nand crime decrease.\nAthletics provides for an expression of youthful instinct and interest\nthat is vital to the development of character. It is an essential factor\nin any scheme of moral education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1168, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1169, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — David Starr Jordan, president, Leland Stanford Junior Stanford\nUniversityUniversity, Cal.\nF«c«-Pf«ia««/— William Ore, deputy commissioner of education\nSecretary — H. L. Terry, state high school inspector\n\nBoston, Mass.\nMadison, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION — Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 191 2\nThe meeting was called to order by David Starr Jordan, president of Leland Stanford\nJunior University, Stanford University, Cal., who gave the president's address.\nWilliam A. McKeever, State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans., then gave\nan address on \"Eugenics.\"\nA paper on \"A Psychological Classification of Public-School Pupils\" was presented\nby George E. Dawson, director of Department of Child Study, Henry Barnard School,\nHartford, Conn.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July ii, 1912\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m.\nThe following nominating committee was appointed:\nLouis P. Jocelyn, teacher of mathematics, Ann Arbor High School, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nF. W. Plapp, assistant in Carl Schurz High School, Chicago, 111.\nMaximillian Braam, teacher of biology, Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nLewis P. AUyn, State Normal School, Westfield, Mass., presented a paper with\nillustrati^-e material on the topic, \"Communal Chemistiry: How May the Teaching of\nChemistry Promote the Well-Being of the Community ?\"\nThe subject was continued by J. F. Snell, professor of chemistry, Macdonald College,\nSte. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada, who read a paper on \"Chemistry and Household\nScience.\"\nA paper on \"Applied Botany\" was then given by George A. Works, instructor in\nagricultural education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nJ. A. Randall, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y., presented a paper on \"Physics and\nthe Equipment Problem.\"\n\"A Study in Adolescent Efficiency\" was presented by J. H. McCurdy, director of\nthe Physical Department, International Y.M.C.A. Training School, Springfield, Mass.\nA general discussion followed the reading of this paper.\nIn connection with the consideration of the topic \"Physics and the Equipment\nProblem,\" the following resolution was moved by William A. Wirt, superintendent of\npublic schools, Gary, Ind.\n\"53\nResolved, That the Joint Committee on the Improvement of Physics Teaching,\nnow extant, appointed by the National Federation of Science and Mathematics Teachers,\nbe recognized as a committee of the Science Department of the National Education\n\n"}
{"page": 1170, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nAssociation, and that the Science Department recommend to the Council an appropriation of funds to enable the committee to carry on its work.\nThis motion was seconded and carried.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows:\n\n.\n\nFor President — H. L. Teriy, state high school inspector, Madison, Wis.\nFor Vice-President — John F. Woodhull, professor of physical science, Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — ^Jesse L. Smith, superintendent of schools. Highland Park, 111.\nThe report of the nominating committee was unanimously accepted.\nH. L. Terry, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENTS\nDAVID\n\nSTARR JORDAN,\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nPRESIDENT, LELAND STANFORD\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nJUNIOR\n\nGoethe says, \"It is a wise provision of nature that trees shall not\ngrow up into the sky.\"\nThis applies to the world at large, but there are two parts of the world\nwhere the limit is oflf and the trees grow as they will. One of these is in\nsoutheastern Australia on the mountain called the Blacks' Spur. There\nthe giant eucalyptus trees reach a diameter of forty feet and a height of\nnearly three hundred.\nIn California, along the flanks of the Sierra Nevada, about half-way\nup grows the giant tree Sequoia gigantea. There are a dozen or more small\ngroves of this tree, the largest of the trees being forty feet in diameter.\nThe tree is rather low and chunky; not over about one hundred and fifty\nfeet high. In one case it is found more convenient to run the stage road\nright thru between the breaks in the roots in one great tree, than to go\nall the way around it.\nPeople of the East believe everything of California except what is\ntrue. For example, when I told the story that when a great tree fell in\nthe Mariposa Forest the echoes were heard for six weeks, there were some\nwho thought it incredible.\nThere are a dozen or more of these small groves. Usually there are\nno young trees because the leaves have been piled up for ages so that no\nseedling can reach down to the ground. In one place only there are little\ntrees five to ten feet thru, where a stream has washed away the accumulated\nleaves and the seeds have had a chance to sprout.\nMost of these forests are now government parks. The Calaveras\nGrove, the first discovered and the best known, has just been, or is about\nto be, taken over out of private hands. I visited one of the finest of these\ngroves, the Converse Basin in Tulare county, when the great trees were\n\n"}
{"page": 1171, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\nDepartment]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\nII55\n\nbeing cut up to make little wooden soap-boxes. The wood — ^pink in\ncolor and brittle — is not very good for lumber as it is easily marred.\nIn the Converse Basin the trees had to be cut down by dynamite\nWast, as no saw would go thru them. They had to be blasted in pieces\nbefore they would go into the saw-mill. I counted the rings in one little\ntree; it was six feet thru at the time of the fall of Rome and there were\nabout 1,950 rings in all. There were other trees with apparently four times\nas many rings but I couldn't count them — they were too high when they\nlay on the ground, and the outermost rings in these trees are very narrow.\nIf the world is 5, coo years old, these trees must have been there at least\nsome years before the world was made — perhaps created by some other\ndeity. Mr. Converse, who discovered this basin, claims to have counted\nii,ooo rings, but we will be satisfied to say 5,000, which is probably nearer\nthe truth.\nThis little forest, once destroyed, cannot be grown again; it would\ntake another 5,000 years to do it. Meanwhile, they have turned in the\nsheep, called by John Muir the \"human grasshopper\"; they nip off every\ngreen thing — only the grown trees and rocks escape.\nAnother famous tree in California is the sugar-pine, very tall and\nstraight, and often ten or twelve feet thru. The botanist Douglass, who\ndiscovered it, said that beyond a doubt it is the noblest of all vegetables.\nThe big tree grows only in the high Sierras, about half-way up.\nIn the mountains of the Coast Range is the great redwood Sequoia\nsempervirens. This is a smaller and more slender tree, the oldest not\nover 2,000 years old; the largest about twenty feet thru and two hundred\nand fifty feet high. Some of the most splendid forests in the world are\nthose of the redwoods. There is a belt over one hundred miles long and\nabout twenty miles wide in the northwestern part of California, running\nfrom Cape Mendocino northward. The railroad is being built thru this\nregion and the whole forest has passed into the hands of lumbermen.\nSoon it will all be gone and our children will never know what a real forest\nis like. In Pennsylvania, they call it forestry to cut down a pine tree, and\na man at each end takes hold of the trunk and carries it away. This is\nmore like weeding a garden than it is like the work in the real forests.\nIn Santa Cruz county the state has bought a park of 2,500 acres of\nthese great redwoods — the so-called Big Basin. This was a splendid thing\nto do but we need more such parks.\nWilliam Kent gave the Muir Park of redwoods on the north side of\nMount Tamalpais to the state. President Roosevelt wanted to call it\nKent Park but Mr. Kent said he had a number of sturdy boys and if they\ncouldn't make the name of Kent known in some way he was willing to\nlet it drop into oblivion.\nA movement is taking shape to urge the United States government\nto condemn or buy a certain part of this Mendocino Humboldt Forest.\n\n"}
{"page": 1172, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 156\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Science\n\nThe railroad will make it accessible and there can be no finer pleasuringground in the world. We hope that all teachers, in such degree as may\nbe possible, will lend their support to this movement and to every movement\neverywhere to save the trees.\nEUGENICS\nWILLIAM\n\nA.\n\nMCKEEVER,\n\nPROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY,\nCOLLEGE,\nMANHATTAN,\nKANS.\n\nSTATE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nWithin the present century the problem of human race-breeding has\nbecome one of world-wide interest. At last, after centuries of intensive\nstudy of the many less closely related problems, man has shown a willingness to apply the exact methods of science to a study of his own inherent\nnature. The conclusions of this new type of research are only beginning\nto make their values apparent, but the next few years in the future seem\nto promise some data of far-reaching importance to the trend of human\ndevelopment.\nWHAT\n\nWE\n\nALREADY\n\nKNOW\n\nSo far, the careful researches carried on in the field of eugenics have\nmade a number of matters fairly clear, and thus paved the way for a more\naggressive campaign of inquiry. The conclusions with reference to the\nnature of man thus far seemingly established are these: that as an animal\nman belongs in the general scale of animal life; that as such the principles\nof biology and evolution apply to him very much as they do to the other,\nespecially the higher, animal forms; that inborn physical, and most probably mental, characteristics in man are transmitted from parent to child\nin accordance with the Mendelian law of distribution; that many forms\nof disease are transmissible in a sense that the offspring of the affiliated\nparent probably inherits a certain degree of weakened resistance to the\nencroachment of the disease in question, or that the child lacks a so-called\n''determiner\" for the missing or impaired quality.\nWHAT\n\nWE\n\nDO\n\nNOT\n\nKNOW\n\nOn the other hand, we are still much at sea as regards a clear distinction between acquired and congenital characters. While the question of\nthe inheritance of acquired characters is a more unsettled one than it\nwas a decade ago, there are probably more able biologic scientists today\nwho believe in the transmission of acquired characters than there have\nbeen at any other time during the period just named.\nWe are still more in the dark in regard to the respective values of nature\nand nurture as factors in the development of a substantial human life,\nif— barring a comparatively few misfits — we draw our parent stock from\nthe great common race stream.\nEven less are we informed as to the\n\n"}
{"page": 1173, "printed_page": null, "text": ", Department]\n\n'\n\nEUGENICS\n\n1 157\n\npotency of mind as an agency in transforming mere unpromising human\nanimalism into transcendental spirit power.\nSOME\n\nPRESENT\n\nMETHODS\n\nCRITICIZED\n\nThe London school of eugenists, \"biometricians,\" are proceeding\nchiefly under the role of pathologists and psychiatrists — they are out in\nthe field searching for degenerates in the form of sick bodies and degenerate\nminds, and they are meeting with marked success in finding what they\nare looking for. They are out with the assumption that mankind is\nsharply divided up into stocks — that there are a very few of the better\nstocks and a very large number of the worse or weaker stocks. They\ngo among the families of Oxford graduates and others who have been\nfavored with full physical and mental nurture as well as with the powerful\nstimulus of hope and expectancy, and take some measurements. These\nmathematical eugenists then lay their yard-stick upon the members of\nthe peasantry, men and women who have been bruised and beaten and\nhalf-starved thru the workings of an iniquitous caste system fastened\nupon their ancestry generations ago by the bloody hand of conquest;\nand lo! the children of the \"better\" stocks are proved to be the ones to\nbreed from! They make a much superior showing as compared with\nthe others!\nOur American Eugenics Laboratory, at Cold Springs Harbor, N.Y.,\nis doing a much more promising work, altho its pioneer efforts are of necessity confined largely to a study of the morbid and the unusual aspects of\nour common^ citizenship. And so I contend that eugenics is much in\nneed of a broad, comprehensive definition of method and that its most\nimportant task just now is that of transforming age-long tradition and\npopular prejudice into an intelligent conception of the world-wide racebreeding problem. The common-school teachers, as yet, are not acquainted\nwith the principles of animal breeding which underlie those human developments. They especially lack a system of methods and aims looking forward\ntoward a higher human brotherhood.\nWHAT\n\nIS MAN?\n\nWhat is the general nature of the human race today? Is it one or\nmany? Is it made up of distinctive, separate strains and \"stocks,\"\ndestined to remain permanently segregated into castes and factions,\nwhich must forever be at war one with the other? Or is our common\nhuman nature, wherever found on the earth, essentially a xmit out of which\nmay be made to emerge a beautiful social democracy ? This is the most\nmomentous question of the ages— a very pressing problem alike for all\nwho are either directly or indirectly interested in the life of man on the\nearth. I contend with all my might for the latter position. The historian,\nthe paleontologist, the biologist, the natural scientist, and the psychologist\n\n"}
{"page": 1174, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 58\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Science\n\nare all contributing a mass of evidence to support the theory that there is\nonly one human-kind the world over; that the various so-called races of\nman have had a common origin, and are inherently shaped for a common\ndestiny; that the great age-long instinctive qualities upon which our best\ncivilization is built are found alike and in abundance in every tribe and\nnation under the sun; that the great central stream of humanity everywhere found is prepotent at birth in all the qualities necessary for development, under favorable conditions, into sound and substantial manhood and\nwomanhood; that human-kind everywhere is apparently on the way to a\ncommon higher physical and mental being.\nTHE\n\nCOMMON\n\nRACE\n\nINSTINCTS\n\nWhat are the human instincts, which are found abundantly in the\nhuman young everywhere, and which furnish a substantial foundation\nupon which to build a beautiful and sublime superstructure of manhood\nand womanhood ? They are these: an instinct —\n1. to satisfy the animal appetites and desires;\n2. to participate in play and other recreative experiences;\n3. to contend for the individual and the social well-being;\n4. to accumulate property and carry on commerce;\n5. to institute some kind of family life and rear children;\n6. to build up a community life and enjoy good fellowship;\n7. to institute civil laws and customs aiming at social justice;\n8. to seek a form of religious experience applicable both to the present and to an\nideal future life.\n\nOnce accept the point of view that the human race is a unit; that it\nis substantially sound in the main; that the foregoing basic qualities\nare a common inheritance, and then we are ready to come forward with\na constructive program. The detailed work of rebuilding a race will\ncall for a scheme of training for parenthood, beginning with the mere\nchild and leading on with ever-widening knowledge to the time of marriage.\nSuch plain matters as the choice of a life-mate, the care and direction of\nthe lives of the children in the home, the organization of all the interests\ncentering in the household and making up a substantial family life — these\nand others like them teachers must know as well as they now know the\ncommon-school branches, and they must teach these matters to the young\nas a direct means of race improvement.\nTHE\n\nPERENNIAL\n\nWAR\n\nCLOUD\n\nThe greatest menace to the establishment of a mighty spiritual democracy among the men of all nations is the professional militarism that\nhas slowly grown into a monster of impending power and destructiveness.\nThrones and palaces of the older sort are tottering, monarchies are crumbling before the onward march of the enlightened masses, but much of the\nsame old selfishness and lust for power is now lurking behind the frowning\nbreastworks of an aristocratic militarism, and that under the pretense of\npatriotism.\n\n"}
{"page": 1175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEUGENICS\n\n1 1 59\n\nSo the student of eugenics is halted here at the outposts of the great\narmies and navies of the world. The war problem must be settled before\nwe will be able to make any very substantial advance. If the militarist\nbe right, then human life is a cheap and bloody piece of animalism at best,\nand the nations must keep on cutting one another to pieces for the sake\nof mere brute supremacy. If the military aristocracy be right, then man\nmust ever continue in chains of bondage to his fellow-man and the task\nof the eugenist is merely that of determining how to breed better fighting\nqualities in men.\nMark you, I do not stop with the most damaging cha:rge that the\nenormous expense of militarism is sapping the life-blood out of the nations\nof the earth, altho this fact is already clear to all thinking minds. I add\nthe most serious charge that militarism as organized at present is a hard\nand brutish aristocracy — that it is built on the principle that man is predominantly fierce and selfish; that the goods of the world are material\ngoods; that only a few, the greatest in war, can expect to obtain possession\nof these goods; that the great mass of men are unfit for self-direction and\nmust act only in mute submissiveness to the stern and supercilious command\nof a superior; that man's social sympathy and his spiritual nature are\nmere playthings to be made use of only in times of peace.\nTHE\n\nCHURCHES\n\nAT\n\nFAULT\n\nAgain I charge that some of the religious bodies are standing directly\nin the way of a comprehensive eugenics program thru their attack upon\nother denominations. For example, there is a periodical with a circulation\nof about 150,000 copies published by the Protestants for the sole purpose\nof attacking and defaming the Catholics. Such methods are doing much\nto foster religious prejudice and hatred among friends and neighbors\nand to destroy the effectiveness of two great religious bodies which might\nas well be working side by side on terms of good-fellowship for the spiritual\nuplift of the race. As a regular Protestant church member I wish to\ndenounce this poisonous, peace-destroying campaign as a twin brother\nto the militarism hitherto described.\nBut tKere are those among us who see a divine spark of life in all races\nand individuals among men. We see a great cosmic brotherhood slowly\nemerging. We behold a great throng of the common people arising to\nassume the reins of their own government. There is no wealth but spiritual\nlife. There is no power save divine power, and common man is its chief\ninstrumentality! Let those who would go about seeking the breaks and\nthe bruises on the outer margins of our human nature turn their lamp of\ninquiry into the great heart of our common humanity and find there all\nthe substantial elements of worth and ability necessary for unfoldment\ninto splendid and beautiful character. Let them seek to provide for our\ngreat common childhood all the physical nurture, all the play and social\n\n"}
{"page": 1176, "printed_page": null, "text": "n6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nintercourse, all the work and industry, all the religious experience, all\nthe vocational and economic discipline, for which human instinct the\nworld over so loudly calls. Let them provide that practically every young\nperson shall find a place to live and work wherein his best latent powers\nwill be called into service and where the light of hope and faith may shine\non undimmed unto the end of life.\nA SUMMING\n\nUP\n\nLet us summarize the discussion.\nMy contention follows:\n1. We must have a more comprehensive scheme for our eugenics\nprogram, taking into account the substantial unity and solidarity of the\nwhole race as pointed out by the common instinctive dispositions potentially\npresent in all the human young.\n2. We must provide that all the teaching forces — the school teachers,\nthe ministers, and the popular and educational writers, shall be made\nacquainted with the facts of inheritance and the great possibilities of a\nrightly ordered environment as an agency for transforming crude animalism\ninto human characters of spiritual supremacy.\n3. While it is true that there are a few insane, imbecile, and otherwise\nweak and degenerate human beings among us, I challenge the \"biometricians\" to show under fair considerations that the great central stream\nof humanity is other than good and comparatively sound \"man-stuff\"\nat birth — a raw material out of which adequate training can bring all\nneeded perfection of character.\n4. Finally, education as an ally of eugenics must enter aggressively\na comparatively untried field. That is, it must try out a more definite\nplan for making the mind of man supreme over his physical nature — so\ntrain the young all along the way that he shall become master over all\nhurtful physical appetites, and that his physical well-being shall have\nthe advantage of the powerful healing agency of a mind stimulated by\njoy and social sympathy and hope of the future. I must be understood\nin this matter, if nowhere else: I mean that when we learn how to bring\nout by a well-rounded course of training the best inherent mind activities\nof our common man nearly all the sore sports and inherent sickness now\nfound in him by the \" biometricians \" will disappear under the magical\ntherapeutic power of a divinely supreme mind. Much of the disease found\namong the so-called lower class is a sickness brought on by such things\nas undeveloped mind power and lowered vitality thru ignorant dissipation\nand ill care of the health, as lack of the healing agency of the daily practice\nof love and hope and a broad human sympathy.\n\n"}
{"page": 1177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\nA PSYCHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL PUPILS\nGEORGE\n\nii6l\n\nOF\n\nE. DAWSON, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT\nOF CHILD\nHENRY BARNARD\nSCHOOL, HARTFORD, CONN,\n\nSTUDY,\n\nThe facts and inferences presented in this paper have been derived\nfrom a study that is still uncompleted. They are therefore not to be\nregarded as conclusive. The study, which has extended over the greater\npart of four school years, includes a rather detailed investigation of the\nmental processes of some two hundred children and youth. One hundred\nand five of these have been children in the elementary schools; fifty have\nbeen either high-school pupils, or of high-school grade of work; and\nfifty have been graduate students in professional schools.\nI shall submit at the outset a summary of my results, which constitutes the thesis of this paper, and shall then attempt to give a brief description of the study itself. Broadly considered, I have found two classes\nof pupils in the public schools. First, there is a type of mind that learns\nessentially thru objective experience. This mind has difficulty in learning,\nor in using, words, mathematical signs, or other symbols, detached from\ntheir proper objects. It has no difficulty, however, in learning objects\nthemselves, or in thinking in objects, or in controlling objective experience.\nNor has it any difficulty in learning and using words, mathematical signs,\nand other symbols that are associated with objects. But as soon as these\nsymbols are presented to it unrelated to objective experience, it fails to\nperceive them readily, to remember them accurately, and to build up\nthe resulting detached symbolic associations. In contrast with this type\nof mind, there is another that can learn symbols quite detached from their\nobjects, and can thus make symbolic experience a primary fact of consciousness, instead of a secondary, and dependent fact, as is the case with the\nfirst type of mind. This mind thus has the power of substituting symbols\nfor their proper objects. That is, instead of verbal and other symbolic\nmental images being dependent upon the mental images of objects, they\nare more or less completely dissociated from the latter. This mind can\nperceive symbols and remember them as such, and can build up symbolic\nmental associations having no immediate relationship with objective\nexperience. These two types of mind may be called \"objective\" and\n\"symbolic,\" respectively.\nThe differential qualities that I have found to underlie and condition\nthese somewhat sharply contrasted types of mental organization may be\nstated, in general terms, as follows: The fundamental and all-comprehending\ndistinction is the degree of completeness in the relationship between the\nmind of the pupil and the objective world. That is to say, the pupils that\nare well adjusted to objects, thru normal sense-experience and adequate\nOn the other hand, the\nmotor activities, tend to be objective-minded.\n\n"}
{"page": 1178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niScience\n\npupils that, for any reason, have their sense-experience curtailed, or,\nmore particularly, have incomplete motor experience, tend to be symbolicminded. Thus, robust vitality, well-balanced nervous and muscular\nsystems, and normal sense-organs favor objective-mindedness; while any\nimpairment of vitality, and any incomplete functioning, in either the sensory\nor the motor sphere, favor symbolic-mindedness. It would seem, in general,\nthat where a child is less perfectly adapted for objective experience he\ntends to develop a compensatory power of symbolizing such objective\nexperience, and making the symbols the immediate objects of his interests\nand his efforts. In other words, the primary distinction between the\nobjective t>^e of mind and the symbolic type of mind appears to be a\nbiological quality rather than a psychological quality; that is, the quality\nof more or less complete interaction between the individual and his environment.'\nHowever, the differential quality that is most pertinent to our present\ninterest is psychological, and is found in the relationship existing in the\npupil's mind between object-perceptions and symbol -perceptions; objectimages and symbol-images; and object-thinking and symbol-thinking.\nThe objective mind starts, in these different mental processes, with objective\nexperience, and proceeds thence to symbols and back again to objective\nexperience. Or, if symbolic experience be presented to it as the initial\nstimulus, the memory-images of the corresponding objective experience\nare at once evoked, and become the controlling factors in the mental\nprocess. That is to say, the mental processes of the objective mind begin\nand end in the objective world. Words, mathematical signs, and other\nsymbols are simply media in the mental cycle. The symbolic mind, on\nthe other hand, appears to have the power of perceiving symbols, forming\nmental images of symbols, and thinking in symbols, without either the\nobjects or the memory-images of the objects for which these symbols\nprimarily stand. In other words, the mental processes of the symbolic\nmind may be circumscribed by the symbols themselves, and have little\nor nothing to do with the objects for which the symbols properly stand.\nThe tests I have used to determine this differential quality of mind are\nnot so complete as I hope ultimately to make them. They are, however,\nI believe, significant tests. For objective mental processes, I use the\nfollowing: (i) tests of reaction-time, which involve attention, perception,\nand the execution of an idea, as stimulated by sight, hearing, and touch;\n(2) tests of hand-steadiness and speed and precision of voluntary movements, which involve attention, perception, and the execution of an idea,\nas stimulated by a rather complex objective task; (3) tests of tactile and\nkinaesthetic sensitiveness, which involve attention, perception, memory,\nand reason, as stimulated by size, shape, and relation of objects; (4) tests\n\" This quality I have determined by tests for general vitality — as height, weight, lung-capacity, heartaction, strength, endurance, and special deformities or diseases — and by tests for normal sensation, nervous\nand motor control, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 1179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\n1163\n\nof ability to solve a picture-puzzle, which involve attention, perception,\nmemory, imagination, and reason, as stimulated by colors, forms, and\nrelations of objects; and (5) tests of intellectual and moral judgments,\nwhich involve more complex perceptions, memory, imagination, and reason,\nas stimulated by concrete intellectual and moral problems. For the\nsymbolic mental processes, I use (i) tests of visual and auditory memory\nfor symbols which involve attention, perception, and memory, as stimulated\nby words and numbers of varying degrees of difficulty; and (2) tests of\nsymbolic associations, which involve attention, memory, imagination,\nand the range and quality of associated words, as stimulated by a given\nword or by a word selected by the child himself.\nThese tests have served to differentiate, with greater or less clearness,\nthe respective mental qualities of the children studied. In extreme cases,\nchildren have succeeded in the one group of tests and have failed in the\nother. In other cases, it has been rather a question of where the greater\nstress has fallen. Fifty-eight per cent of the children in the elementary\ngroup belong in the objective class of minds, according to these tests;\n29 per cent, in the symbolic class; and the remainder, for one reason or\nanother, were impossible to classify.\nThe following cases will illustrate the contrasts and qualities of mind\nbrought to light in the group of elementary-school children: The first\ncase is that of a boy twelve years old, of robust vitality, normal senses,\nwell-balanced nervous system, and good control of movements. His\nreaction-time was 0.18 second for hearing; 0.19 second for sight; and\n0.16 second for touch. His tactile and kinaesthetic perceptions and judgments were quick and accurate, requiring but six minutes, on the average,\nfor each test. He required five minutes for the solution of the picturepuzzle, on an average, while he tapped 325 times per minute and made\nbut 40 errors in the trial. These are all good records for objective tests.\nOn the other hand, the tests for symbolic ability were relative failures.\nFor visual word-memory, one word only being given at a time, the failure\nwas complete. In auditory word-memory, 40 per cent of the trials resulted\nin failure. For numbers, the failures were 20 per cent; while a ten-minute\ntest in word-association resulted in only 35 words, every one of them the\nnames of well-known objects or verbs of common action. Upon inquiry\nit was learned that in his school work this boy had difficulty in reading\nand spelling, his other work being up to grade.\nThe second case is that of a boy fourteen years old, well grown, but\nwith inactive lungs, nervous heart, and poorly developed muscles. In\nthe objective tests, this boy was much inferior to the preceding. His\nreaction-time was 0.34 second, 0.40 second, and 0.32 second, respectively.\nIn the tactile and kinaesthetic tests, he failed entirely after a trial of forty\nminutes. It required an average time of twenty minutes for him to solve\nthe puzzle, which was a test of perception, attention, and judgment of\n\n"}
{"page": 1180, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nform, color, and relations of objects. His speed was but 234 per minute\nand his average number of errors 88. On the other hand, this boy, with\nsuch a poor record in the objective tests, was one of the best pupils I have\nyet tested in the symbolic tests. He stood perfect in both visual and auditory memories of words, up to three in a series; and for numbers, up to\ntwo in a series, of two places each. In word associations he wrote out\n125 words, few of them evidently being called up by objects or actions\nbut most of them related to one another as parts of speech, words of similar\nsound, etc. I found upon inquiry, that this boy did unusually well in\nreading, language, and number work; but was very poor in manual work,\nwriting, history, and in his judgment of concrete situations.\nMy conclusions regarding types of mental organization have been\nmore thoroly worked out for this group of elementary-school children\nthan for either of the other groups. It is among younger minds, indeed,\nthat all of our psychological problems can be more easily resolved into\ntheir elements. I am convinced that the elementary school will yield\nthe most important lessons in educational psychology and experimental\npedagogy. However, I have carried over the problem of mental types to\nhigh-school pupils and beyond, in order to confirm my results for a larger\nfield. Much the same objective tests have been made in the more advanced\ngroups that were made in the elementary group. But the symbolic tests\nhave been more thoro and detailed. The visual and auditory memory\ntests for words have been as follows: (i) concrete words from two in a\nseries up to seven, which I have found to be the limit of the memory-span;\n(2) abstract words, up to six; (3) nonsense-syllables, up to five; and\n(4) miscellaneous letter-groups, up to three. The visual and auditory\ntests for memory of numbers have ranged from two, of two places each,\nup to five. In addition to these tests, a one-hundred word test in psychoanalysis has been made, to get at the pupil's method of calling up wordimages. The general word-association tests have been the same as with\nthe elementary-school children.\nTime will not permit of any detailed analysis of the results obtained\namong these advanced groups of pupils. Suffice to say that they confirm\nentirely the principles worked out among the elementary pupils. In general,\nthe percentage of objective-minded students is smaller, and that of the\nsymbolic-minded pupils greater. The proportion is 25 per cent of the\nformer to 50 per cent of the latter, with the remainder imclassified. This\njust about reverses the order found among the elementary pupils. It\nshould be said, in this connection, that practically all the students tested\nin these two advanced groups were trained in classical high schools. They\ndoubtless represented a long weeding-out process, in which the objectiveminded were eliminated. A goodly percentage, however, of very robust\nobjective minds had survived the symbolic education to which they had\nbeen subjected. The following case will illustrate: A boy sixteen years\n\n"}
{"page": 1181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nOF PUPILS\n\n1165\n\nold, Senior in a classical high school, of good general vitality and development, brought up in a rural environment, and with a rich fund of concrete,\npractical experience. This boy's reaction-time for hearing was 0.18\nsecond; for sight, o. 10 second; and for touch, o. 13 second. His tapping\nspeed was 333 per minute, with an average of but 4 errors. His tactile\nand kinaesthetic record was 5 . 8 minutes. These are all good records for\nobjective tests. For the symbolic tests, the records were equally emphatic,\ntho in the opposite direction. In visual imagery of words, he had an average\nmemory-span of but three words; in auditory imagery, five words. In\nimagery of numbers, his records were four and five, respectively. Eightyseven per cent of his verbal reactions to the test in psycho-analysis were\nthe names of concrete objects, or action- words; i per cent were purely\nabstract words; and 12 per cent were failures to give any word in response.\nWhen questioned as to these failures, he said that when he heard the words,\nthe mental images of their corresponding objects came before his mind\nwith such distinctness that he thought of no words at all. Further questioning brought out the fact that words heard or seen by this boy always\ncalled up at once some object or objective relation. It was found that\nthis boy succeeded best in physics and applied mathematics, tho he was\nconsidered a good student generally.\nIt seems to me that a very significant light is shed upon the problem\nof mental types as here presented, by neurology, and the general mental\ndevelopment of the race. Objective mental processes and symbolic mental\nprocesses have their respective nervous mechanisms. The objective\nprocesses depend primarily upon the brain-areas of concrete perception,\nand the association-centers that are related directly to them. The symbolic processes depend upon brain-areas that have become differentiated\nfrom the general areas of concrete perception in a comparatively recent\nperiod of nervous evolution. They are dependent upon the general perceptual centers, and become entirely dissociated from them only under\nabnormal conditions, as in lesions of the brain that have their external\nmanifestation in various forms of aphasia, glossolalia, etc. In brief, the\nhuman brain is an organ of objective consciousness. It is organized to\nmediate symbolic experience only incidentally to objective experience.\nThe nervous arc functions at both the sensory and the motor ends in a\nworld of concrete things and forces. Its symbolic functions are concerned\nonly with the intermediate processes of transforming sense-stimuli into\naction. However long-circuited by words and other symbols may be the\nenergy of which man's mental life is a mode, it must ever flow from an\nobjective world back to an objective world. What is thus revealed in\nbrain-organization is also shown in the evolution of mind in the race.\nThe mind of man is primarily constituted of objective experience. Symbolic experience is a late attainment, and one incidental to the more fundamental process — a specialization, as it were, of objective experience, and\n\n"}
{"page": 1182, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nha\\4ng no meaning or value without the concrete realities from which it\nhas been derived. Human consciousness for milleniums of years was\nessentially a consciousness of objects, actions, and concrete relations\ngenerally. Symbolic consciousness, as such, is new in racial evolution.\nMen have been using written s3mabols for only a few thousand years; and\nprinted symbols for only a few hundred years.\nWhat is thus clearly indicated in the organization of the brain and the\nevolution of mind, must be significant for education. It seems probable\nthat the objective type of mind to which I have called attention is the\nracial type of mind; and that the symbolic type is a specialization, and\nto some extent at least, a departure from racial norms. Neurologically,\nit represents a disaggregation of nervous elements, and psychologically\nit represents a disaggregation of consciousness. The ignorance and exigencies of men thruout educational history have led them to make the\neducational process essentially symbolic. There have thus been developed\ncertain mental qualities by a process of artificial selection. The power\nof using words and other symbols, more or less unrelated to objects, has\nbeen acquired by a comparatively small and highly specialized class of\nindividuals; and these individuals have become the standards and arbiters\nof intellectual culture. But it is by no means certain that the symbolic type\nof mind has the qualities of psychological survival; much less is it certain\nthat it has the qualities of biological survival. It is not probable that\nthe future of civilization lies in the class of men and women whose intellects and whose lives function so exclusively in symbolic experience. It\nseems to me at least doubtful whether public education should longer\nbe an agency for the selection and perpetuation of symbolic-minded individuals, and the elimination of individuals whose reactions to culture and\nto life are essentially objective.\nCOMMUNAL CHEMISTRY: HOW MAY THE TEACHING\nCHEMISTRY PROMOTE THE WELL-BEING OF THE\nCOMMUNITY?\nLEWIS\n\nB.\n\nALLYN,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWESTFIELD,\n\nOF\n\nMASS.\n\nTen decades and more have passed since the introduction of chemistry\ninto the curriculum of academy and college. From earliest times one of\nthe strong arguments in favor of the subject as a study for pupils has been\nthe fact that it offers exceptional opportunity for the investigation of matter\nand affords a more or less vague kind of mental training. This latter was\nknown as \"culture\" and like mathematics was supposed to train the general\nreasoning powers of the pupil. Modern research has quite disproved the\ntheory of \"culture\" and sets aside the dogma of universal reasoning power.\nIt is safe to assert that in a large percentage of chemistry courses the\ninstructor has looked for the results of his teaching in the immediate pupil.\n\n"}
{"page": 1183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMUNAL\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nI167\n\nWe shall attempt to prove that this aim falls far short of what the subject\nmay be made to do.\nIn the twelfth chapter of Romans we read of \"reasonable service.\"\nChemistry in the hands of a pupil may be made to perform \"reasonable\nservice\" outside the laboratory.\nWe would not in any way seem to adversely criticize the worthy pioneers\nof chemistry teaching or attempt to detract from their well-earned honor.\nWithout contumely we shall try to show that however good chemistry\nfor the pupil-alone may have been, chemistry for the pupil-and-the-community is better.\nIf the writer may be pardoned the reference, his introduction to chemistry first in the high school and later in the college gave him a fair degree\nof familiarity with the elements as then known, likewise their combinations\nand marks of differentiation. The analytical work consisted for the most\npart of the examination of the contents of sundry bottles labelled X, Xj,\nXj, and the like. They contained material which everyone knew had\nbeen concocted by the instructor or selected from the laboratory by him.\nPupils today call such samples \"dead stuff\" and the name is not inappropriate. At any rate they had no living interest for the class. None of us\nsuspected nor did the instructor remotely suggest that these bases and\nradicals which we were laboriously isolating were bone and sinew, part and\nparcel of the community in which we lived. It was distinctly the chemistry\nof the schoolroom, and vague indeed were our ideas that these same sulphates and chlorids and nitrates and a score of other radicals made life\nnot only happier but also possible; that some of them misplaced would\nhang out a danger signal that must not be lightly disregarded.\nNot until the writer had been an instructor of chemistry for some years\ndid it occur to him to supplement these same X's by sending the pupils\nout into the town and home to find where they were naturally met with\nand how they functioned in everyday life. Perhaps one of the most helpful suggestions of modern education is that which prompts the teacher to\nnotice units of activity in a community and adapt them to the training of\nthe pupil. To this end we see pupils compiling lists from the advertisements of local mark-down sales to supplement percentage work in arithmetic, computing the cost to the town of the walks and macadamized\nstreets near their homes; proofreading the local newspapers and suggesting\nbetter expressions instead of taking this material from the stereotyped\ngrammar — applied English, is it not? We see them conducting anti-fly\ncampaigns to supplement and vitalize the biology work and in a hundred\nother ways coming close to actual conditions of life. Any one of these things\nis a communal unit. That it has a definite bearing upon the welfare of\nsociety does not in the least detract from it as an educational factor. Any\ninstructor who is interested in this phase of applied education can make\nchemistry conserve the community interests.\n\n"}
{"page": 1184, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nIn order that this teaching may be effective there must be no turning\npupils loose upon the town, no indiscriminate selection. That a method\nmay be fruitful, there must be systematic investigation, but too often\nthis investigation is pushed to, and even beyond, the fatigue point by\ninsisting upon the examination of substances which are apart from the\npupil's experience and in which he sees nothing except a school problem.\n\"Why can't we examine the things we should like to test instead of\nhaving to everlastingly work on some white powder or other ?\" remarked a\nhigh-school boy yesterday. I asked what he would like to examine and he\nreplied, \"Waste from the gas works.\" Further questioning brought out\nthe information that he had been reading in one of the popular magazines\nconcerning the utilization of waste material, and was enthusiastic over the\nchemical possibilities of the subject. His instructor had said that he did\nnot want him \"fussing around the laboratory with any gas mud.\" This\nperversion of pedagogy needs no comment.\nAs illustrative of two different methods of gaining chemical experience\nnote the following : Sodium and potassium are most easily detected by the\nflame test, which consists, briefly, in holding a clean platinum wire wet\nwith the solution in the blue flame of the Bimsen burner. A yellow coloration indicates sodium, a lilac tint, potassium. That the color image of the\nvolatilized elements may be filed for future reference, it is customary for\nthe instructor to provide relatively pure salts of these respective metals,\nthus working from the known to the unknown. Up to this point the\nmethods are identical; the digression begins with the application of the\nacquired knowledge. Two courses are open to the teacher: he may require\npupils to examine several liquids or solids which the laboratory provides,\nthus keeping chemistry strictly within the school building, or he may\npermit — note the difference in the pupil's attitude caused by the words\n\"require\" and \"permit\"— he may permit the pupil to examine substances\nof his own choice for the presence of such important elements. Here,\ntaken from a pupil's notebook, is an abridged list of substances found to\ncontain sodium or potassium :\nPerspiration.\nAsh from meats, cereals, vinegar, and milk.\nSoaps and washing powders.\nSoils, water residues, fertilizers.\n\nAs this investigation was entirely voluntary on the part of the pupil, sodium\nand potassium take a definite and lasting meaning not acquired by the\nbottle method of the laboratory.\nOf all instructors, the teacher of chemistry is among the most fortunate\nbecause of the abundance, yes, wealth of correlated communal interests,\nevery one in some degree dependent upon chemical investigation; if not\ndependent upon, at least bettered by such research. Where can be foimd\na more enthusiastic body of investigators than a class of chemistry pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 1185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMUNAL\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\n1 169\n\nwho do their work by the method of the beckoning hand rather than by the\nmethod of the clenched fist ?\nTo turn the thought of the pupil toward some of the problems which\noccur in every town is doing a distinct public service. Chemistry originally\ncame from the people; why not give it back to them ? Here are some suggestive problems, the solution of which incites the pupil to continued effort\nalong chemical lines. Some of these problems are to be studied and then\nreinvestigated from time to time during the course to note any specific\nchanges or possibly improvements in conditions. They may be roughly\nclassified under two heads as recurrent or permanent problems; sporadic\nor temporary problems.\nA sanitary analysis of water with determinations of color, odor, taste, total solids,\nchlorin, ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, phosphates, absorbed oxygen, dissolved metals,\nand hardness.\n\nIf one knows what significance to place upon these factors, tabulated results\nof waters from different sources are not only of interest but of value. It\nhas been our experience that every pupil is anxious to test his favorite\nspring and compare the results with other supplies.\nAnalysis of milk with determinations of fat by the Babcock method, total solids\nby Richmond's milk scale, proteins and milk sugar by the formulas of Olsen, Van Slyke,\nand Lythgoe.\n\nThe last three determinations give excellent drill in applied mathematics. After the determination of these normal constitutents of milk\nby means of which a more or less arbitrary grade is established, an examination of the sample for foreign matter, adulteration by means of dyes, preservatives, added water, and by skimming is not only important but\nessential.\nSurveys of the local supplies of ice cream, cheese, and condensed milk\nmay be made. Pupils usually take the greatest interest in determining\nthe composition of ice creams as regards fat, fillers, gelatin, etc. They\nenjoy the search for preservatives in cheese and the grading on the butter\nfat basis, and take pride in being able to say with assurance that \"this\nsample of condensed milk contains 6 . 64 per cent of butter fat and twice\ncondensed, while that one contains only 3.31 per cent and is made from\nskimmed milk.\"\nThe detection of coal-tar dye in candies almost always results in a\nlessened consumption of cheap confectionery in the town where the investigation isconducted. Many dealers sell, and many children eat, this debased\nproduct, simply because their attention has never been called to the fact\nthat mineral dyes are injurious to health.\nFor girls, simple chemical surveys of dentifrices and cosmetics afford\nopportunities of no mean value. Many of the common radicals such as\nCO3, O, CI, PO4, NO3, S, BO3, many important bases, as Hg, Pb, K, Na, S,\nSi, Ca, etc., are met with and identified by appropriate tests. This knowl-\n\n"}
{"page": 1186, "printed_page": null, "text": "iiyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nedge rightly secured, that is, secured by the free will of the pupil, forms a\nvaluable background of chemical information.\nThere are few more fascinating lines of investigation to the average\npupil than a well-planned line of distillation experiments. Each of these\nmay be made to affect the community as well as the pupil if the instructor\nso desires. In order to master the technique of distillation, it may be well\nto allow the operator to purify several samples of water which their previous\ntests have shown to be contaminated.\nThe addition of a little dye like Ponceau red sometimes serves to bring\nout the fact that volatile substances can be separated only by distillation.\nAs soon as pupils acquire a fair degree of skill in this work, they can be given\nseveral entertaining and valuable exercises in the extraction of essential\noils from various herbs and spices. The common wintergreen {GauUheria\nprocumbens) , twigs of the sweet birch, and ground cloves furnish suitable\nmaterial for such experiments.\nIt is not a diflScult matter for the pupils to determine the alcoholic\ncontent of patent medicines, tonics, invigorators, liquors, tinctures, root\nbeer, extracts, etc., with accuracy to the second decimal place, which is as\nfar as we usually calculate in ordinary commercial analysis. While this\nwork may not materially lessen the consumption of alcoholic beverages\nin any community, it has resulted many times in making the parents exercise\na caution in the selection of medicines for family use.\nThe other day I gave this bottle to some students who were anxious\nfor more chemical investigation. The liquid is soak water from a local\ntan-yard. Bombay hides have been washed and hundreds of gallons of\nthe liquor accumulated. The proprietors of the tannery did not dare to\ndrain it into the stream lest it kill the fish, nor throw it onto the land, lest\ncattle be poisoned by eating the grass. They exercised this caution because\nthey had heard that Bombay hides are sometimes preserved with arsenic,\nand furthermore this liquor looked different from any they had been\naccustomed to see. A sample was accordingly submitted to the laboratory.\nThe question was: Does this liquid contain anything injurious to the\nanimal life ?\nAfter due investigation, the students found that the liquor was not\nonly arsenical but also contained HgCU. So the question was answered\nand a problem solved. Here are examples of other local problems which\nhave been solved by the pupils:\nCoal from a local concern was found to contain an excessive percentage\nof ash, and a correspondingly small amount of available carbon. The\nfirm had nearly decided to purchase a supply of this material but waited\nfor the report from the laboratory and it was well they did.\nA post-preserver offered to a telephone company was found to consist\nof salt and baking soda. You will note that in order to do this work it\nwas necessary for the pupil to recognize two bases and two radicals.\n\n"}
{"page": 1187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nSCIENCE\n\n1171\n\nA preparation for leaky automobile radiators was found to consist\nof linseed meal, colored with coal-tar dye and scented with oil of mirbane.\nFake preparations purchased by unsuspecting housekeepers supposed\nto render kerosene and gasolene safe consisted of common salt colored with\ncoal-tar dye.\n\"Lightning Silver-plating Fluid\" for the instantaneous plating of\nbrass, copper, and composition metals contained no silver but was composed\nof red oxide of Hg dissolved in HNO3.\nTime will not permit us to give examples of scores of other investigations of like nature. We are convinced that the health of the pupil is of\nprimal importance and have seen that chemistry may be made to conserve\nthis important asset. The food supply holds a prominent place in eugenics.\nFrom this supply can be drawn innumerable chemical exercises, easily\nwithin the scope of the laboratory, and entirely within the concept of\nthe pupil. It appeals to us as good pedagogy to let the pupil get the\nfirst-hand knowledge of the common chemical elements by doing actual\nwork with them. They must not, however, get the idea that they are\nchemists, and must be shown that the approach to chemical perfection\nis hard and difficult. By studying the interests of the class, one may readily\nmake chemistry teaching perform a service which is reasonable and offer\na reason which is serviceable.\nCHEMISTRY\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nSCIENCE\n\nJ. F. SNELL, PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, MACDONALD COLLEGE,\nSTE. ANNE DE BELLEVUE, QUEBEC, CANADA\n\nThat I should have been honored with an invitation to address the\nScience Department of this great education association on the subject\nassigned me, \" Chemistry and Household Science,\" is, I think, significant,\non the one hand, of the growing interest in educational circles in the preparation of woman for woman's traditional duties, and the consequent trend\nof feminine education toward the domestic, and, on the other hand, of a\ncertain consciousness of difficulty in adapting the teaching of the somewhat abstract science of chemistry to the requirements of so practical a\nclass of students — a class whose instinctive preference for the practical\nis being fostered and stimulated by the special kind of education they are\nreceiving.\nThe train of circumstances which has brought me to this platform,\naltho not in any sense extraordinary, is perhaps worth reviewing, as illustrating the interest aroused by any attempt to fit instruction in this science\nto the needs of such students.\nFive years ago I took charge of a class of young women, such as are\nto be found at most agricultural colleges in Canada, and I believe also\nat many in this country — a class of most varied preliminary education\n\n"}
{"page": 1188, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nengaged in the study of the household arts in the light of the natural\nsciences. In my five years' experience this class has included more than\none Bachelor of Arts, simultaneously with girls of very slight education.\nSome of its members have previously studied chemistry — usually in the\nhigh school. A very few. have had a college course in elementary chemistry.\nI can remember none who had any knowledge of organic chemistry. And\ncertainly none had learned to apply her chemistry to the everyday affairs\nof the household.\nThis class was to devote two hours a week for nine months to the\nstudy of chemistry. To make the course of some practical value, and even\nto secure the essential amount of attention and interest, it seemed to me\ndesirable to give prominence to the applications of chemistry to household\nproblems. Moreover, it appeared desirable to introduce such applications\nas early as possible in the course. To begin with a course in pure chemistry,\nto be afterward supplemented by one in household chemistry, would be\nto sacrifice the value of both divisions of the subject and to lose the interest\nof the class at the outset.\nThe treatment of the theoretical side of the subject must necessarily\nbe circumscribed, in order to allow of the introduction of the household\napplications. And of these applications only the most important must\nreceive consideration, namely, (i) food chemistry, including not merely\ncomposition but also digestion and nutritive value; (2) the chemistry of\ncleaning, including alkalies, soaps, hard water, dry cleaning, the tarnish\nof metals, and, if practicable, bleaching and bluing; (3) combustion and\nfuels; (4) textile chemistry.\nTo resume my confession — I found no textbook that quite fitted my\nrequirements. What teacher ever does? The lecture system proved\nunsatisfactory with a class unpracticed in note-taking. So I was driven\nto join the noble army of authors.\nA few months ago I had the expository part of my course printed for\nmy class. This booklet I am now expanding into a larger one, which\nwill be regularly published and which will better represent the course as\ngiven, since it will include directions for the lecture table and laboratory\nexperiments, which have always formed an integral part of the instruction.\nNow it came to pass that the distinguished vice-president of this\nscience section of the National Education Association, the deputy commissioner ofeducation of the state of Massachusetts, visited Macdonald\nCollege in my absence, and afterward wrote, asking information about\nour courses for household science students. In replying, I forwarded a\ncopy of the little book. It must have found favor in his sight, for it was\nupon his recommendation that I was invited to come here.\nIn the course represented by this booklet — and better represented by\nthe forthcoming revision — the definition of chemical change is first discussed. Such familiar illustrations as the charring of sugar, the souring\n\n"}
{"page": 1189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nSCIENCE\n\n1173\n\nof milk, and the fermentation of fruit are used, in addition to those commonly preferred on account of their theoretical simplicity — such actions\nas the burning of magnesium ribbon and the rusting of iron.\nDecomposition is exemplified, not only by such chemically simple\nchanges as the effect of heat on limestone, and the electrolysis of water,\nbut also by the effect of heat on sugar or starch, and the putrefaction of\nmeat or casein — reactions with which the term decomposition is commonly\nassociated in the lay mind.\nFollowing the conception of decomposition, the student is introduced\nto the ideas of ''element\" and \"compound\" and to chemical nomenclature\nreduced to its lowest terms — the signification of the suffixes -ide and -ate.\nChemical notation is utilized, but the student is not required to master\nit. Reactiojis are commonly expressed in words, as well as in symbols.\nThe atomic theory is presented dogmatically and its relation to chemical\nnotation pointed out.\nInstead of next passing to a study of the elements and their binary\ncompounds — as is commonly done in purely cultural courses — we pass\ndirectly to the definitions of \"acid,\" \"base,\" and \"salt.\" Hydrogen and\noxygen having been prepared incidentally to the introductory topics of\nthe course, it is not difficult to show by laboratory experiments that the\nsubstances called acids not only have a sour taste and a characteristic\neffect on litmus, but also liberate hydrogen when treated with metals.\nThe formation of salts in these reactions can be illustrated not only by\nevaporating the solutions, but also by a lecture experiment in which concentrated hydrochloric acid is treated with sodium, and the purified\nsolid product tasted by the class.\nIt is also possible to establish by qualitative experiments that the\ntypical base, caustic soda, contains the three elements, sodium, hydrogen,\nand oxygen. The insoluble bases and basic oxides are then introduced\nand the effects of acids upon them illustrated and explained. The rusting\nof iron and the tarnish of other metals are accounted for as due to superficial oxidation, iron oxide scaling off and exposing new surface, while\nzinc and aluminium oxides are adherent, and serve to protect the metal\nfrom further corrosion. The various artificial protective coatings for\niron are discussed, and the virtue of prompt polishing of stained household\ncutlery impressed. The effect of oxalic acid and salts of lemon (acid\npotassium oxalate) in removing rust stains from fabrics is also explained\nhere.\nThe conception of strong and weak acids is next introduced by experiments showing that normal solutions of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids\nattack zinc more rapidly than do the equivalent solutions of formic and\nacetic acids. The principle having been illustrated, the student is asked\nto memorize a classification of the common acids and bases, according to\nstrength.\n\n"}
{"page": 1190, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nA laboratory exercise follows, which not only serves as a review of this\nclassification, but also afifords practice in nomenclature, and introduces\nthe conception of hydrolysis, A dozen soluble salts are given out with\ntheir common and chemical names. The students dissolve the salts and\nrecord for each the reaction to litmus, the name of the corresponding acid\nand base, and the relative strengths of these acids and bases. Reviewing\nthe record, they discover that in aqueous solution (i) the salts of strong\nacids with strong bases, e.g., sodium chloride, are neutral; (2) the salts\nof strong acids with weak bases, e.g., aluminium sulphate, are acid; (3) the\nsalts of weak acids with strong bases e.g., sodium carbonate, are alkaline;\n(4) no salts of weak acids with weak bases have been given them.\nThat the' water has acted upon the salts derived from either a weak acid\nor a weak base can be made clear — at least for the case of a weak acid —\nby an experiment with soap. Dissolved in alcohol, a good soap is neutral\nto the indicator, phenolphthalein. The addition of water to the alcoholic\nsolution causes the pink coloration indicative of alkalies to appear. The\nwater has liberated a certain amount of acid and base, and the latter, being\nstrong, has affected the indicator.\nHydrolysis may be defined as such action of water on a molecule as\nresults in the production of two or more new molecules. In the case of\na salt the new molecules formed are an acid and a base. But the general\nprinciple of hydrolysis is illustrated in many other reactions of importance\nin the household, and particularly in the processes of digestion of the three\ngreat classes of food constituents, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.\nHence the prominence accorded to a phenomenon commonly ignored in\nelementary chemistry.\nThe interaction of two salts, with the production of a precipitate, is\nillustrated by the action of soap with hard water. The topics of temporary\nand permanent hardness of water, and the theory of water-softening are\nnow in order.\nAmmonia comes next, and serves as a connecting link between the\nalkalies and the alcohols. For ammonium hydroxide is an alkali, and can\nbe classed as a base, if we slightly modify the definition of base originally\nlearned. And familiarity with the ammonium radical prepares the student\nto accept the radicals of the alcohols.\nIncidentally, uses and abuses of \"household ammonia\" may be\nreferred to.\nThe current of thought now flows smoothly into the regions of organic\nchemistry. Alcohols are the hydroxides of radicals composed of carbon\nand hydrogen. Like alkalies, alcohols react with acids. The products of\nsuch action are water and esters. Fats are esters. Like salts, esters\ncan be hydrolyzed. The hydrolysis of esters is accelerated by the removal\nof any product of the reaction. The presence of a strong base results in\nthe immediate removal of the acid formed in the hydrolysis of an ester.\n\n"}
{"page": 1191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nSCIENCE\n\n1 175\n\nHence saponification is simply the hydrolysis of an ester in presence of a\nbase. Therein lies the basis of soap-making.\nThe dissolving of fats in such liquids as benzine is contrasted with\ntheir behavior on shaking with water. The difference is that between\nsolution and 6mulsification. Both these processes are utilized in the\ncleaning of fabrics; the former in dry cleaning, the latter in laundry\npractice, where the marvelous emulsifying powers of soap solutions play\na part of immense importance.\nFats, having been considered in the role of raw material for soapmaking, and in that of dirt on fabrics, have now to be discussed as constituents offoods. Their presence in some foods is obvious. In others,\nsuch as oatmeal and nuts, it can be demonstrated by extracting the\nfinely ground material with a solvent, filtering, and evaporating. The\nuse of benzine, rather than ether, as the solV^ent will be appreciated by\ngirls of weak stomach.\nFat may also be extracted from the leanest meat, if water has first\nbeen removed from the tissues by kneading in strong alcohol. The proportions offat in various foods is now discussed with the class, then the\nprocess of digestion, and the energy or fuel value.\nIn studying the digestion of fats, which according to recent views is\nessentially a hydrolytic process, the student meets with an example of the\neffect of a ferment in accelerating hydrolysis. The same influence is later\nshown to be equally important in the digestion of carbohydrates and\nproteins, and is more readily demonstrated by laboratory experiments\nupon nutrients of these classes than upon the fats.\nFollowing the fats, the carbohydrates are discussed. By placing\nsolutions of typical sugars and polysaccharides in parchment dialyzers,\nsurrounded by water, and allowing them to stand over to the next meeting\nof the class, the fact that only the sugars pass thru membranes can be\ndemonstrated. This explains the necessity of hydrolytic cleavage of the\npolysaccharides in digestion. The necessity for the hydrolysis of the\ndisaccharides, cane-sugar, malt-sugar, and milk-sugar, it has been my\ncustom to leave unexplained.\nThe digestion of starch by saliva is, of course, easily demonstrated\nin the laboratory, and an invertase can be isolated from yeast and used\nto illustrate fermentative hydrolysis of cane-sugar. Acid hydrolysis can\nalso be readily demonstrated with cane-sugar, starch, and filter paper.\nIncidentally to these experiments the student becomes familiar with the\nFehling test for reducing sugars, and the iodine test for starch. The\nmodification of the Fehling solution devised by Dr. Stanley Benedict\n(now of Cornell Medical College) I have found very convenient for laboratory use, as it is kept in a single bottle, and does not deteriorate.\nAlcoholic fermentation and caramelization of sugars are topics of\nobvious interest to the housekeeper.\n\n"}
{"page": 1192, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nThe treatment of the proteins, the most complex and therefore the\nmost difficult class of nutrients, must now be faced. Their unique composition and functions must obviously be emphasized, and the wide divergence of properties among them must not be concealed. A few of the\nleading protein tests are learned by experiment upon isolated proteins,\nsuch as egg albumen, blood albumen, and casein, and are then applied\nto food materials, and also to the discrimination of silk and wool from cotton\nand linen. The digestion of proteins is illustrated by treatment of fibrin\nwith pepsin in hydrochloric acid solution, and with trypsin in sodium\nbicarbonate.\nTo complete the discussion of foods, the composition of those of vegetable origin is contrasted with that of foods of animal origin. The leading\nexceptions to the general rule that vegetable foods are carbohydrate foods,\nand animal foods protein and fat foods, are recounted.\nIn the discussion of foods, fuel value has to be given prominence.\nIrving Fisher's mode of comparing fuel values and expressing the composition of foods recommends itself by its simplicity. It is of much greater\nvalue to know what percentage of the total fuel value of a food comes\nfrom protein than to know what percentage of the total weight is composed\nof protein.\nDietary standards conclude the subject of foods.\nThe discussion of combustion I have allowed to follow that of foods,\ntho it would be possible and might be advantageous to introduce it much\nearlier.\nThe course I have outlined occupies the time at the disposal of my\nclass. Teachers having more time or a better prepared and better graded\nclass can easily expand the course upon the same principle of selecting\nthe theoretical matter appropriate to the household applications of chemistry which they desire to bring to the attention of the class. Whatever\nwork is undertaken, the habits of careful observation and logical deduction\nshould be fostered. Any household science course which does not promote\nthe scientific spirit is evidently mJsnamed.\nAPPLIED\nGEORGE\n\nA.\n\nBOTANY\n\nWORKS,\nINSTRUCTOR\nIN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,\nUNIVERSITY\nOF WISCONSIN,\nMADISON,\nWIS.\n\nThe phases of this course in botany which are here outlined are the\nresults of six years' use of the material in an effort to develop a course\nadapted to the interests and needs of the constituency of a high school\nin a community which is essentially rural. The outline is not offered as\na complete course in botany, as only what may be termed the \"applicable \"\nportions of the work are given.\nIn the work on seeds a study was made of the following topics: selec-\n\n"}
{"page": 1193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPLIED\n\nBOTANY\n\nH77\n\ntion, identification, proper care, judging of quality, and germination\ntests that could be used under ordinary farm and home conditions. The\nwork was centered around a more or less intensive study of corn, with\ncomparative consideration of other seeds. It was not thought sufficient\nthat a pupil should merely watch the germination of a miscellaneous\ncollection of kernels of corn but he was required to make ear tests according\nto the most approved methods. Conditions necessary for germination\nfound many applications in farm and garden practice. A limited study\nwas made of the food constituents of some of the more common seeds,\nwhich study terminated in a consideration of their use for human food\nas well as for lower animals. This laid the basis for the development of\nsome idea of the importance of the great cereal crops.\nBecause of the increasing importance of noxious weeds, the pupils\nwere familiarized with the common local species. This identification was\naccompanied by a study of the botanical peculiarities of the plants which\nmade them so objectionable, such as methods of seed distribution and\nvegetative reproduction. This study was accompanied by a consideration\nof the methods of eradication. Members of this group furnish some of\nthe best material for a study of seed and fruit distribution.\nIn the work on stems a careful study was made of some of the practical\napplications in agriculture and horticulture in connection with such topics\nas vegetative plant propagation, transplanting, pruning, and proper\nmethods of treating tree injuries.\nIf time permitted, attention was given to commercial products derived\nfrom stems, such as turpentine, resin, corn products, camphor, and rubber.\nA parallel line of work was conducted in connection with the study of roots.\nIn addition to the various economic phases of such character as has\nbeen suggested, certain subjects were considered of sufficient importance\nto justify a more detailed consideration. These topics included a more\nor less intensive study of a few farm and garden plants; e.g., corn, clover,\npotato, and the oat. These are only suggestive, as in different sections of\nthe country other plants may be better suited to class needs.\nA little work was done in elementary forestry, mainly to familiarize\nthe pupil with some of the common native trees, methods of forest preservation, and the general problems of forest conservation. It was hoped by\nthis means to put the students in a position to read about the problem\nwith a reasonable degree of intelligence.\nAn effort was made to give the pupils an idea of plant breeding and\nits significance in advancing agricultural and horticultural conditions.\nIn Wisconsin marked advances have been made in the development of\nvarieties of corn suited to its climatic and soil conditions and hence the\nwork was centered around this phase of the problem, altho not limited\nto it. The technical nature of the subject of breeding makes an intensive\nconsideration out of place with secondary-school students.\n\n"}
{"page": 1194, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThree or four weeks were devoted to elementary bacteriology. The\nfollowing topics are indicative of the character of the work: occurrence,\nconditions favorable for growth, and some of the results of their growth.\nExperimental work was used to illustrate the topics as far as possible.\nSome of the experiments that proved especially satisfactory were tests\nto show the presence of bacteria in the air under varying conditions, to\ndetect them in the soil, water, milk, and on the body. This work was\nfollowed by a study of the significance of bacteria in fermentation processes,\ndecay, nitrogen-fixation, and in a very elementary way their relation to\nsome of the common diseases found among the lower animals as well as\nthose of himaan beings. Sterilization and disinfection were illustrated\nalso, with some of the more common methods employed in the household\nto protect food materials against bacterial action.\nBecause of local conditions a study was made of blue-green algae in\ntheir relation to pollution of water supply. The water for the city is\ndrawn from a small lake near by, and abundance of illustrative material\ncould be obtained by straining the water as it flowed from a tap in the\nlaboratory. The study of the structure of the water system together with\na consideration of the conditions favorable for the growth of blue-greens\nand the knowledge the pupils already had of bacteria put them in a position\nto understand the danger of using the water. Methods of treating such\nwater so that it might be used for drinking purposes without danger were\ntaught. This portion of the course was found very helpful in giving\npupils an intelligent attitude toward some of the problems of personal\nhygiene and of home and public sanitation. Such work properly handled\nwill lay a foundation for intelligent community ideals in sanitation and\nfor proper co-operation with civic authorities in cases of outbreaks of\ncommunicable diseases. This attitude is sadly lacking in the average\nAmerican community. Thruout this work the \"pure\" phases of the\nsubject were determined largely by the practical applications which were\nto follow. In fact a consistent effort was made to select such material\nfor study as had a bearing upon the community life and had a first-hand\ninterest to the pupil.\nThe method of treatment of yeasts resembled materially that described\nfor bacteria. The usefulness of the yeasts is sufficient to justify a somewhat\ndetailed consideration.\nThe fungi offer such an abundance of material that care had to be\nexercised in the selection. The forms which we found best adapted to\nour purposes were the following:\n1. The mildews, which were approached thru a study of grape mildew.\nMaterial was easy to obtain and is sufficiently large to be handled in a\nsatisfactory manner. A study of the life-history of this form puts the\npupil in a position to understand the significance of the spraying.\n2. Mucor served as the basis of the work with the molds that are of\n\n"}
{"page": 1195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPLIED\n\nBOTANY\n\nII79\n\nimportance in the household. The study of the life-history and conditions\nfavorable for growth and reproduction enables the pupil to appreciate\nintelligently the means of preserving food from the action of molds by\ndrying, use of chemical preservatives, low temperature, and high temperature followed by hermetical sealing.\n3. A careful study was made of the smuts and rusts of grains. A\nmethod of treatment similar to that indicated for mildew served as a basis\nfor a discussion of the methods of treating grain smut. The attention of\nthe students was directed to the efforts that are being made to develop\nrust-resistant grains.\n4. A brief study of the higher fungi was made and the economic importance of the bracket fungi and the mushrooms were considered.\nAs has been previously stated, thruout the course an effort was made\nto so handle the work in \"pure\" botany that the student was able intelligently to connect it with the applications which surround him on all sides.\nTo permit the work to be a consideration of so-called practical work without\nthe proper scientific basis would entirely defeat the purpose of such a\ncourse.\nThe emphasis that was placed upon the indicated phases of the work\nmeant that there was necessarily considered elimination of material that\nis usually found in the botany course. This elimination was made to a\nconsiderable extent by decreasing the number of plant forms studied.\nThe average course is developed so as to show as complete an evolutionary\nseries as possible. No such effort was made in this course. As a result\nthe pupils had definite ideas of those forms which were studied instead of\nbeing bewildered by almost numberless studies of forms, the great majority\nof which most of the pupils will never even hear by name outside of the\nclassroom. The development of an evolutionary series by the plant\nkingdom is an interesting and valuable exercise in its place, but that place\nis not in a Freshman or Sophomore class in high-school botany.\nBotany, perhaps more than any other high-school science, has suffered\nfrom an overburden of scientific terms. Teachers have often deceived\nthemselves by thinking pupils were making real progress in the subject\nbecause they were learning new terms. They have mistaken the shadow\nfor the substance. Often a pupil learns the term without mastering the\nidea. Pupils should not be allowed to grope about using bungling expressions because of lack of proper technical terms: every scientific term\nessential for progress should be mastered. But we found that it was\npossible to reduce greatly the number of terms that are used in the ordinarj-^\ntext in botany. This together with the use of English words or compounds\ninstead of foreign derivatives has materially simplified the terminology\nproblem.\nThis course is not offered as one that is above criticism nor as one that\nshould be adopted in toto by another school. It is merely an effort to\n\n"}
{"page": 1196, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niSciencc\n\nput such a content into a high-school course in botany as is adapted to the\nneeds and interest of high-school students, to the end that botany may\naccomplish more fully and completely the purposes it should serv'e in a\nsecondary school made up of people who for the most part will receive\nno further school training in the subject. It is trite to say that there is a\npublic demand for better preparation of the young people in our schools\nfor the conditions under which they are to live. The science subjects\nare especially subjected to this constantly increasing pressure. Especially\nis this true in the case of botany as a result of the great wave of interest\nin agricultural education which is now sweeping across the country. In\nmany schools it is being displaced by agriculture. This is a mistake.\nThe kind of agriculture which should be taught in the American high school\nshould not supersede botany nor the other basic sciences, but should\naccompany them and be based upon them. To prevent this substitution\nthe teachers of botany have before them the problepi of reorganizing their\nwork in this subject so that it may be built around a core of economic\nmaterial. The course that has been outlined is but one of a considerable\nnumber of attempts that are now being made to attain this end. There\nis further need of experimental work of this character. High-school\nteachers should assert their independence of the miniature college courses\nin botany, because such work is not adapted to the economic and educational\nneeds of their pupils.\n\"The courses that we now find are the logical result of the rapid development of secondary-school botany during the last twenty-five years. The\nmost natural thing to be done was to put in the organized material of the\ncollege course because teachers were best prepared to handle it and textbooks were based upon such courses. But the stage is passed when such\nwork should dominate the high school. The fact that teachers are doing\nso much Work of an experimental nature in this field indicates that they\nare awakening to a realization of this condition. The securing of proper\nteaching of botany, and other high-school sciences as well, is not a problem\nthat can be solved by the sporadic efiforts of secondary-school instructors.\nSuperintendents and principals must lend their aid or the work will lack\nthe necessary continuity because of the limited tenure of office of the average\nhigh-school instructor. But there is even a greater possibility for assistance\non the part of those responsible for the administration of courses of study.\nThey may turn to the institutions preparing teachers and justly demand\nthat these people shall have a more adequate preparation for their work.\nSuch preparation will mean that the prospective teacher as a part of his\nscientific training will have work that will fit him to seek out and organize\nmaterial adapted to the high-school pupils' interests and needs.\nThose who undertake work of this character may be certain that their\nefforts will be subject to criticism by those who mistake or misunderstand\nits aims. The following quotation is illustrative of the point in question:\n\n"}
{"page": 1197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nPROBLEM\n\nIl8l\n\nA radical phase of the movement toward economic biology appears in the demand\nfor lessons on all sorts of topics bearing on horticulture and farming, from injurious\ninsects to plant-breeding. Doubtless in some country high schools a good deal of such\nwork can be made thoroly interesting and profitable. And in any schools such matter,\nin very moderate amounts, may properly be assigned for supplementary reading. Leaving\nout business and other technical courses however, when one begins to make economic\nconsiderations the measure of educational values he begins to pile up absurdities. As\nsoon as the teachers of geography, history, and geometry are willing to bend most of\ntheir respective efforts toward instruction regarding commercial routes, the alternation\nof periods of activity and depression in the world's business, and mensuration, it will\nbe time for biology teachers to consider favorably corresponding pseudo-utilitarian\ninnovations. But if the most valuable crop that any country can produce is intelligent\nmen, it must follow that any kind of study which is pre-eminently suited to cultivate\nhabits of careful observation and orderly thinking in school children is especially important.\n\nThe writer quite evidently loses sight of the fact that if these habits\nof \"careful observation and orderly thinking,\" which all concede are highly\ndesirable, are to be applied in the after life of the pupil they must not only\nbe formed during the period of youth but they must be connected with the\nproblems of social interest which are in a large measure either directly\nor indirectly of an economic character. This habit, formed during the\nhigh-school period, means that in the majority of cases the result will be\nnot merely a high-school pupil in botany but one who will be a lifelong\nstudent of these problems which so vitally affect human happiness and\nsocial progress.\nPHYSICS\nJ. A.\n\nAND\n\nRANDALL,\n\nTHE EQUIPMENT\nPRATT\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nPROBLEM\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nConstructive suggestions which comprehend both the outline and the\ndetail of physics content and method, is our present need. We lack adequate machinery for circulating information and for stimulating professional\nconsciousness and thought. We are a nation of promoters and we have been\npromoting with passionate zeal industrial education, vocational education,\nand all sorts of causes labeled \"progressive.\" What we greatly want now\nis labor wisely devoted to finding out how to give a vocational education,\nor an industrial education suited to American conditions. Similarly in\nphysics instruction we have been convinced by the so-called \"Mann\nmovement\" that we need to do a very different type of work in physics;\nbut who is to tell our teachers definitely what to do or, better still, put them\nin the way of finding out for themselves ?\nIn our schools, we have a greater investment of money and brains\nthan either of the great trusts of which we talk so much. When we look\nabout in this big school business for means of handling some of the transactions which are obviously necessary to the progress of our school business\nas a whole, we find it a weakly organized concern.\n\nOur teachers' associa-\n\n"}
{"page": 1198, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ntions meet to listen to papers, get acquainted, and gossip. Occasionally\nthey appoint committees to influence legislation or executive action.\nHow effectively teachers can make their organizations count in advancing a special cause is illustrated by the equal-pay campaign in New York\nCity. We should be more proud of this if it had been a fight for the\nschool instead of for the teacher, but if the profession is as unselfish as\nwe like to think it, we should be able to unite quite as effectively to solve\nsome of our school problems and to establish a more permanent policy of\nusefvilness.\nThe sciences as a field and physics as a typical subject serve to illustrate\nhow small an influence single papers have and how completely we devote\nour meetings to activities of little permanent value in hastening the evolution of schools.\nThere are fifteen science and mathematical associations which have\nunited to form what is known as the American Federation of Teachers of\nthe Natural and Mathematical Sciences. This organization has about\ntwo thousand members, and jointly or separately the affliating associations\nhear about fifty programs a year. Yet our sciences are among our poorest\ntaught subjects and physics is said by some to be as dry as dust and at\nleast twenty years behind our times.\nListening to papers has accomplished one thing: we have come to\nagree upon the ideals of physics teaching. Physics teachers have been\nawakened to the vast opportunity for improvement and Professor C. R.\nMann's book on The Teaching of Physics summarizes the current opinion\nas to the purposes and method of physics teaching. We have arrived at\nthe point where we can talk, in a very intelligent way, as to what we ought to\ndo to make physics work valuable as a preparation for real life. Our state\ndepartments give out syllabi to which they have added all the commonly\napproved \"practical topics.\" But the classroom work in most schools is\njust as impractical and as deadly as ever in its effect upon the student.\nThere are a few teachers who are taking steady steps to improve the\ninstruction which they are giving. These men usually have that rare\npersonality which vitalizes whatever work they assign their students and\ninsures its success. The rank and file of teachers may be divided into two\ngroups: First, those who learn what little physics they know by studying\nby themselves while they are keeping one lesson ahead of their class;\nsecond, those who have studied in a research physics atmosphere at\ncollege.\nWhatever the previous training of the teacher may have been, it is\ntrue on the average that he teaches several other subjects and leads a life\nthat keeps him out of touch with commercial, technical, and industrial\nconditions. He is supposed to prepare students for real life and yet he .\nknows little about those phases of real life most closely related to the\nsubjects which he is teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 1199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nPROBLEM\n\n1183\n\nIn the past, whenever a teacher has become well known or has been\nunusually successful, he has frozen his ideas and sold them to the school\npublic in the form of a text. Most texts have had no greater influence than\nsome of the addresses I have mentioned.\nAs individuals we physics teachers have been trying to do our work and\nprogress, but our efforts have not been guided in any one direction. We\nhave not consciously acted together toward any definite end and we cannot\nhope to make progress against modern conditions at any better rate than\nwould a mob against an army.\nThe conditions which must be met are complicated, but let us discuss a\nfew. In the science work we must look upon the content and the method\nas necessarily undergoing constant changes. The practical applications of\nscience are increasing in number at a remarkable rate. The relative importance of any scientific principle or fact should be questioned each year\nas the course is being outlined by the teacher.\nThe continued use of any one bound text or laboratory manual almost\ninevitably results in a course systematic in its nature. Such is the character of the instruction in almost all of our small schools. The looseleafed laboratory manual has been introduced and allows the desired\nflexibility in the laboratories. No laboratory manual should be published\nin a binding.\nIn the past we have considered that the expression \"a course in elementary physics\" should mean a very definite thing. We must look\nforward to the time when we shall have at least four types of courses in\nelementary physics, each adapted to the mental make-up of the student at\nthe age when the course is given. We have been prescribing a dose of the\nsame size and strength to boys and girls, young and old, students with a\nmotive and students without. In the future our mixed class in general\nscience will learn a few qualitative facts from the field of physics. In the\nJunior year our boys will do a more quantitative course, consisting of a\nlarge number of industrial and home applications of a very few physical\nprinciples and laws. In the Freshman year in college a quantitative\ncourse of the same general character, but much more diflScult and comprehensive, should be given. In the later college years, a systematic historical course may be appropriate.\nA course in physics should deal largely with real things. Theoretical\ninstruction in the principles and uses of these things must be preceded by\nexperience with these things. Take a topic like electricity, for example.\nA \"chalk talk\" on electricity is about as absurd an activity as we commonly\nmeet with in school. The first thing that a student ought to have is a\npiece of electrical apparatus which he can use and from which he can get\nsome real experience. Only then will a discussion of theory be a reasoning\nprocess, rather than a simple matter of memory. I believe that the kind of\nthing that science courses should do is to develop the sort of judgment and\n\n"}
{"page": 1200, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ncommon-sense about things that I absorbed on the farm and working in\nstores. There are a few men in this country who are teaching applied\nscience in a way that accomplishes just that thing. Girls need to learn much\nthe same principles as boys, but they must acquire them thru applications\nwhich relate to a woman's life. I must here pay my compliments to the\nsoft course which merely amuses the child. It's the hard work of life which\nbuilds up character, and our physics course must be hard work which the\nstudent is willing to do, because he believes it is worth doing.\nI hope you have asked yourself this question:\nHow can the National Educational Association help to make the instruction in\nphysics in every school of this country vital and a preparation for later life ? How can\nit help to keep it of that character?\n\nAs the National Education Association is now organized, the only way\nof getting anything done is to appoint a committee. There have been many\nattempts to improve physics instruction by committees, and but few have\naccomplished anything of note. The reason for this has usually been either\nthat they have devoted their energies to writing syllabi and reports, or that\ncommittee organization has been too cumbersome and funds have been\ninadequate.\nThere now exists a so-called joint committee of the American Federation.\nThis joint committee has many of the limitations of its predecessors, and\nif we accomplish more, it will be due to a different plan of action. Each\nmember has been asked to organize a subcommittee to take up some part\nof the work. For example. Professor Beals, of the New Jersey State\nScience Teachers Association, has organized a subcommittee, consisting of\nProfessor McClenahan, of Princeton University, Professor Thompson, of\nRutgers College, and others, to work out suggestions of a course in mechanics for the three-teacher country high school. The state of New Jersey\nwill publish the report as a bulletin. As chairman of the New York State\nScience Teachers Association committee, the speaker has been collecting\ndesigns of pieces of equipment which can be built in the school and become\nobjects of help in the instruction.\nThe speaker is taking the initiative in changing certain trade conditions.\nPractically everything that is purchased in our public schools must be\nordered thru a purchasing agent upon a requisition form. State law usually\nrequires that a list of the articles specified be advertised or offered to the\ntrade for bids and the lowest bidder presumably gets the order. This\nplan works all right in ordering concrete, coal, or gasoline, but it has resulted\nin great hardships to the physics teacher and is largely responsible for the\npresence in our laboratories of the large amoimt of junk. The selection\nin the past has been largely on a basis of cost. In future I want to see it\nupon a basis of quality.\nSchool contractors are not selling to the schools commercial articles\nbecause school law and business conditions will not permit it. For example,\n\n"}
{"page": 1201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nPROBLEM\n\n1185\n\nit is generally conceded that the biggest maker of standard quality electrical\ninstruments is the Weston Electrical Instrument Co. of Newark, N.J.\nSchool law and school contractors have prevented these instruments from\nbeing commonly used in the schools largely because there was no money in\nthe sale of them for school contractors. Tomorrow I shall meet the school\ncontractors to announce to them a new policy of the Weston people which\nI hope will change all of this. Realizing that schools and school law are\nmighty difficult to change, I have gone to this $3,000,000 concern and\nchanged their business policy.\nI cannot refrain from illustrating how silly the laws can be. I am told\nthat Ohio has a law which requires that no article can be sold to the state\nwithout a discount of 25 per cent being given. This requires that every\nconcern doing business in that state must print a special price list to meet\nthese conditions. Anyone who knows business conditions will appreciate\nthat no large and reputable house is inclined to reorganize its sales system\nin order to sell a few small articles to the schools. I believe that it is\nimpossible for the Ohio schools to buy direct from houses like the Weston\nElectrical Instrument Co. and many of the European instrument-makers.\nPossessed with a meddlesome disposition, the chairman has taken up\nwith various concerns questions pertaining to the sale of their regular line\nto the schools, and the manufacture in large quantities of special articles\nneeded by the schools but now handmade in small quantities. More\nimportant than either of these, I have recommended the construction of\ncertain articles not now in use but badly needed in our school.\nThe contract system of purchasing supplies has resulted in a cutthroat\ncompetition among apparatus dealers which has tended to reduce the cost\nand the quality of certain articles to such a point that many pieces sold are\nof little or no value. Now the committee proposes to establish a set of\nspecifications for all articles used in the physics laboratory with the idea\nof establishing a standard of quality, which shall be recognized as adequate.\nWe propose to maintain this standard under the protection of a trademark, after the plan so successfully adopted by the medical profession.\nAt the meeting of dealers called for tomorrow, we hope to arrange many of\nthe details of this trade-mark agreement.\nSome small schools are practically without equipment because of the\ncomplete absence of any authoritative statement of what constitutes\na satisfactory equipment and of what a minimum equipment for a given\nsize school should consist.\nIn defining pieces in such equipment, a set of specifications is necessary.\nIn making such an outline, our vice-president, Mr. Orr, has pointed out that\ngreat care must be taken to make it clear that no article is absolutely\nnecessary, but the report should be known as a statement of what is good\npractice for a school of a definite type. The ideal course is adapted to\nlocal industrial conditions and to the mental development of the students.\n\n"}
{"page": 1202, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nJust as in medicine every case is a separate problem, so each school presents\nindividual characteristics and needs which demand thoughtful consideration from the teacher. The committee must help without decreasing the\nindependence of action of the teacher. A teacher good enough to be\nintrusted with our children should be at least equally trusted with the\nexpenditure of public money.\nDr. Hedricks writes me that Dr. Claxton, of the United States Bureau\nof Education, will, under certain conditions, issue the report of the joint\ncommittee in bulletin form.\nI have come before this meeting to ask the National Education Association to make the joint committee a committee of the National Education\nAssociation, We need your help in making our organization more representative, we need the authority which the National Education Association\ncan give to our actions, we need funds to carry on the extensive correspondence which must be conducted in connection with this work. Pratt\nInstitute is glad to see that the speaker has time for this work, but the\npresent volume of correspondence is too great to be done without the continued help of a stenographer.\nThe expenses of student draftsmen to make tracings of designs for\nschool construction must be met. Blueprints and circulars must be sent\nout to many who cannot be expected to pay for them.\nThe members of this committee are enthusiastic and very willing to\nwork without pay, but they cannot bear the expense of the committee's\naffairs. The drafting of the set of specifications of the few articles selected\nfor immediate standardization, the completion of projected designs, arid\nthe routine correspondence will require an expenditure of not less than\n$2,000. If the committee is to hold meetings to settle points at issue, an\nadditional sum for traveling expenses must be appropriated.\nFellow-members of the National Education Association, I want to put\nthis question to you: Are you willing to co-operate in the only organized\nwork now being conducted for the improvement of physics instruction?\nWill you pass a motion to appoint a committee and recommend to the\nCouncil that suitable funds be appropriated ?\n\nA STUDY\nJ. H. MCCURDY,\n\nIN ADOLESCENT\n\nM.D., DIRECTOR OF\nNATIONAL Y.M.C.A. TRAINING\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nTHE PHYSICAL DEPARTMENT, INTERSCHOOL,\nSPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nThis paper can serve only as a preliminary statement and illustration\nof a method of study. The writer began the heart rate and blood pressure\nsection of the study at Clark University, in the fall of 1908, While a graduate student in the University personal observations of the Worcester, Mass.,\nschool boys, grammar and high, were taken. The study has been con-\n\n"}
{"page": 1203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA STUDY\n\nIN ADOLESCENT\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n1187\n\ntinued during the last four years with the aid of the following students\nfrc«n the International Young Men's Christian Association College:\nMessrs. Brock, Fette, and Yeager, 1910; Dittemore, Courleux, and Martin,\n191 1 ; and Deaver, Doane, Metzler, and Samson, 191 2. Observations\nwere made imder the supervision of the writer on the Springfield, Mass.,\nhigh-school boys. The items studied were heart rate and blood pressure,\npubescence, height, weight, strength, lung capacity, and scholarship.\nIn both cities the co-operation of the school officials made possible the\nstudy. The method of generalized study was discarded in favor of the\nindividualizing method after the first year's study, when it was found that\nthe generalizing method of study gave no evidence of an abrupt pubertal\nrise of blood pressure, as stated by Hall in his Adolescence and Tyler in his\nGrowth and Education. The aim of the study during the past three years\nhas been to follow the same boys during their entire period of maturing,\nwith at least two examinations a year, rather than examining them for only\none year. The generalizing method assumes that the boys who are, for\nexample, twelve years old this year will be like the boys thirteen years old\na year from date. This method has been widely used. Dr. Bowditch in\nhis study of the Boston school children and Dr. Porter in his study of the\nSt. Louis school children are well-known examples. The individualizing\nmethod follows the same boys during their entire period of maturing. This\nmethod has been followed by Crampton in his study of the New York\nCity school children. Crampton's study indicates that there are differences in boys ot the same chronological age.\nThe aim of this investigation is an attempt to discover the way boys\nmature and to relate that knowledge to methods of promoting their health\nand efficiency in school and in life. We should have norms of vigor which\nwould give a fair index of the health and efficiency of the individual boy or\ngirl. The school gives an index of the intellectual efficiency of the boy for\nthose particular tasks. We have at present no common indices of vigor\nwhich are generally accepted. This study is an attempt to find such indices.\nIt is, I think, the first attempt which has been made to correlate the factors\nof efficiency in the adolescent boy. The marks given in physical education\npractice are probably a closer index of motor efficiency than are the marks\ngiven in the classroom of intellectual efficiency but they have not received\nsuch general acceptance.\nWe need two new sets of indices: first, indices of the intellectual health\nand organic soundness and efficiency of the central nervous system; second,\nindices of organic efficiency.\nIt is generally recognized that the modern environment has affected\nunfavorably the health of the city dweller, if not that of one Uving in coimtry places. While it is true that infectious diseases have decreased, it is\nalso true that diseases of the nervous system, of the heart, and of the kidneys\nhave increased. Dr. Garber states in Current Educational Activities for\n\n"}
{"page": 1204, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\n191 1 that an \"experienced health officer asserts that 70 per cent of all children entering school are not physically what they should be.\" The environment and activity of children have markedly changed.\nFirst, they learn by going to school, rather than by aiding their parents\nin their acti\\'ities in the home.\nSecond, they use chiefly the highly specialized muscles used in speaking,\nwriting, and close vision rather than the large muscles of the legs and trunk.\nSchool education has increased the use of the accessory muscles and decreased the use of the fundamental muscles.\nThird, the central nervous system is asked to fimction chiefly in its\nhigher activities rather than in organic work.\nOn the basis of J. Hughlings Jackson's three-level theory, which seems\nto be meeting with general acceptance by psychologists, we have:\na) A lower or organic level controlling circulation, respiration, and nutrition, largely\nthru the plain muscles and organic nervous centers, e.g., cardiac and respiratory.\nb) A middle level, which might be called the motor and sensory level. This is most\nnearly illustrated by Flexing's motor and sensory region.\nc) A highest level, represented in a general way by the association areas, which are\nstill more complex and related to the higher intellectual processes and to moral judgments.\n\nWe recognize that the development of the higher centers is dependent\non the proper development of the lower centers, that the health of the body\nis essential to the health of the central nervous system, but we often fail\nto see how intimate the relationship really is.\nCenters for the simplest movement of the h'mbs become evolved in the higher centers\ninto the physical basis of volition; centers for simple reflex actions of eyes and hands\nare evolved in the higher centers into the physical basis of visual and tactual ideas. The lowlevel centers governing the tongue, palate, and lips in eating and swallowing are evolved\nin the higher centers into the physical basis of word symbols serving us during abstract\nreasoning. The lowest-level centers, which control respiration, circulation, and nutrition,\nare evolved in the higher centers into the physical basis of the emotions.\n\nThe low-level or basal centers regulate the organic life, the high-level\ncenters are related to the intellectual and emotional life. The higher\ncenters are built upon the lower ones. Intelligence and morality are\nrelated to the physical integrity of the lower centers.\nIn searching for indices of \\dgor I have selected items which represent\nlarge organic efficiency in relation to maturity. The chief factors in physical efficiency are good organs, a stable nerv'^ous system, and a good environment.\nI have taken the pubescent index as outlined by Godin,' Crampton,'\nand Marro^ as the method of determining mattirity. I have used the specific\nmethod of Crampton, whose three divisions seem more accurate than those\nof Godin or Marro.\nHe divides the maturing boys as follows: Pi, pre' Recherches anthropotnttriques sur la croissance, Paris, A. Maloine, £diteur, 1903, chap, vii, pp. 180-87.\n' A merican Physical Education Review, Vol. XIII, 1908, p. 143.\n»Lai>M6er«, Paris, Schkicher Frferes, ^iteuts, 190a, pp. 530.\n\n. .\n\n"}
{"page": 1205, "printed_page": null, "text": "A STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\nIN ADOLESCENT\n\n111\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\npubescents, those without visible hair on the pubes; P,, pubescents or those\non whom has appeared a fine growth of pubic hair with pigmentation; Pj,\npostpubescents, those who have the kink or twist of the pigmented hair.\nGodin gives the best description of the changes coincident with the appearance of puberty. Marro should be consulted in relation to the causes which\nretard or accelerate the appearance of puberty, such as climate, temperature, race, and hygienic conditions.\n' In the height and weight studies 212 boys were examined; 51 of these\nwere examined five times between October, 19 10, and March, 191 2. The\nrest of the boys were examined in October, 191 1, and March, 191 2. The\nfollowing tables show the growth rates:\nAVERAGE\n\nGAINS, OCTOBER, 1910— MARCH,\n\nPrepubescents.\nPubescents. . .\n\n1912, 51 BOYS\n\nHeight\n\nWeight\n\n2.8 in.\n\n23 03\n\n8.55 lbs.\n\n4.46\nAVERAGE\n\nGAINS. OCTOBER,\n\n191 1— MARCH,\n\n191 2, 161 BOYS\nWeight\n\nPrepubescents\nPrepubescents changing to pu\nbescents\nPrepubescents changing to post\npubescents\nPubescents\nPubescents changing to postpubescents\nPostpubescents\n\n6.92\n5 -45 lbs.\n8.52\n8.38\n\n6.6\n7.82\n\nThere is a rapid increase in height and weight during the maturing period\nwith a gradual decline after the maturing period.\nThe lung capacity studies show similar gains due to the degree and\nrate of maturing. Examinations were made of 179 boys with 157 of these\ncarried over from 1910.\nAVERAGE\n\nLUNG\n\n125\n\nCAPACITY, OCTOBER, 1910— MARCH,\n145\n\nOctober, igio\n\nPrepubescents\nPrepubescents changing to pu\nbescents\nPrepubescents changing to post\npubescents\nPubescents changing to post\npubescents\n\n177\n\n1912, 157 BOYS\n\nMarch, 1912\n\n173\n\n136.6\n141\n\n181. 1\n218\n\n"}
{"page": 1206, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1 190\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\nThe following strength test table gives the diflferences between groups:\nFOREASUS\n\nPrepubescents\nPrepubescents changing to pubescents\nPrepubescents changing to postpubescents\nPubescents\nchanging to postpubescents\n\nShoulder\nRetractors\n\nLeft\n\nRight\n\n42.3-49\n\n50.3-56.6\n\n27.7-36.6\n34.8-39.5\n\n53.3-64.8\n\n49.9-56.8\n\n54.3-69.6\n52\n65\n\n73.6-88.8\n\n46.4-57-3\n34 -42 .'3\n\n-61\n-85\n\nThe pubertal changes are more rapid in the summer; with this change\ncomes a more rapid increase in lung capacity and probably in height, weight,\nand strength. In lung capacity, for example, if a boy changes from one\nperiod to another during the winter months he will increase his lung P,capacity\n10-14 cubic inches; if he changes during the summer he will increase\n20-28 cubic inches. It would be interesting to compare boys spending\ntheir summers largely out of doors and those spending theirs indoors.\nThe heart rate and blood pressure studies have been continued for four\nyears, 1908-12. The following tables indicate the results of this study:\nHEART RATE\nP.\n\nP.\n\n675\n\nYear\n\n1908-9 .\n1909-10\n1910-II\n1911-12\n\nHorizontal\n\nVertical\n\n77\n82.9\n80.9\n\n85.3\n84.8\n\nHorizontal\n\nHorizontal\n81.4\n\n82.2\n\n80.2\n\n83.1\n77-4\n\n76.4\n\nVertical\n\n83.2\n\n90.7\n82.8\n82.6\n72.2\n\nVertical\n\n71.8\n\n91.4\n89.2\n.6\n\nThe examinations were conducted with great care. The location of92the\n70\n74.8needed to\nexamining-room reduced to a minimum the amount of exercise\nget to the place for examination. Pupils92 were selected who had been seated\nin the classroom for at least an hour. Where there was any indication of\naccelerated heart action from exercise or from nervousness the pupil\nreclined for three or four minutes, or until all evidence of acceleration had\ntime to disappear. The high heart rates which persisted were sometimes\ndue to nervousness and sometimes to anaemia or general low vitality.\nVariability was markedly greater in the pubescents and postpubescents;\nthat is, during the period of rapid change. High heart rates seemed to indicate poor condition. Heart rates with wide variations between the horizontal and standing positions seem indicative of poor vascular adjustment.\nThe writer was fortunate in the Worcester group in having several distinct classes of boys to study:\n\n87\n\n"}
{"page": 1207, "printed_page": null, "text": "A STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\nIN ADOLESCENT\n\niigi\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nA. Paper route boys. — ^These boys covered from three to nine miles each day delivering papers, most of them before 7:00 A.M. They had lower heart rates than the average\nof their groups.\nPaper Route Boys\n\nGeneral Averagx\n\nStanding\n\nHorizontal\n63.5\n60.7\nPx,P.,P3\nPj\n\nHorizontal\n65-9\n68.6\n\n71-3\n\nStanding\n84.7\n\n82.1\n\nThe variability between the horizontal position75-2\nand the standing position of the\nPi, Pj, and P3 general average boys was 16. i, of the paper route boys it was 11. 7. Of\nthe Pj general boys the variability was 16 . 2, of the Pj paper route boys 10. 6.\nB. Athletic boys. —\n82.3\nGeneral Average\n\nAthletic Boys\nHorizontal\n\np,\n\n61. <;\n\n1\n\nStanding\n\nHorizontal\n\n78.^\n\n6c. 0\n\nStanding\n\nThe variability of the general average was 16 . 2, of the athletic boys 16.8.\nC. Rapid growers. — These boys grew in height from one to three and one-tenth\ncentimeters in ten weeks. They show the following relations to the other groups:\n\nHEART RATE OVER 80 BEATS PER MINUTE\nStanding\n\nHorizontal\n\n75\nRapid growers\nPrepubescents\nPubescents\nPostpubescents\n\n[\n30 per cent\n|\n33\nj\n26\n1 (All below 80)\n\n68 per cent\n90\nP.\n\n55\n\nThe rapid growers have on the whole the highest heart rate.\n\nThe systolic blood pressure studies conformed to the same conditions\nas those for the heart rate mentioned above:\nP.\n\n1095\n\nP.\n\nYear\nHorizontal\n1908-9 . .\n1909-10.\n1910-II.\n\n1911-12*\n\nIII.\n103.64\nIIO.9\n*io6.o\n\ntio6.6\n\n* Technical High School boys.\n\nVertical\n104.3\n112. 7\n107.7\nIII.\nno. 32\n\nno. 5\nHorizontal\n120.5\n121. 1\n\nVertical\n\n110.3\nHorizontal\n\nno. 8\n108.7\n120.0\n116. 87\n117.\n\n106.6\n109.2\n\n123.0\n116.3\n126. 1\nno. 2\n\nVertical\n125.4\n121. 1\n122.4\n\nIII. 06\n\nt Central High School boys.\n\nThe smallest range of variability is shown in the prepubescents. The\npressures rise slightly in both the horizontal and vertical positions with the\ngradual maturing of the boy.\n\n"}
{"page": 1208, "printed_page": null, "text": "II92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\nLow pressures (below 100) indicate a weak heart, weak peripheral resistance, or lack\nof splanchnic adjustment. The fall in pressure on changing from a horizontal to a\nstanding position probably means lack of cardio- vascular adjustment (vasomotor tone).\nLow pressure (below 100) indicates lack of vigor. In high pressure (above 130) the\nexaminer should find whether the kidneys are causing the high pressure. There is no\nevidence of an abrupt pubertal rise in blood pressure as stated by Hall and Tyler. With\nwide blood pressure variations in prepubescence (78-120 mm. Hg.), in pubescence (78152 mm. Hg.), and in postpubescence (76-136 mm. Hg.), it seems necessary to conduct\na series of experiments on the same boys for a series of years which shall follow their\nblood pressure changes thru the entire period from immaturity to maturity.\n\nThis summary represents four years of such study. The accumulation\nof data is slow because a portion of the boys begin their maturing in the\ngrammar school; this increases proportionately the number of pubescents\nand postpubescents in the high school.\nThe pressures of the prepubescents, pubescents, and postpubescents range over the\nsame general field, with the tendency of having the lowest pressures in the prepubescents,\nthe highest in the postpubescents. Experiments should be taken at intervals short\nenough to determine whether there is a rapid rise at any time, and if such a rise occurs\nif it is in relation to pubescents.\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO PUBESCENCE\nAverage grades\n\nPrepubescents, Freshmen\nPubescents, Freshmen\nPostpubescents, Freshmen\n\nPi\n\n75 . i\n70 . 8\n74 . 7\n\nThese average grades exclude the failures: the following table gives the\n27\npercentage of failures in each subject.\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOF SUBJECTS FAILED\nPi\n29\n\nNo.\nExamined\n\nEnglish\nMathematics\nScience\nHistory\nLanguage\nTotal\n\n1-7\nPercentage\nFailed\n\nIN\n23 EACH PERIOD\n\nPercentage\nFailed\n13-4\n\n19\n\nNo.\nExamined\n\n17\n\nPercentage\n12. S\nFailed\n\n134\n\n47\n\n12\n17.6\n\n220.7\n0\n\n22\n\n28\n207 (39)\n\n190 (7)46\n\n207\n3-6\nTotal Subject Units\n190\n128\n\n128(28)\n\n52\n51\nTotal Failures\n\n19\n\n28\n28\n\n1.6\n\n46\nPi\nP.P3\n\nExamined\nNo.\n\nP,\n\n29.6\n0\n42.8\n22\n41. I\n\nPercentage Failures\n\n5°\n287 1\n\n3\n39\n\n40\n\nOf those securing passing grades the pubescents or those maturing\n-6 a\nmost rapidly had the lowest grades. Among those who failed there 3was\n\n"}
{"page": 1209, "printed_page": null, "text": "A STUDY IN ADOLESCENT\n\nDeparuneni]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nprogressive increase in the number of subjects failed in. This was probably\ndue to the duller boys being left behind, while the brighter boys were\nadvanced to second-year work. The boys failed most often in English,\nmathematics, and language.\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nThe most obvious needs are for standards of growth and efl5ciency which\nare related to the maturity of the boy rather than to his chronological age.\n24\n\nAn illustration from Deaver's work will make clear in a graphic way\n24 the\nLunf\ndifference between chronological and physiological age in relation to strength\nP3\nand lung capacity. The table shows the increases ■if>for approximately the\nsame period:\n1\n25\n\nP.\n\nChronological Age\n\n13 years and 4 months\n14\n14\nIS\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\n10\ne\n10\n\n\"\n\"\n\"\n\nPx\np.cal Age\nPhysiologi-\n\nRight\nForearm\n\n45\n80\n\nLeft\nForearm\n\n68\n\n45\n\nShoulder\nRetractors\n\nCapacity\n\n130\n190\n\nno\n\n37\n\nThe younger boy is far ahead of the older boy in maturity and physical\nefficiency.\n46\nWe have no accepted standards of growth or efficiency nor can we have\nthem until growth studies have been followed thru with the same boys\nconsecutively during the entire period of maturing. We need at least the\n50\nfollowing standards:\n58\n1. Normal standards in height and weight which are related to maturity.\n0\nCrampton has shown that chronological age is not as good a basis for 3the\nstudy of height and weight as physiological age.\n2. The work of the last four years has not conclusively disproved the\ncommonly accepted pubertal rise in blood pressure as stated by Hall and\nTyler. It is fair to say, however, that the evidence points away from any\nabrupt pubertal rise. The non-appearance of the rise which one would\nexpect to come with the rapid increase in heart size in relation to the size\nof the arteries is probably explained by the peripheral dilation of the small\narteries which keep down the pressure.\n3. The present study points toward two conclusions in relation to\nscholarship :\na) A low€r grade in pubescent Freshmen than in the prepubescent or\npostpubescent Freshmen for those who pass in their studies.\nb) With those who fail there seems to be a progressive increase of failures\nfrom the prepubescents to the postpubescents, probably due to the leavingover of the pubescent and postpubescent failures from other years.\n\n"}
{"page": 1210, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1211, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — William Wirt, superintendent of schools\nGary, Ind.\nVice-President — Harlan Updegraff, professor of education. Northwestern Univ. Evanston, 111.\nSecretary — William George Bruce, proprietor, A merican School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, July 8, 19 12\n\nThe Department of School Administration was called to order by President Wirt\nin the South Parlor of the Palmer House about 10 a.m.\nIn the absence of the secretary, Frank M. Bruce was appointed secretary pro tempore.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed:\nH. B. Wilson, superintendent of city schools, Decatur, 111.\nHorace H. Cummings, superintendent of schools, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nCharles A. Prosser, secretary. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial\nEducation, New York, N.Y.\nMr. Wirt then opened the program with the president's address. He chose as\nhis subject, \"School Economy,\" which was introductory to the program planned for\nthe entire session.\nIn the absence of E. B. DeGroot, superintendent of playgrounds and sports. South\nPark Commission, Chicago, 111., who was to have spoken on \"Educational Values of\nthe School Yard or Playground,\" President Wirt briefly discussed this subject.\nCharles A. Prosser, secretary. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial\nEducation, New York, N.Y., then outlined \"Facilities for Industrial Education.\"\nFinally Edwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111., read a paper on \"Continuation Schools.\"\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 10, 191 2\n\nThe meeting for this session was changed from the Palmer House to the Gold Room\nof the Congress Hotel.\nWilliam B. Ittner, architect. Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo., read a paper on\n\"School.Architecture,\" which was illustrated with stereopticon views.\nThe discussion which followed was led by Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of\nschools, Crawfordsville, Ind., and John Franklin Bobbitt, Department of School Administration, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION, ROUND\n\nTABLE— Thursday Forenoon, July ii, 191 2\n\nThe third session of the department was again called in the South Parlor of the\nPalmer House, as a Round Table session.\nThe following topics were discussed:\nA. \" Can the Administration Department of a School System Serve as a Laboratory\nfor the Industrial Training of Children ?\"\nB. \"What School Facilities Should be Provided\nfor Instruction by Means of Motion\"95\nPictiure Machines, Stereopticon Lanterns, Phonographs, Player-Pianos, etc. ?\"\nIn discussing the first topic, G. E. Wulfing, director of industrial education, public\nschools, Gary, Ind., outlined the work done under his direction at Gary. He was followed\n\n"}
{"page": 1212, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nby Raymond Riordan, principal, Interlaken School, Rolling Prairie, Ind., who described\nthe construction of his school from open farm country to a school city.\nThe second topic was introduced by W. H. Ives, Eklucational Department, Thomas\nA. Edison, Inc., Orange, N.J.\nFrances E. Clark, Public School Educational Department, Victor Talking Machine\nCompany, Camden, N.J., next showed the uses of the talking machine as an aid to the\nteaching of music, public speaking, etc.\nFinally Agnes Benson, supervisor of music, public schools, Chicago, 111., described\nher own use of the talking machine in coimection with her work in the schools.\nThe nominating committee reported the following names:\nFor President — J. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — C. A. Wait, president, Board of Education, Decatur, 111.\nFor Secretary — Frank M. Bruce, publisher, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis.\nThe report of the committee was imanimotisly adopted.\nIt was next moved by H. B. Wilson, superintendent of city schools, Decatur, III.,\nthat the officers of the department be appointed a committee to consider the advisability\nof meeting hereafter with the Department of Superintendence during the winter. The\nwork of the department of School Administration is associated very closely with the\nwork of the Department of Superintendence. The resolution was unanimously adopted,\nand the meeting adjourned.\nFrank M. Bruce, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\nFACILITIES\nC. A. PROSSER,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nFOR INDUSTRIAL\n\nSECRETARY,\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNATIONAL\nSOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION\nEDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nIn the discussion of the topic \"Facilities for Industrial Education,\"\nthe term \"industrial education\" as distinguished from \"manual training\"\nwill be used as meaning a coiu\"se of instruction for boys and girls between\nfourteen and eighteen years of age who, while being trained for good\ncitizenship as well, are at the same time being prepared for successful\nservice as wage-earners in agriculture, household arts, or industry. .Wherever facilities for manual training or training in the practical arts as a\npart of a general education are discussed, this will be indicated.\nThose who are attempting to bring about industrial training in their\ncommunities find themselves confronted with two great difficulties: the\nlack of funds and the lack of knowledge in this new field where the work is\nto a considerable extent yet experimental as to the kind of training which\nis necessary in order to fit boys and girls properly for wage-earning careers.\nSchool authorities find it almost impossible to secure funds which they\nneed in order to meet the new duties and responsibilities in the general\neducation of the child, which our day is thrusting upon them. This not\nonly makes necessary national and federal aid to stimulate and encoiurage\nlocal communities everywhere to take up practical education, but makes it\n\n"}
{"page": 1213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFACILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1197\n\nnecessary also that the work should be begun on a small scale and, unfortunately, many times without proper facilities for carrying it on successfully.\nThe course of study and the method of instruction in the work cannot\nbe arrived at by the theory of the schoolmaster from within the school,\nbut must be determined as the result of the study of the particular industry\nfor which the school attempts to prepare the child. In many lines of\nindustrial education today we do not know with sufficient clearness what\nshould be given the child to justify us in carrying on the work on a large\nscale. We do know what should be done in training girls in millinery,\ndressmaking, machine-operating, and, to a considerable extent at least,\nfor home-making. We do know what we should do in training boys for\nwoodworking and metal-working. We do not know, for example, what\nwe ought to do as yet in training children for textile- working and shoeworking.\nThese considerations make it necessary that school systems should\nproceed on an experimental basis in dealing with different new groups\nof children who are to be trained, and with new lines of industry which\nwe have not yet entered with practical education. Only in this way can\nthe school learn the kind of plant and equipment necessary in order to\ndeal with the problem on a larger scale.\nTHE\n\nQUESTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPLANT\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSometimes the training is given in a separate school and sometimes\nin a department of the regular high school. Where the work is given in a\nseparate school three kinds of plants are to be found in this country:\nthe special building erected for the purpose, usually by an issue of bonds;\nthe old factory building remodeled for the purpose; and the abandoned\nschoolhouse which has outlived its usefulness for general education and\nis remodeled to serve temporarily for industrial training.\nWilliamson Trade School near Philadelphia, the Wentworth Institute\nat Boston, which are private endowed schools, and the Worcester, Mass.,\nTrade School for Boys and the Milwaukee Trade School for Boys, which\nare publicly supported, are quartered in special buildings built for the\npurpose. This seems to be a wise and safe course to pursue in cases where\nthe local authorities are certain that they know just what kind of a building\nis needed to meet the local situation. It insures proper conditions for\ndoing the work from the start. There is danger that the building will not\nmeet the changing conception of the service which the school should give\nits pupils. Experience seems to show that where a special building is\nerected for giving industrial education it is advisable to build it one wing\nat a time, each wing being devoted to some one feature of the work, and\nwings being added from time to time which are adapted to meet the needs\nof the school.\nThe New Bedford and Springfield, Mass., independent industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 1214, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nschools and the industrial school at Rochester, N.Y., occupy old factory\nbuildings which have been remodeled so as to provide for a time at least\nfairly adequate accommodations for the school. This method of housing\nthe work is one which can be resorted to successfully in communities which\nare not yet ready to issue bonds in order to provide a special building or\nthe school authorities of which have not yet determined just the kind of a\nplant they need to meet their changing ideas of what the school should\ndo. The plan has some excellent features to commend it. The rent\nfor the old factory is small. Plenty of floor space is usually secured.\nThe school has from the start an air of reality and commercialism that\nappeals to many children who desire to go to work. Alterations in the\nbuilding are readily and cheaply made. Alterations and additions to the\nbuilding and the installment of fixtures and equipment afford an excellent\nopportunity for productive work of a kind not offered by the special industrial school building.\nThe factory building, however, is usually poorly adapted for school\npurposes. Sometimes the location is bad; usually the lighting is poor\nand the heating arrangements inadequate. Such buildings should properly\nbe regarded as a makeshift or device to be used for a period of, let us say,\nfrom three to five years as the first step in the introduction of industrial\neducation in the community.\nThe Newton, Mass., Lowell, Mass., and Somerville, Mass., independent industrial schools are quartered in old schoolhouses which have\nbeen remodeled. This method of introducing industrial education is\ngood when the commimity is carrying on a small experiment or beginning\nin the work. The expense for rent of the factory or issue of bonds at a\ntime when this might be burdensome to the community is avoided. School\nauthorities are able to find out thru this kind of a small beginning what\nshould be done on a larger scale with any kind of training. An opportunity isgiven to prove the worth of the work before larger public funds\nare asked for. Public sentiment is created in favor of the new kind of\neducation and the public becomes accustomed to the presence of the new\nkind of education and the need of its adequate support by the community.\nAbandoned schoolhouses, however, are poorly adapted to the work.\nThe lighting is always poor; the rooms are not the right shape and size;\nthe construction of the building is not adapted to the use of machinery;\nthe building does not appeal to the children from any standpoint.\nExperience shows that, on the whole, the best methods of establishing\na school, in the order of their desirability, are:\n1. The special school fully equipped.\n2. The old factory building remodeled.\n3. The abandoned schoolhouse remodeled.\n\nThe chances are that some of the states will attempt to solve the problem of industrial education in separate departments of the regular high\n\n"}
{"page": 1215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFACILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nII99\n\nschool. The Page bill, providing federal aid for vocational education,\nleaves it optional with the states in the exercise of their economy as to\nwhether they use federal money for industrial training in separate schools\nor in departments of the regular high school, or in both. There can be\nno doubt of the fact that at the present time, because of the academic\ntraditions of the regular high school, the chances for effective work in\npractical education are much better when it is given in a separate school\nwith a separate principal, separate teachers, separate courses of study and\nequipment. It is probable that twenty-five years from now, as the result\nof the experiments that are now being carried on whereby standards in\neffective training are being worked out, many high schools will be able to\ndo good work in fitting boys and girls for useful employment that will\nnot be able to do so now. At any rate, there is great need of the development of liberality on the part of the regular high school in dealing with this\nproblem and the approach to it should always be in the experimental spirit.\nWhere vocational training is attempted by the regular high school,\ncertain conditions need to be created if the work is to be done successfully.\nThe door of the industrial education department should be open to the\nfourteen-year-old boy able to take the course even if he has not graduated\nfrom the elementary school. He is the boy who usually is going into\nthe industries to be a machinist, a carpenter, an electrical worker, a printer,\nand so on. In the development of the service to these wage-earners, the\nhigh school must learn to follow the boy to the industry and thru a parttime arrangement with the employer bring him back for a portion of his\nworking week for the training he needs. In most places, at least, the\nteachers who give the instruction in such a department of the high school\nmust be teachers with different preparation, experience, and sympathetic\npoint of view from those who teach in the regular academic departments\nof the school. Teachers of industrial or trade work should have had\nsuccessful experience in the occupation taught. Teachers of the technical\nand academic work should have had sufficient contact with the industries\nfor which the children are being fitted to enable them to understand and\nto deal successfully with the kind of boys and girls they must handle.\nThe academic work must be of an entirely different kind from that which\nis given to those who are fitting for college. There should be an absolute\ndifferentiation in the industrial or vocational training from that of the\nregular high school in all practical and technical work, at least. The\ndepartments of industrial education should be under a separate department head who is an expert in the work. He should be regarded as an\nexpert by the principal of the high school and the superintendent of schools,\nand under him there should be a corps of teachers especially adapted for\nthe kind of instruction which needs to be given.\nWhile the children of the department of industrial education might\nwell participate in the social activities of the school, the best results will\n\n"}
{"page": 1216, "printed_page": null, "text": "I200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nbe secured where their training is given in a distinct wing of the building,\nerected or set apart for this purpose. The difference in the character of\nthe work which they are carrying on requires such a separation for much\nof the day.\nTHE\n\nQUESTION\n\nOF\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nIt is an unfortunate thing for an industrial school to have a complete\nbuilding and equipment turned over to it at the outset. If the pupil is\nto be adjusted to meet the demands of the industry, his training must be\nreal. If it is real, it must be given in a productive shop, making useful\nthings that can be utilized in the school system or sold on the open market\nat or above the market price. Schools giving training in such subjects\nas woodworking, metal- working, electrical working, can readily find use\nfor the work of the pupils either in the building itself or in the school\nsystem. Every school should make a part of its own equipment. This\nhas been done by most of the industrial and trade schools. Enough\nequipment ought to be bought at the outset to start the work. Sometimes\nan equipment sufficient to give the first year's training is bought, after\nwhich the pupils are able to make most at least of the tools and machines\nand facilities necessary for their further training in the following years.\nWhere schools find themselves with limited resources at the start,\nmuch second-hand equipment for use in the first year of the work, at least,\ncan be bought that will serve its purpose well. In the other years of the\ncourse, it is necessary to secure the very latest and best machinery so\nthat when the boy leaves the school he will be familiar with it and can take\nhis place in the shop successfully.\nOne of the handicaps imder which the school shop must always labor is\nthat of keeping its machinery from time to time fully abreast of the best\nequipment of the commercial shop. It is doubtful whether this can be\ndone altogether successfully. Under the stress of competition, the commercial shop changes its equipment from time to time. The school,\nwithout such competition, is very likely to remain content with machinery\nthat is behind the times. This is one of the strongest reasons why the\npart-time scheme of education that enables a boy to get the most of his\npractical training in the industry itself promises to be most effective in\ndealing with the great body of wage-earners between fourteen and eighteen\nyears of age.\nMany enthusiastic supporters of part-time education have been led\nto claim that all the equipment the school needs in dealing with the wageearner for the time which it demands away from the shop work is a teacher,\na textbook, a blackboard, and some desks. In their enthusiasm they fail\nto recognize the conditions under which most of those who are employed\nin the industries labor. Large-scale production, extreme division of labor,\nand the specialized machine have supplanted the artisan or tradesman with\n\n"}
{"page": 1217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFACILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nI20I\n\nthe machine worker. The old trades in which men were able to get experience with all the different tools, machines, and processes of their callings\nare rapidly disappearing. Modem industry does not give the worker\na chance to get a broad experience in working with different machines.\nThe typical boy who comes to the part-time school will be one who is\nspending his entire time at one machine, making one small part or portion\nof the final output of the factory.\nThe school must always take the boy as it finds him and give to him\nthe training he needs. In giving part-time instruction to the worker at\nthe specialized machine, the school must under the school roof, if it is to\nmeet modern industrial conditions, provide a sufficient amount of equipment to enable the boy to get the elementary practice and experience at the\nmachines and with the tools and in the processes which the shop denies\nhim and which are necessary to his insight, interest, and growth in the\noccupation. Every experience goes to show also that a minimum amount\nof equipment under the school roof is necessary as a teaching device which\nwill make it possible for the teacher closely to correlate or connect the\ninstruction which he is giving with the shop processes as they can be\nillustrated on the machines.\nOne great mistake which many manual-training and technical high\nschools have made, and which industrial schools are in danger of making,\nis that of providing a large number of tools and machines of one kind\nrather than a smaller number of different tools and machines. There\nare manual-training and technical high schools in this country where in\norder to carry on the teaching of pupils in groups enough metal lathes\nhave been secured to provide one for each pupil in the largest section which\nthe school handles. This policy requires both an enormous building with\nmany different shop rooins and a large outlay of money for equipment\nfor the work, much of which is unnecessary, and dooms the school forever\nto a system of training where the pupil is taught by the exercise rather\nthan the job method, where individual instruction has no place, and where\nthe pupils are handled entirely in groups. The same amount of money\nput into a more varied equipment would enable the school, whether it\nbe a manual-training school or industrial or trade school, to deal with the\npupils individually so as to give each a wider range of experience with\ndifferent machines, to substitute the individual for the group method of\ninstruction, and to approach more nearly the conditions of real shopwork\nso necessary in the proper training for success in the industries.\nMany are coming to believe that training in the practical arts for boys\nand girls between twelve and fourteen years of age in order to uncover\ntaste and ability is a necessary part of a program of vocational guidance\nand direction. If children are to find out what they would like to do,\nand what they are fitted to do, this training in the practical arts should\nduring the two years of from twelve to fourteen bring the children in con-\n\n"}
{"page": 1218, "printed_page": null, "text": "I202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administiation\n\ntact with experiences drawn from many different callings. A course in\n'woodworking alone only determines whether or not the boy would like to\nfollow woodworking and whether he could do it successfully. The same\nis true of a course in metal-working alone. The school day should be\nlengthened and not less than three hours per day given to training in the\npractical arts in which the boy is subjected to a series of jobs, projects,\nenterprises, or experiences drawn from woodworking, metal-working,\nelectrical working, printing, bookbinding, gardening, leather-working,\nclay-modeling, etc. This work should be given, not with the expectation\nthat it is to meet trade standards, but for the purpose of giving the boy\nan insight into the occupations among which he might choose a life work.\nIf such a scheme as this were carried out, instead of having a carpenter\nshop filled with carpenter benches and a printing shop full of printer's\ncases the school shop would be equipped with a small number of tools and\nmachines necessary to give in an elementary way experiences in different\noccupations, and the progress of the boy thru the work would be stated\nin terms of experiences which he would carry on individually, drawn from\nthese different lines of employment. Such a varied equipment would not\ntake any more room than that now occupied for straight courses in wood\nor metal and would cost no more than the amount which is now devoted\nby school authorities to the purchase of duplications of the same kind of\nequipment for some one line of work which does not provide any test of\nthe pupil outside of that one line and which does not afford any data upon\nwhich an intelligent choice or advice could be given to him at the age of\nfourteen when he is facing the question of what he shall do.\nDoubtless in these early years of its growth industrial education will\nhave a difficult time to secure its fair share of money necessary in order\nto secure the proper plant and equipment. If the public wants schools\nthat will better serve the needs of its children, it must give more money\nby taxation for their support. When the public comes to feel, as it is\ncoming to feel strongly, that it is not only as wise but as equitable to train\nthe many for successful service in life as it is to train the few for professional\nand technical leadership, it will find the way and the means by which vocational education will receive at least as liberal support as that which has\nbeen given to the general education of those over fourteen years of age\nwho are fitting themselves for college and professional careers. It is\nprobably fortunate at the present time, when industrial education is\nfinding its field and the kind of training it is to give for different callings,\nthat it is being checked in a too rapid development, which would be fatal\nto its final success, by the lack of large resources with which to carry on\nwork that now needs to be approached carefully, cautiously, and experimentally.\n\n"}
{"page": 1219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONTINUATION\n\nCONTINUATION\nEDWIN\n\nG. COOLEY,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n120T,\n\nSCHOOLS\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThere are two propositions upon which my whole argument depends.\nThese are as follows:\nI. The state possesses no higher treasures than the moral and intellectual powers of\nits youth. This applies to all classes of youth whether destined for the trades or the\nprofessions. As the Germans say: \"No nation can take and sustain a prominent place\nin the modem world that fails to develop and utilize the powers and ability latent in all\nclasses of its people.\"\nII. \"No boy or girl ought to be treated,\" as Winston Churchill says, \"merely as\ncheap labor. Up to eighteen years of age every boy and girl in the country school, as in\nthe old days of apprenticeship, should be learning a trade (or vocation), as well as earning\na living.\" No person should be permitted to employ the boys or girls during these\nformative years without assuming some responsibility for their learning a vocation.\n\nI expect to show that these propositions require the addition of a new\ntype of school to our system.\nA complete school system in a modem industrial state should include:\nI. A system of elementary schools, including kindergartens, which covers the period\nfrom infancy and childhood up to the age of fourteen or fifteen. The work of these\ngrades should be mainly cultural. It should include training of the eye as well as covering\nthe ordinary academic ground in the fields of literature, geography, history, and the\nthree R's.\nII. A system of secondary schools, both academic and technical, for youth who can\ndevote more time (a) to their education before entering business or industrial life, or (6)\nto the preparation for the university.\nIII. A system of higher institutions which prepare for the professions, such as law,\nmedicine, engineering, etc.\nIV. A system of vocational continuation schools, part-time and full-time trade or\ntechnical schools for youth who wish, or are compelled, to enter vocational life without\nthe training provided by the secondary schools and universities.\n\nThe first three classes of schools are fairly well provided for under- our\npresent arrangements. Doubtless improvements will be made in each of\nthese with a view to bringing them into a closer touch with the life-conditions\nof the present time. These improvements can be made without an overturning of the present school system, and should be the result of evolution\nrather than revolution. The work of the fourth class of schools is almost\nwholly unprovided for by our present educational system.\nA fundamental defect in our present school system results from our\ncustom of terminating compulsory school education at fourteen years of\nage. Everyone will admit that this is too early. We contribute to the\nsupport of the public schools on the ground that they are necessary to the\nperpetuation of our free institutions. We urge that a certain minimum of\ninstruction and training is indispensable as a preparation for citizenship,\nand that the training of character connected with the minimum is of great\nimportance for this preparation.\nWe are permitting our boys and girls to\n\n"}
{"page": 1220, "printed_page": null, "text": "I204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administtatlon\n\nleave our public schools at fourteen, just at the time when they most need\nguidance and instruction, just at the time when character-building really\nbegins, and just when they should be objects of special attention in our\neducational plans. Before the age of fourteen the youth is too immature\nto comprehend the training required by a citizen in a modem state. He has\nnot the judgment and power of resistance to temptations necessary for an\nindependent life in modem society. Our school training, therefore, is not\ncarried far enough at the present time to reach its real aim, to provide\ninstruction and training necessary for the solution of the problems of\neveryday life. Further, the youth who leaves school at fourteen loses and\nwastes almost the entire results of his eight years in the elementary school\nbefore he is of age.\nThe necessity for carrying forward the school instruction beyond the\nyears of compulsory attendance is becoming more and more urgent. The\ntransformation of the social body, the rapid transition of our people from\ncountry life to city life, the development of the industries and commercial\nactivities demand more from the school than they did in the past.\nThe home has ceased to exercise the educational power which characterized itin the past. It has ceased to be the workshop of the parents;\nthe father and often the mother are frequently taken from the home by\ntheir daily work. The old work-community of parents and growing\nchildren has disappeared. The great cities and the great industries now\ntake the youth almost immediately after the completion of the elementaryschool period. It is clear that great demoralization will take place if the\ncare of society and the state does not take the place formerly occupieTi by\nthe home, the parents, or the master in the trades.\nThe demands on school education are, therefore, increasing with the\nadvancing development of society. Life in the great cities with its complicated relations, the industries with their many demands on manual and\nintellectual skill, the new forms of business life place everywhere higher\ndemands on school knowledge and dexterity than the old simpler relations\ndid. An increasing attention to the spiritual interests during these years\nof youth must be provided if the life of the modem laborer is not to be\nutterly demoralized and degraded by the sensual allurements of modem\ncity life. Naumann, a distinguished German writer, says:\nIndustrialism will become a system of slavery if it is not supplemented by the education of the masses. Only in this way can we develop an enduring human civilization.\nOur school system is an evolution. It would be difficult and is unnecessary to trace all of the steps by which man has passed from a situation where\neducation was almost exclusively an affair of the home to the present time\nwhere nearly every phase of it, from the kindergarten to the imiversity, has\nbecome an affair of the public and of the state. This movement has finally\nbegun to affect vocational education in all its branches in the leading\ncivilized communities of the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 1221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1205\n\nIt was natural that the higher education demanded as a preparation for\nthe learned professions of law and medicine should be the first to be provided\nat public expense. The home manifestly can do little toward meeting this\ndemand. However valuable the training of young lawyers, doctors, and\nministers in the office may be, it is insufficient to meet the wants of our\nprofessional classes today. The state provides, therefore, university\ndepartments of law, medicine, engineering, etc. ; it opens hospitals for the\npractical experience demanded by the young physician; it recognizes the\nobligation of the state to provide adequate educational opportunities for\nall the professions found in modem society. The number of these professional schools is increasing every year.\nThe same tendency exists in the humbler occupations, the trades, and\neven in the practice of domestic economy in the home. Home education\nis ceasing to be able to grapple with these problems; even the master's\nshop is now becoming inadequate, where it can be appealed to at all.\nSociety must take charge of the vocational education of all classes and not\nignore the changes modern life has produced in the education furnished\nby the home.\nThe nineteenth century has made the old elementary school, which was\noften nothing but a reading-school or a school for three R's, a real educational institution for the people. As Friedrich Paulsen says :\nIt will be the mightiest problem of the twentieth century to build upon the elementaryschool as a general and fimdamental form of school a new finishing educational institution,\nor tO'give to the elementary-school instruction its necessary conclusion in a kind of vocational high school, a school whose problem will be the carrying forward and making\nfruitful of the general education for vocational activity.\n\nThe course of education for every position in life should include two\ngrades. The first is the elementary school, whose problem is— apart from\nthe development of the intellectual powers — to provide exercises in the\nschool arts which every successive instruction presupposes and makes use\nof. In a democracy this elementary course should be the same for all, and\ncan be communicated to all divisions of the people in one common institution— the elementary school. The second grade has as its problem to\nadvance the general education of the pupils in accordance with the degree of\nexisting financial means and mental powers, and to give real vocational education. This is true of the so-called learned occupations which demand a\nreal scientific training as a preparation for a profession. This is provided by\nthe universities, and the various sorts of technical and commercial colleges,\nand by our secondary schools. To be fair to all, modern conditions require\nanother type of school which, like the other schools, presupposes the general\ntraining given in the elementary school, but which has as its problem the\ntraining for the vocational life of the youth who must leave the ordinary\nschool at fourteen years. This training on the immediately practical,\ntechnical side may fall to the vocations themselves, but a school must be\n\n"}
{"page": 1222, "printed_page": null, "text": "l2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nprovided to supplement this shop training by supplying the knowledge and\nskill demanded by modern business or industrial life. This school is the\nschool now known as the continuation or part-time school.\nCare must be taken, however, that this new independent type of\nvocational school which takes the youth on leaving the elementary school\nnot only provides a practical vocational education, but also considers the\nneeds of the man and the citizen. The vocations, however, will stand as\nthe central point of this system of instruction as the occupations of man\nstand as the central point of every well-regulated life and exercise a reaction\nupon all the remaining human activities.\nNevertheless it should be emphasized that the problem of this new\nschool is to provide an education for citizenship, remembering that a good\ncitizen must necessarily be able and willing to earn a decent living. We\ncannot leave the instruction concerning the public duties of man exclusively\nto party eloquence or to the daily press. This work cannot be done in the\nelementary school on account of the lack of maturity, experience, and\npower of comprehension of young children before the age of adolescence.\nThe boy, however, who enters into practical life is immediately attracted\nby questions of citizenship, and comes to such instruction with all sorts of\npractical questions. He now has an interest in these questions, and an\nunderstanding of their significance which was impossible during the\nelementary-school period. If this instruction can grow out of concrete\nfacts, and experience can be related to the rights and duties of the pupil\nhimself, we shall succeed in utilizing this interest. In this course we\nshould include some study of politics, of the position of our country among\nthe nations of the earth, of our possessions, our power, our productions, and\nour commerce.\nWe must not forget that such youth are still boys and girls with an\ninterest in amusements and activity of various kinds. Play and excursions,\nevening entertainments, and festivals should be carried on in connection\nwith their school work, as they are now carried on in connection with our\nsecondary and elementary schools. Libraries and reading-halls should be\nprovided for such continuation schools, and the wise use of books will be a\nmost important fxmction of the teacher in such institutions. Such schools\nshould be supplied with playgroimds, library halls, collections of tools,\nbooks, and apparatus, and we should encourage the imion of former pupils\nwith the students in the continuation schools. Our problem is with the\nwhole boy, and we must not neglect his recreation. These continuation\nschools must be complete schools undertaking so far as possible the training\nof the whole boy, and not the producing of cheap skilled labor for the\nemployer.\nThese schools are not continuation schools in the sense of being places\nwhere the instruction of the elementary school is continued and re\\iewed,\nbut a continuance of the boy's education under new conditions and with a\n\n"}
{"page": 1223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nI207\n\nnew point of view. We have up to the time of entering these schools\ntaught subjects, have provided general training, which it was hoped would\nbe later applied to special cases. The continuation school reverses the\nprocess and follows the maxims, \"Try to expand from your own center,\"\n\" Proceed slowly step by step in your own way, from the individual to the\nuniversal.\" This means a change of attitude that will profoundly modify\ninstruction in other schools.\nThese schools must not be confused with evening schools which have\ncontinued and supplemented our former education. These new schools\nmust have their own organization, their own corps of teachers, and day\ninstruction in suitably equipped school buildings. In the most progressive\nGerman cities they have their own buildings, corps of teachers, branches of\neducation, and all that goes with an independent school.\nThere is no lack of interest and power for the carrying-out of this ideal\namong our people. There never was a time when the interest in education\nagitated the people more powerfully than today. There never was a time\nwhen the so-called upper classes felt more fully their obligation to extend\nthe hand to their brothers below to bring them up to a higher and richer life.\nThis supplement to our educational system is necessary. As Friedrich\nPaulsen says:\nThe education provided for our youth may be compared to an abandoned ruin: the\nfoundation is laid, a few walls are constructed, then the work is left to the destruction\nof wind and water.\n\nOur school system can be regarded as finished only when we provide an\ninstruction for all that will fit them for the activities of real vocational life.\nSCHOOL\nWILLIAM\n\nB.\n\nITTNER,\n\nARCHITECT,\n\nARCHITECTURE\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nSchool architecture received its first healthy impulse thru the work\nof Mr. Edmond Wheelright, city architect of Boston from 1901 to 1905.\nThe new school buildings he erected, the publication of his work on school\narchitecture, and the continuation of a well-defined policy in the planning\nof school buildings by the Boston Schoolhouse Commission, which succeeded\nhim, have resulted in a general improvement in school buildings thruout\nthe coimtry.\nThe work of the architects of the school systems in the cities of New\nYork, Chicago, Cleveland, and St. Louis, persistently carried out along\nconsistent lines for a number of years, together with the Boston work,\nhas tended to a standardization of the problem, imtil at this day it might\nfairly be said that there is no excuse for an improperly planned or poorly\nconstructed school building. Yet, in spite of this, buildings are constantly\nbeing erected which give little or no evidence of a knowledge of the subject\nand its fundamental principles on the part of their builders.\n\n"}
{"page": 1224, "printed_page": null, "text": "I208\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nThe intense commercialism of our times has brought to the highest\nstate of development our mills, factories, office buildings, and the like, but\nschool buildings, tho playing the most important part in the development\nof our people, have been, -and still are, in a great measure, sadly deficient.\nThe late Edward Atkinson, our most noted authority on fire prevention,\nstated that \"in 1899, 485 college buildings and schools were burned, or\n10.46 per week, and the rate of destruction is increasing.\" \"I have\nexamined several college buildings, memorial halls, and the like,\" said\nMr. Atkinson, \"and have never fovmd a class in which hea\\y damage or\ncomplete destruction had been more adequately provided for by the masters\nof combustible architecture.\"\nMr. Franklin Webster, editor of the Insurance Press, in a recent edition\nstated:\nSchool fires are almost unpardonable, and they are likewise almost typical in American\ncities. Warnings have been numerous, without the disaster in ColUngwood, but that\ndisaster aroused everyone on the subject, and immediate investigations were begim in\ncities thruout the coimtry. From reports that have been completed, it is evident that\nconditions are sufficiently dangerous to warrant the assertion that protective appliances\nare needed in the schools in each city in the United States.\n\nThe investigation of the condition of school buildings has, in some cases,\nbrought substantial results. The result in a great number of cases, however,\nhas been more in the direction of means of escape from fire, and legislation\nto enforce the same, rather than in safe building and permanent improvements looking to fire prevention. Boards of Education, yielding to popular\ndemand and the clamor of the public prints, have been satisfied to erect\non buildings with questionable means of exit and inadequate stairways one\nor more fire escapes, which are felt to be all that is required for the safe\nhandling of the pupils in case of fire. The success of such means of exit,\nwhen the trial comes, and the pupils are in panic, is very questionable.\nAfter an exhaustive study of the matter, the best authorities agree that there\nshould be no fire escapes on the ideal school building, but that ample and\nweU-located inside stairways, properly isolated from the building which\nthe pupils use daily, are the only safe and proper means of emptying a school\nbuilding promptly and with perfect order, and that this, together with\nmaking the buildings, both old and new, immune from fire thru the\nintelligent application of modem methods, should be the aim of all school\nauthorities.\nHowever, alarming as these statements appear to be, such conditions\nare rapidly disappearing. We are no longer satisfied with the buildings\nof twenty years ago. This is the age of great activities in education, and\nthe extended use of the school plant both day and night, and for all sorts of\nsocial betterments. Manual-training and technical courses are being introduced, demanding power plants and special equipment; the playgroimd is\nin demand for constant use; in almost every community movements for\neducational and social betterment are under way, and the school, being\n\n"}
{"page": 1225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1209\n\nthe logical center for such activities, must improve and enlarge to meet the\ngreater demand.\nThe last report of the Bureau of the Census gives the expenditure for\nschool buildings and grounds for the year 1908 as $197,000,000 for cities of\nover 30,000 inhabitants (only 168 in all). The responsibility for the expenditure of this vast sum rests fairly on the shoulders of their boards of education and those employed by them. The architect, therefore, is one of the\nprincipal agents for the wise application of this expenditure, and in just proportion to his skill and knowledge will the conditions brought to our\nattention by the underwriter experts be eliminated.\nIn the consideration of the more complex problem, therefore, the\nsafety of our buildings must be carefully studied along with the great\neducational need, to the end that they shall not only fulfill these functions\nin a satisfactory manner, but that they shall also be representative of the\nintelligence of the community in which they are built.\nIt is held by many that the proper protection against fire can be had\nonly thru the use of fireproof material; but all school buildings cannot be\nerected fireproof, nor is it necessary that they should be to make them safe,\nif proper methods of construction are employed. Where funds will not permit the erection of a fireproof building, it will require but a small additional\noutlay to fireproof the corridor floors and stairways; nor is it necessary to\nerect separate buildings in which to house the heating apparatus as this, at\nsmall expense, can also be isolated in a manner to eliminate all danger.\nWhile buildings should be erected fireproof whenever funds will permit,\nand while this practice should be encouraged generally, the safety of our\nbuilding depends quite as much upon the location of its stairways, corridors,\nand the exits, disposition of the rooms, its height, and the site upon which it\nis located. Let us then study at some length these important considerations.\nThe schoolhouse should be so located as to make it easily accessible to\nthe greatest number; if possible, it should be at the very center of the school\npopulation, but this consideration is not of such importance as to lead to the\nselection of a site which is cramped in size for the building to be erected,\nor one that is low, poorly drained, hemmed in by other buildings, noisy, or\notherwise undesirable. The distance some of the pupils are required to\nwalk to reach the school is of small consequence when weighed against pure\natmosphere, beautiful environment, and the absence of noise and dust.\nWhile there is little excuse for the selection of an improper site in small\ntowns and suburban districts, the problem when applied to our large cities\noften presents obstacles apparently insurmountable, but even in such\ncases, the improved facilities for transportation and the ease of reaching\nthe school furnishes the means of placing the building in a desirable location.\nThe site should be of such dimensions that the building is reasonably\nsafe from damage from adjoining structures; the necessity for proper\nlighting in itself should demand a large site, insuring such isolation.\n\n"}
{"page": 1226, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Adminbtration\n\nAuthorities agree that the minimum allowable area for a site, after\ndeducting the area of the building, planted and other restricted areas,\nshould be 30 or 40 square feet per pupil. This will insure proper light and\nair, but very restricted playgroimd, and such limitations are necessary only\nin the congested parts of our large cities. One hundred and fifty square feet\nper pupil may be taken as a working standard in cities, while ten- and\ntwelve-acre sites may be considered ideal in suburban districts and small\nschool communities.\nThere is a great diversity of opinion on the orientation of the building.\nWhere other conditions do not interfere, an eastern or a western exposure\nfor the classroom is preferred rather than the north or south. In Prussia\na northern exposure is now the rule. While north light is the most diffused\nand the softest, and the best for art rooms and laboratories, it is better\npractice to place the classrooms so that they will receive sunlight during\nsome portion of the day, but even this rule should permit of modification in\nsouthern climates, where north windows are desirable for simimer ventilation.\nThe building should be low and preferably not more than two stories\nabove the basement. This, of course, is not possible in the large cities,\nwhere buildings of three or more stories are required to pro\\ade the necessary accommodation. Such buildings are rendered safe by reason of\nadequate stainvays and exits, and the most modern fireproofing methods,\nbut they are the exception and not the rule, and we will address our\nremarks to general practice and not to special problems.\nIf large in plan, the floor areas in the building should be reduced by\nmasonry walls, thus limiting the area open to fire. In plan, the stairways\nshould be ample in number, should be located in a manner to reduce horizontal distance from classroom to exit, and the exit should terminate at the\nstreet or yard level, and practically outside of the building in order to\nobviate passing thru halls or corridors before reaching the open air.\nBasements or cellars, as well-known fire-breeders, shoidd not be found\nin buildings designed for the highest degree of fire protection. A better\npractice is to make this story practically level with the grade, dignify it by\ncalling it the ground floor, and provide it with a window surface equal to or\napproximating that of the classrooms above. But in any event, it should\nbe completely isolated from the rooms above and particularly that portion\ncontaining the heating apparatus. Such a story provides, at the least\nexpense, the space for the heating and ventilating plant, playrooms for\ninclement weather, the general toilet and bathing facilities, and rooms\nfor manual training. Such stories should be not less than twelve feet high —\nfifteen feet would be better to allow ample space for heating and ventilating\nducts, and the floor itself should be not more than three feet below grade.\nThe boiler-room, fuel-room, and room for the heating apparatus should\nbe cut off effectually, and all should be inclosed in masonry walls, fireproofed\n\n"}
{"page": 1227, "printed_page": null, "text": "beparlmentl\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n12 1 1\n\nat the ceiling or floor above: the best practice precludes any doorway\nfrom these rooms to the remainder of the basement, and while this may\nprove of some inconvenience to the janitor, it provides maximum safety;\nsuch doorway, if one is provided, should be a standard, automatic-closing\nfire door.\nNext to the isolation of the basement and the inclosing of the stairways,\nin importance, is the avoidance of all hollow spaces in the walls and ceilings\nthru which fire may find its way to the various parts of the building. Wood\nfurring, sheathed walls, ceilings, and wainscotings should be entirely\nexcluded. Wood finish should be reduced to the minimum, all dark corners\nand closets likely to accumulate rubbish of a combustible nature should be\neliminated. Doorways from wardrobes to corridors should be eliminated;\na single door opening outward should connect the classroom and corridor,\nand should always open in the direct line of travel to the stairway. The\nsingle door, though not in general use, has the advantage that it will enable\nthe teacher to control her pupils when there is a tendency to panic and march\nthem to safety. In no case should doors be arranged to open directly\nonto stairways, or be hung in a manner to obstruct the traffic in the corridor.\nSuch stairways from the upper floors, to the ground floor as are necessary, should be inclosed in incombustible materials with proper fire-protected\nopenings. No single requirement, save perhaps, protected stairways, is\nmore important than the isolation of the basement.\nStairways. — Stairways in proper number should be provided and no\nstairway should be more than five feet in width; they should always be\nin two runs from story to story; should have broad landings, and there\nshould be a handrail on the balustrade as well as the wall. Such a stairway\nwill enable two files of children to go down abreast without pushing or\ncrowding, and in perfect order.\nThe location of stairways is a matter of great importance. They should\nbe separated and arranged to serve definite groups of rooms, with direct line\nof travel from classroom to stairway; thus a natural division of students is\nformed and congestion avoided. A closed balustrade of proper height is\nto be preferred to the open balustrade or boxed-in type of stair.\nThe number of stairways and exits in a school building is a matter of\ncalculating accommodations for the number of persons and the number of\nfloors to be served. It is a problem for the individual building, and all\nthat can be given is a working-rule suggested by practice and experience,\nnamely: that 120 persons in lines, two abreast, can pass a given point in less\nthan one minute. If, therefore, stairways and exits in sufl&cient number\nare introduced and properly placed to empty our building in three minutes,\nor less, we are entirely safe. Risers should never exceed 6^ inches and the\ntread should never be less than 10 inches — 12 inches is better — and they\nshould have a non-slipping surface.\n\n"}
{"page": 1228, "printed_page": null, "text": "tiii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlAdministratJon\n\nIn the matter of stairways and exits, the use of what is customary by the\npupils a number of times each day during the entire school year will always\nprove the most efficient means of egress in any emergency.\nCorridors. — ^The importance of the corridors or halls in the planning of\nschool buildings is very often overlooked by school authorities, and in a\ngreat many buildings their width and natural lighting are sacrificed in\nthe interest of additional classroom space.\nThey must be wide enough to prevent congestion, and, while no fixed\nrule can be laid down, it may be said, in general, that for main corridors\n12 feet may be taken as a minimum, with 8 feet for side or secondary\ncorridors, for grammar schools of moderate size; while 14 feet and 10 feet\nwould be better. In high schools the minimum width for main corridors\nwould be 14 feet.\nProperly planned and lighted corridors offer the best means for decoration with pictures, casts, and mural paintings, and the educational value\nof these influences cannot be overestimated.\nThe practice of lining the corridors of a school building with open\nwardrobes, even tho they may be fairly well lighted, is open to enough\nobjection to render the practice obsolete.\nIn this country it is almost universal to flank the two sides of the\ncorridor with classrooms and depend upon the classroom doors and transoms and windows at the ends for light. In Germany the prevailing\ncustom places the classrooms on the one side only, giving direct outside\nlighting in the corridor. While the American custom gives a more compact and economical building, it is accomplished at the sacrifice of\nproper lighting and attractiveness, and is one of the weakest points about\nour school plan.\nClass units. — A school building consists of a number of class units\ngrouped around corridors and stairways. No steps can be taken, therefore,\nin planning our building until a definite conclusion has been reached as to\nthe size and number of these units.\nGreat stress was placed by early authorities on the number of cubic\nfeet of air and floor space per pupil, and classrooms were thus proportioned.\nThis, thru the introduction of mechanical ventilation, has given way to a\npractice where the number of pupils to be accommodated, the style of furniture to be adopted, and the proper lighting of the rooms are the factors in\ndetermining its size.\nThe number of pupils per room is constantly decreasing, and where\nfifteen years ago it was not uncommon to find as many as fifty-six to sixtyfive pupils per teacher, the number today is from forty to fifty; and where\n28 feet was a common width, the modern classroom has been reduced to a\nwidth of 24 to 25 feet, or less, as it is obvious that for a given story height\nthe narrower the room the better its lighting, A room, therefore, 24 feet\nwide and 32 feet long will seat fifty pupils in single desks, give proper width\n\n"}
{"page": 1229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1 2 13\n\nfor aisles, and space for teacher's desk, a table, bookcases, or other furniture\nat the teacher's end of the room.\nThe width of the room, where unilateral lighting is used, should never\nbe more than twice the distance from floor to window top, and where the\nexternal condition is not favorable this width will be found too great.\nGerman authorities agree that the width of a room should be not more\nthan one and one-half times the distance from floor to window head, but\nour latitude is more favorable for proper lighting than that of Germany,\nand our room will permit of greater width. The height, then, should be\nsufficient for good lighting, but no more, as added height is extravagant\nboth as to first cost and as to maintenance.\nExperience has shown that a height of 12^ to 13 feet for a room 24 feet\nX32 feet will permit adequate glass area and may be taken as a standard\nwhere outside conditions are normal. The net glass area will depend upon\nthe latitude. Where it may be necessary to make it as much as one-fourth\nthe floor area in northern latitudes, this will be entirely too much in the\nSouth and Southwest, where one-sixth the floor area may give proper\nlighting. The story height to be adopted, therefore, depends more or less\nupon local conditions and must receive careful consideration.\nIn secondary schools the size of classrooms may vary in accordance with\nthe demands made upon them and no definite rule can be laid down; they\nshould, however, be as small as their uses will permit and lighted on their\nlong axis only.\nGrouping of rooms. — 'Having determined the size of the class unit, the\nnext important step is their grouping with corridor and stairways. The\nmost common type of plan places the rooms on either side of the corridor,\nwith the stairways at the ends, and where this arrangement is the most\neconomical in cubical content the corridors cannot be properly lighted, as\nthey receive direct light from the ends only, and shoiild an assembly room\nbe introduced, the circulation of the corridor is entirely lost.\nA common modification of this plan places the stairways on the sides and\nhas the advantage of bringing them in better relation to the rooms, gives\nsomewhat better lighting, but increases the area per classroom in proportion\nto the total floor area of the building. The plan improves in its perfect\nlighting, however, as the corridor is opened up to outside light.\nThe question, then, would be: Does the improved lighting warrant this\nincrease in content ? In my opinion it does.\nThe advantages of the open-type plan is well recognized abroad as the\nplan of School No. 204 at Berlin, Aarau, Switzerland, the Girls' School at\nParis, the school at Stockholm, Sweden, and one at Hildesheim, Prussia, and\nall of these plans are recommended for serious study by school authorities.\nIn planning high schools the size of the class units cannot be standardized, as they must vary to meet the requirement, and no definite nile can\nbe laid down. The high-school plan is further complicated by the intro-\n\n"}
{"page": 1230, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2I4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlAdmlnistration\n\nduction of special rooms, such as science laboratories, study-rooms, commercial rooms, and art rooms, domestic science rooms, manual-training\nshops, etc., and before taking up the plan of the secondary schools, it may\nbe well to consider, briefly, the requirements of the special rooms.\nSPECIAL ROOMS\n\nLaboratories may receive their light from two sides if desired, as the\npupil has opportunity to adjust his position to the light, a condition which\nis lacking in the grammar-school room. Oblong rooms with approximate\ndimensions of 21 to 30 feet in width and 45 to 60 feet in length are better\nthan rooms of square dimensions. The equipment should be so arranged\nthat the pupil faces the instructor, and receives the maximum amoimt of\nlight from the left.\nLaboratories should open en suite with lecture-rooms, which should\nbe arranged with raised tiers of seats fitted with tablet armchairs brought\nas close as may be to the instructor's table. In the absence of the lectureroom, sufficient floor space should be allowed at the instructor's table in the\nlaboratory for the massing of the pupils during demonstrations.\nEach laboratory should have its instructor's work- and storeroom.\nThis should be well lighted, ample in size, and fitted with workbench, sink,\nand storage cases for the more delicate and valuable apparatus. For\nchemistry and physics a dark room should also be provided.\nThe students' tables in the chemistry laboratory should be provided\nwith sinks, gas hoods, and reagent racks. A small conservatory for both\nbotany and physiology laboratories will be found helpful to house and\ngerminate the water plants and animal life used in the laboratory.\nThe instructors' tables should be fitted with sinks having a wood cover;\nthere should be a sliding blackboard and each laboratory and lecture-room\nshould be equipped with a lantern for lecture use.\nPhysics, chemistry, botany, and physiography laboratories should be\nequipped with gas and hot and cold water. Physics and chemistry rooms\nshould also have electric outlets at all tables.\nEach laboratory should be provided with a sufficient nimiber of wallcases to house the apparatus. They should be designed for their particular\nuses and in standard units if possible. Students' individual working tools\nare best stored in drawers in the workbench or table. A notebook case\nwith writing-top will be found a valuable addition to the physics and\nchemistry laboratories.\nCommercial rooms. — In a fully equipped school, a business and typewriting room will be found necessary. The equivalent of three class units\nwill be necessary for this purpose. The business room may be fitted with\nspecially designed desks, or, in a more modest equipment, the ordinary\nsingle pupil's desk will be found to answer the purpose. Space should\nbe provided for the bank and business houses behind screens with pass\n\n"}
{"page": 1231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deparunent]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1 21 5\n\nwindows and standing desk. A storage case should be provided to hold the\nblanks used by the students.\nThe typewriting room should be fitted with the necessary number of\ntypewriting desks and the space may be economized by grouping two or\nmore students at a single table.\nDrawing. — The freehand drawing and art rooms should occupy the space\nof two or more class units. They should receive north light, preferably\nthru a toothed skylight (studio light) with its base about 6 feet from the floor.\nThey should be equipped with storage case for the pupils' drawing-boards\nand materials, adjustable drawing- tables, small tables for still-life subjects,\na model table for life-posing, zinc-lined storage case for modeling clay and\nwork, and a sink with hot and cold water. A cork panel on the wall opposite\nthe skylight will be of aid to the instructor in arranging and criticizing class\nwork and for exhibitions; the best grades of cork carpet answer the purpose\nadmirably.\nMechanical drawing is required of all students in manual training, and\nthe equivalent of two class units will be required. They should be well\nlighted and equipped with drawing-tables, drawing-boards, and tools.\nAn economical method of storing the same is effected by a specially designed\ndrawing-table holding the boards as well as the student's individual tools.\nThere should also be a large table with drawing-top and drawers and a\nblueprint frame.\nDomestic science. — This department will require a room for cooking,\nwith storeroom, one or preferably two sewing-rooms with fitting-rooms, and\na laundry. These rooms are best if conveniently grouped with sunny\nexposure and good light.\nThe cooking-room should be of ample proportions (about one and onehalf class units will suffice) and should be equipped with a cooking-table\narranged to hold the individual cooking-utensils, and provided with sinks.\nA gas burner, or preferably two, and portable oven will be required for each\nstudent, and a combination gas and coal range will complete the equipment.\nIn the more elaborate rooms an electric oven will be required for demonstrations by the teacher.\nA convenient, well-lighted storeroom with small refrigerator for perishable supplies is a necessity. A great deal will be added to the effectiveness\nof the instruction by providing a small model dining-room where the girls\nmay be instructed in table-setting and serving. In fact, the most complete\nequipments demand a housekeeping suite consisting of living-room, bedroom, bathroom, pantry, and kitchen, completely furnished for instruction\nin household duties.\nThe laundry will require the space of a class unit and should be equipped\nwith a nest of laundry tubs, a clothes dryer, and stationary ironing-boards,\nequipped with electric irons.\nOne or more sewing-rooms are necessary. These may be of class unit\n\n"}
{"page": 1232, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nsize and should have a fitting-room. Each room should be equipped\nwith sewing-tables and machines. The tables should be arranged to hold\nthe students' caps, aprons, and work, or storage cases should be provided\nfor the purpose. The fitting-rooms should have storage cases for materials\nand the hanging of unfinished garments, a fitting-platform, skirt and bust\nforms, and a pier mirror. Both the fitting- and sewing-rooms should have\na fixed ironing-board with electric iron.\nManual training. — The woodworking room should be of ample floor\nspace (not less than 40 square feet per pupil), to accommodate classes of\nfrom twenty-four to thirty pupils.\nThe benches should be substantial and rigidly secured to the floor\nand should be provided with drawers to hold the individual tools. The\ntools used in common should be conveniently arranged on the bench back\nor in a common drawer.\nIf floor space will permit, an instructor's bench surrounded with a\nraised tier of seats will aid the instructor in his work. A grindstone, glueheater, and glue-bench will complete the equipment of the shop.\nThe woodturning room should be somewhat larger than the woodworking room, as additional space will be necessary to receive the lathes.\nThese may be of the belt or individual motor-driven type. The equipment\nwill be complete with a toolroom where the tools used in common by the\nstudents are stored; a storage-room arranged with coils for the storage and\ndrying of the lumber; a preparation room containing a motor-driven crosscut saw and circular saw, where the lumber is cut to shape for class exercises;\nand a finishing-room where the articles are varnished and finished. This\nroom should have a fireproof receptacle to hold the paint, oil, and varnish.\nA molding-room to accommodate twenty-four pupils should be 24 to\n30 feet wide and about 40 feet in length. This will provide the necessary\nspace for the molding-troughs, melting-furnaces, and floor space for making\nup and pouring the flasks. A cupola furnace is not necessary as it is only\nin the more elaborate schools that iron-molding is attempted. A small\nfurnace for the melting of soft metals is all that is required in the majority\nof cases.\nThe forgeroom should be equipped for twenty to twenty-four pupils\nand will require a floor area of 40 square feet per pupil. It should be\nequipped with down-draft forges and underground piping, A separate\nroom to contain the fan, blower, and motor will add much to the comfort of\nthe shop, A drill press, punch, and shears, a power hammer, a wet grinder,\nand a filing-bench for each two students will complete the equipment for\nthis room.\nThe machine shop should be about 24 by 60 feet. This will afford\nthe necessary floor space for the machines and filing benches. Machine\ntools to accommodate sixteen students is all that is required, as the number\nin the fourth year's work will rarely exceed this.\n\nThe machines should\n\n"}
{"page": 1233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n121 7\n\nbe of standard make and selected for simplicity rather than complication,\nwhile one or two of the more elaborate tools may be installed for the use of\nthe more skilled students and the instructor.\nGymnasia. — If physical training is to be compulsory, two gymnasia\nwill be found a necessity. The minimum size of these rooms would be\n25 to 30 by 70 feet, and the minimum story height would be 14 feet. The\nideal size would be 50X80 feet with a story height of 18 feet, which must be\nincreased if a running-track is installed. Besides the necessary apparatus,\nthe rooms should be provided with steel storage cases for dumbbells,\nIndian clubs, and wands. Dressing-rooms equipped with lockers for sections\nof fifty pupils each, with one or two showers for the girls, and showers and\nplunge for the boys, will add much to the completeness of the equipment.\nOpinions differ widely on the practicability of running-tracks, as they\ncan be installed only in the larger rooms, are seldom used in class work,\nand are very expensive. Unless the conditions are most favorable for their\ninstallation, they had better be omitted.\nLibrary. — A high school is not complete without the library. This is\nthe room in which the pupil will spend his unoccupied periods, and it should\nbe well lighted and equipped with reading-tables and metal book-stacks.\nIf the school is of large dimensions a separate book- or stackroom\nwill be found a necessity, and the equipment should be such as is found in\npublic libraries.\nRestrooms. — There should be restrooms for both teachers and pupils.\nLarge rooms are not necessary, but they should be well located and equipped\nfor the use of pupils and teachers who are indisposed and who need simple\nmedical attention, with an opportunity for rest and relaxation.\nAuditorium. — The growing demand for the use of high-school auditoriums for evening lectures and purposes other than strictly school use\ndemands that they be located on the ground or first floor, and near the main\nentrance of the building. They should be capable of seating the entire\nschool, should be well lighted, with the windows arranged for darkening\ncurtains, and should be provided with sufficient exits to enable their vacation within two minutes. It goes without saying that auditoriums are\nstrictly speaking-halls, and should be proportioned to obtain the best\nacoustic results.\nThe stage should be of ample proportions, with sufficient width to\naccommodate the stage setting for the class plays, large choruses, and other\nexercises.\nOffices. — ^The administrative office of the building should consist of a\ngeneral and a private office, a small reception room, and a storage vault for\nrecords. The group should be located near the main entrance and conveniently arranged to facilitate the work of the school.\nLockers. — ^The practice of lining the corridors of a high school with\nlockers should not be encouraged.\nLockers should be placed in large,\n\n"}
{"page": 1234, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administratjon\n\nwell-lighted, and ventilated rooms where they can receive proper supervision and care. If, for economical reasons, they are placed in corridors\nthey should be recessed and ventilated by a system of ducts exhausting the\nair from the corridors.\nLunchroom. — The lunchroom forms a very necessary part of a large\nhigh school. The short lunch period prevents all, except those living in\nthe immediate vicinity of the school, from leaving the building at noon.\nThe room should be ample in size and equipped with long serving-counters\nand a kitchen with convenient service entrance.\nPLAN\n\nHaving considered, briefly, the various units which go to make up the\nhigh school, let us assemble them, assuming we are planning a building in\nan active community to accommodate 700 or 800 pupils.\nThe organization of our school demands study-halls to seat two-thirds\nof the students. We will place these on the main corridor, first, for ease of\ncirculation; second, for the purpose of opening them en suite with the\nlibrary on the main floor; and third, for convenience to the main stairways;\nand will fix their maximum width at 28 feet in the interest of perfect light.\nThe library we will increase in depth to 36 feet, in order to accommodate\nthe maximum number of readers, and on account of the extra depth we will\ngive it additional height to insure its perfect lighting.\nThe auditorium we will enlarge to a capacity of 1,200 and arrange its\nlong axis parallel to the main corridor, in order that we may provide a stage\nwith 60-foot opening capable of accommodating large choruses and symphony orchestra, mass drills, etc., and in order that we may be able to\neliminate the side galleries, and obtain perfect sight lines for everyone.\nThe gymnasium we will enlarge to accommodate all indoor games. We\nwill place it on the auditorium floor level, so that it may be brought into\nuse with the auditorium for the social features of the school, and, if need be,\nwe will give it height sufficient for running-track or a spectators' gallery\nif desired.\nThe recitation rooms we will plan to accommodate a maximum of\nthirty pupils, and will place them along the secondary corridors.\nThe science rooms we will arrange in stacks at the ends of the secondary\ncorridors with instructors' rooms and lecture-rooms opening en suite.\nThe lockers we will divide between the three floors, and, instead of\nstringing them along the corridors to obstruct them, we will place them\nin open alcoves where they can receive proper light and supervision.\nThe toilets will be placed in stacks, opening off locker alcoves; and\nthe teachers' and pupils' restrooms we will place adjoining.\nThe art and commercial rooms we will place to the north over the\ngymnasium, where studio lighting can be provided, and if our gymnasium\n\n"}
{"page": 1235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmnet]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1 219\n\nhas the extra height necessary for the running-track, we will reach them\nby a half-flight at the secondary stairways.\nThe manual-training rooms we will place upon the ground floor. Here\nwe will arrange our space in units of the proper dimension to provide for\nwoodworking and metal- working, with convenient storerooms along the\nsecondary corridors; while domestic science and sewing will find suitable\nrooms under study-halls, with space for housekeeping suite, store- and\nfitting-rooms.\nOur lunchroom we will place under the auditorium and open it from\nthe main corridor, and the swimming-pool of standard size we will place\nwithin easy reach of the gymnasium by private stairways, with the showers\nand locker-rooms under the courts. We will also arrange it so that it may\nbe used during vacation with minimum cost for supervision, and without\naccess to the building proper.\nOur main corridor will be made 16 feet wide, the secondary corridors\n10 feet wide. At the main entrance we will open up the corridor to provide\ncommodious approach to the auditorium and a dignified introduction to\nthe administration rooms on either side.\nOur main stairways we will arrange in double flights and the secondary\nstairways we will place to serve the secondary corridors.\nWe will also give some thought to the future, and arrange the wings\nso that they may be carried back to meet any demand which may be made\nupon the building by way of extension.\nThe boiler- and fuel-room and heating apparatus we will place under\nthe gymnasium where we can effectually cut it off from the building.\nWith our building but two stories in height, our corridors and stairways fireproofed, our five exits widely separated, and care in constructive\nparts, we are reasonably sure of a safe and comfortable building.\nAs the design of a building should be the natural outgrowth and should\nexpress truthfully the function of the plan, we will now give it attention.\nWe find that the projection and added height of the library furnish a natural\nmotif for a dignified treatment of the main entrance; the fenestration of\nthe large study-room units enables us to give them proper expression on\nthe main facade; the side entrances and smaller class units furnish the\nnatural spacing for a less ambitious treatment of the wing facades; and\nthe high openings in the gymnasium enable us to give its location outward\nevidence. Thus, without any straining for effect or warping of its parts,\nwe find our building capable of harmonious expression in every way consistent with its uses.\nNor does the process vary greatly when applied to a school of double\nthe capacity of the one just considered. For illustration, we will take a high\nschool, the plans for which are just completed and contracts about to be let.\nIn this case, we have planned a building with a normal capacity of 1,600\n\n"}
{"page": 1236, "printed_page": null, "text": "I220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\npupils in classrooms. We have abandoned the study-hall plan, and in the\naccommodation of the building we are not taking into account any of the\nspecial rooms or shops.\nOur classrooms are based upon two units, a room seating 48 pupils and\na room seating 36 pupils, jn which the students study as well as recite.\nWe are fortimate in having a site of some ten acres in extent; it is\ndivided by a cross street at its summit into two parts and the grade slopes\nboth ways from this street. We thus have a commanding position for the\nbuilding, and the slope from building to street in front forms a natural\namphitheater for the athletic field, for by leveling the central portion and\nsloping the sides the tiers of seats can be placed upon the slopes without\nobstructing the \\'iew of our building from the boulevard in front. We thus\nhave opportunity of providing a field of regulation size for all interschool\ngames, school festivals, etc., are able to provide seating for 8,000 persons,\nand to proxdde for their comfort by placing public comfort-rooms, coatrooms,\netc., imder the amphitheaters near the principal entrances. We are also\nable to provide the dressing-rooms, etc., for a large number of contestants\nin the games.\nOutside of the field, sufficient space is retained for walks and parking,\nthus providing adequate formal approaches, as well as a fitting setting for\nthe building.\nThere are three entrances to the first floor of the building, the main\nentrance being located on the central axis of the athletic field; the other two\nentrances giving directly to the north and south secondary corridors and\nstairways. There are seven entrances to the ground floor, two on each of\nits three sides, and one imder the main entrance at the front.\nThere are four main stairways located at the intersections of the main\nand secondary corridors, each thus serving a definite group of rooms,\nproviding for the rapid circulation of the pupils from floor to floor, and\nreducing the horizontal travel distance between the various parts of the\nbiiilding. Each stairway is arranged in double flights, that is, the file of\npupils passing down on one side will be independent of the file of pupils\npassing up on. the other, thus doubling our stairway capacity and main^\ntaining perfect order in the movement of the pupils between classes. Two\nsingle flights of stairs are arranged from the second to the third floors. Two\nadditional stairways are arranged to serve the gymnasia; and these stair^\nways may also be brought into service as emergency exits from the first\nfloor and the auditorium.\nThe main corridor on each floor is 18 feet wide, the secondary corridors\n10 feet wide, aU obtaining direct light from the courts.\nThe classrooms are distributed on the various floors, are all arranged\nfor unilateral lighting, and conveniently grouped with respect to corridors\nand stairways. As previously stated, they will acconmiodate 48 and 36.\npupils respectively.\n\n"}
{"page": 1237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1 22 1\n\nThe laboratories are arranged in groups on the second floor, with demonstration rooms between, or amphitheater in the laboratory proper. The\nbotany laboratories are placed on the ground floor to the south and the\ngroup opens into a conservatory. All laboratories are arranged with\ninstructors' workrooms and darkrooms.\nThe commercial rooms are grouped upon the second floor and consist\nof a bookkeeping room with bank, a typewriting room, and a classroom.\nThe four art rooms are grouped upon the third floor, two of them\nbeing for drawing and two for art crafts work. The drawing-rooms are\nprovided with studio lighting, and the corridor on this floor has been\ntop-lighted and arranged for art gallery use in connection with the art rooms.\nTwo mechanical-drawing rooms are located on the ground floor convenient to the shops.\nThe domestic science group consists of two sewing-rooms with fittingand storerooms; a cooking-room with storeroom; a model dining-room,\nand a laundry. All rooms are unilaterally lighted and have convenient\nstorerooms.\nThe administration rooms are grouped on the first floor near the main\nentrance. They consist of a general office with workroom; a storage vault;\na reception room; and a private office for the principal.\nThe library occupies a central position on the second floor over the main\nentrance and has book-stacks along its inner walls.\nThe auditorium occupies the center of the building on the first floor,\nthe balcony being arranged to discharge to the second- and third-floor\ncorridors. Its ten well-distributed exits provide the means for the rapid\ndischarge of the room, and the distribution of the pupils to the various\nparts of the building. The room will furnish comfortable seatings for i,8oo\npersons. The stage, unusually large, 50 feet X 80 feet, is planned for an\noverflow gymnasium for the girls as well as for all high-school uses, and\nby means of a sound-proof curtain both auditorium and gymnasium may be\nused simultaneously, the stage in front of the curtain being 15 feetX72 feet.\nThe auditorium floor, being on the same level with the gymnasium to its\nrear, affords opportunity for their joint use for the social features of the\nschool, while the two gymnasium stairways may be brought into service\nas emergency exits.\nA music- and lecture-room is placed on the third floor in the center of\nthe building. It will furnish comfortable seatings for 250 persons in raised\nseats, and will be used for mass singing, lectures, faculty meetings, etc.\nA retiring-room, or emergency room, for pupils is placed upon the\nfirst floor, as is also a room for men and a room for women teachers.\nTwo gymnasia are provided. Each room is 40 feet X 80 feet, and\nthey are arranged with a roller partition between, so that they may be\nthrown together for joint use. They are top-lighted and have spectators*\ngalleries opening on the sides from the second-floor corridor.\n\n"}
{"page": 1238, "printed_page": null, "text": "T2 22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIOA\n\nASSOCl.iTION\n\nlAdniinistration\n\nThe swimming-pool is placed upon the ground floor and is arranged\nfor use by both boys and girls.\nThe lunchroom is placed upon the ground floor vmder the auditorium\nand has convenient service entrance, kitchen, pantry, and long servingcounter, and will accommodate one-half of the school at one time. It is thus\npossible for the entire school to be accommodated on the two-period plan.\nThe lockers are placed upon the ground floor, in well-lighted and\nventilated rooms, near the entrances and toilets.\nThe heating apparatus, boilers, fuel-room, etc., are placed under the\ngymnasia, are well separated from the building, thus preventing the penetration ofnoise to the auditorium and other departments.\nThe manual-training shops are in one-story wings to the rear and\ninclude a woodworking and woodturning shop with stockroom, finishingroom, lecture-room, and lockers, and washroom for woodwork, and a\nmachine shop, forge shop, molding-shop with tool and locker- and washrooms for iron work. The group is completed with a room for the power\nplant.\nIn conclusion we find our school buildings, then, becoming more and\nmore, each year, a factor in the affairs of the commimity, and it is important not only that they should be planned with such care as will render\nthem safe and sanitary, but that they should also be given an exterior\ntreatment which will reflect the refinement and good taste that their\nimportance demands.\nIt is not necessary to use expensive materials, or to add useless appendages in the hope of obtaining novelty or beauty. The best things are\nthose which evidence a restraint in design which is always consistent with\ngood taste, and a little conscientious study on the part of the architect is\nall that is necessary to bring about this result.\nDISCUSSION\nL. N. HiNES, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind. — At first glance it would\nseem to be useless to attempt to add anything to the admirable discussion of the subject\nof \"School Architecture\" that Mr. Ittner has given us, nor shall such an attempt be made\nat this time. It is well, however, to emphasize the general thought of the address to the\nefifect that school architectiire is today getting more attention than ever before. In fact,\nperhaps no hne of architecture is getting more attention today than the planning and\nconstruction of schoolhouses. Originally anything would do for a schoolhouse. Now\nthere is nothing too good for the most forlorn urchin that is under the care of the great\npublic-school system of our conimonwealth. The first tendency in present-day school\narchitecture is toward a greater conservation of the health and comfort of the pupil. The\nsecond is toward making the schoolhouse attractive and an artistic inspiration to the\nyouth that must come under the influence of what the school architect has done. Not\nonly must the school building serve the immediate needs of the school for classroom\ninstruction but it must serve the public as well. The modem school should be institutional inthat it must have the room and the equipment to serve as a center of the general\neducational and other activities of the community.\nThis view has become so general in\n\n"}
{"page": 1239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1223\n\nour cities at least that to give expression to it again is merely to contribute a trite expression to this discussion. Such leaders as Mr. Ittner are revolutionizing the science of\nschoolhouse construction. Tomorrow these leaders will pitch their tents still farther\nalong the road of progress and the dream of today will become the reality of that tomorrow.\nIf there is anyone so benighted as to think that all the elaborations of the modem school\nbuilding are simply foolishness, let him visit a few of the great modern buildings in some\nof our cities, study them, and see the service they give to their communities, and he will\nno longer sit in the seat of the scornful.\nOne of the curious phenomena connected with the erection of a modern school\nbuilding in any community that has never had such a structifre is the initial attitude of\nat least a part of the public toward the project, as contrasted with the later attitude\nof the same community. Objectors arise that say the whole plan is foolishness, that\nthere is no need of having a school building with an assembly room, that shower baths\nare merest nonsense and that the pupils can bathe at home, that a swimming-pool and\na gymnasium are a waste of money and a waste of the pupils' time, etc., ad infinitum and\nad nauseam. All of us have heard such complaints whenever any proposition is made\nlooking to giving any community something finer than it has ever had in the schoolbuilding line. Let the building once be finished. Let the objectors walk thru its wide\ncorridors, inspect its well-lighted rooms, and see what a beauty the institution is, and all\nobjections vanish as the dew before the sun. Community pride asserts itself. Parents\nrealize that they want their children to have the best there is. The final attitude of such\na community is a mixture of higher ideals in regard to educational needs and a resolute\ndetermination that it has the finest schoolhouse in all its own section of country, if not in\nthe nation and the world at large — bar none. The people at heart believe in education.\nThey may object in the beginning to the construction of fine school buildings, but if these\nbuildings are such that they are objects of pride, then all objections fade away.\nOne of the surest indications that the people are becoming increasingly interested in\nthe matter of the construction of schoolhouses is the fact that legislation is concerning\nitself with the problems of the planning and construction of these houses. The limits of\nthis paper will not permit the discussing of the laws of the states in detail. Perhaps\nreference to what has been done in my own state of Indiana recently will suffice to show\nthe trend of legislative action along these lines.\nThe Indiana statute in question we consider a long step in advance in the matter of\nproper schoolhouse construction. The planning of buildings is not left to the whim of\nanybody nor to the parsimoniousness of some school officials. Certain things must be\ndone, and, if they are not done, contractors and others cannot collect money for their\nwork. School trustees are held liable on their bonds for any money paid on a building\nnot constructed according to this law, and, further, any taxpayer can secure an injunctior^\nagainst any such payment, were any official inclined to make it.\nThe principal provisions of the statute are as follows:\n1. All building sites shall be dry and have proper drainage.\n2. No building shall be closer than 500 feet to a steam railroad.\n3. No building shall be closer than 500 feet to any noise-making industry or unsanitary business or condition.\n4. Every two-story schoolhouse shall have a dry, well-lighted basement under th<»\nwhole house, at least ten feet deep.\n5. First floors shall be at least three feet above the ground level.\n6. Each pupil shall be provided with at least 225 cubic feet of air space.\n7. Interior walls and ceilings shall be painted or tinted some neutral color.\n8. Study-rooms shall be lighted from one side only.\n9. Glass area shall be not less than one-sixth floor area.\n10. Windows shall extend from not less than four feet from the floor to within one\nfoot of the ceiling.\n11. Window shades shall be roller or adjustable and of neutral color.\n12. All desks shall preferably be adjustable and at least 20 per cent in each room\nmust be adjustable.\n\n"}
{"page": 1240, "printed_page": null, "text": "1224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\n13. Light must fall over the left shoulders of the pupils.\n14. Blackboards shall preferably be slate and must be black.\n15. Where possible, drinking-water must be supplied thru drinking-fountains.\nOtherwise it shall come from driven wells.\n16. Buildings shall be kept at 70 degrees Fahrenheit and at least 40 per cent of\nhvmiidity.\n17. Fresh air at a rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute per pupil shall be\nintroduced into each room. \"\n18. Ventilating ducts shall withdraw the air from every schoolroom at least four\ntimes every hour.\n19. Any school trustee or trustees that shall build a building that does not conform\nto the provisions of this law shall be subject to a fine of from $100 to $500.\n20. Any money claim for material or services on any building that does not conform\nstrictly to this law shall be null and void.\nIndiana owes this step in advance largely to Dr. J. N. Hurty, the magnificent secretary\nof the Indiana State Board of Health. Already school architectufe in that state has\ntaken an upward step. The big thing about the statute is that it is in the law books and\nmust be obeyed. Other states are working in the same direction. The nation is coming\nto see that the health and comfort of the school children must be conserved. The school\narchitect is doing his share in a wonderful way. A better day is dawning.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nTOPIC A: CAN THE ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT OF A SCHOOL\nSYSTEM SERVE AS A LABORATORY FOR THE INDUSTRIAL\nTRAINING OF CHILDREN?\nA\nG.\n\nE.\n\nWULFING,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nGARY,\n\nIND.\n\nBefore attempting to answer this question I should like to define my position on.\nvocational training. A vocation is any business, trade, profession, or calling followed\nas a means of livelihood. Vocational work in the school is simply training for a vocation. My notion is that all school work should have as one aim vocational efficiency.\nI would not advocate giving all the pupil's time to training for some definite and perhaps\nnarrow calling or trade. I would advocate rather that, whatever the school occupation,\nit should contribute something to the child's future ability to choose and follow successfully\nsome vocation.\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the advisability of vocational work in\nthe public schools. The subject has been widely discussed. Great educators have\npassed favorably on the subject. The question is not so much one of advisability as\none of ways and means; the question of the transition from our purely cultural school\nfor the book-minded few to the practical utility school for the masses, which the compulsory school law has made it our duty to provide. With the great mass of people the\nquestion of vocation is the paramoimt one and they are demanding that the schools\nhelp their children in preparing for the problem of bread and butter. Manufacturers and\nemployers generally are demanding from their employees that standard of intelligence\nwhich comes from actual contact with real things and conditions. They do not object\nto the pursuit of the purely cultural subjects so much, but they insist that science and\nthe industrial and commercial subjects count so much more in the training for efficiency.\nThese demands are to a certain extent prompted by selfish motives but they must receive\na consideration.\nTeachers themselves have begun to realize that school work need not be entirely\ndivorced from any thought of utility to give it cultural value. They have to admit\n\n"}
{"page": 1241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nAS A LABORATORY\n\n1225\n\nthat a course in stenography and commercial law and practices offers great possibilities\nin mind growth and mental discipline. They are alive to the fact that the sciences are\nof great educational value, developing keen observation, methodical thinking, and a\ndeep insight into the world of nature in which one is to live. They tell us that thru the\nmotor activities of the child he receives his most intense mental impressions.\nThe vocational activities are assuming their rightful place in the public schools.\nThe criticism is often made that our school work is lifeless; that it is passive, and\nthat our pupils drag thru school, developing a habit of idleness and indisposition. In\ntoo many places this is true, but the trouble is not so much with the subject-matter as\nwith the individuality of the teacher, or with the general organization of the school.\nIt is absolutely essential that our schools be organized in a way that will promote freedom,\nindividuality, initiative, and industry. There must be less of restraint and of restrictive\ndiscipline. If the school is to prepare for life the child must begin in school the problem\nof living.\nIn utilizing the school plant as a laboratory for vocational training it is first essential\nthat we recognize the fact that the school is intended for the pupil and that the program\nmust be arranged accordingly. We must break away from the habit we have of setting\na standard to which all pupils must measure, or a definite course which all must follow.\nWe must have a flexible program. There must be more freedom in election. The boy\nwho has absolutely no taste for books must not be compelled to measure up to the same\nstandard with the bookworm. It would be just as reasonable for the boy of great physical\nactivity and industrial bent to set the standard for the boy of books. Less attention\nshould be given to classifying pupils, or at least a different basis of classifying should be\nused and more time given to the classifying of subject-matter and of teachers. The\nprogram should be so arranged that a pupil could give extra time to a subject in which\nhe wishes to specialize. The program should allow the pupil to discontinue any subject\nin which he is making no progress and in lieu of it spend his time where it would be of\nmore profit and interest to him.\nIf the school plant is to be a laboratory for school work we should see to it that no\none is employed on the school premises who is not clean enough in personal habits and\npossessed of enough intelligence to be a teacher in his or her line of work. I would use\nthese people as teachers. There is not a line of work around the school plant that cannot\nbe made the basis of most valuable occupation. We will consider the different lines of\nwork separately.\nFirst, in the purchase, care, and distribution of supplies for the school we have a\nmost valuable laboratory for arithmetic, English, and clerical practices, the use of which\nshould not be neglected. The person in charge should be a teacher. Purchasing supplies,\nthe consulting of catalogs, the comparing of prices, judging the quality of goods, taking\nbids from dealers, estimating costs, etc., give occupation the value of which cannot be\nquestioned. The correspondence involved and the billing-out of supplies to be distributed\nwould give excellent practice in writing and English. The actual practice in the storeroom of handling materials, keeping them in order and properly priced and tabulated\nwould give valuable experience to anyone wishing to take up mercantile clerical work.\nThe opportunity of pupil responsibility, so woefully lacking in our public schools, is here\ngiven a chance to be exercised. The item of dealing with real things and feeling the\nresponsibility of doing things right would add the very desirable element of seriousness\nto a child's work. A great deal of this work could be done by the grade pupils while\nthe more difficult bookkeeping should be done by the pupils of the commercial department. The item of expense for this line of work would be practically nothing as the suf>plies are cared for at an expense under any arrangement.\nThe school has no right to offer to the public a product from its commercial department which it could not use in its own plant. In the administration of the school we\nhave a most excellent laboratory for clerical and commercial work. The school corre-\n\n"}
{"page": 1242, "printed_page": null, "text": "1226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administiation\n\nspondence as a basis for practice in stenography; the bookkeeping, the filing of correspondence and documents, and the making of office reports should be up to the commercial\ndepartment. The ordinary office force should be at least assistant teachers. Here\nagain there is no added expense. And should it be expensive, the efficiency of the training\nwould justify the cost. It is the logical laboratory for penmanship, English, and commercial practices.\nIn the teaching of the sciences a laboratory is considered indispensable. School\nboards spend large sums of money to secure well-equipped laboratories, and the progressiveness of a school is often Judged by the character of the apparatus in use. The\noutfit is used to demonstrate a well-defined and theoretical course of study. Too often\nthe child is never allowed to leave this prescribed course of set experiments with the\nconventional apparatus to inquire into materials and conditions near at hand. I would\nsuggest that often the school plant can be made to do service of great value to the pupil.\nAs an illustration. I will mention the testing of coal and building materials; the examination of milk and other food-stuffs used in the domestic-science department and in the\nschool cafe. The school lawn and the landscape gardening which every school should\nhave should be a laboratory for nature-study. The sanitation of the school is one with\nwhich the pupils should be more intimately acquainted. As a rvde it receives no attention\nwhatever on the part of the pupil. In this connection I would like to suggest that the\ncare of the building offers a line of laboratory work which could be used to most excellent\nadvantage. The standard of janitor work should be far above what we generally find\nin the average school. The man at the head shoiild be an expert in sanitation. He\nshould be a high-priced man. His personal habits should be above reproach, and he should\nbe a patient and conscientious teacher. Pupils should work with him and he should\nteach them the modem heating systems and heat regulation. He should teach them the\nelements of sanitation and ventilation. Pupils should be given a room to keep dean\nand in a sanitary condition, and when an established standard had been attained, should\nbe paid for work accompUshed. A schedule of pay could easily be estabhshed, and definite\nwork allotted to each pupil, with hours and conditions under which it is to be done. In\nmany cases the pupils of a room under the leadership of the teacher will care for the room\nwith most excellent results.\nIt is perhaps in the industrial work of the school that we have the greatest opportimity\nof using the school plant as a laboratory. A man employed as cabinet-maker will have\na large variety of work to do which will give the best possible apprenticeship employment.\nBookcases, cabinets, tables, desks, benches, etc., with other work that presents itself\ngive the pupil quite an extended experience, and make the course thoroly practical.\nI w6uld not advocate that all cabinet work for the school be given over to this special\nclass, but would have the regular manual classes work out anything that would be within\nthe ability of the average pupil, and where it could be made a class problem.\nAll cabinet work requires additional work in the way of staining and finishing.\nThis involves the employment of a painter and wood-finisher. In addition to the finish\nof the cabinet work there will be buildings to paint, both inside and out. There is always\nvarnishing to do, the interior finish of buildings and the desks and furniture to be refinished,\nand odd jobs inntunerable in which a large nimiber of our boys are always ready to help.\nThis gives a most excellent opp>ortunity for trade training.\nThe engineer of the heating plant should be a man of patience with boys and with\nhim at all times could be a number of boys studying practical firing, engineering, and\nventilation. It is to be regretted that none of our pupils and so few of our teachers\nknow anj'thing of modem and practical methods of ventilation in use in their own schoolroom. Iam inclined to think that it would be wise to have a pupil from each room to\nact as assistant to the engineer and ventilation man. In this connection it might be\nwell for us to consider the fact that in every class of boys there are those whom we should\nmost benefit if we should teach them to do well such work as firing; work which is\n\n"}
{"page": 1243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeat]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nAS A LABORATORY\n\n1227\n\nnot so exacting in skill as in conscientious effort and faithfulness. We have done a great\ndeal for the industrial cause as well as for the boy when we train him to realize that\nwhatever the nature of his work, he is filling his position with honor if he is doing his work\nwell and conscientiously.\nIn our more modem schools there is need of an electrician to care for the many\nmotors, lights, bells, clocks, etc., in use. There is no reason why a man working in this\ncapacity should not have a number of boys working with him and in addition have regularly organized classes in armature winding, motor construction, etc. The equipment\nfor this line of work is practically nothing added to the regular school equipment and is\npractical and fascinating for a large class of boys.\nA carpenter is generally employed by most schools for the greater part of the year.\nHe should be employed full time. Pupils wishing to learn the carpenter's trade should\nbe allowed to work with him. Where circumstances demand it, the work of a carpenter\nand cabinet-maker can be combined in one man.\nPrinting, the art preservative, is a line of work especially attractive to school people\nand offers a most excellent line of work for both boys and girls. A great many schools\nconsider a printing plant an important part of their school equipment, and when once\nit is established they could not easily do without it. In almost any school there is\nsufl&cient work to keep a printer employed the year around. In all schools there is a\nlarge amount of printing needed which cannot be had on account of the cost. A printing\nplant should be maintained with the best possible man to be had as instructor. Interested\nboys and girls should be allowed to serve an apprenticeship with him. It is interesting\nto note that when we make our school a real, live community in which the children really\nbegin the problem of living and dealing with real things and conditions, one line of work\nsuggests another related occupation that can easily be carried out. A printing plant\nsoon creates a demand for a bookbinding outfit and a bookbinder is a man who could\nbe kept busy to good advantage in almost any school. Notebooks to be made, the\nprinter's work to be bound, schoolbooks to be repaired and rebound give valuable experience in bookbinding. It does not seem to me to be an overambitious thought for a\nschool to print and bind many of its own textbooks.\nA printing plant also creates a demand for cuts, such as halftones and zinc etchings.\nThis opens up the way for photography and photo-engraving. Both are very valuable\nlines of work and could be easily cared for in a live school.\nIn the case of foundry work and machine practice the situation is not the same as\nwith the printing, cabinet work, etc. But there is no reason why a large amount of\nreal, practical work for the school plant cannot be done. In the schools of large cities\nand growing towns there is always need for new equipment requiring the product of the\nfoundry and machine shop as well as the forge. In such cases it would be well to have\nyour man employed for this work, separate from the regulation manual-training classes,\nand let boys desiring to take up the work as a means of learning a trade work with him.\nThere is such a demand for instruction in farming even among our city pupils that\nit would be well to offer instruction in this line wherever possible. Where it is necessary\nto employ a man to care for the school grounds, it would be well to employ a competent\nman and with a very little extra expense valuable laboratory work could be offered in\nelementary agriculture and horticulture. The nature work which we are struggling to\nmake effective would count for so much more.\nTo complete the vocational laboratory of the school there should be employed a\ndraftsman, whose business it would be to furnish the plans and specifications for the\ndifferent lines of industrial work. This would offer for a certain class of boys the most\npractical line of drafting they could be given. The position could be well maintained\nin most schools as the service of a draftsman is a considerable item of yearly expense.\nI advocate these lines of work because of their intense and practical value; because\nthey are real and incur pupil responsibility. I would not confine the work entirely to\n\n"}
{"page": 1244, "printed_page": null, "text": "1228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nschool work, but would have a reasonable amount of theoretical instruction and preliminary work. As an illustration, I would have the carpenter and his help construct\na section of a house, or what would be better, a complete one. With it the demonstrations of the painter, plumber, electrician, tinner, etc., could be carried out. With the\nschool where economy is a prime virtue this plan is especially attractive. Nearly all\nlines of work can be had at practically no expense. I am not talking all theory in this\npaper. Several lines of the work have been tried out to our entire satisfaction in the\nGary schools. We are so well pleased that we will offer practically every line of work\nmentioned in this paper. Our printing and cabinet departments have been better than\nself-supporting. Our painting department could have been so but over half of the\npainters' time was given to regular class work in lettering and sign-painting, work which\nproduced no value for the school plant, but was very valuable and with which we are\nperfectly satisfied. In the printing department thirty-five boys and girls received valuable\ntraining in the trade. Several boys profited greatly thru our cabinet shop. The training\nwas such that we are pleased to employ two of them during their svmimer vacation at\ngood pay. One boy who had training on our school farm is taking care of the school\nhorse and delivery work for the summer and is making good. Quite a number of boys\nhave had a valuable year's exp>erience with our painter, and are ahead in their apprenticeship ifthey decide to follow the work as a trade. And what is just as important, a number\nhave found that it is not the calling in which they would be apt to make a success. A\nlarge class of boys and girls have been receiving very valuable training in our commercial\ndepartment and a number have been well located. Others, by having been kept in\nschool a little longer, have become ambitious for a higher education and will continue\ntheir school work.\nIt was my intention to present some statistics showing the amount of money spent\nfor different lines of industrial work, that might be used for industrial training of our\nboys and girls, but my paper already exceeds the regtdation. As a closing statement\nlet me urge that we should seize every opportimity to make our school work the practical\ntraining for vocational eflSciency which the masses are demanding.\n\nRAYMOND\n\nRIORDAN,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nINTERLAKEN\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nROLLING\n\nPRAIRIE,\n\nIND.\n\nThe industrial training of children should have but one big thought in the foreground\n— character development. That skilled labor might result from industrial training, that\nindustrial training might lead to later vocational training, is to be conceded. Goodness\nis not character, virtue is not character — only usefulness is character. And men are rare\nwho can be useful to a commimity and do not know how to use their hands. Industrial\neducation has been the cure meted out for the deformed, the imdesirable, the deficient.\nIndustrial education should be the preventive. The cure is doubtful; the preventive\nis siu-e.\nThe son of the workingman has to work and soon becomes a drudge; the son of the\nman of means gets no chance to work and thus becomes a parasite. Both are, undoubtedly,\nthe result of our public-school system. The United States is criminally negligent in caring\nfor her wards — the children — -when it comes to education. And thru education, but\nbeginning with the babe, is the only chance for the regeneration of a race already showing\nmoral decadence.\nWe are not taught responsibility. Parents do not understand responsibility. They\ntry very hard — many of them — to do aU possible for the child, after the child is bom.\nThe time to do for the child is during the youth of the parents. And there is no way the\nyouth of the land can be made to understand this, save thru the pubhc schools, save\nthru industry — unselfish occupation during the adolescent period. Sex-preachment^\n\n"}
{"page": 1245, "printed_page": null, "text": "0\nDepartment]\n\nADMINISTRATIOI^\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nAS A LABORATORY\n\n1229\n\nnever prevented anything. Self-protection is not possible thru being told h(5w; selfprotection comes from knowing how. The only way to learn is thru doing. Mastery of\nself, muscular control, mental morality thru centering of thought on helpfulness to others,\nthese attributes are possible only thru constant and unselfish occupation during the\nformative years. This country does not possess a conscious citizenship. Create\nstandards of usefulness and responsibility thru our schools and political jackpots and\npolitical jackasses will the sooner cease to exploit the country.\nAny nation truly great has become so thru industry. To the fact that the great mass\nof German people toil with their hands is due, without doubt, their pre-eminent position\namong civilized nations today. From the soil emanates life, and recognition of life is\nrecognition of justice. Justice decrees that each shall labor in order that his neighbor's\nneck may not ever be under the yoke.\nThis age has kept us so very busy perfecting and marketing horse-power, that manpower has been greatly neglected. In consequence, the man who might be willing to\nwork doesn't know how; and the man who happens to know how rates his earning power\nwith the developed mechanical force, and, his demands being met, has met a resultant\ndecrease in accomplishment at an increased cost. The increase of foreigners, who do the\nso-called drudgery, has taken from the ha«ds of the male population of this country the\nsource of their forefathers' strength — the strength on which was founded the nation.\nGreat nations have been and are the physically industrious ones. Nations whose light\nhas been kindled by their wits soon find the flames flickering, if they do not go out\naltogether. The Romans, 'tis true, and the Spartans were most physically fit, but belligerency gets but so far, then like a whipped dog must slink backward and bow its head\nto justice. The nation that lives by its wits — the nation that climbs thru its armies'\nactivities — is doomed.\n\"Of law, there can be no less acknowledged than that her voice is the harmony of the\nworld.\" Law should mean peace. But war, rapine, murder, inhumanity — -all have\nbecome legalized thru brains. Poor Justice would well be blind that she might not see\nthe shame of law. Moral law needs no policemen, no jail, no courts — moral law bespeaks\nmanhood, helpfulness, Christianity. And the makers of the code of moral laws must be\nthe children.\nEducation is a matter for constant change — education is progress. Education must\nmeet conditions that are at hand, yet act as a preventive for the recurrence of such conditions. Education should mean happiness and there can be no happiness without successful performance of a task. Law is a result largely of custom, of precedent, and must be.\nTherefore, new custom, new precedent must begin with the child.\nThe education of children should have as another big aim civic improvement. Good\ncitizenship should not consist in merely obeying the law. The civil law is but an illadvised way for creating and sustaining government. No good government can exist\nunless sustained by moral law and it should be the function of education to insure moral\ntraining to the young of the state. There is not a government in existence today where\nthe people rule, and a nation cannot be truly great unless the people do rule. Were the\npeople to rule today, however, not in this country alone but elsewhere, there would be\nanarchy because education has not prepared the children for civic improvement, for civic\nunderstanding. Education should mean self-reliance, fortitude, daring, self-control,\nendurance, self-sacrifice. Education is too much a matter of quantity — a peck of mathematics, a pound of history, a ton of English, a gallon of geography. Education should\nnot begin at seven and end at eighteen, or twenty, or thirty — education is for always.\nAnd that the two aims given — ^character development and a conscious citizenship — are\nmade possible is the duty of the administration department thru industrial training.\nThe principal with understanding, having no intermediary but the superintendent,\nfreed from special supervisors — the ruination of independence in teaching and honesty of\nthought and expression — allowed absolute sway in his building and in the community\n\n"}
{"page": 1246, "printed_page": null, "text": "I230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nneighborihg his building, given authority to select his own teachers and plan the curriculum\nfor the individuals coming under his care — such a one could make a public school do what\nit should for the children of^the people.\nNew ideas in education get a foothold thru the influence of the person fostering such\nideas much more often than thru the logic of the thought itself. We are soon almost sure\nto be flooded with the Montessori method: a method, doubtless, having much of intrinsic\nmerit, but it shows but little that would insure that the next generation be a stolid, honest,\nindustrious, and unselfish one. Indeed, precocity would run rampant and solidarity\nwould be rare. The training of the brain at the wrong period in child life has accentuated\nshrewdness and removed appreciation of the value of work.\nThere are few such principals, if any; there has been no precedent governing the\ntraining of teachers along these lines. Therefore, to reach the desired aim the beginning\nfor such work must be made thru a system stamped with federal and state approval, if\nnot coming directly under their jurisdiction. The success of such teaching would be\nassured when the public schools were made self-supporting or partly so.\nI personally am positive that any school in any locality could, thru self -maintenance,\ncreate a new citizenship. I personally am positive that private schools maintained\nby the government — federal or state — could b«come self-supporting institutions and not\nonly develop a conscious citizenship, a clean coming generation, an economic race, but\nwould also train boys and girls to specifically develop the resources of their states, and\neach state is strengthened thru local flavor. At the present time, we seem to seek new\nlands to conquer when all is yet to be done at home.\nWith the above thought in view, and having already submitted to Congress, knowing,\nof course, no action will ever be taken, a plan for a national school embodying the ideas\nnecessary for the formulating of a new plan of public instruction, it seems in order to read\nthis plan for your consideration. In addition it is suggested that another fund supposedly\navailable — the George Washington bequest for a national school — ^might be kept in mind\nas well as the Lincoln memorial appropriation on which the proposed school is based.\nAnd even if the Lincoln fund could not be used, surely some action ought to be taken to\nprevent the George Washington bequest from being brought to light for the further\nexploitation of experimental work. There are quite enough institutions for research that\npeople might be cured — generally, it is supposed you must first be sick in order to need\ncuring and if your sickness is not the ordinary, so your pocketbook must be if research\ndiscoveries are to serve your case — and animals disappear the faster. And so with\nresearch institutions operating along academic liaes. Higher education has proven itself\ninadequate in supplying the nation with a race of men. Its product is largely useless and\nis looked on askance by the business man today. And like this product so will be its\nprogeny. It is now time that the child receive attention, in order that the coming race\npractice the virtues of industry, economy, helpfulness, and elimination of self.\n\nTOPIC\n\nB:\n\nWHAT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFACILITIES\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE\n\nPROVIDED\n\nFOR\n\nINSTRUCTION BY MEANS OF MOTION-PICTURE MACHINES, STEREOPTICON LANTERNS,\nPHONOGRAPHS,\nPLAYER-PIANOS,\nETC.?\n\nW.\n\nH.\n\nIVES,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nTHOMAS\n\nA.\n\nEDISON,\n\nINC., ORANGE,\n\nN.J.\n\nThe school work of every generation has developed apparatus or equipment of some\nsort considered more or less essential to the successful carrying-on of the work. In the\nearlier days this apparatus was exceedingly simple or even crude in form. Nevertheless\nit was important. Modern methods have produced a wealth of school equipment of a\nmore complicated and also of a more essential character. During the last few years some\n\n"}
{"page": 1247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFACILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n1 231\n\nunusually important steps have been taken toward the development of apparatus destined\nto play a very important part in education, and it is our purpose at this time to consider\nin a general way the possibilities and advantages of some of these new additions to school\nequipment.\nThe phonograph has already won recognition as a valuable addition to the equipment\nof the schoolroom. The diversified ways in which it can be utilized to advantage are only\nbeginning to be appreciated, hence the future of the phonograph as a necessary piece of\nschool equipment seems assured. It is quite natural that at present we should identify\nthe phonograph with the work in music, and its aid in this department is certainly of a\ncharacter to entitle it to the widest use and popularity on this basis alone. As I understand that this phase of phonograph work will receive the attention of another speaker, it\nrequires no further mention here. We must not forget, however, in our admiration and\nappreciation of the phonograph as an aid in all that is connected with school music, that\nit is also a speech-reproducing instrument; that it is still the \"talking machine.\"\nThe phonograph is capable of saving a vast amovmt of tiresome work and vocal effort\non the part of the teacher. A well-adjusted machine can give out dictation exercises in\narithmetic, spelling, and other subjects in a clear, distinct way, more advantageously than\nthe teacher can do the same work. Models of the best examples in reading and elocution\ncan also be presented and in many other ways the phonograph can be used as a practical\nadjunct to school work. Outside and beyond the field of school music and the realm of\ncultured entertainment we are beginning to realize the practical pedagogical value of the\nphonograph as a piece of school apparatus, and ic is believed that these possibilities will be\ndeveloped rapidly during the next few years and that the phonograph will find a permanent and most useful place among the pieces of apparatus or equipment considered absolutely necessary in every schoolroom.\nThe motion picture has already entered the educational field to remain and to develop\ninto one of the most important aids that superintendents and teachers have ever enlisted\nin their work. It is of course unnecessary to enter upon a discussion of the pedagogical\nvalue of the motion picture, if we can assume practical apparatus, proper films, and all the\nother accessories necessary to the safe and skillful projecting of motion pictures upon the\nscreen. Americans are frequently referred to as \"eye-minded people\" and to a large\nextent this is true. Certainly no one will deny that visualization is an important factor\nin most educative processes. The presence of a blackboard in every schoolroom suggests\nthe general acceptance which this idea has won in the past and also suggests the great\npossibilities which the future holds along the lines of visualization work, carried on under\nsoimd educational principles and arranged to supplement and aid almost every department\nof school activity.\nWhile the motion picture is not in any sense a novelty at the present time, its use has\nbeen largely monopolized by the motion-picture theater, for reasons which are quite\nobvious. The use of the standard projector, throwing large pictures upon the screen,\nnecessitates an equipment which is somewhat expensive and complicated. I refer to\ncurrent installation, the fireproof booth, the licensed operator, the delicate film, and the\nhandling of a piece of machinery needing the nicest adjustment of all its parts in order to\ndo safe and successful work. Until recently no film supply of a strictly educational\ncharacter has been available. However, the standard projector has frequently been used\nto excellent advantage in assembly rooms, playgrounds, and other places where large\nnumbers of children are brought together, and has served as an important means of\ninstruction in many instances.\nNow for the first time a small projector is available, and this small machine eliminates\nmany of the difficulties and objections which have in the past been connected with the use\nof the standard machine. This small machine, doubtless the forerunner of many such,\ncan be operated from an electric light socket and requires no special installation of current.\nIt can be operated by either direct or alternating current, and is practical wherever\n\n"}
{"page": 1248, "printed_page": null, "text": "1232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nelectric current is available. It can also be operated by acetylene where no electric\ncurrent is obtainable. The great difficulty connected with the manufacture of a small\nprojector is, however, related to film more than to any other feature. This little machine\ndoes not use the standard film. The film employed will bum about one-half as fast as the\nsame quantity of paper and since the pictures on the film are microscopic in size, eighty\nfeet of this small film contain as many pictures as one thousand feet of the film ordinarily\nused. This small film has three rows of pictures. The two outside rows run in the same\ndirection, and the inner one runs in the opposite direction. There are over two hundred\npictures per foot of film, each picture being less than three-sixteenths of an inch high and\none-fourth of an inch wide. When we consider that a six-foot picture can be thrown upon\nthe screen from this small film we realize how highly the little photographs are magnified\nin projection. The successful printing of these tiny pictures on a motion-picture film is a\nnotable accomplishment, since in projection they must be enlarged to 350 diameters or\nabout 120,000 times the area of the picture on the films. This small kinetoscope is also a\nstereopticon and slides of special size can be projected with entire success, making a\npicture which is clear cut and well illuminated. The operation of the little kinetoscope\nis so simple that anyone can undertake it. As far as the machine is concerned, a licensed\noperator is not necessary.\nThis machine seems to be an ideal one for use in a schoolroom of the average size\nand there is no reason why superintendents and teachers wishing to make use of motion\npictures in connection with their courses should not do so. Naturally the production of a\nsufficient quantity of film to cover many courses will require considerable time. The\nproduction of a series of motion-picture films does not differ in any important way from\nthe production of a textbook. The processes are similar in many ways, and cannot be\nunduly hastened, but many films are already available and many others will be produced\nas rapidly as possible.\nIt only remains to suggest some of the most important applications of motionpicture work to school work.\nOne of the first to occur to any practical teacher is the subject of geography. Here\nthe motion picture is able to render the greatest assistance. It can show not only the\nphysical characteristics of the various parts of the world but also the activities of the\npeople, and undoubtedly its use opens a field in this subject so broad and comprehensive\nthat we cannot as yet see its limits. The lantern slide has done valiant service in this\ndepartment for many years, but the motion picture represents a great step in advance since\nit adds Ufe and activity to the scenes which it pictures. The pupil can, for example,\nactually see Niagara Falls just as the observer who stands on the bank sees them, and\nsince the ordinary camera is more accurate than the most skillful painter, so the motionpicture film is more accurate than the most artistic photograph which leaves motion or\naction to the imagination. The child who can actually see the water rushing over\nNiagara Falls can also see the gondolas moving thru the canals of Venice, the street cars\nand busses in London and New York, or the pageantry and pomp of the Durbar. The\nchild in the Northwest can see the great steamships leaving their piers in New York and\nother seaports, can witness the activity surrounding the great railroad terminals in the\nEast; whereas the child in New York, who is familiar with these scenes, can in turn view\nthe waving wheat fields and the giant harvesters and threshing machines which are so\ncommon a sight to the children of rural Minnesota and Nebraska.\nThe motion picture is able to do much in history in the direction of adding interest\nand reality to the study of great historical events. Many important incidents in history\ncan be faithfully reproduced before the camera, and while there are limits to which this\nkind of work can be carried, the field is sufficiently broad to attract attention and to\ndeserve careful consideration.\nThere is practically no limit to what can be done in nature-study. Everything\nwhich can be seen under the microscope can be thrown upon the screen, and the child is\n\n"}
{"page": 1249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFACILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n1233\n\nthus enabled to see as much as the eminent biologist, botanist, or chemist, even if he\ncannot imderstand the full meaning of all that he sees.\nA series of industrial films is already in preparation showing the processes in more\nthan two hundred of the great industries which affect and influence mankind. Here there\nis also a great opportunity to broaden and enrich the child's fund of knowledge, for no\nchild could hope to visit personally more than a few great industrial institutions, and the\ndoors of many great factories are closed to visitors. The camera-man, however, is a\npersistent person and goes everywhere.\nCivics offers another field for the motion picture which has very wide boundaries.\nThe operations of fire departments, police departments, street-cleaning departments, and\nother divisions of mimicipal organization are easily shown on the film. Many of the\nactivities of the national government such as the post-ofl&ce department, the mint, etc.,\ncan be easily represented.\nPhysiology and hygiene offer inviting possibilities. The motion picture is already\nused largely in medical coUeges, and in the field of school hygiene it would seem as if\nfifty or one' hundred films might accomplish what no amount of mere textbook work\ncould ever hope to do.\nIn the primary classes particularly we must not forget the entertainment feature.\nComposition stories and interesting events of all sorts can be thrown on the screen, thus\ngiving a substantial basis for the work in English and enlarging the experience of the child\nso that he will actually have something to write about when he attempts to write.\nIt will be impossible to enter in detail upon the discussion of high-school work, but\nhere it may be said that many of the masterpieces of literature which are studied in the\nordinary high-school courses have been dramatized and are acted by eminent artists for\nthe motion-picture camera. Physiography, botany, zoology, physiology, chemistry,\nhistory, and literature are some of the subjects in which this work will find its most useful\napplication. When the time shall come when educators give more attention to the\npossibilities of the motion picture, uses which are undreamed of at the present time will\ndoubtless be discovered, and many subjects where the utility of the motion picture is\nalready conceded will be worked out in so admirable a way as ta challenge the respect of\nthe educational world.\nThe entire idea is at present in its infancy, but as a means of adding interest to\nnearly all the subjects in the curriculum and of vitalizing instruction and abolishing\nformalism, the motion picture is clearly a factor to be reckoned with; and the bringing of\nthis possibility to the schoolroom means a great deal more for future methods of education\nthan most of us realize. It is a trite saying that \" seeing is believing,\" and since we instinctively trust the evidence which the eye presents to the mind, we must utilize this confidence\nin an educational way to the greatest possible extent.\nWhile great advances have been made in the perfecting of motion-picture machinery\nand in all the processes connected with projection, it is fair to assume that all these\nprocesses and all this machinery will be greatly improved as time goes on, and that the\neducational world will be the gainer by every improvement which is made. We live in a\ntime when direct methods and the elimination of waste effort in every department of\nhuman activity are studied and developed until we have practically a new body of science\nbuilt up around this principle. The motion picture probably offers the greatest opportunity which educators have ever had to eliminate waste effort and to reach by easier and\nmore agreeable paths the same results which are now attained with difficulty. Past years\nhave witnessed the crowding of the school curriculum by the introduction of new subjects.\nMany outsiders are still knocking at the door for admission. The shortening of the present courses by the use of modern apparatus seems to offer one solution of this problem,\nsince the time which can be saved in many of the studies as they are now carried on can\nbe devoted to additional work in some of the subjects now included in the course of study\nor can be awarded to some one of the new claimants entitled to a place in the modern and\npractical school.\n\n"}
{"page": 1250, "printed_page": null, "text": "1234\n\nFRANCES\n\nE.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCLARK,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSCHOOL\nMACHINE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nCO., CAMDEN,\n\nDEPARTMENT,\nN.J.\n\nVICTOR\n\nlAdmmistration\n\nTALKING\n\nIt may seem strange to some to come to a serious discussion of the talking machine\nas a regular part of the equipment of the modem school. To a thoughtful observer the\nreason is not far to seek. Our schools are the most precious possession of the commonwealth, and the education of the young for citizenship the most important function of\nthe state.\nAs the years have come and gone since our schools were first founded, many changes\nhave taken place in our school plans — ^methods of procedure and viewpoints. In the\nbeginning the classics were supreme — following the universities of England. The courses\nwere later enriched by many additions and modifications.\nIn the past ten or twelve years there have come more radical changes in the school\nplan than have taken place in the entire two hundred preceding years. Almost all at\nonce there came a realization that the schools were not fitting the pupils to go out into\nthe work-a-day world and earn a living under the changed conditions of life, resulting\nfrom the inventing and manufacturing of labor-saving devices, requiring a new order\nof labor, more skilled and intelligent.\nGermany's industrial policy, with the inevitable supremacy in trade, was an added\nimpetus — and so there came about almost a revolution of our whole school idea and the\nintroduction of training for a vocation, of manual training, industrial education, domestic\nscience, trade schools, commercial art schools, cooking schools, manual arts, etc., and a\ncomplete remodeling of the fundamental idea, to conform to the new conditions of labor\nand the growth of a more socialistic view of life and its needs.\nFor the same reason, there followed soon after, an increased interest in the unfortunate children who, from various causes, have been launched on the world handicapped in\nthe race by some physical or mental defect, in many cases to become later public charges.\nThis occasioned an upcropping of special schools, to give to each of these abnormal,\nsubnormal, or defective little ones the best possible education that that particular child\ncould assimilate, and, if possible, to teach him to do some useful and self-supporting\nwork; and so we have founded public schools for the deaf and dumb, the blind, the\ncrippled, the defective, the unevenly developed child, the criminal, the anaemic, and the\ntubercular.\nThe lunch kitchens have been opened to feed and nourish the starved child, to enable\nhim to study better, and playgrounds everywhere for the children stunted in growth\nand development by lack of proper facilities and places to play; \"little mothers\" classes\nto teach the girls to help their mothers to care for the babies at home, to check the awful\nravages of infant mortality.\nAll these innovations are steps in the right direction, and make for a better and\nbroader citizenship, a saner and more highly organized civilization.\nThe whole manual-training idea is of incalculable value to the nation. It dignifies\nlabor, lifts the embryo laborer from the ranks of serfdom into the realm of the skilled, selfreliant, self-respecting artisan.\nThe danger of this revolution in our schools, like most revolutions, lies in the almost\nfanatic and excessive zeal of the leaders, in the aggrandizement of one idea to the exclusion\nof all others.\nThe new order of things has come upon us with such suddenness that it has been\nfound difficult to adjust things without giving undue attention to the new, to the exclusion\nof the old.\nIn many places, and in general, this has happened. The so-called \" bread-and-butter \"\neducation has been allowed to usurp too much of the time and attention of the pupils, to\nthe neglect of those studies that go to develop a full-rounded preparation for life itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 1251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFACILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n1235\n\nNecessary as is the ability to earn a dollar, the awakened understanding, the keen\nintellect, the vivid imagination, the quickened emotions that enable the wage-earner to\nplan his work skillfully, to enjoy it, to see the beauties in nature all about him as he works,\nto lighten his toil by elevating thoughts of the beauties of books, pictures, music — to\nhave a mind trained to keen enjoyment of life at its best, to have a heart to serve and\nlove well the friends that God has given, to appreciate good in all, to love the good and\nfollow after it— these are still greater. We dare not omit such training from our daily\nplan.\nEducation should give to every child, no matter what his station, those things that fit\nhim to take his place in the community, that help him to live a fuller and more beautiful\nlife. The cultural studies in literature, art, and music contribute to this end in arousing\nthe imagination, the emotions, the love of the beautiful.\nThe talking machine has entered the educational field with the purpose of furnishing\na way to bring to the hearing of the children and youth a great wealth of educational\nmatter not otherwise available.\nIt is a well-known fact that the sense of hearing is the first power of the mind to be\ndeveloped. A child hears almost from birth and in early infancy and in early childhood\nthe ear is the ever-open gate to the brain. \"Little pitchers have big ears\" has in it more\nof truth than proverb. Long before the eye-power has developed suflSciently to permit\nof the child gathering knowledge of words from printed characters, he has acquired a\nworking vocabulary of at least five hundred words, and in some cases many more. While\nthe organs of speech have gained strength and skill enough to reproduce five hundred or\nmore words, he has heard, more or less consciously, hundreds more. Teachers of reading\nhave long since profited by this condition and have learned to build upon the foundation\nof spoken language learned at home, and to further pursue this plan of presenting all new\nwords, signs, and combinations first thru the ear. So acute is the ear and so ready the\nresponse to the sound-waves, that parents desiring to have their children acquire two or\nmore languages at once simply employ a nurse or governess speaking those languages.\nThe study of music has been very much retarded in this country and never used\nfor anything like its full value educationally, because of the impossibility of having the\nchildren hear really good music. The music known and studied has necessarily been\nbounded by the horizon of the pupil's own ability to produce.\nWith the restricted possibilities of weak vocal chords, the limitations of the child\nmind to grasp the grammar of the language, the field of endeavor has been pitifully small.\nWhen we speak of our child studying music, we have meant that our child's eyes\nhave sufficiently developed to begin reading notes from a printed staff, and that his\nmuscles have come sufficiently under control to be able to pick out five-finger exercises on\nthe piano. Now this is all wrong and at variance with our methods of teaching languages.\nA child should hear music, good music, the best music, almost from birth — hear it over and\nover again and again, but always the beautiful, the right sort of music, all the years of his\nchildhood. Then, when he comes to the place in the school course where he must begin to study printed symbols, he brings to it his accumulated knowledge of years of\nprevious hearing of the music itself.\nThe talking machine touches this vital spot in educational work. It makes possible\nto do what has never before been attainable, viz., the hearing of the real music before\nthe study of its form and content and during all the years of school work in music it\nillustrates in concrete form every fact and theory given in the lessons.\nThere is no other one study in our whole school course of study that so reaches\nand stirs the emotional and aesthetic nature of the child as does music — no other that so\narouses the imaginative faculties. A writer has said that music is the fourth great elemental need of man; first, food; second, clothing; third, shelter; fourth, music. It is\nquite certain that there is no other one thing so universally used, so universally loved —\nit is truly the one common language of all nations, races, and civilizations.\n\n"}
{"page": 1252, "printed_page": null, "text": "1236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[AdministraUon\n\nIt is just as important and just as interesting to learn the history of music, as it has\ngrown up since the beginning of the race, as to know any other phase of history. It is\njust as much a part of a well-rounded education to know the literature of music as to\nknow any other literature, as of art, or of various languages, countries, and peoples.\nAs a matter of common intelligence, one should know the great music of the world, its\nmasters and creators, its schools and periods of growth, its national characteristics, as\nwell as the great poetry, prose, and drama of the world.\nWe are often stigmatized as being an unmusical people, as having no taste in music,\nnot knowing or appreciating the difference between good and bad music. This has, alas,\nbeen partially true in years past, owing to the exigencies of empire-building and remoteness\nfrom the older and established nations. Our forefathers gave themselves almost wholly\nto developing a new country, a great new world, cutting down trees, breaking prairies,\nbuilding railroads, canals, and cities, giving scant attention to the finer elements of human\nneed.\nMost of the people of later generations have grown up without coming in contact with\nthe real music of the world, without any real knowledge of it. What more natural than\nthat out of these conditions, out of these new towns and cities growing up in the wild and\nwaste places, remote from the older settlements, with the innate love of music strong and\nelemental, there should have sprung up a sort of wild, rugged t3rpe of music, gypsy-like,\nfree, expressing the rush and bustle and swing of a new national life ?\nNow, the children should be led to an appreciation of the real and vital music, in an\neffort to raise the standards of taste among our people, to help the next generation to\novercome the crudities and depravities of the last. To do this in any national sense,\nsome means must reach into every comer of our country, every city, village, and country\nschool, take to every boy and girl, high or low, rich or poor, the real music of the world,\nso that all may grow up from childhood with the refining and discriminating influence\nand knowledge of good music.\nThe talkmg machine is the only medium that can perform this service. It is simple,\ninexpensive, practical, portable, easily operated, and may go into every sort of place where\nchildren work and play and study, furnishing the practical help of accompanying the\ngames, calisthenics, marching, folk dancing, social and recreation center dancing, etc.\nTalking machines were practically used in only a few schools two years ago. Today, they\nare in daily use in more than four hundred cities, in many of them in every school.\nThere are now made special records for marching, for calisthenics, for folk dancing,\nfor the rote singing for primary grades, for intermediate grades, grammar- and high-school\nwork, records for correlation with the studies in literature, the Burns and Shakespearian\nsongs, the songs of all the different nations; there are songs of the older composers to\ncorrelate with studies in general history in those epochs. We are issuing a course for\nhigh schools, complete and thoro, in music history and appreciation.\nThe talking machine came into existence to amuse — it remains to educate. What\nwas once a luxury has become a necessity — a curious toy has come to be a practical and\nindispensable instrument in modem education.\nEvery school should have its talking machine just as it has maps, globes, supplementary readers, etc. It is comparatively new, but necessary, just as are sanitary\ndrinking-fountains, sanitary towels, and the equipments for manual training and domestic\nscience.\nThe field of the talking machine is not limited to the teaching of music alone nor yet to\nthe obvious service of furnishing accompaniment to the physical culture and folk or interpretative dancing. The whole realm of vocal expression is wide open and is being rapidly\nfilled by records of readings for every grade, stories for the kindergarten and home circle,\nmodels in diction, inflection, and all the shades of expression of the cultured human voice.\nIt is not too much to dream of a time in the near future when the talking machine and\nthe moving-picture machine may unite to give a realistic production of opera or of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenil\n\nVICTOR\n\nAND\n\nPLAYER-PIANOS\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n1237\n\ndrama. Selections from the plays of Shakespeare now give valuable suggestions to highschool students for amateur production and we have only just begun. The possibilities\nare boundless, and no modem school can afford to be without its talking machine, any more\nthan its library, its workshop, its kitchen, or its laboratory. The talking machine has\ncome into the educational world to fill a real need and will, therefore, stay as an indispensable adjunct to the equipment of every school.\n\nC.\n\nUSES OF THE VICTOR AND PLA YER-PIANOS\nSOCIAL CENTERS\nAGNES\n\nBENSON,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nMUSIC,\n\nPXJBLIC\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nAND\nILL.\n\n1. For marching the children in and out of the school buildings at recess and dismissals.\n2. As an accompaniment of folk dances and gymnastics in corridors and gymnasiums.\n— Departmental teacher, with children as assistants.\n3. For rest and recreation. — In the intermediate grade the hearing of \"The Anvil\nChorus,\" the dancing of the \"Shoemaker,\" the \"Danish Ring Song,\" or imitating the\nsong \"The Little Drop of Dew.\"\n4. The teaching of a song in the classroom. — (i) For primary grades in Mother\nGoose melodies. (2) For grammar grades in connection with the use of the \"Laurel\" for\nbetter interpretation: the hearing of Witherspoon in \"The Lost Chord,\" Evan Williams\nin \"All thru the Night,\" or the Victor Opera Company in \"The Anvil Chorus.\"\n5. In the development of musical taste and appreciation. — Methods: In a special\nroom as at the Sumner; from room to room, where it is used by the individual class\nteacher; in the hall, either in optional programs before school as at the Tilton ; or in obligatory classes during school sessions, (o) We use the Victor, {b) Careful selection of\nrecords, which should be left to the music department.\nSummary: The talking machine i« a live factor in modern education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1254, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1255, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Edwin White Gaillako, New York Public Library\nVice-President — W. L. BaowN, librarian, Buffalo Public Library\nSecretary — Makia A. Newberry, Public School Library\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nBuffalo, N.Y.\nYpsilanti, Mich.\n\nForenoon, July 8, 191 2\n\nThe meeting of the Library Department was called to order in the Directors' Room\nof the Chicago Public Library by the president, E. W. Gaillard, New York Public Library,\nNew York, N.Y.\nAfter a few words of welcome, Henry E. Legler, librarian. Public Library, Chicago,\nni., read a paper on \"Educational By-Products in Library Work.\"\nJulia A. Hopkins, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y., then gave \"The Plans and Scope\nof the New Normal Course in Library Training, Pratt Institute School of Library\nScience.\"\n\"The Book That Teacher Says Is Good\" was the subject of a paper given by Mary\nEly, head of children's and school department. Public Library, Dayton, Ohio.\nThe committee appointed in San Francisco to consider the best course possible for\nthe improvement of conditions in normal-school libraries submitted its report, \"A Syllabus\nof Library Instruction in Normal Schools.\"\nOn the motion of Henry E. Legler it was voted that the National Education Association be asked to print this report in full.\nThe secretary submitted the following report, which was accepted and placed on file:\nI herewith submit the list of members of the National Education Association who\nmay be considered potentially as members of the Library Department. I desire to call\nattention to the fact that it consists of two sets of members: (i) active personal members;\n(2) institutional members.\nNumerically considered, it is composed of forty active personal members and four\nhundred and forty institutional; total: four hundred and eighty members. Eleven\nof these active personal members are connected with institutions which are also institutional members. Six ire with state libraries or state educational departments,\nten are college librarians, four are high-school librarians, six are connected with public\nlibraries, and only one is a children's librarian.\nGeographically considered the four hundred and eighty members come from every\nstate in the Union, barring two, and from Canada, England, Japan, Wales, and New\nZealand. Massachusetts has the greatest number, three personal, forty-two institutional;\ntotal of forty-five members; with New York a close second, ten personal, thirty-two\ninstitutional; total, forty-two. Illinois, our hostess state, has four personal members,\ntwenty-five institutional; total twenty-nine.\nChronologically considered, David Camp, president of the New Britain Institute\nLibrary, is our senior member, having joined in 1879. Melvil Dewey, New York, 1892;\nFrancis Austin Kendall, Illinois, 1895; William Reed Eastman, New York, 1896; and\nFrank C. Patten, Texas, 1898, formed our total active continuous personal membership\nprior to 1900.\n\nSince our last meeting one active personal and three institutional members have\ndropped their membership. I desire to recommend that inquiries be sent to these former\nmembers to ascertain reasons for discontinuance.\n1239\nI would also sugg( st that every effort be made to extend our active personal membership and that a record of school librarians newly appointed and school libraries newly\n\n"}
{"page": 1256, "printed_page": null, "text": "I240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ninstituted be kept and invitations to join the National Education Association be\nextended.\nRespectfully submitted,\nM. A. Newberry, Secretary\nThe president appointed a Committee on Nominations as follows:\nHenry E. Legler, Public Library, Chicago, 111.\nMaria A.\" Newberry, Public School Library, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nA Committee on Resolutions was appointed by the chair as follows:\nFannie D. Ball, Central High School Library, Grand Rapids, Mich.\nF. M. Hopkins, Central High School Library, Detroit, Mich.\nMeeting adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July ii, 19 12\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president in Leon Mandel Assembly Hall,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nErnest De Witt Burton, director of libraries, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.,\nwelcomed the Library Department in the name of President H. P. Judson.\nThe first paper of this session was \"The Educated Librarian\" by Arthur E. Bostwick,\nPublic Library, St. Louis, Mo., which was discussed by Mrs. C. E. T. Dracass, Englewood\nHigh School, Chicago, 111., and the chair.\n\"The Use of the Library in Vocational Guidance\" was the subject of a paper by\nJesse B. Davis, principal of Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. This paper\nwas discussed by Mrs. P. P, Claxton, Washington, D. C, and A. E. Bostwick, St. Louis,\nMo.\nThe report of the committee appointed in San Francisco to investigate the condition\nof high-school libraries in the United States, and to suggest possibilities for increased\nefficiency, especially in connection with public libraries, was read by the chairman,\nMary E. Hall, librarian, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nThis report was discussed by A. E. Bostwick, St. Louis, Mo.; Henry E. Legler,\nChicago, 111.; M. A. Smith, Madison, Wis.; Mrs. C. E. T. Dracass, Chicago, 111.; Mr.\nRice, of Madison, Wis.; and M. S. Dudgeon, of the Wisconsin Library Commission.\nIt was moved, seconded, and so ordered that the report be adopted and placed on\nfile, and that the committee be continued for further investigation.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows:\nFor President — Mary E. Hall, librarian, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nFor Vice-President — 'James V. Sturges, principal. State Normal School, Geneseo, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — Effie L. Power, supervisor of children's work, Public Library, St.\nLouis, Mo.\nThe report of the nominating committee was unanimously accepted.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report, which was adopted\nand placed on file:\nResolved, That the thanks of the Library Section of the National Education Association are hereby tendered to H. E. Legler and the Chicago Public Library for so cordially\nextending to us the use of the building, and for all other courtesies.\nResolved, That we extend our thanks to Miss C. M. Mcllvaine, and those associated\nwith her, for our delightful automobile ride and tour of the city libraries, and to Mr. A. G.\nWheeler for so graciously opening to us his grounds and home.\nResolved, That we express our appreciation of the hospitality of the University of\nChicago and the Chicago Normal College, and that we specially thank Miss Irene Warren\nand Miss M. L. Dickey and those associated with them for their many courtesies and\ncordial entertainment.\nResolved, That we extend thanks to the Committee of the American Library Association on Co-operation for all assistance given the section.\n\n"}
{"page": 1257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBY-PRODUCTS\n\nIN LIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\n1 241\n\nResolved^ That we express our appreciation to Miss I. M. Mendenhall and Miss\nM. E. Hall for their valuable reports on normal schools and high schools, and to all others\nwho have contributed to the program of this section.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION, ROUND\n\nTABLE— Friday Afternoon, July 12, 1912\n\nThe Department met in Round Table Conference in the Chicago Public Library\nand was called to order at 2 : 30 p.m.\nJessie E. Black, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., read a paper entitled Courses\nin Literature for Children,\" which was discussed by Ange V. Milner, Normal, 111., and\nDelia G. Ovitz, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\"Is There Need for a Course in the Choice and Use of Books in Our High Schools ? \"\nwas the subject of a paper by Florence M. Hopkins, Central High School, Detroit, Mich.\nFollowing this was an informal discussion of questions and topics by members of\nthe Round Table.\nThe library committees for 191 2-13 are as follows:\n\"Normal School Libraries,\" Ida M. Mendenhall, Chairman, Library School, New\nYork Public Library, New York City; O. H. Bakeless, State Normal School, Bloomsburg, Pa.; Margaret Dold, State Normal School, Chico, Cal.; Willis H. Kerr, State\nNormal School, Emporia, Kans.;' Delia Ovitz, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.;\nMabel Reynolds, State Normal School, Cheney, Wash.; Mary Richardson, State Normal\nSchool, Castine, Me.; Louis R. Wilson, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C.;\nRuth Wright, State Normal School, Tempe, Ariz.\n\"High-School Libraries,\" Anna Kadley, Chairman, the Gilbert School, Winsted,\nConn.; F. D. Ball, Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich.; Ethelwyn Fagge, Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal.; Lucile F. Fargo,' North Central High School,\nSpokane, Wash.» Elizabeth B. McKnight, Barringer High School, Newark, N.J.; S. R.\nParker, Boys' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Katharine Grasty, Eastern High School,\nBaltimore, Md.; Gilbert O. Ward, supervisor of high-school libraries, Cleveland Public\nLibrary, Cleveland, Ohio; Irene Warren, School of Education, University of Chicago;\nHarriet A. Wood, School Department, Public Library, Portland, Ore.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nM. A. Newberry, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBY-PRODUCTS\n\nIN LIBRARY\n\nHENRY\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nE, LEGLER,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nWORK\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nWhy, gentlemen, if you know neither the real road you are going, nor where you are,\nnor the road you came, the first thing I have to inform you is that — ^you have lost your\nway. — She Stoops to Conquer.\n\nOne is reminded of this quotation after undertaking a survey of the\ncurrent magazine literature dealing with a myriad of education topics.\nIt is a discordant chorus that these constitute, indicative of the confusion\nand uncertainty which exist in the entire teaching profession, embracing\nthose of high and those of low degree. There is evident on the one hand a\ndesire to test new methods, or old methods in new guise, on the other a\ndisinclination to depart from established standards.\nThe pendulum is swinging, but in a somewhat eccentric orbit.\n\n"}
{"page": 1258, "printed_page": null, "text": "1242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION'\n\n[Library\n\nNever has there been greater interest manifested in school problems\namong the people as a whole than at the present day, as shown by the prominence they receive in the popular periodicals as well as in the professional\npress. The Readers^ Guide for the past year, which indexes loo magazines,\nlists 1 88 articles under, this caption and refers to about So other headings\nunder which additional articles on special phases of education are grouped.\nThat these articles contain widely divergent views as to methods is of rather\nless consequence than that there is uniformly a note of sharp criticism as to\nresults. Business men complain that graduates of high schools use slipshod\nEnglish, and that they can neither spell correctly, punctuate properly, nor\nwrite an intelligible commercial letter. College men declare that the highschool boys who come to them are raw recruits out of whom it is difficult\nto create anything but an awkward squad. High-school faculties are\nalmost a unit in condemnation of the product that comes to them, averring\nthat students are helplessly lost when they try such simple processes as\nusing a dictionary or an encyclopaedia. Overburdened and weary grade\nteachers groan over the multiplied exactions of the elementary and grammarclass curricula. They say that the enrichment of the curriculum has tended\nto the impoverishment of the intellect. Out of these conditions has grown\nthe universal practice of coaching for examinations rather than educating\nfor life. In an illuminating contribution to the subject. Dr. Henry S.\nPritchett has developed the need for a type of teaching and resultant\nexamination that shall test the qualities of the boy's mind and the chair\nacter of his scholarship rather than the excellence of his drill in a specific\nfield. He says:\nIt requires an entirely different preparation to cram a boy's memory with the\ndetails of a limited subject from that which is required to give him a fair mastery of the\nelements of the subject. The high schools have been spurred on by the colleges for many\nyears to drill boys rather than to educate them. It will require some time before they\nwill learn that the new examinations call for the mastery of a few subjects rather than a\nmemorized famiharity with the superficial details of many.\n\nThere is, then, if not a revolt against educational policies of today,\nwidespread dissatisfaction with methods pursued and discontent with\nresults achieved. Yielding to the demand for the democratization of education and for better equipment of those untimely called to the struggle for\nbread and butter, numerous expedients have been adopted to meet the need.\nOne great state university has organized correspondence courses for artisans\nand workers generally, and another has distributed its \"university week\"\nopportunities to many localities within its commonwealth; city school\nsystems are patterning departments after the continuation schools of\nMunich and other German cities; vocational guidance in others aims to\ngive direction to the industrial training somewhat blindly conducted heretofore; evening schools and other devices are employed to give encouragement and opportunity to the thousands who are unable to pursue school\nbeyond a few elementary grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 1259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBY-PRODUCTS\n\nIN LIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\n1243\n\nWith all this activity to bring educational possibilities, the fact remains\nthat for many economic reasons many millions of boys and girls are getting\nbut a ragged fragment of education.\nWilliam Allen White, in a recent magazine contribution, wrote:\nAs conditions now exist there comes into the life of the average boy or girl four or\nfive waste years — the years between thirteen and eighteen. These waste years hold in\nthem the real dangers of our democracy\nAnd yet ten millions of fourteen-yearold boys and their sisters — who are really worth something — are out of school in America\ntoday. Partly they are out for economic reasons; the family needs their support; but the\nstate needs a clear mind in the ballot booth seven years later, worse than the family\nneeds support\nBut apart from economic forces which keep the boy out of school\nduring the waste years of his life, there are social reasons why he is not in school. And\nthese social reasons are his studies and his teachers, and at the bottom of all, the selfishness of the taxpayers.\n\nBishop Fallows has pointed out the sore spot in the national consciousness in declaring that 2,500,000 children are working in sweat shops,\nfactories, offices, and stores in the United States. ''That this social waste\nshould be permitted on behalf of dividends is,\" he says, \"a disgrace to the\nlawmakers and law-enforcers of the nation.\"\nWithout attempting an analysis of cause and effect, but keenly sensitive\nto conditions, the libraries of the country are impressed with the need to\nsupply extra-educational facilities to the millions of young people who\nrequire them. This applies as well to the young people enrolled in schools\nas to the youth out of them. The library's educational responsibility therefore looms large — a co-operative agency of major importance in school\nwork, of primary importance in its field unrelated to school work. For\nthis occasion it will suffice to indicate the contact with schools only. The\ntestimony of a teacher may serve to illustrate:\nIn days gone by we carried on the school without libraries; we could do this as well\nas not because education meant learning by rote — textbook learning alone.\nFrom beginning to end of my common-school education — from first grade to eighth,\nI never saw a school or a public library. We had none, tho I lived in a good-sized city\nin the Middle West. I learned what the textbook told me; no supplementary reading (or\nrarely), no pictures, no objects. My training in reading and literature consisted in learning to keep my toes on a crack and my voice from falling on a question mark !\nIn high school I had very little but the regular text. Again memory work was the\ntest. I remember well a boy who was my ideal. He learned his geography word for\nword and so recited it. If he sneezed or a door slammed and his flow of words (I use words\nadvisedly) was interrupted he had to begin again. He was the show pupil of our class.\nIn college our instructors in science performed all the experiments for us while we\nlooked on. When we went to the library we spoke to the librarian thru a wire netting,\nand in our company manners asked for a book.\nIn the normal school which I attended there was a so-called children's library but\nthe books were all textbooks, and we were not taught how to help the children use them.\nWe had literature, but it was all about Hamlet's being or not being mad; none of it was\ntaught in a way to make it a tool for the elementary teacher.\nAfter all this I began teaching, with no knowledge of the resources of a library as an\naid to either teacher or child, and I felt no need for such aid. What is true of me is true\n\n"}
{"page": 1260, "printed_page": null, "text": "1244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nof thousands of other teachers. You must make us feel our need for you. You must, if\nyou please, intrude yourselves upon our notice. Generations of teachers who have\nworshiped at the shrine of the textbook can in no other way be reached. The ideals of\neducation today are broader, our needs are greater, and you have the material to help us\nrealize our needs.\n\nSo the libraries have attempted to supplement the school. In manyways they have sought to establish the connection, and thousands of\nsplendid teachers have responded with appreciative willingness. Some\nof the activities which this co-operative method has brought into being are\nthese:\nClassroom libraries selected with special reference to age and group capacity are sent\nfor local use and home circulation.\nDeposit collections are loaned for [>eriods varying from one semester to a full scholastic\nyear.\n\nClasses are invited to visit the library for instruction in reference work.\nReference lists corresponding to the outlines of history or other school studies are\nposted for easy reference, and groups of books are placed on reserve shelves for\nlike purposes.\nStory hours planned in conjunction with teachers are conducted.\nReferences are looked up for teachers in anticipation of study assignments.\nCollateral reading is provided.\nLeaflets are issued listing library resources in aid of teachers.\nTrained librarians are placed in charge of high-school libraries and give instruction\nin the use and care of books.\n\"Intermediate\" rooms are equipped to render the transition from the children's to\nthe adult department of the library logical and gradual. In these and in other rooms\ndesignated for the purpose, personal aid is given in selection of material for debates and\ntheses.\nCollections of prints and photographs are furnished to illustrate subjects in geography, history, art, biography.\n\nThis skeletonized summary of library activities closely related to the\nwork of the schools merits fuller amplification than the limits of this paper\nwill permit. On the screens in the adjacent exhibit is illustrated graphically\nthe educational relationship between schools and libraries. Many of the\nmethods yet remain incomplete as to development; some are ineffective\nbecause their possibilities are not fully understood or appreciated. Out of\nthem will grow, however, new forces in the processes that make for the\ncommon life, the common citizenship, for they will create the common ideals\nand aspirations which must underlie both. Dealing with masses as we\nnecessarily must, we must also realize that the masses are made up of\nindividuals.\nThat there should one man die ignorant who had capacity for knowledge, this I call a\ntragedy, were it to happen more than twenty times a minute, as by some computation it\ndoes.\n\nThus wrote Carlyle in Sartor Resartus. In contradistinction may be quoted\nthe testimony of an immigrant girl, type of many thousands of young\npeople whose future is interwoven with the destiny of this republic, which\nin turn will shape that destiny by what it offers to them.\n\n"}
{"page": 1261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBY-PRODUCTS\n\nIN LIBRARY'\n\nWORK\n\n1245\n\n\"To be a citizen of the smallest village of the United States which maintains afree school and a public library, is to stand in the path of the splendid\nprocessions of opportunity, ' ' wrote Mary Antin in The Promised Land. Nor\nis it less worth while to quote, as evidence that education may be found\noutside the pages of textbooks, what she related of her life in the slums of\nDover Street:\nTruly my education was not left entirely in the hands of persons who had licenses to\nteach. My sister's fat baby taught me things about the origin and ultimate destiny of\ndimples that were not in any of my schoolbooks. Mr. Casey of the second floor, who was\ndrunk whenever his wife was sober, gave me an insight into the psychology of the beer mug\nthat would have added to the mental furniture of my most scholarly teacher. The boldfaced girls who passed the evening on the comer, in promiscuous flirtation with the cockeyed youths of the neighborhood, unconsciously revealed to me the eternal secrets of\nadolescence. My neighbor of the third floor, who sat on the curbstone with the scabby\nbaby in her bedraggled lap, had things to say about the fine ladies who came in carriages\nto inspect the public bathhouse across the street, that ought to be repeated in the lecturehalls of every school of philanthropy.\nOff toward the northwest, in the direction of Harvard Bridge, which some day I\nshould cross on my way to Radcliffe College, was one of my favorite palaces, whither I\nresorted every day after school. A low, wide-spreading building with a dignified granite\nfront it was, flanked on all sides by noble old churches, museiuns, and schoolhouses,\nharmoniously disposed around a spacious triangle called Copley Square. Two thorofares\nthat came straight from the green suburbs swept by my palace, one on either side, converged at the apex of the triangle, and pointed off, across the Public Garden, across the\nhistoric Common, to the domed State House sitting on a height.\nIt was my habit to go very slowly up the low, broad steps to the palace entrance,\npleasing my eyes with the majestic lines of the building, and lingering to read again the\ncarved inscriptions: Public Library — Built by the People — Free to All.\nI loved to lean against the pillar in the entrance hall, watching the people go in and\nout. Groups of children hushed their clatter at the entrance, and skipped, whispering\nand giggling in their fists, up the grand stairway, patting the great stone lions at the top,\nwith an eye on the aged policeman down below. Spectacled scholars came slowly down\nthe stairs, loaded with books, heedless of the lofty arches that echoed their steps. Visitors\nfrom out of town lingered long in the entrance hall, studying the inscriptions and symbols on\nthe marble floor. And I loved to stand in the midst of all this, and remind myself that\nI was there, that I had a right to be there, that I was at home there. All these eager\nchildren, all these high-browed women, aU these scholars going home to write learned\nbooks— I and they had this glorious thing in common, this noble treasure-house of learning. Itwas wonderful to say. This is mine; it was thrilling to say, This is ours.\nHere is where I liked to remind myself of Polotzk, the better to bring out the wonder\nof my life. That I who was born in the prison of the Pale should roam at will in the land\nof freedom was a marvel that it did me good to realize. That I who was brought up to my\nteens almost without a book should be set down in the midst of all the books that ever\nwere written was a miracle as great as any on record. That an outcast should become a\nprivileged citizen, that a beggar should dwell in a palace — this was a romance more thrilling than poet ever sung.\nSurely I was rocked in an enchanted cradle.\n\nIt is thru the co-ordinate agencies of education — the school and the\nlibrary — that we may hope to reduce to hopeful elements of vdtimate solution the complex problems that lie at the root of our social well-being and\nhappiness. With Ruskin, we may hearten our faith in the strength of\nsocial growth and development, by employing his analogy:\n\n"}
{"page": 1262, "printed_page": null, "text": "1246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nBy a power of which I believe no sufficient account exists, as each leaf adds to the\nthickness of the shoot, so each shoot to the branch, so each branch to the stem, and that\nwith so perfect an order and regularity of duty, that from every leaf in all the countless\ncrowd at the tree's summit, one slender fiber, or at least fiber's thickness of wood, descends\nthru shoot, thru spray, thru branch, and thru stem; and having thus added, in its due\nproportion, to form the strength of the tree, labors yet farther and more painfully to provide for its security; and thrusting forward into the root, loses nothing of its mighty\nenergy, until, mining thru the darkness, it has taken hold in cleft of rock or depth of earth,\nas extended as the sweep of its green crest in the free air\n\nTHE PLANS AND SCOPE OF THE NEW NORMAL COURSE\nLIBRARY TRAINING, PRATT INSTITUTE SCHOOL\nLIBRARY SCIENCE\nJULIA A. HOPKINS,\n\nPRATT\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nIN\nOF\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe rapid advance of the library movement has been indicated in no\ndirection more clearly than by the increasing demand for library training.\nIn 1887 the first library school in this coimtry was opened. In the decade\nfollowing, three other schools sprang into existence. Today there are\neleven accredited schools graduating an average of twenty students annually.\n. In addition to these schools we have many simimer schools of library\nscience, offering short courses in professional training to those who are\nalready in the working ranks and unable to take the time for a full year's\nstudy.\nThe extension of public-library service in our great cities thru systems of\nbranch libraries and deposit stations requires a large force of people to\ncany on the work. A single one of these great systems will often, in one\nyear, make more new appointments than could be supplied by the graduates\nof several library schools. Therefore, these libraries have been forced to\nestablish training classes merely to supply their own needs.\n.' . So important has this question of library training become in the eyes of\nft[e library profession that tor many years now, one of the standing committees of the American Library Association has been appointed to investigate and report to the association at its regular annual meeting any\nsignificant changes or advancement along that line.\nAnother very interesting phase has been the development of the normalschool libraries; and, with the increasing closeness of co-operation between\npublic libraries and public schools, there has come a realization of the\nimportance of having some instruction in library methods given to the\nstudents in normal schools by the librarian of the school.\nIn many high schools, also, there are courses of instruction in the use of\nlibraries given by a trained librarian employed by the school board.\nIn these different ways, then, there is a great demand for instruction in\nlibrary science; and this entails a demand for teachers of library science, a\n^^mand which is becoming increasingly difiScult to fill.\n\n"}
{"page": 1263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nPLANS\n\nAND\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF NEW\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOURSE\n\n1247\n\nIn the early days of instruction in library methods, the teaching was\nlargely theoretical; but of recent years librarians and directors of library\nschools have felt that theoretical knowledge was insufficient. To be\neffective, it must be reinforced by a wide and varied experience in actual\nlibrary work. One of the first questions asked by the director of a library\nschool in regard to an applicant for a vacancy on her faculty is, \"What has\nbeen her library experience?\" Yet, practical experience added to theoretical knowledge may still be insufficient to produce the best results. It\nis not enough for the teacher to know her subject, theoretically and practically; she must be able to impart that knowledge to her students. She\nmust have the ability to make her subject clear, to arouse in her students\nenthusiasm and instill into them the proper spirit; to develop their powers\nof judgment, of initiative. It is very rare to find, in one person, the combination of these three desirable elements: wide theoretical knowledge,\nstrong practical experience, and the ability to teach. Therefore out of this\nneed there came to Miss Rathbone the idea which has finally formulated\nitself in this normal course in library training to be offered by Pratt Institute\nthe coming year. It is the first definite attempt to apply the principles of\npedagogy to the teaching of library science.\nThe course is to be a graduate course, admitting only graduates of\nlibrary schools of recognized standing. The course will be too crowded\nto allow of any instruction in actual library methods; the student must\nhave those before admittance. Preference will be given to those applicants\nwho have had practical library experience as well as library-school training.\nEach application will be considered on its individual merit.\nThe course will consist of two main parts, the theory of education and\npractice teaching. The theoretical training will include educational\npsychology, history of education, especially American public education,\nnormal methods, and sociology. The instruction in these subjects will be\ngiven by the department of education of Pratt Institute.\nThe opportunity for practice teaching has been secured by a plan of\nco-operation with the Brooklyn Public Library, by which the apprentice\nclass of that library becomes the practice school for the normal students.\nThe practice teaching will be under the supervision of a special instructor.\nThe hearty and sympathetic co-operation of the librarian and staff of the\nBrooklyn Public Library enables Pratt Institute to offer a very strong\ncourse on this practice side.\nI wish to take up rather fully the consideration of the course for the\ntraining class in order to show its value, as a teaching experience, to the\nnormal students.\nI. There will be two apprentice classes each year, beginning their\nstudies in October and March, respectively. This gives each normal\nstudent the opportunity of preparing and conducting different subjects\neach term.\n\n"}
{"page": 1264, "printed_page": null, "text": "1248\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ■\n\n[Library\n\n2. Following the four months' course of instruction the apprentices are\nto have three months' practice work in selected branch libraries of the\nBrooklyn Public Library system, under supervision of the branch librarians.\nMuch of the technical detail of library methods will be taught them during\nthis practice period, thus eliminating it from the instruction course and\npermitting the emphasis to be placed on the broader and more cultural side\nof the subjects.\n3. The instruction to apprentices will be given on three days of the\nweek, Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays; the other three days to be given\nentirely to reading and preparation. Full library time is required; this\nenables Pratt Institute to offer them a course of one hundred and sixty\nlectures with an average of three hours of practice work in connection with\neach lecture. This generous amount of practice time means the making of\nvery full and careful reading-lists for the apprentices by the normal students; and a combination of the lecture and recitation method.\n4. Taking up the subjects rather in detail: The strongest subject in\nthe curriculimi — the foundation, as it were, of the entire course — will be\nthat on bibliography and literature. It is planned with the view to extending the acquaintance of the apprentices with books and authors, and to\nbroadening their literary horizon. The opening periods are devoted to the\nstudy of the book, its history and development; how to judge a book;\npublishers; trade bibliographies; general bibliographies and reading-lists,\nand the principles governing their preparation. But the main strength of\nthe course is to be placed on the study of literature. Eight periods are\ndevoted to a brief survey of English and American literature. This is\nsomewhat in the nature of a review of groimd covered by high-school\nstudents, but is plarmed to give breadth rather than depth of knowledge,\nthe apprentices being required to handle a great many books and classes\nof books, and taught to get at the gist of a book's contents quickly. Also,\nwhen an author is being studied, there will be an evaluation of the books\nabout him, both biography and criticism.\nThe bibliographic feature will be maintained by requiring the apprentices to prepare short reading-lists on related topics; for instance, when\nthey are studying the period of early English literature, such topics as\n\"chivalry,\" \"the Crusades,\" \"scholastic learning in the Middle Ages,\"\n\" Chaucer's England,\" etc.\nThe different forms of literature will then be studied : the novel and its\ndevelopment;\nmodern dramatists; literary criticism and book reviews.\nSeveral periods will then be given to foreign literatures: Greek and\nRoman classics; German literature; French literature; other foreign\nliteratures translated into English and widely read, such as Italian, Spanish,\nRussian, Scandinavian.\nThe closing periods will take up the literature of subjects: science;\nhistory and historians; educational movements and their exponents;\n\n"}
{"page": 1265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLANS\n\nAND\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF NEW\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOURSE\n\n1249\n\nphilosophy and philosophers; sociology, etc. The final lecture will be on\nthe librarian's personal reading; for it is hoped that this course will not only\nacquaint the apprentice with a wide range of literature, but will also giv^\nher the personal love of reading.\nTo add to the value of this course, the course in classification will be\nrun parallel to it, containing the same number of lectures, given on the\nsame days, and following, as closely as possible, the same order of subjects;\nso that the apprentices, while they are studying about the books in a certain\nclass, will, at the same time, consider the relation of those books to other\nbooks and classes of books.\nThe reference course is planned to give rapid and easy consultation of\nbooks, lists, and other sources. Much instruction will be given in methods\nof work; and much attention will be paid to the study of books in the\ncirculating department which are good for reference use. The order of\nsubjects will be related where possible, to the order of subjects in the\nliterature and classification courses; and a special study will be made of\nbranch reference collections.\nThe course in cataloging is not intended to teach much technical detail\nof that subject; but rather the use of catalogs and indexes, and what items\nin a book need to be brought out for library purposes.\nLesson i takes up the authorship of a book, periodical, pamphlet, or\ndocument, showing the difference between author and compiler, editor or\ntranslator, and describing sources for full names and form of names, the\nproblem being to decide on the authorship of a certain number of books,\nfinding the full or true name.\nLesson 2 takes up the selection or abbreviation of titles. Problems.\nLesson 3 takes up the selection of subject; places to look in a book, in\norder to find its subject; sources for subject headings, etc. Problems.\nLesson 4 takes up edition and imprint; copyright date; explains the\nvalue of these; the problem being to decide on the facts for a catalog card\nin regard to a certain number of books, and M'hy.\nAll these periods are devoted to facts about the book without reference\nto making the actual cards. It is not until the tenth lesson that such\nmatters as indentation, spacing, abbreviations, etc., are considered.\nOne period is to be given to taking entries from printed catalogs and\nmaking them on cards. A great deal of attention will be paid to analytical, their value and principles of selection, and to cross references,\nauthor, title, and subject.\nThere will be a course of sixteen lectures in work with children, twelve\nof the lectures being devoted to children's literature. The outline for this\ncourse has been made out by Miss C. W. Hunt, in charge of the children's\ndepartment in the Brooklyn Public Library. She will criticize the lectures\nas prepared by the normal students, and will personally attend the lectures\nand criticize the presentation of the material. It is desired to make this\n\n"}
{"page": 1266, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ncourse especially strong for two reasons: first, the inadequacy of instruction\nin children's work in the library schools, which is natural because of the\nspecial Training School for Children's Librarians, conducted by the Carnegie\nLibrary of Pittsburgh; second, the bearing of such a course upon normalschool work. One of the most important subjects in a normal-school course\nin library science should be that on children's literature, and it is therefore\nof great value that the students in this normal course should have the\nopportimity to study and teach that subject under such expert advice as\nMiss Hunt will give.\nThere will be a course of lectures in the history of libraries, intended to\ngive the apprentices a glimpse of the stretch of library work, with the\nemphasis, of course, placed on the work of public libraries. (See outline at\nclose of paper.)\nThere will also be a course on branch work. It is the intention to make\nthis course theoretical and general, applying specific methods later. The\nmain part of it will be given to loan-desk work, with a few lectures on\ngeneral subjects.\n(See outline.)\nOne period each week will be devoted to current topics, the apprentices\nbeing required to report on such subjects as would attract attention among\na library's readers. In this will also be included discussion of events in the\nlibrary world and current articles in the library periodicals.\nThere will be a short course of lectures on general topics. (See outline.)\nNow, of what value is this course in providing teaching experience to\nthe normal students ?\nIn the way of preparation for taking charge of training classes in public\nlibraries, its value seems unquestioned, as the course is planned with that\nspecial, definite aim.\nFor giving instruction to high-school students the courses in bibliography\nand literature, classification, reference, and cataloging are specially fitted\nand give very adequate training.\nFor conducting courses in normal schools the same subjects as those for\nhigh-school work, with the added subjects of work with children and history\nof libraries, cover very well the ground essential to such a normal-school\ncourse.\nFor preparing one to teach in a library school, the subjects of classification, reference work, work with children, and history of libraries compare\nfavorably in length and ground covered with those subjects as covered in\nmost of the one-year library schools. The course in loan work is probably\nstronger than that given in the schools.\nThe grouping of the subjects for teaching piuposes has not been entirely\ndecided upon yet, and will necessarily have to be more or less flexible,\ndepending always in a measure upon the number of normal students\nregistered. But it is desired to give each of the students the entire respon-\n\n"}
{"page": 1267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLANS\n\nAND\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF NEW\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOURSE\n\n1251\n\nsibility of preparing and conducting one of the technical courses, and to\ndivide among them the lectures in the literary and cultural courses.\nTurning from the practical to the theoretical side of the normal course,\na very satisfactory outline has been worked out with the department of\neducation of Pratt Institute. As the number of students will be so small\n(the class being limited to six), they will be admitted to the regular classes\nin the subjects selected for this course; and, by great good fortune, these\nsubjects occur regularly on Tuesdays and Thursdays, the days on which\nthe normal students are free from practice teaching.\nThere will be two terms of work (48 hours) in psychology, omitting\nprobably the biological side of the subject, brain-structure, etc.\nThere will be 36 hours of work in the history of education, which will be\na general survey of the subject, omitting American education.\nThere will be 36 hours of work in the theory of education. This will\ninclude laying-out of courses, development of subject, presentation of\nsubject to class, methods of teaching, conduct of recitations, quizzes,\nexaminations, etc.\nThere will also be a special course given by the head of the department\nof education to the library normal students only. This course will include\nhistory of education in the United States, with especial emphasis laid on\nhigh schools, normal schools, and colleges; application of general methods\nto library teaching; mental development of the individual from twelve\nyears of age on; and social education.\nIn addition to these, there will be supplementary courses for the normal\nstudents in library work in normal schools and high schools, with problems\nin laying out courses, methods of teaching, etc.; and regular seminars in\nnormal methods conducted by the vice-director of the school. The normal\nstudents will also have the privilege of attending the lectures given by\nvisiting librarians to the students in the general first-year course.\nIt is planned to devote the month of February, which intervenes\nbetween the two terms of work with the apprentice classes, to visiting\nnear-by library schools, for the purpose of studying methods of organization\nand instruction.\nThe month of September will be devoted to the study of the Brooklyn\nPublic Library system under the supervision of the instructor in charge of\nthe normal course. Those students who wish to specialize for librarianship\nin high schools will have the opportunity to be placed for practical work in\nsome of the Brooklyn high-school libraries, and those who wish to prepare\nfor normal-school work, in the library of the Brooklyn Training School for\nTeachers. At Pratt Institute, opportunity will be offered for advanced\nreference work and cataloging.\nThis is the course, as planned, so far. It is tentative and has yet to be\nput to the test of experience.\n\n"}
{"page": 1268, "printed_page": null, "text": "1252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n|Libra y\n\nThere seems to be a real professional need for such a course, and it is\nthe sincere hope of those in charge that the course will meet and satisfy\nthat need.\nBROOKLYN\n\nPUBLIC LIBRARY TRAINING CLASS\nHISTORY\n\nOF\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1. The library profession and its requirements.\n2. History of the library movement.\n3. The BrookljTi Public Library — its organization and lastory — ^Mr. Hill.\n4. History and development of libraries in Greater New York — ^Miss Hitchler.\n5. Typical libraries of the United States — public libraries.\n6. Typical libraries of the United States — college, reference, and special libraries.\n7. State libraries and library commissions.\n8. National libraries.\n9. Typical foreign libraries.\n10. Library organizations.\n11. Prominent librarians.\nBRANCH\n\nWORK\n\n1. Branch libraries; history of their development; centralized administration;\ncomparison of Brooklyn public library system with others more and less centralized — ■\nMr. Brown.\n2. Types of branches; the work of a branch library as compared to that of a library\nin a small town.\n3-5. Regulations governing the use of libraries: registration; access to shelves and\nprivileges to readers; fines and penalties; overdue books; mutilation and loss of books;\nbook theft; charging systems.\n6. Aids to readers; bulletins, book-lists, etc.\n7. Records and statistics; supplies.\n8. Selection and ordering of books.\n9. Preparation of books for the shelves.\n10. Bookbinding; historical, practical.\n11. Bookbinding;\npreparation of books and magazines for the bindery; discard\nof books.\n12. Book-mending and the care of books.\n13. Traveling libraries.\n14. Deposit and factory stations.\nGENERAL\n\nLECTURES\n\nQualifications of assistants; standards of dress, voice, manner, etc.\n2. Business methods; business ethics.\n3. Personal relations with the staff; with the readers.\n4-5. Study of the community; general.\n6. Branch communities; local problems, neighborhood reports.\n7. Local institutions; museums, art galleries, etc.\n8. Unassigned.\n\n"}
{"page": 1269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBOOK\n\nTHE BOOK\nMARY\n\nELY,\n\nHEAD\n\nOF\n\nTHAT\n\nTEACHER\n\nTHAT\n\nTEACHER\n\nSAYS\n\nIS GOOD\n\n1253\n\nSAYS IS GOOD\n\nCHILDREN'S\nAND SCHOOL\nLIBRARY,\nDAYTON,\nOHIO\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nThere is an opinion current among so large a portion of mankind that\nany attempt to contradict it is likely to be hailed as folly, that each of us\nknows himself better than any other could possibly know him. This is\ntrue not only of individuals but of classes; so true, that one who is not a\nteacher can but hesitate before announcing that she means first of all to\ntell to teachers something concerning teachers, which she believes they\ndo not know so well as she. However, it is nothing new that I wish to\ntell you, but rather, that I would remind you of something that all of you\nhave known very well at one time, but have forgotten, maybe, partly by\nreason of the very fact that you see a teacher now from the subjective\ninstead of the objective point of view. It is essential to my purposes this\nmorning that you should once more see a teacher from a child's viewpoint\nand with that end in mind I am going to ask you to do some remembering\nwith me.\nDo you remember, then, the first morning when your mother took\nyou to the school, how you went dreading to find enthroned there a fearful\nperson called \"Teacher\" whom you pictured to yourself as a very large\nwoman, with a very severe look and, worse than that, a very large stick\nthat descended impartially upon the just and upon the unjust? And do\nyou remember your surprise and joy and the shyness that overcame you\nwhen you found this dreaded personage was a gentle little woman with a\nvoice as low and a smile as kind as your own mother's? That was the\nbeginning of many days and weeks of worship at the teacher's shrine.\nNeedless to say, to you in those days her word was law, altho it is true\nthat you yielded to temptation when her back was turned and whispered\nto your neighbor, having not yet reached a conception of law that is independent ofits enforcer.\nHow far and high Teacher had been removed from the level of humankind in your feeling for her, you never realized until the day when your\nfirst slight disillusionment came. It was the day, you will remember,\nwhen, in celebration of some departure or arrival in their midst, all of the\nteachers of your school remained at noon and had a great feast in the\nbasement dining-room. You were delegated by a crowd of eager schoolmates to peek in at the assembly, and so, digging your toes into the gravel\nfirmly — for you had already learned that a push from behind was among\nlife's possibilities — you cautiously peered around a corner into a basement\nwindow. And then you made your discovery and announced it in a piercing whisper: \"Teacher is eating!\" It was after that, of course, that you\nwrote your composition on \"Teacher\" and called attention to the fact\nthat her hair was curly in the morning and straight at night. It is notice-\n\n"}
{"page": 1270, "printed_page": null, "text": "1254\n\n-V^ TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Library\n\nable, however, that in that carefully preserved first literary effort \"Teacher\"\nis spelled thruout with a big and shapely capital T.\nThere followed a slow process of evolution by which a teacher ceased\nto be a superhuman being and came, in your mind, to be recognized as\npossessing all of the attributes and limitations of humanity, except that\nshe still had a superhuman fund of knowledge. I fear there were quarrels\nin those days in which you made extravagant claims for Teacher's wisdom\nas against that of all other wise ones. You still remember, how, on the\nday when Teacher had translated a Latin phrase, occurring in your readinglesson, you confidently annoimced at home, \"My teacher knows just\neverything!\"\nOnce more I need not stop to do more than remind you of the extent\nof a teacher's influence with you during that period, nor during your\nlater years in school, as, gradually losing your^ early childish fancies, you\ncame to respect and honor your teachers, not more for what they knew\nthan for what they strove to learn; not more for what they were than for\nwhat they tried to be.\nRemember with me, now, only one more day at school, your last day\nin some certain school, when, your vision sharpened by the sorrow of\nparting from old friends and old associations, you looked back over the\nyears you had spent among them, and things which you had passed at the\ntime unseeing now stood out clearly before your opened eyes. It was then\nthat there arose before you the image of a teacher, no longer a glorified\nvision, but a picture of a simple, sincere, earnest man or woman, having\nfaidts as other men and women have faults, with knowledge that was not\nunbounded, with judgment that was not infallible, but for all that guiding\nyou in the right path, helpful always and sympathetic maybe, by reason\nof his very imperfections. To this image in your own heart, this is what\nyou said: \"I owe a debt to you which I can never pay, except in one way.\nBecause you have entered into my life that life shall be stronger and better\nand what you have been to me I must try to be to others.\"\nNow when you have remembered all these things you have remembered\nsomething of what a teacher may mean to a child.\n\"Of the making of books there is no end,\" and verily in our lives today\nbooks seem to be among the common things. We find them for sale in\nevery conceivable place; we have vast free libraries full of them; just for\nthe asking, many of us may have them sent to our very doors. We use\nthem and abuse them in a dozen ways; we scorn the worst and take even\nthe best for granted, until some day we pause to think and to remember\nas I am going to ask you to remember once more this morning.\nTho you had possessed pictiure books and Mother Goose rhymes ever\nsince you could remember possessing anything, you were first thrilled\nwith a sense of book ownership when you were given a little brown book\nthat said \"McGuffey's First Reader\" in large print on the outside and\n\n"}
{"page": 1271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBOOK\n\nTHAT\n\nTEACHER\n\nSAYS\n\nIS GOOD\n\n125$\n\ninside told stories, which you soon knew by heart, of dogs that ran\nand cats that sat on mats. This book you carefully carried home each\nnight with the First Reader inscription turned out so that he that\nran might read and know that you had attained the dignity of a scholar.\nAnd this pride of ownership was your first conscious feeling about a book.\nYour second idea came in this way. There was a guest for tea, and\nhe and father had some little discussion hinging upon the question of the\ndate of the removal of the capital of a state from one city to another.\nNow it happened that you had read about that very state and that very\ncity and that very date in your little geography book not three days since,\nand you looked so eager that father asked you in surprise what you knew\nabout it. So you told the date and settled the discussion and were very,\nvery pleased. Afterward you told your mother confidentially: \"The\nreason why I like books, mother, is because they are such knowing\nthings.\"\nThere was a whole series of experiences that gave you your third idea.\nThere were rainy days that to all appearances you spent in your garret\nplayroom that were in truth filled with adventures in far-away lands with\nSinbad the sailor and Aladdin and his lamp. There were times when you\nhad suffered some disappointment, when you lost both it and yourself in\nthe pleasures and trials of your friends, the \"Little Women.\" In short,\nyou learned that neither time nor space were limitations when a book\nhad opened up its pages to you.\nHe ate and drank the precious words,\nHis spirit grew robust;\nHe knew no more that he was poor,\nNor that his frame was dust.\nHe danced along the dingy days.\nAnd this bequest of wings\nWas but a book! What Liberty\nA loosened spirit brings!\n\nWith what a thrill of joy and sense of gratitude you first read those\nlines, joy in meeting there the thought that had grown up in your own\nlife out of your own experience; gratitude at meeting it clothed in the\nperfect fitting words that you could never find!\nYou have surely not forgotten the first book that made you cry. You\ncarried it away to your own room ashamed of your emotion and fearful\nof someone's finding you out. There you wept unrestrained and lay for a\nlong time after your sobs had ceased, filled with a great vague longing,\nthat was indeed your first real prayer, a prayer that was more than words,\na wish unexpressed, that you might be better than you had ever been\nbefore, more helpful, more kind, more true. Thus you came to know the\ninspiration of a book.\nIt was later, in fact you were quite grown up, when your greatest\nexperience of all came to you.\n\n"}
{"page": 1272, "printed_page": null, "text": "1256\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Librar>\n\nYou had been reading for hours and had entered into your book with\nyour whole being. Thought, imagination, emotion were all engaged to\ntheir utmost and as you closed the book and laid it aside you had a wonderful sense of having been lifted out of yourself onto a height, and standing\nthere you looked back and saw — yourself, not thru a glass darkly but face\nto face. And over and over again you said: \"So this is what I am. This\nis what I am!\" There were no tears now, tho the pain of clear sight was\nalmost more than you could bear. But gradually, humility became tinged\nwith hope and side by side with the vision of what you were, the vision of\nwhat you might be, what all mankind might be, took form. Then did\nyou know the great things of the world from the small things, and in those\nhours of insight began the struggle which was to end in victory by which\nsomething that was evil passed out of your life and something that was good\ntook its place. After this you knew that a book might mean more than\nknowledge, might be more than wings to set you free, might be more than\na power to stir your best emotions, that it might be even a divine thing\nsetting your will in harmony with the will of God!\nAnd when you have remembered all these things you have remembered\nsomething of the part a .book may play in human life.\nYesterday and the day before and many days before in my experience\nas a children's librarian a child has come to me and said: \"I want this\nbook because Teacher says that it is good\"; or \"Teacher has read a part\nof this to me and now I want to read the rest,\" However it be, the book\nthat Teacher has stamped with her approval is the one book that must be\nhad, for a teacher's influence in the matter of children's reading is second\nonly to that of the home and not always second to that. That this influence\nshould be used in the right direction needs no proving; that the book\nwhich Teacher says is good should be good is not a subject for debate.\nUpon a teacher's wise and right choice in the matter depends not only\nthe reading of a particular book, but to some extent the standard which a\nchild sets up in his own mind by which he will test his reading for years to\ncome. There is scarcely one child who does not do some reading that is\nnot worth while and a little that is more than negatively harmful, but if\nthe small group of books which he has read under his teachers' guidance\nbe of the right sort, I believe that they will prove to be a divining rod\nwithin his grasp which will sooner or later fulfill its purpose and indicate\nto him where true treasures lie.\nNow let me tell you some facts. Sometimes the book for which a\nteacher sends a child to the library is the best that the library affords, and\nwe rejoice. Sometimes it is a story of fleeting interest, such as a child\nwould have read without special inducement and have forgotten, and this\nwe give to him with a sigh for the opportunity lost. Sometimes, tho\nhappily not often, it is a book which we do not consider worthy a place\nupon our shelves; a \"thriller\" for the boy, of the sort whose continued\n\n"}
{"page": 1273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj\n\nTHE\n\nBOOK\n\nTHAT\n\nTEACHER\n\nSAYS\n\nIS GOOD\n\n1257\n\nreading excites him beyond measure and plays upon his emotions imtil he\ngoes forth a loosely strung instrument at the mercy of every wind good\nor evil that sweeps his strings, or it is a story for a girl detailing the incidents of a life of pleasure, dealing too largely with the vanities of personal\nadornment and outlining dangerous situations from which it refuses to\ndeduce the natural dangerous consequences. When this occurs we are\nfilled with righteous indignation, but indignation that is of short duration,\nbeing swallowed up in a great overwhelming pity for the teacher who\ndoes not know and for the child who suffers from his lack of knowledge.\nFor there is one thing that is sure beyond all doubt — no teacher who realizes\nhis influence with a child would willingly use that influence to his disadvantage. Itis lack of knowledge only that lies at the root of the mistakes\nthat are made.\nSince a teacher's time is subject to the usual limitations of twenty-four\nhours a day while a teacher's tasks and the things he must know and must\nbe multiply without ceasing, one does not easily or lightly add one single\n\"Thou shalt\" to the already multiple decalog. Yet to the end that a\nteacher may use his influence in the direction of children's reading and may\nuse it well and rightly, there is no way but this, that a teacher shall and\nmust know from his own reading some of the best of children's books.\nIt is not sufficient merely to be able to say what is best. If it were, we\nlibrarian folk who spend our days with books might give to the teacher\nlists of best books and notes on best books that would fill all needs. But\nthat will not do. It is necessary that one know the best for himself in\norder that he may he what knowing the best alone can make him. Rejoice\nand sorrow with Miss Alcott's \"Little Women,\" live over his life with\nAldrich's \"Bad Boy,\" weep if you must at the death of Mrs. Ewing's\n\"Jackanapes,\" thrill at the achievements of Howard Pyle's \"Men of Iron,\"\nlaugh with Alice at her adventures in Wonderland, pluck the posies from\nStevenson's \"Garden of Verses,\" and you will not only know something\nthat you did not know yesterday but will be something that you never\nwere before. Moreover, the reading of these books will be a pleasure to\nyou as well as to a child for they are good because they appeal to that which\nis best in us and therefore to that which is universal.\nWhen and how teachers shall come to know these best books is our\nproblem. It is safe to say that when the importance of such knowledge\nis once realized a way to acquire it will be found. The day is coming and\nmust come when a course in children's literature will form part of the\ncurriculum of every normal school. To the teachers whose training days\nare over and whose acquaintance with the field of children's literature\nmay be limited, I, as a representative of the library world, offer all the\nassistance in our power. Many libraries have issued lists of good books\nfor children that are yours for the asking. These will at least serve as\nguides to you. From suggesting a particular book for a particular child,\n\n"}
{"page": 1274, "printed_page": null, "text": "1258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Libiaiy\n\nto spending yoiir money for you when you wish to buy libraries, there is no\nservice that we library workers are not willing, nay, anxious to render\nyou. For we believe that these three things abide, the teacher, the book,\nand the child, and that the great thing of all is the sum of the three, the\nwise teacher, the good book, and the child happy in the possession of them\nboth.\nREPORT, OF THE COMMITTEE ON NORMAL-SCHOOL\nLIBRARIES:\nA SYLLABUS OF LIBRARY INSTRUCTION IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\nIDA\n\nM.\n\nMENDENHALL,\nLIBRARY\nLIBRARY,\nNEW\n\nSCHOOL\nOF THE\nNEW\nYORK, N.Y., CHAIRMAN\n\nYORK\n\nPUBLIC\n\nWhat piece of work will contribute most to the normal-school libraries\nof the country? This was the first question to be considered by the\nNormal-School Committee. In order to answer the question, it was\nnecessary to know, first, something of the present needs and conditions of\nnormal-school libraries, and, second, what has been contributed by former\nlibrary sessions of the National Education Association.\nTwo or three investigations have been made, none of them very thoro\nand exhaustive, of normal-school library conditions over the country. The\nresults have not been published except as they have appeared in a general\nway in papers read before the National Education Association. But the\ninvestigations have shown something of the tremendous awakening of interest in the subject, since the first report on the introduction of library\nadministration into normal schools, made by Miss Baldwin in 1906, for\nthe National Education Association.\nIn the very beginning of normal-school library awakening about ten\nyears ago, there were two or three pioneer librarians trying to introduce\nlibrary instruction into the normal schools. Since then, one or more\nschools in practically every state in the country are doing something to\nteach students the use of books and library. Inquiries from schools contemplating library courses have come from all parts of the country to the\nfew schools giving courses. For the last five years requests have been\nvery great for printed outlines of the courses given. Because of this\ngreat demand for a printed course of study, the committee decided upon\noutlining a suggestive library course for normal schools as its piece of work\nfor the year.\nThe outline does not take the place of previous courses that have been\nprinted: Some excellent handbooks have been prepared that are valuable for\nuse in the technical side of the instruction, among them Miss Salisbury's,\nof the Whitewater Normal School, Wisconsin, and Miss Baldwin's, prepared\nfor the National Education Association. Mr. Ward's handbook, Practical\nUse of Books and Libraries, and the Newark Public Library Course of Study\n\n"}
{"page": 1275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depaitment]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1259\n\nin the Use of a Library are admirable guides in teaching the use of a library\nand of reference books. But there is, as yet, no handbook that outlines\na course of lessons on children's literature, or a course of library lessons for\nchildren. The needs for library instruction of the normal-school student are\ndifferent from those of the high-school or college student. High-school,\ncollege, and normal student all need preliminary library instruction in\nhow to use books and how to use the library. In addition to this, every\nnormal-school student needs to know children's books and how to teach\nlibrary lessons to children. And a small number of normal students who\nelect such a course should have technical instruction that will prepare them\nto organize and administer a small school library.\nThe course submitted by this committee outlines in brief the library\ninstruction that should be required of every normal-school student and\nsuggests, in addition, the technical course to prepare students to take charge\nof small school libraries.\nThis suggested course in fuller form, with assignments, reading-lists,\nand methods for giving the lessons, is in preparation by the committee\nand will soon be ready for examination by anyone who is interested. This\nreport of the committee merely gives an abstract of the suggested course\nin library methods.\nCourses in Library Instruction for Normal Schools\nI. General course required of every graduate.\nThe aims of this course are:\na) To make new students at home in the library by teaching them to find what they\nneed without waste of time and to use the reference books and keys of the library\nintelligently.\nb) To acquaint graduating students with the best books for supplementary and\noutside reading in the grades, that they may be prepared to select the books for a\nschool library and to direct the reading of children.\nc) To prepare students to teach children in the grades how to use books and the\nlibrary.\nII. Ten or more lessons for new students on the use of the library:\n1. Arrangement of the library: explanation of the decimal classification, call numbers\nof books, location of different classes of books, pamphlets, picture collection, etc.\n2. Use of the card catalog.\n3. Use of periodical indexes.\n4. Use of bibliographies, such as Buffalo Public Library subject index, Salisbury,\nIndex to Short Stories, Granger, Index to Poetry, etc.\n5. Intelligent use of a book title-page, preface, index, table of contents.\n6. Use of general reference books: dictionaries, cyclopaedias, gazetteers, yearbooks,\netc.\n\nThe entering class may be divided into sections containing fifteen or\ntwenty students and the lessons given to small groups of new students\nconducted thru the library, or seated around a table for explanations.\nThe lessons should be made practical laboratory exercises. For example,\nin the lesson on the card catalog, all the trays from the catalog can be placed\n\n"}
{"page": 1276, "printed_page": null, "text": "I26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Lib.ary\n\non the table, and after general explanation of the cards, each student may\nfind in his own tray an example of the different kinds of cards, in answer\nto questions previously made out for this tray. This is an example of such\na set of questions prepared for the drawer containing the letters P, R.\nHow many books has the library by Edgar Allen Poe ?\nIs there a life of Poe in the library ?\nWho is the author and what is the call number of The Passing of Thomas ?\nFind two books about Robin Hood.\n•\nFind two books containing chapters about Robin Hood.\nWhat bound volumes has the library of the Pedagogical Seminary ?\nWhat subheads under Rome are to be found in the catalog ?\nHow many books has the library of the Picturesque Geographical Readers ?\nUnder what other subjects would you find books related to physical education ?\nGive the number of volumes, publisher, and date of publication of Roosevelt's\nWinning of the West, and is it illustrated ?\n\nAs a practical review for the work of this course, a topic for research\nmay be assigned so that the students may learn to exhaust the resources of\nthe library, in both books and periodical literature, on their particular\nsubject. The topics assigned can be chosen from those used by the method\nand critic teachers in their regular work, such as:\nAtlantic cable\nBooker T. Washington\nChristmas\nIrrigation\n\nThese reading-lists when completed may be put on file in the library for\nthe future use of teachers and the librarian in looking for material on these\nsubjects. The student learns from such a problem how and where to\nlook for material on any subject, and how to save time by using all kinds of\nindexes as shorts cuts and aids. After looking up material on one subject,\nhe should feel at home in the library and be able to find for himself material\nfor debates, or for special research topics in methods classes.\nIII. Ten or more lessons for graduating class:\n1. Helps in the selection of books for the school library\nDiscussion of some of the best classified and graded lists of children's books:\nBuffalo Classroom Libraries; Miss Hewins' Books for Boys and Girls\n2. Principles to guide in the selection of books for children\nCollections of poetry\nNature books\nFairy tales\nFiction\nPicture books\nBiography and travel\nHistory, etc.\n\nSome of the best books in each class should be discussed and compared\nwith some cheap, worthless examples, and thus a standard is gained in the\nselection of books. For example, in picture books, some exquisite editions,\n\n"}
{"page": 1277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departraentj\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n*\n\n1261\n\nillustrated by real children's artists such as Howard Pyle, Walter Crane,\nand Jessie Wilcox Smith, can be shown in the class, and the work of these\nillustrators compared with some of the cheap imitations and with picture\nbooks of the Sunday-supplement type.\nStudents read several children's books and make reports of different\nkinds upon them. One report may be from the point of view of the teacher,\ngiving the literary estimate of the book and its use in school work. The\nfollowing outline may be used as a suggestion for reports of this kind:\n1. Kind of book:\n\nFairy story, myth, hero-story, nature- or animal-story, book of travel, history, or\nbiography.\nIf a story, is it about home-life, school-life, sea, war, adventure, etc.\n2. Literary merit of the book:\nPlot: Is it loose, simple, complex, involved: impossible, overdrawn, etc.\nCharacters: wholesome, natural, well bred, too good, morbid, lifelike, well drawn, etc.\nMotive or theme: human sympathy, moral courage, valor, friendship, character\nbuilding, commonplace, etc.\nStyle: Is the English correct, pure, slangy, babyish, in dialect; language figurative,\nconversational; vocabulary simple, stimulating.\n3. Use of the book:\nAdapted to what age; most interesting to boys or girls; for children's outside reading;\nsupplementary reading in school; for stor>'- telling; reading aloud; dramatization;\nintensive study.\n4. Physical make-up of the book :\nBinding, paper, type, index, illustration.\n5. Estimate of the book.\n\nAnother kind of report may be made for the purpose of introducing the\nchild to the book and making him wish to read it. Book reports of both\nkinds should be given in class, and the student should also observe book\ntalks given to the children in the grades of the training school.\nThe students should also give practice lessons to the children, or see\nsuch lessons given. In the first three grades library lessons may be given\non how to care for books, and how to open a new book. Beg\"nning with the\nfourth grade, lessons may be given on the arrangement of books, call numbers, the use of the catalog, the dictionary, and the use of the title-page,\nindex, and table of contents. The seventh and eighth, grades and the\nfirst two years of high school should have lessons on reference books and\nperiodical indexes.\nIn addition to these library lessons the reading interest of the children\nmay be aroused and directed by means of a library period each week.\nStudent teachers should always be present at these periods in the library\nand help the children to find books.\nIV. Course for teacher-librarians:\nThis is an elective course of two years open to ten or fifteen students. The minimum requirement for entrance is a high-school course, including four years of English.\nThe aim of this course is to prepare teachers to direct the reading of the children in the\ngrades, to give lessons in the grades and high school on the use of books and the library.\n\n"}
{"page": 1278, "printed_page": null, "text": "1262\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nand to administer a small school library in addition to some teaching of high-school\nEnglish or history. A graduate from this course should receive a teacher's license and\nis not fitted to fill a public-library position.\nThis course gives one period a day during the two years to library instruction or\npractical work. It includes instruction and practice in cataloging, classification, and all\nthe technical processes of library work, a course in children's literature and practice\nteaching of library lessons in the grades and high school.\n\nTHE EDUCATED\nARTHUR\n\nE.\n\nBOSTWICK,\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nLIBRARIAN\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nST,\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nEducation intended to improve and systematize the use of an institution may be directed to those who administer it or to those who use it.\nIt should obviously take both directions. If in our engineering schools we\nshotild omit to teach the use of logarithmic tables and then appoint a special\nofficer whose duty it should be to look up and supply logarithms for all\ncomers, we should be doing very much what we actually are doing in our\nteaching of literature, where we omit to explain the uses and advantages\nof such tools as are to be found in the library, relying on the aid and instruction to be given by library assistants themselves. Obviously, if the\nlibrarian must take time to do this he must omit to do many things that\nare more important. He finds himself in as hopeless a position as would\nthe umpire of a baseball match who should have to teach all the players\nthe game before it could begin. The librarian's duties, and hence his\ntraining for those duties, are affected in more ways than one by the possession or lack of library knowledge on the part of his clients. It is so in\nschool; the more the pupils know, the less coaching the teacher has to\ndo, but the less possible is it to get along with a teacher who knows only\nthe elements. The better educated the congregation, the more scholarly\nthe clergyman that they will demand. All this is obvious, especially\nto such a body as this; yet I believe that the interdependence of these two\nkinds of library education — for use and for service — has not been sufficiently insisted upon.\nFor many years it has been impressed more and more on my mind\nthat vocational selection is even more important than vocational training.\nA bom physician may get along with inadequate training, but the best\ntraining is thrown away on one who cannot use it. Proper selection and\nthe proper training of those selected are both needed, of course, and they\nare intimately connected. No one can select with his eyes open until he\nhas been led over the grovmd to start with. And especially is this necessary in selection for librarianship. In no occupation, perhaps, do more\nunfit persons present themselves, and more fit ones fail to apply, largely\nbecause the public does not understand the requirements. In a booklet\nof information issued by our own library in an effort to better this state of\nignorance occurs this concluding paragraph:\n\n"}
{"page": 1279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATED\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\n1 263\n\nTo those who are fitted for it, library work offers a congenial field of employment.\nIt does not pay as well as teaching and the vacations are not as long, but it has peculiar\nattractions for those who are interested in education outside of school. It requires good\nhealth, strength, an even temper, quickness of apprehension, and resourcefulness. It\nis not work adapted to those deficient in education or to those who by reason of advancing\nage, or limitations of any other sort, find it difl&cult to obtain other employment.\n\nSuch obvious information as this would not be necessary if the requirements of library work were generally known even as well as are those of\nmedicine, or law, or engineering. It would not be necessary if school\ninstruction generally included information regarding the functions and\nuse of the library, so that such instruction serves the treble purpose of\nmaking the use of books in a library easier to those who receive it, of setting\nfree for other needed work the time of the librarian, and last but not least,\nof informing the student sufficiently to make his choice or rejection of\nlibrarianship as a profession an intelligent one. And as the library must\nlook chiefly to high-school graduates to fill the ranks of its assistants,\nespecially of the lower and medium grades, it is in the high school that this\ninstruction should be chiefly given.\nAnd I am convinced that if library instruction in the high school is\ndirected as if it were to be entirely for this end, it will carry the other\ntwo objects with it. In other words, if every high-school student is given\nthe kind of information that will enable him to decide whether he is fitted\nto become a librarian, he will at the same time be better fitted to use the\nbooks in a library. In the few remaining words that I shall have to say\nI shall devote myself to explaining and attempting to prove this thesis.\nWhat are the things that a student needs to know about libraries to\nenable him to decide whether or not he would like library work? We\nfind that persons who apply for such positions are deficient in four kinds\nof knowledge about the work — knowledge of its physical requirements, its\neducational requirements, its technical requirements, its personal requirements. They are apt to think, for instance, that a girl who is too feeble\nto serve in a shop, or too nervous to teach, would make a perfectly good\nlibrary assistant; that one may in a few weeks master the technique of the\nlibrary, from classification system to stackroom construction; that if\none is able to read the books he handles, or at least the titles on their\nbacks, he has a library education; and finally that ill-temper, a desire to\nhave one's own way, and inability to gain the liking of one's fellow-workers\nare no bars to advancement in a library, tho they might so operate in a\nschool, a store, or a factory.\nI should like to see the Senior year of a high-school course embrace four\nlectures, one on each of these requisites. In the first, the physical strain\nof library work would be emphasized — the fact that its vacations are 70\nper cent shorter than those of the teacher for instance, that its hours are\nlonger; .that the library assistant is much on her feet, standing, walking,\nor running; that she must reach up to high shelves for heavy books and\n\n"}
{"page": 1280, "printed_page": null, "text": "1264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ndown to low ones; that she must often work until a late hour at night.\nI would have all this emphasized by practical instances where persons\nphysically unfitted for the work have broken down under it, until it is\nmade clear that library work is no work for the weak, whether from youth\nor age; that it requires robust health, buoyant spirits, the enthusiasm and\ntemper that are inseparable from a sound, strong, mature body.\nIn the second lecture I would have it made plain that if there ever was\nan occupation requiring very full and detailed information, not only on the\nordinary topics taught in schools, but on matters of current interest and on\nspecial subjects such as technology, art, music, and foreign literature, it\nis that of a library assistant. The library places on its shelves the literature of all subjects: there is not one of those subjects that the library\nassistant may neglect. She must know about all of them, even tho\nshe may not know them; their authors and their titles must both be\nfixed in her memory. The lady who studied physics in 1883 or the man\nwho knows only one period of European history will not do: the librarian\nmust have at least a working library knowledge of pretty nearly everything\nunder the sun. This I should like to see emphasized by a recital of a few\nscore of questions such as are propounded to an ordinary librarian in an\nordinary working-day — questions whose answers, even if he does not know\nthem, he must know where to find, on penalty of loss of reputation both\nfor himself and for the institution that he represents.\nIn the third lecture I would have enough said to explain the mass of\ntechnical material that may be known, even if it is rarely all kno^vTi, by\nthe modem librarian. I would have it made clear that he might spend\nyears, for instance, in studying the various systems of classification that\nhave been proposed or used, or even the practical application of the one\nof these that has been chosen for his own library, I would emphasize the\nrecent great extension of the library into adjacent fields, making it necessary for the librarian to know something of school and university curricula,\nmuseums, art galleries, civic and social organizations, child welfare, etc.;\nand I would dwell on the business side of his work, which requires that\nhe shall be more or less familiar with the ins and outs of the book and\nbinding trades, the different phases of building construction', and the\norganization and administration of a staff of workers.\nIn the fourth and last lecture I would call attention to the fact that\nthe librarian comes into closer touch with the public than any other of its\nemployees. His touch with the child is almost as intimate as the teacher's,\nand in addition his relations are close with the adult, as the teacher's are\nnot. He cannot assume the teacher's authoritative attitude. Attendance\non his institution is voluntary, yet support of the institution depends largely\non public opinion and he must treat every reader as his employer. I know\nof no other employment where tact and a pleasing address are so necessary,\nand necessary so constantly. The librarian may be a repository of knowl-\n\n"}
{"page": 1281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depaitment]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATED\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\n1265\n\nedge, general and technical: if he has not geniality, forbearance, a love both\nfor the work and for those on whose behalf he is domg it, he is a misfit. He\nmight have passed muster in 1850; he will not do for 1912. Nor would I\nneglect the whiter side of the shield. The lecturer should point out that\nthe modern changes and extensions in the work of libraries have made\nmodern librarianship a peculiarly up-to-date profession. Nowhere, I\nbelieve, may one come into contact with work and workers of so many\ndifferent kinds as in the library; nowhere may one get the wide outlook that\nmay be obtained there by one who desires it. A knowledge of its fascinations will serve to attract the fit, as that of its difilculties and requirements\nmay act to repel the unfit. All these things would I have clearly set forth.\nNow how, in placing all this tactfully before the high-school student,\nmay we at the same time make it easier for him to use the library tools —\nto extract what he wants from the books without having a library assistant\ncontinually at his elbow?\nThe difficulties encountered by the library user to whom the library\nis a new thing are not many, nor are they serious, tho they may appear so.\nThey include difficulties with library machinery and difficulties with books\nas such. The reader has trouble with the assistants ; he misunderstands the\nregulations and thinks they are intended to impede and annoy him; he is\nnot familiar with the disposition and functions of the various departments,\nwith the classified positions of books on the shelves, with the arrangement\nof the card catalog. All this, and more like it, is the result of unfamiliarity\nwith the levers and cogwheels of the library. Again, he does not know\nin what kinds of books to look for what he wants to find; he is ignorant\nof when to use a gazetteer, when an atlas, when a government report,\nwhen a general cyclopaedia, or a special technical dictionary. And when\nhe does know the kind, he is generally ignorant of individual characteristics:\nhe does not know when to look in the Century Dictionary, when in the\nInternational, when in the Standard; he is unaware that the Britannica,\nthe American, and the Nelson's cyclopaedia has each its good points, and\nwhat those good points are.\nTo take up first the second of these classes of difficulties, a large amount\nof this ignorance of books has nothing whatever to do with their library use.\nSurely a high-school graduate should know the difference between an\nelementary botany and a comprehensive treatise and should not expect\nto find in the former what he can get only in the latter. He should know\none dictionary from another and a dictionary from a cyclopaedia. He should\nbe able to make a thousand distinctions of this kind, whether he has received\nany specific library instruction or not. I have seen educated adults who\ndid not understand fully the principles of alphabetic arrangement. Matters\nof this kind are topics of general education; the library must assiune that\nall who come to it are familiar with them. It is not prepared to teach boys\nto read or to impart to them information that should be almost as elemen-\n\n"}
{"page": 1282, "printed_page": null, "text": "1266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ntary. What I am saying may almost be extended without impropriety\nover the whole class of difl5culties that has to do with the use of books.\nHigh-school students should be taught to use them, but so they should be\ntaught if there were not a single public library in existence, just as they\nshould still be taught to read in such an event. Now that every high\nschool has its own collection of books, embracing most of the commoner\nkinds of reference works, instruction of this kind has become easier to give\nand is less frequently neglected.\nSuch information about the use of books that relates specifically to\nbooks found only in large libraries, such, for instance, as government reports\n•or the transactions of learned societies, may well be given in one of the\nlectures which treats of the librarian's educational equipment, general or\ntechnical. In explaining, for instance, how necessary it is that the librarian\nshould know what to find in public documents it should be easy to enumerate\nsome of their useful contents, and so on.\nIn regard to the other class of difficulties — those relating to library\nmachinery — explanation of the physical and personal requisites for library\nwork will greatly lessen the student's chances to run afoul of this machinery.\nIf he is made to understand the nature and quantity of the librarian's task\nand the way in which it must be done, the danger of friction between him\nas a user and the librarian as an administrator is measurably avoided. He\ncomes to understand the necessity for the kind of rules that the library\nmakes and enforces; he learns that there is such a thing as classification,\nand he finds out what system the library employs, how and where the books\nare shelved, and how the catalog is made and used. He learns this, it is\ntrue, in a very general way; but definite teaching and practice could not\nbe expected in the high school, and if only the student is interested and is\ntold where he can get further information, he will be apt to look it up. He\nmay find opportunity to do so, in some degree, in his own high-school\nlibrary. Tho for its own purposes such a library would not be organized\nand arranged like a public library, it may well depart a little from its own\nsphere for the sake of accustoming its users to some of the difficulties — to\nsome of the necessarily more complex mechanism — that they are sure to\nencounter in the larger institutions. In such high schools as house regular\npublic-library branches this plan may be carried out easily and well.\nIn short, a few lectures on libraries and their work, pitched more particularly on the vocational key, will be apt to give, and at any rate can be so\nadapted as to give, the student all the information regarding his own use\nof the library that a high-school student could expect to obtain.\nA scholar is one who is related to school work either as teacher or learner.\nIn the same way I would enlarge the content of the term \"librarian\" to\ninclude not only the administrator but the serious user of a library. It is\ndesirable that both these kinds of library-workers should be educated for\nwhat they are to do, and I believe that the first steps that may be taken\n\n"}
{"page": 1283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVSE\n\nOF LIBRARY\n\nIN\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n1267\n\nin this direction in the high-school course can be taken toward both goals\nat the same time.\nTHE\n\nUSE OF THE LIBRARY\n\nJESSE B. DAVIS, PRINCIPAL, CENTRAL\n\nIN VOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, GRAND\n\nRAPIDS, MICH.\n\nThe charge is often made that the curriculum of the American high\nschool is mediaeval. To prove the verity of this statement, one needs but\nto look into the average school library. We find more books telling of the\nmanners and customs of the ancients than of the business methods of\ntoday; more relating to the history of wars and dynasties than to the great\nindustrial movements of modern times. The shelves are filled with the\naccepted writers of classic literature from all the centuries of the past,\nbut we find very little present-day literature dealing with the vital issues\nof life. This condition is in no way the fault of our librarians. The books\nto be found in the school library are there at the request of the teachers,\nand the teachers are the product of a mediaeval system.\nHowever, tradition in education, as in religion and politics, is rapidly\ngiving way to reason. The transformation of our schools is taking place\nso rapidly that we sometimes doubt the wisdom of it all. Conservative\nas we may be, we are forced to realize that a new order of things is with us\nand that it is our duty to direct the reformation as wisely as we may. The\nschool library of the future will again be the proof of the extent of the transformation, and, I believe I am safe in saying, will be the proof of the educational value of the new curriculum. When our schools have outgrown\ntheir cloister days, and are aiming to prepare our boys and girls for the life\nthat they must live in the work-a-day world, the library will be the open\ndoor to the progress and opportunity of the present.\nOne phase of the modern movement in education has gone so far that\nwe are now forced to recognize that it makes two demands upon our public\nschools. One is the demand for vocational guidance; the other for moral\nguidance. By vocational guidance, I mean the process of aiding the pupil\nto a better knowledge of himself, and of opening his eyes to the wide field\nof opportunity that is before him, and of aiding him in preparing himself\nfor that career in which he believes he can render the greatest service. Success, whatever that may mean to the individual, is the goal which every\nyouth entering the high school confidently expects to reach. Upon graduation he sets sail with great faith in his public-school education. Often,\nhowever, he finds that he has launched his bark without chart or compass,\nand that he can but drift thru life because, during his preparatory period,\nhe was never urged to take serious thought of the direction in which he\nshould go to reach the harbor for which he was best fitted by nature. We\nshould not wonder that the world is filled with misfits and that but comparatively few men call themselves truly successful.\n\n"}
{"page": 1284, "printed_page": null, "text": "1268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nThe trend of education today is forcing upon our boys and girls, very\nearly in life, the decision of questions of vital consequence. At fourteen\nand fifteen years of age, they are confronted with a choice of ways that is\nmost confusing. Upon leavdng the grammar school, or at the legal age,\nthey must decide between the high school and the office, or the shop. If\ntheir choice is the school, will it be the technical, the commercial, or the\nacademic high school ? If necessity forces them to work, shall they accept\nthe job with the best immediate pay and no future, or the one for which they\nhave some natural ability and in which there is a chance to grow ? These\nare important questions that are very hard for unguided youth and unthinking parent to answer. Upon leaving high school and even college, these\nsame questions are frequently not yet answered. Vital as the problem is,\nthe schools have hitherto failed to give it serious attention, but now that\nour eyes have been opened we must assume the duty of guiding our pupils\nthru the mysteries of the ever-increasing vocational opportunity.\nThe second claim upon our attention is the need for guidance in the\ndevelopment of the moral qualities that are necessary to success in any\ncareer. There is always a demand for the right kind of men in every vocation. We have experimented with this problem of moral instruction for\nmany years without signal success. The courses offered have been too\nabstract, too brief in their influence, or too limited in the number reached,\nand they have been lacking in real application to the lives of the pupils.\nState and national committees are still at work upon the problem, and however this question or that of vocational guidance may be solved, the library\nwill perform a most important function.\nIn response to these demands, about four years ago a plan was originated\nin the Central High School of Grand Rapids, Mich., for directing our pupils\ntoward a better preparation for their life's work. We called this plan\n\"vocational guidance.\" As the scheme was gradually developed, it also\nproved to be a very satisfactory course in moral training, and at the same\ntime solved some of the problems of the teaching of English composition,\nin which department the plan was executed. In this school all pupils are\nrequired to take the subject of English thru the entire four years of the\nhigh school. Written and oral composition form a part of the work in\neach year, and it is thru this work that the vocational and moral themes\nare introduced. In obtaining material for these themes the school library\nplays a most important part. The collecting of new books and pamphlets\nand the necessary co-operation between the teachers of English and the\nlibrarian have brought new responsibilities to that office.\nLogically, vocational guidance begins below the high school. Before\nthe boys and girls come to the point of deciding which of the ways lying\nbefore them they will take, they should spend some time in studying and\nwriting upon the subject of the \"Value of an Education.\" Every phase\nof what it will mean to them to leave school should be made plain. Special\n\n"}
{"page": 1285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVSE\n\nOF LIBRARY\n\nI^ VOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n1269\n\nstudy of their vocational aptitudes and possibilities should be made by the\nteacher in order that the best of counsel may be given. This means that\nin every grammar-school building there should be a select number of books\nto aid both pupil and teacher. Thru the branch libraries and by special\narrangement with the public library, these needs can easily be cared for.\nFollowing the outline of the Grand Rapids school plan, the general\ntopic for the ninth grade is \"Elements of Success in Life.\" During the\nfirst semester, a study of the biography of successful men and women is\nmade for the purpose of finding the elements of character and habits that\nmade for success in their lives. Such a study also serves to stir the pupil's\nambition early in his high-school course. For this purpose there should be\na careful selection of biographies. They should be brief, easy for the\nfifteen-year-old youth to read, and should cover a wide range of human\nachievement.\nThe second semester of this first year has for its keynote the theme\n\"Know Thyself.\" Most of the compositions are autobiographical, aiming\nto draw out from the pupil a better knowledge of his own abilities, tastes,\nhabits, and opportunities. The books accompanying this course should\nbe largely inspirational. Titles such as The Secret of Success, Pushing to\nthe Front, and Starting in Life are suggestive of the type of book most useful.\nThere are a large number of authors whose works are helpful. I need\nmention but the names of Russell H. Conwell, E. H. Griggs, 0. S. Marden,\nand William Mathews to illustrate the character of the books used.\nThe largest demand upon the library comes in the second year, in which\nthe central idea is the \"World's Work.\" In this list should be enough\nbooks to give the student as wide a view of the call of the world as possible.\nThere are a few books of a general type that are intended to guide young\npeople in the study of vocations. These books need to be very wisely\nselected, as the title does not always signify its usefulness to the inquirer.\nTo illustrate this point, the boy who is thinking of becoming an electrical\nengineer, and who knows nothing at all about the life or duties of this\nprofession, should not be sent to a technical work on some engineering problem. The teacher as well as the librarian should know the content of a\nbook before it is given to such a pupil, for he is simply looking from the outside to find out what it will mean to him to attempt to be an electrical\nengineer. This principle applies to all books selected as a basis for students'\nreading in the preparation of their themes.\nIn connection with the study of vocations, it is very helpful to have a\ncard index devoted to the subject. Each occupation should be classified\nand should have one or more cards containing the needed information.\nThey should include references to the best books dealing with the subject,\nreferences to magazine articles, • and data relating to the status of the\noccupation in the community. Under the direction of the teacher, and\naided by the librarian, the pupils themselves can derive much benefit\n\n"}
{"page": 1286, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nfrom collecting the material for these cards. The average high-school pupil\nhas a very meager idea of the nimiber of vocations that are open to him.\nSuch an index, cataloging two, three, or four thousand, or even several\nhundred occupations, is in itself a broadening influence, especially if the\npupil has helped to make it. This system provides constant opportunity\nfor student work, as the index must be kept up to date and made to grow\nfrom year to year.\nThe themes of the fourth semester are on the subject of \"Choosing a\nVocation.\" The idea carried out here is to apply the pupil's study of himself, of his own character and ability, to the particular vocation for which\nhe seems to be best fitted. The High School Teachers' Association of\nNew York City and the Vocation Bureau of Boston have published some\npamphlets along this line. There are also a number of very helpful books\nto be listed under this heading. Possibly the most suggestive book to be\nfound is one written by Frank Parsons under the title. Choosing a Vocation.\nThe Times and Young Men, by Josiah Strong, strikes the keynote in the\ncall to service. From the standpoint of moral guidance, one idea should\nnot be lost sight of, namely: that the man who attains the greatest success\nin life is the man who is of the greatest service to humanity in whatever\noccupation he may be found.\nAfter choosing a vocation or deciding upon a certain general division\nof occupations as a possible future choice, it is necessary to begin to plan\ndefinitely the best course of immediate action; so in the first semester\nof the third year, we deal with \"Preparation for Life's Work.\" If this\nmeans going to college or some technical school, the library should afford\nthe pupil the catalog that will guide him toward the best that the coimtry\noffers. On the other hand, if he is planning to enter the fields of commerce\nor industry, the material is very difficult to find. The Boston Vocation\nBureau has published a few pamphlets on the Machinists' Trade, Banking,\netc. Similar pamphlets are now being prepared on other occupations.\nThere are also a nimiber of very helpful books and magazine articles to\nbe found. However, this field is yet to be satisfactorily developed. There\nshould always be a local survey of vocations for those who will seek their\nliving in the home city. While making this material preparation there is\none idea that should not be neglected: that preparation in character is\nnecessary in every calling. The student should see that the employer is as\nmuch concerned with the kind of boy or girl that he hires as with the particular training that he or she may have had. It is the adaptability to\ncircumstances, the dependability of character, and the power to grow into\nsomething better that bring success in the business world. Books that make\nthis thought clear are particularly helpful.\nIn the second semester of the third year, the topic is \"Business Ethics.\"\nThe idea is to develop \"an appreciation of the moral responsibilities of the\nindividual in his particular vocation.\nEach profession, each business has\n\n"}
{"page": 1287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUSE\n\nOF LIBRARY\n\nIN\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\n1271\n\nits peculiar code of ethics that should be understood by the one thinking of\nentering that field. There are many articles in the magazines and a few\nvery good books to be listed under this caption.\nThe Senior year is devoted to the study of social ethics from the point of\nview of the individual in his vocation. This is for the purpose of giving\na personal application to the morals taught, and a concreteness that cannot\nbe obtained in any other way. During the first semester, the underlying\ntheme is, \"The Individual and Society,\" and during the second, \"The\nIndividual and the State.\" A large number of books will be found that\nare helpful in this division of the work. The only care that needs to be\ntaken is that they are of an uplifting nature and are within the understanding of the pupils.\nThe library should set apart a section of shelves and a table in the\nreading-room for vocational guidance, arranging the books according to\nthe outline of the work used by the classes in English. This portion of the\nlibrary will become very popular, as the students are very enthusiastic\nover these discussions. The public library will always be of great assistance to the school library, duplicating and supplementing the work. The\nGrand Rapids public library has proved a very valuable factor in the\ndevelopment of our plan. In their October bulletin of 191 1, they published\na very complete bibliography on vocational guidance. Several thousand\ncopies were furnished the school, so that each pupil and teacher could use\nit as a manual of the course. It contained a brief description and outline\nof the work, followed by the bibliography arranged to follow the work of\neach semester. A complete manual and revised bibliography will soon be\npublished.\nTime will not permit me to describe the full plan of vocational guidance\nas conducted in our school. I will merely state that other departments\nthan English have opportunities to give attention to the vocational aim of\nthe pupils in their classes. There are special teachers known as grade\nprincipals or session-room teachers, who have made a special study of vocational counseling, and the principal of the school acts as chief counselor.\nIn Grand Rapids a committee of the Association of Commerce acts as a\nvocation bureau, assisting in the gathering of data for the use of the pupils\nand acting as a kind of employment clearing-house between the high school\nand the business world.\nWe no longer consider our work of the past four years an experiment:\nit is now a fixed part of the curriculum. Its results are seen and felt in\nthe atmosphere of the school. Students and teachers bear witness of the\nbenefits to be derived from the course. Pupils are taking their work more\nseriously and with greater purpose, resulting in a higher standard of conduct\nand efficiency. Teachers are appreciating the opportunity that is theirs of\ndoing something more than imparting information — of sharing in the\ngreater work of molding lives.\n\n"}
{"page": 1288, "printed_page": null, "text": "1272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nThe school and the public library afford the laboratory for the work\ndone in vocational and moral guidance, whatever plan may be followed.\nSchools that do not have the four-year course in English composition can\nstill follow the general outline as a course of reading, and may possibly\nenforce the reading by requiring a vocational thesis each semester. The\nplan may also prove suggestive to the rural schools and communities which\nare today well served by libraries. The success with which any plan is\ncarried out will depend largely upon the sympathy of the librarian and the\nliberality with which the library is equipped. In the new era of public education just beginning, we shall expect the library to take its proper place, and\nto assume its full responsibility in helping the American youth to find a\nlife of true happiness and real success.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. p. p. Claxton, Washington, D.C. — The paper under discussion is \"The\nUse of the Library in Vocational Guidance.\" It never occurred to me, nor would it to\nany librarian, I believe, but that the public library should be a great factor in vocational\nselection and training. In fact it should help in many ways to determine these things\nby bringing the right books or information to the right boy and girl, and I hold that it\nis the business and duty of a well-equipped or even not well-equipped public library to\nkeep in touch with all educational and social agencies and every other agency for the\nuplift and betterment pf mankind and make it a p)oint either to help in movements started\nor to start a good one. If the library is not asked to enter helpfully into these things, or\nif the public, the clubs, organizations, or schools are indifferent, go to the people, to the\nfactories, the shops, the schools, the homes, to the public, and especially to the trade\nschools, and insist that the library has the wares that will help and that these wares\nare for all — -the benefit of all.\nI feel that assistance given by the library to any man or woman in any line of work\nis helping a vocation, for any work done by a person to earn a livelihood, whether it be\nthe teaching of English literature, the French language, or carpentry, or cooking, is vocational. Itake it that whatever a man does to earn a living is a vocation. So the discussion isnot, \"Shall the public library aid in vocational training?\" but how to do it\nmore speedily, effectively, and adequately.\nThis brings me to a phase of vocational and recreational work in which I am more\ninterested than in anything else just now, and that is the work of the free library in rural\ncommunities. If the library is needed in the city where there are so many educational\nand recreational agencies, how much more is it needed in the country or small village ?\nIf about 70 per cent of the population are still in the country and small towns, it is high\ntime to bring the public librar>^ directly to this 70 per cent.\nGrown people and children the whole world over need for their best development\ncompanionship and mental diversion, and when they do not have them they rush off\nfrom the country to the cities, there often, by the sudden mental change, to fall into\nevil ways and ruin. Statistics show that many country people fill the asylums from sheer\nloneliness, depression, and want of companionship or mental diversion from the daily\ndrudgery, which would not be a drudgery but a wholesome, profitable, pleasant work in\nwhich every normal soul glories if there is, at intervals, diversion and a mental uplift and\nspiritual outlook. The public library now has a great opportunity to help make the\n\"back-to-the-f arm \" movement more vital and successful and to bring light, happiness,\nand recreation, and mental stimulus to the farmer boy and girl, man and woman.\n\n"}
{"page": 1289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1 273\n\nFor no man is friendless, alone, or idle when he has a good book. There is only one\nway adequate to give the farmer and the small village dweller good books, and that will\ncome thru a public library owned and operated by the county, the building to be well\nequipped with reading and restroom where the country people may come, rest, read, and\nselect the desired books to be borrowed for a week or month for home reading. The\nlibrary building should be located in the county seat or the largest town in the county\nand be maintained by the people as are the schools. The circulation of books thruout the\ncounty could be partly carried on by rural free delivery and if it is necessary have branches\nor deposit stations at the crossroads store, schoolhouse, church, or even in the home if no\nother place is available. The country schoolhouse should not only be a depository for\nthe school library but should be a public library for the whole community around; then\nit would open its doors alike to the grown people and children for library purposes and\nother purposes such as study or other intellectual recreation; it would be a community\ncenter, radiating a good influence the year around instead of for several months and in\nthe mornings only. In buying books for this county library no attempt should be made\nto get each one of the late books \"just hot off the griddle,\" unless they are most worthy,\nbut to purchase a number of copies of a good wholesome book which may give a whole\ncommunity a lesson in truth and clean recreation.\nPeople in the country have time to read, they do not have the diversions of city\nfolk, and they read better material and digest it too. I want to make the plea that the\npeople of the National Education Association of the Library Section make it their purpose\nand duty to help this movement and bring vocational and recreational books thru the\ncounty public library to the people who need them most, and who will get the greatest\ngood out of the least expenditure of money.\n\nREPORT\nMARY\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE\nE.\n\nHALL,\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nGIRLS'\n\nON HIGH-SCHOOL\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nYour committee respectfully submits the following report of its study\nof high-school libraries and presents recommendations as to possibilities\nof increasing their efficiency and promoting closer co-operation between\nschool and public library.\nOur inquiries were along two lines: (I) conditions existing in city high\nschools; (II) possibilities of aid for high-school libraries from outside\nsources, public libraries, county libraries, state library commissions, and\nstate boards of education. Over 250 questionnaires were sent out and\nreplies were received from 118 high-school principals in 61 representative\ncities of the United States, also from 30 librarians of public libraries in our\nlargest cities, 27 state library commissions, and from many state and city\nsuperintendents of public instruction. All have been most generous in\nsending not only full replies but sample copies of lists and other printed\naids which might be of service to those interested in the use of the library in\nschool work. The material on state and county aid to high-school libraries\nis so valuable that we regret so brief mention must be made of it in this\nreport. It is hoped this material may be used in a supplementary report\nat next year's meeting. The loans and gifts of printed matter for the\nexhibit have been listed and the gifts of publications will be used each year\n\n"}
{"page": 1290, "printed_page": null, "text": "1274\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nin the exhibit which the section will have in connection with the annual\nmeeting.\nThe replies show that our high-school libraries are passing thru a period\nof readjustment — like the college and public libraries they are finding that\nold library methods do not meet present needs. The twentieth-century\nhigh school with its broader curriculum and change of methods of teaching\nfrom the exclusive use of textbook to a full use of the library as a laboratory\nand an important aid in all its work is making demands which require\nradical changes in the organization and administration of the school library\nand closer co-operation with the public library. School boards and school\nsuperintendents are beginning to recognize this and a well-equipped library\nwith a large reading-room in charge of a specially trained librarian is a\nfeature of some of our most progressive high schools. High-school principals and librarians of public libraries realize that this library within the\nschool building can do some things for teachers and pupils that the busy\npublic library outside the high school cannot do after school hours. The\nconstant need of consulting books of reference during the school day and\nthe opportunity which the free study period affords for reference and\nreading justify the existence of the school library in addition to the public\nlibrary. It affords opportunity for the librarian to personally direct the\nlibrary reading of the students, and, in co-operation with the teachers,\nmeet the special needs of each pupil as an individual.\nIn this reorganization of our high-school libraries two tendencies\nare noticeable:\nI. In libraries under the board of education the tendency is to adopt as high a\nstandard for the librarian as for the teacher in the matter of education and special professional training, and to recognize the librarian as a member of the faculty as in colleges\nand universities. The trend of affairs points to the creation of a Ubrary department in\nthe larger city high schools with more than one trained librarian and with student assistants as in the college.\nII. There is a growing tendency to organize the high-school library as a branch of the\npublic library under the joint control of public library and board of education. A brief\nspecial report of this new movement will be found under the heading \" co-operation with\npublic library.\"\n\nThis new type of high-school library which is coming into being has four\ndistinct functions to perform. It must serve as —\n1. A great central laboratory for the work of all departments.\n2. A training school for the instruction of students in the intelligent use of books as\ntools; a means of saving the pupil's time in his use of the school library and preparing\nfor the best use of college and public library.\n3. A center for general culture and inspiration, a means of cultivating a taste for\ngood reading and widening the horizon of the pupil.\n4. A direct connecting link between high school and public library, encouraging\nmembership in the public library and constant use of its greater resources in connection\nwith high-school work.\n\n"}
{"page": 1291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n127S\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\nThe old idea that the mere clerical work of passing out and receiving\nbooks and maintaining order are all that is required of a school librarian is\nrapidly giving place to a larger conception of the librarian's office. While\nthe majority of our high-school libraries are still in charge of the principal's\nclerk or a teacher who can give only part time to the work, high-school\nprincipals and school superintendents are beginning to realize that the work\nrequires the full time of at least one person and some special library training.\nThe demands of the modern high school\" call for certain definite qualifications\non the part of the librarian which may be summed up as follows:\na) Broad general culture, for she must know in general what the teachers in the\ndififerent departments know in detail.\nb) Special bibliographical knowledge, for she has the responsibility of building up a\ncollection of the best and most suitable books for the purposes of the school work. She\nmust also be competent to compile reading and reference lists for teachers and pupils.\nc) Executive ability and special training in library methods so that she may organize\nand catalog all printed matter in the school building — books, pamphlets, clippings,\npictures, etc. — 'and make it available at a moment's notice.\nd) The teaching function of the librarian calls for ability to give instruction to\nstudents on the best use of a library.\ne) A personality which will enable her to interest and inspire the students, to work\nin harmony with teachers of all departments and co-operate with them in their efforts to\ninfluence the reading of the pupils and facilitate the discovery and development of the\nstudents' individual interests and tastes.\n\nWe find the librarian giving instruction to pupils in classes and groups,\nconducting reading-clubs after school, giving definite courses in cultural\nreading as in the Detroit Central High School, and influencing the reading\nof pupils thru articles in the school paper and talks at the general assembly\nof the school.\nAs a rule the most effective and progressive work is being done by\nlibrarians who are graduates of our best library training schools and in\naddition have had successful experience in the reference department or\nchildren's room of a public library, or library experience in secondary\nschools or colleges. Many of our large city high schools are requiring\ngraduation from a one year's course in an approved library school; this\ninsures the broadest training. The following statement is submitted,\ngrouping the librarians according to their training for the work.\nOf the 118 high schools reporting, the librarians may be grouped as\nfollows :\nI. Graduates of a one-year course in an approved library school — 30.\nNote. — 'This includes high schools in Rochester (2), Albany (i), New York City (8)»\nNewark, N.J. (i), Philadelphia (i), Cleveland (2), Dayton, Ohio (i), Joliet, 111. (i),\nOak Park, 111. (i), Denver (i), Spokane (2), Berkeley, Cal. (i), Baltimore, Md. (2).\nThe figures indicate the number of library-school graduates in each city.\n\n"}
{"page": 1292, "printed_page": null, "text": "1276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nII. Librarians who have had training and experience in a public library or in a school\nor college library managed according to modern library methods — total 30.\nIII. Teachers who have had a brief course' in Iibrar>- methods at a normal school or\nsummer library school.\nMost of these give only part time to the library — total 17.\nrV. Teachers, clerks, students who have had no li?)rary training — total 41.\nOf these 118 librarians 40 are college graduates and 10 have had partial coiu-ses at\ncollege.\n\nWhere the requirements and work of the librarian warrant it, the\ntendency is to place the librarian on a teacher's salary basis. This is\nadvocated by the New York state education department in the last report\nof Commissioner Draper, where it is suggested that the state grant the same\nquota for an approved school librarian as for a teacher.\nBUILDING\n\nUP THE\n\nLIBRARY:\nAPPROPRIATION FOR\nSELECTION, ETC.\n\nBOOKS,\n\nBOOK\n\nAn annual appropriation of from $300 to $500 for the purchase of books\nis reported in our most progressive high-school libraries. Rochester, N.Y.,\nSpokane, Oakland, Cal., and the larger high schools in New York City\naverage from $700 to $800 per annum for books and periodicals. Albany,\nN.Y., Los Angeles, and Seattle report still larger sums. As a rule this\nappropriation is made by the city but in some states there is a state grant,\nas in Connecticut, New York, Oregon, Wisconsin, etc. New York grants\n$250 per annum to each high school for school library and apparatus. Many\ncities make no appropriation for the high-school library, and even in some of\nour largest cities there is available only the meager sum of from $25 to $50,\nand frequently no regular grant of money. In many cities the libraries are\nhampered by the fact that funds are available only once a year for the\npurchase of books, and new books cannot be bought when needed.\nUsually the selection of books is made by a committee of teachers or\nheads of departments and must be approved by the superintendent of\nschools. In many cases money is wasted for lack of proper knowledge as to\nbest editions, best methods of buying, etc. Several states aim to aid in\nthis selection of books for a high-school library and print for distribution\nlists of approved books. Such lists have been published by state education\ndepartments or library commissions in Oregon, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota,\nNorth Carolina, etc. In schools in charge of trained librarians books are\nselected on the recommendation of teachers and principal, but the librarian\nhas the final responsibility of rounding out the collection and deciding what\nbooks shall be purchased.\nLIBRARY\n\nROOMS AND\n\nTHEIR\n\nUSE\n\nMany new high schools report spacious and attractive rooms equipped\nwith approved library furniture, card catalog, vertical file, cases for lantern\nslides, mounted photographs, etc. These shelve from 5,000 to 10,000\nvolumes and have a seating capacity for from 40 to 150 students at a time\n\n"}
{"page": 1293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1277\n\naccording to the size of the school. Some of the largest and best equipped\nhigh-school library rooms are in the new high schools of New York City, in\nSpokane, Los Angeles, etc. Spokane and Pasadena report three rooms, a\nlarge reading-room, a smaller room for debate work, consultation with\nteachers, talks to classes, or for accommodating files of pictures, pamphlets,\netc., and serving partly as a wort^room, and a small room as office for the\nlibrarian. In large high schools these three rooms are all greatly needed\nand this should be the plan for such libraries in the future. As a rule pupils\nhave free access to the shelves, but there are libraries in some large cities\nwhere the old system of closed shelves still obtains. Some schools report no\nlibrary reading-room at all and others only a seating capacity for 10 or 20\nstudents in large high schools of over 2,000 pupils.\nThese rooms are used for reference and reading during school hours, for\nlectures to students on the use of books and a library, for a study-room for\npupils after school and in the evenings (occasionally), for evening highschool pupils and social center work in the evenings (in the Polytechnic\nHigh School of Los Angeles). After school, librarians conduct library\nreading and debate clubs, give informal talks to pupils on good books to\nread, etc.\nStatistics show a greater number of readers in these school libraries than\nin reference and reading-rooms of the same size in many public libraries.\nMany schools report a reference use of the school library by from 150 to\n300 pupils daily and some report 500 to 700 pupils a day. These figures\ndo not include those who merely come to borrow books for home use.\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF\n\nSTUDENTS\n\nIN THE\n\nUSE\n\nOE A\n\nLIBRARY\n\nNext to the introduction of the trained librarian (and largely as a result\nof that) the most important feature of the modern high-school library is\nthe definite and systematic instruction of students in the use of a library.\nThis means the saving of much time formerly wasted in using reference\nbooks because of ignorance of how to get at information quickly and\nintelligently. The lectures given by librarians and teachers include what\nevery educated person ought to know — use of various kinds of indexes to\nbooks and periodicals, special points in the use of encyclopaedias, dictionaries, atlases, card catalogs, etc. College librarians urge this as a necessary\npreparation for Freshman work, and librarians of public libraries feel it will\nmake possible continued self-education after students leave high school.\nThe time saved to the students during the four years fully justifies the use\nof the six or eight study periods needed for this instruction. There are\navailable in print three outlines which can be easily obtained: (i) a course\nfor normal-school students on the use of a library published by the Newark\nPublic Library, Newark, N.J.; (2) a Manual for the Practical Use of Books\nand Libraries, by G. O. Ward, published originally for the use of the Cleveland high schools; and (3) an Outline for Eight Lessons for High-School\n\n"}
{"page": 1294, "printed_page": null, "text": "1278\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nPupils in the Use of a Reference Library, which may be obtained from the\nprincipal of the Central High School, Detroit, Mich., for the sum of four\ncents. Among the schools giving fullest recognition to the importance of\nthis work and including it in the course of study or giving credit for it as a\npart of the English work are the following, which give from four to eight\nlessons during the four years: central high schools of Detroit and Grand\nRapids, Mich., Cleveland, Ohio, Newark, N.J., Passaic, N.J., Spokane,\nWash. Excellent work is being done in many other schools where fewer\nlessons are given. At least two lessons are usually given during the first\nyear in most of the schools reporting this instruction and many librarians\nand teachers recommend that as far as possible this instruction be given\nearly in the high-school course, at least during the first and second years.\nThirty-seven of the 118 schools give one or more lessons.\nCO-OPERATION\n\nWITH\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAside from a very general use of the public library for debating material\nand other reference work reports show that high schools are far behind\nelementary schools in the matter of co-operation with the public library!\nHigh-school principals and teachers are not yet as a body making the use of\npublic-library privileges which ought to be made. Many rarely visit the\npublic library or know its resources. Reports indicate that at most not\nmore than 75 per cent of our high-school students have cards in the public\nlibrary — 50 per cent is the estimate given by some libraries. The most\nimportant work school librarians have to do is to reach the 25 per cent or\nmore who do not use a library and help them to realize what a means of\nself-education and enjoyment the public library may be. The highest point\nyet reached in this movement for co-operation between high school and\npublic library is in the establishment of branch libraries in high-school\nbuildings.\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nBRANCHES\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n(Special report by G. O. Ward)\nDuring the last three years the experiment has been tried of placing\nthe high-school library under the administration of the public library.\nThe cities and number of high schools on which this report is based are\nas follows:\nCleveland, Ohio (6 schools), Newark, N.J. (i), Madison, Wis. (i),\nPassaic, N.J. (i), Portland, Ore. (2).\nThese libraries range in size from 1,300 to 9,000 volumes and in seating\ncapacity from 30 to 60 persons. Only two are reported as open to the\npublic, most of the librarians opposing that practice as interfering with\nschool work.\nThe following facts are suggestive to those in other cities who may\nconsider adopting the plan :\n\n"}
{"page": 1295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1279\n\n1. The librarians in four cities are appointed by the public library, and in the fifth\n(Newark) by the board of education. One public library (Cleveland) has found it necessary to organize these libraries as a department under a supervisor.\n2. The salary is generally paid by the public library. In Newark it is paid by the\nboard of education and in Passaic by board of education and public library jointly.\n3. In four cities the public library furnishes the books and makes a regular appropriation for this. In the fifth, Portland, the board of education appropriated $10,000 a\nyear for the first two years for books for high school and classroom libraries and in the\nfuture the public library will pay for the books. In some cases, as in Cleveland, the\nreference books are bought by the board of education or by the school itself.\n\nThe close connection with the public library is shown in all cases by the\nfrequent deliveries of books from the public library, some schools reporting\na daily delivery to the high school.\nAll of the high schools prefer the administration by the public library\nto independent school administration. The results are: better service\nthan these schools had before, economy to the city in eliminating unnecessary expense in duplication of books, the promotion of unity in the educational system, and the guaranteeing of the administration of the school\nlibrary by an expert. Seeing that the money spent is in any case the city's\nmoney, the intrusting by the board of education to the public library of a\nfixed sum to be applied toward salaries or books or both commends itself\nas promoting economical administration. The idea of a high-school\nlibrary branch is growing, as is shown by the decision of the state board of\neducation in New Jersey to permit, subject to the approval of the local\nschool board, any school library to be administered by the public library.\nTwenty-one libraries in New Jersey have taken advantage of this ruling.\nOTHER\n\nWAYS\n\nIN WHICH\n\nPUBLIC LIBRARIES\nCO-OPERATING\n\nAND\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nARE\n\nAs the great majority of high-school libraries are under the administration of the board of education rather than the public library, the following\nreport is submitted of ways in which the two libraries are working together.\n1. To encourage membership in the public library, the Boston Public Library, with\nthe co-operation of the high-school principal, sends a representative once a year to each\nhigh schoo to take applications for library cards. The Girls' High School of Brooklyn\ntook a census of the entire school to find how many pupils had public-library cards and to\nascertaii^to what branches they belonged. This is done now as students enter the school\nand they are urged to belong to the public library as necessar>' for their school work.\n2. The public library of Washington, D.C., sends a personal letter to the home\naddress of every high-school student on graduation calling attention to the public library\nas a means of self -education, of increasing one's eflSciency in business, and as a source\nof pleasure.\n3. Public libraries are loaning large numbers of books, sometimes from 300 to 500 at\na time, for use during the entire school year or for a term or shorter period. High schools\nare made deposit or delivery stations for public-library books. Frequently there is a\ndaily delivery by public library or by messengers sent from the high school for books\ncollected for the school at the nearest branch. Traveling libraries are being used both\nby the school librarians and by individual teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 1296, "printed_page": null, "text": "128o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\n4. The New York Public Library has a permanent bulletin board in every high school.\nSeattle sends a one-page bulletin to the high school each month.\n5. In Brooklyn, N.Y., a conference of librarians of high school and public library was\nheld and a definite scheme of co-operation was drawn up. Librarians from the Brooklyn\nPublic Library are invited to the high school to address clubs and classes and speak to\nthe assembled school.\n6. In Binghamton, N.Y., high-school teachers are invited to meet the public-library\nstaff and discuss ways in which the library can serve the high school. High-school classes\nare given instruction in the use of reference books at the public library.\n7. In small cities and towns the public library frequently classifies and catalogs the\nhigh-school library and aids the teacher in caring for it. In California these same small\nhigh-school libraries are aided by the county library in matters of book selection, bookbuying, cataloging, etc.\n8. High-school teachers and librarians of public libraries co-op>erate in preparing\nreading-lists for high-school students in Newark, N.J., and Grand Rapids, Mich. Much\nmore of this should be done.\n\nYour committee presents these various ways of increasing the efficiency\nof high-school libraries with the hope that each city may find suggestions\ntoT the solution of its own high-school library problem. In many cities the\npublic library branch in the high school will be the solution where it adopts\na liberal policy toward the school library. The arguments in its favor are\nvery strong and deserve serious consideration. In all cities where it has\nbeen tried high-school principals and teachers indorse this plan as most\nsatisfactory to all concerned.\nConditions in some cities will probably make continued control of the\nschool library by the board of education advisable. Many principals feel\nthere are strong arguments for this, as it permits greater freedom to adapt\nlibrary methods to the needs of departments or of particular kinds of\nschools. The problems of the school library are more those of the college\nlibrary than of a large public library. The status of the librarian as a\"\nteacher makes possible a larger salary than ,can be offered by the public\nlibrary as a rule and should insure the appointment of some of the ablest\ngraduates of our colleges and library schools.\nBelieving that the high-school library may be made one of the most\ninfluential factors in the work of the modern high school, we offer the\nfollowing recommendations:\nii . I. For cities of the first and second class the adoption of a standard of educational\nand professional qualifications which will raise the status of the high-school librarian from\nthat of a clerk to a recognized place on the faculty, as has already been done in some high\nschools and in most colleges and universities; that these cities reqmre college education\nor its equivalent and, in addition, graduation from a one-year course in a library school\napproved by the committee on library training appointed by the American Library\nAssociation, and such library experience as will insure successful work with high-school\npupils.\nn. That in smaller cities and towns where this standard is impracticable the highschool librarian should have some brief course in library methods approved by the state\nlibrary commission. This course might be in a public library, a normal school, or a\nsxunmer school of library economy.\n\n"}
{"page": 1297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 281\n\nIII. That high schools incorporate in their courses of study a definite and systematic plan of instruction in the use of books, and that credit be given for the work.\nIV. That cities and states make annual appropriations for the growth of high-school\nlibraries and that these funds be so managed that they may be drawn upon as needs\npresent themselves instead of once a year as at present.\nV. That an effort be made to bring about closer co-operation between school libraries\nand public libraries; that the high-school library be made a branch of the public library\nwhere this makes for greater service to the school; that in all other cases librarians of\nhigh schools should co-operate with librarians of public libraries in devising a definite\nscheme of co-operation whereby the work of each shall be clearly defined and duplication\nof expense and effort may be avoided.\nRiespectf uUy submitted,\nMary E. Hall, Chairman\nEthelwyn\n\nFagge, librarian. Polytechnic High School, Los\n\nAngeles, Cal.\nAnna Hadley, librarian, Gilbert School, Winsted, Conn.\n\nCommittee < Mary E. Hall, librarian, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y,\nFlorence\n\nMich.\n\nHopkins,\n\nlibrarian. Central High School, Detroit,\n\nGilbert O. Ward, supervisor of high-school branches, Cleveland Public Library, Cleveland, Ohio.\nNote. — A tabulation of statistics has been prepared showing conditions in the 118\nhigh schools, state and county aid to high-school libraries, etc. This may be borrowed\nin typewritten form from the chairman of the committee.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\nJESSIE E.\n\nBLACK,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nOF\n\nFOR CHILDREN\nCHICAGO,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nI have been asked to read a paper on the courses I am giving in the Department of\nSchool-Library Economics in the University of Chicago on \"Literature for Children.\"\nAs twenty minutes is the time limit, I shall plunge at once, without introduction, into\nthe subject.\nIt is a most flattering commentary on the varied appeal and the adaptability of\nlibrary work when I say that I give practically the same course, planned originally for\n\nthe library school, to three types of people— or at least give the \"thing in three ways.\nThe economy of using the same stuff in three ways must appeal at once to the having\nsoul of the librarian! First, \"Literature for Children\" is given to the class of young\npeople. Senior college students in the School of Education Library School, in training for\nlibrary positions. Second, it is given in the University College (a college of the University having its lectures in the heart of Chicago for the benefit of busy people who\ncannot conveniently go out to the university campus) to a mixed class consisting of\nprincipals of schools, teachers from the kindergarten to the high school, librarians in\nnormal schools, in children's departments, and the like. Third, it is one of the correspondence courses of the University of Chicago, where it is designed for teachers, parents,\nwriters for children, settlement workers, and especially for librarians in active work the\ncountry over. As with the other two courses, regular university credit leading to a\n\n"}
{"page": 1298, "printed_page": null, "text": "1282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nd^ree is given for this work. Indeed, so general is the demand that part of the material\nhas been cast into popular form such as: \"The Book as the Tool or the Beginnings of\nResearch\"; \"What Your Child is Reading or Missing\"; \"Dramatic Instinct; the\nPlay's the Thing.\" These are given in different towns as single talks or as groups of\nlectures to \"parent-teacher\" and similar organizations.\nThese three courses, tho differing in the emphasis and arrangement of material\npresented, owing to the very natural difference in preparation, point of view, and motive\nof the students who enter, are, after all, curiously even amusingly alike. In three things,\nat least, they are identical. The courses all aim (i) to give a survey of the field of literature for children; (2) to get at the principles underlying the selection of such literature,\nand (3) to deal concretely and practically with certain problems of selection. They all\nattempt to organize and to give new meaning to the mass of literature already used by\nthe student as well as to direct his study along new lines. No doubt this likeness is\nanother cheering proof of the unity of intention and effort of the home, the library, and\nthe school! Altho, no doubt, it must always remain for the teacher to make the personal,\nthe individual selection of books, and the librarian to do the more generalized work, yet\nfor the sake of the most intelligent work in her particular field it is coming to be expected\nmore and more that the teacher should know about the general realm of books and the\nlibrarian to supplement her technical library knowledge with more of the \"pedagogy of\nthe book.\"\nBut why should the student in a library school have such extraordinary emphasis\nplaced on the pedagogy of children's reading ? Why such training for power in making\nstudy of the individuality of the child and the things that tend toward his better development as recognized by educators? These college students certainly know something\nof books; the library course will give them technical knowledge. Why carry with them\nthe literature for children into the realm of psychology? They are not to be schoolteachers! Why will not the current requirements of ability to order, classify, and catalog\njuvenile books, and a thoro knowledge of approved reading-lists of regular librarians,\nserve? Both the librarians and the teachers present will understand the reason when\nI explain that the Department of School-Library Economics in the University of Chicago\nSchool of Education, directed by Miss Irene Warren, is one of the first library schools\nto specialize in its field. This specialty is the field of librarians of school libraries and\nwork with children in public libraries, the work (prophetic in a way) of normal, high,\nor elementary school library departments — any library from the kindergarten thru the\nhigh school where the work is with the child.\nThe librarians have done the magnificent work which makes such a course possible.\nLargely owing to them we have the children going to the library, the excellent methods\nof cataloging, indeed, the entire organization related to the distribution of the book.\nYet the library is only one factor in the great social scheme; the school is but one. We\nmake a more efficient worker when we train a person with the dual interest of library\nand school.\nThere are thousands of excellent courses in literature given over the length and\nbreadth of the land — literature of given periods for example, of poetry or prose; there are\nthousands of courses in child-study taking up the physical, the mental, and the moral\ndevelopment of the child. There are also courses dealing directly with the best methods\nof listing, circulating, and selecting books for children. Now to bring these elements\ntogether — there's the point: to look at the child and the book as a imit — that is what is\nneeded in this, the \"era of the child.\"\nWe frequently see, on the one hand, the teacher who has taken these courses in\nliterature for the mature mind (and enjoyed them, too), also those on psychology and\nchild-study, giving her a theoretical as well as a practical knowledge of what the child\nneeds and enjoys, apparently quite innocent of knowledge of books for children either\nclassic or modem.\nOn the other hand we see the librarian skilled in the matter of book\n\n"}
{"page": 1299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 283\n\nlists, technical methods of handling children's books, far from confident on questions\nof pedagogy touching these very lists.\n\"True! but what's the remedy?\" is your response. My solution, in direct answer\nto the needs of the library class already mentioned, and the need you will agree is general,\nwas, with the help of the head of the library school, who knew intimately the library\nsituation and its needs, to organize the course in \"Literature for Children,\" The pragmatic nature of the course is due to the fact that my own personal experience has been\nin elementary and normal schools with a dash of library work, as well as in the University\nof Chicago. Such a course should be given in every normal, every library school to\nthe students who are to be teachers or librarians, or, in communities where that is impracticable, public lectures popularizing certain of the most vital topics might be given for\nthe benefit of the parents, teachers, and librarians of the town.\nThe course, as I am asked to run over it lightly, starts with the child — the child,\nthe reader of the book — gives an idea of what he really is as a unique being; of the adolescent with his \"reading crazes\"; of the factors such as home, school, library, Sabbath\nschool, clubs, moving-picture shows, that help to form his activities and his interests,\nall briefly, of course. This is basic work. Then follow the few essentials of the psychology and hygiene of reading — Just how the act of reading is accomplished and what\nare the best conditions for it according to modem investigations.\nNow we have an idea of the child — the composite he really is; what of his book?\nThat is, a sketch of the history of literature designed for children. What, from the time\nof Comenius, who wrote the first picture book for children, of Newbery, the first enthusiastic publisher of juveniles, has been the development of the book for the little one?\nThe Colonial period with its religious instruction for babes, typified in the New England\nPrimer, the eighteenth century with its sentimental or piiggish tales, bring us up to\nmodern times and ideals. What with us constitutes good material or poor stuflf ? And\nthe discussions on book lists follow.\nThen indeed are we embarked on the sea of literature on which children may sail.\nA study of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, of Jisop's Fables, contributions from Roman\nlife and literature, the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, the German Nibelungenlied, oriental Sohrdb\nand Rtistum, Bible heroes, all from the point of view of use with the child, continue the\ncourse. The consideration of \"characteristics of the child\" in the early part of the course\ngives something of a measure of judgment of the value of the fairy, the folk, and the\nbeast tale as they are considered, gives a basis for selection of Norse and Greek myths,\nfor example. Yet when Mother Goose and poetry for young children or the Arthurian\ncycle for the older child are under consideration, the book lists are made from the point\nof view not only of what is appropriate for young people under varying conditions, but\nfrom the distinctively librarian standpoint as well — which are the best, the cheapest, or\nthe best illustrated editions. The various lists, as the Pittsburgh lists, homemade lists,\ncheap editions lists, and the like, constitute a line of work growing out of the study of\nthe actual books or selections to be used.\nAnother topic inherent in the pedagogical aspect of such a course is the best means\nof presentation, of bringing, as it were, the boy and the book together. Does a particular\nselection make its most lasting appeal when told as a story ? Should another be read\nto the child, studied by him? And so on. What are the elements in a selection that\nmake it appropriate at a given age? \"At the dawn of adolescence I am convinced\nthat there is nothing more wholesome for the material of English study than that of\nthe Arthuriad and the Sangraal — Roland— and Robin Hood,\" says Stanley Hall in his\nbook on Adolescence. Is he right? Why is it that literature, essentially dramatic, is\neagerly accepted because of that vivid, moving quality ? Is the dramatic the foimdation\nof all arts? If we regard literature as an art, producing joy because of its beauty, where\nin our scheme shall we place the useful books written primarily to give information ?\n\n"}
{"page": 1300, "printed_page": null, "text": "1284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nQuestions such as these remain open during the quarter; they aid in forming the habit\nof \"suspended judgment\" so essential in work of a constructive type.\nThe students are interested to discover, partly thru their reading, partly by recollecting their own childish experiences and by testing the children within their reach,\nthe truth of the reflection made in the Quarterly Review as far back as 1844: \"A genuine\nchild's book is as little a book for grown people cut down, as the child himself is like a\nlittle old man.\" They begin to appreciate wise old Dr. Johnson's remark that \"Babies\ndo not want to hear about babies; they like to be told of giants and castles and of things\nwhich can stretch and stimulate their little minds.\"\nGradually they feel the force of Charles Dudley Warner's contention :\nAs a general thing I do not believe in books written for children. Most of the\nbooks of this sort seem to be a fatal mistake, enfeebling to young minds. They never\nacquire the taste, then, for robust, healthful reading such as the Iliad.\nAnother fruitful topic is the comparison of our sporadic efforts in America with\nGermany's organized supervision of the reading material given to its young citizens, where\na national^ committee is empowered to sift the yearly output of juvenile literature, to\nreject the worthless, to comment on the remainder, and to publish suggestive lists. The\nGermans insist that the child's book must be a work of art, that it must be considered\nfrom the standpoint of education (i) to instruct, (2) to uplift, and (3) to delight.\nI have often thought that if the student preparing for school or library work were\nto give more attention to the study of the classics for children, the very selections themselves, instead of material great in itself but remote from children's interests, the familiarity with the actual material and the enthusiasm for it would be a valuable asset when\nthey faced practical work with the young people. Such material is beneath the dignity\nof no one; indeed the best of children's literature was not written for them but appropriated by them. A study of certain of these favorites, Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver's\nTravels, Arabian Nights, and the like, written for adults and seized by the yoimg, makes\none of the most interesting sections of the course.\nAll of the forms of literature, too, are represented in this work; narration, description, exposition, and so on, all appear; for a selection of the best things for the young,\nnot for the primary grades alone, but for the adolescent as well, must include all forms.\nThere are lyrics and ballads that throb rhythmically with the pulse of the young person.\nThe dramatic instinct inherent in the normal child calls for a survey of modem plays for\nthe child. Shakespeare for the young we are beginning to find more important than\nShakespeare for the old! And so it is in the field of history and biography; but time\ndoes not permit lingering.\nCertain details regarding the conduct of the course may be of interest. The list\nof required texts for the course is very small ; of suggested books and articles very large.\nMost of the books can be found in any public library; many may be borrowed from the\nchildren themselves. Emphasis is placed on re-using, re-viewing the books the student\nread as a child as well as upon the survey of new juveniles.\nSuch a course is necessarily a reading-course. The great number of books and\narticles to be consulted make selective reading (ignoring much and absorbing the important\nlittle) the best method of study. Yet all this reading is directed toward practical ends;\nwhen the institutional factors that affect the life of the child are under discussion each\nstudent offers the class a bit of original investigation: for illustration, as .a study of the\nchildren's reading-room in a certain social center, an account of a boy's gang with its\nsmuggled books.\nIt is expected that the body of notes taken during the course will form a nucleus\nsure to enlarge when the student takes up her active library work. Indeed it is hop>ed\nthat the entire course, suggestive rather than exhaustive, as you must see from this\nbrief survey, will furnish some inspiration for the librarian or for the teacher when engaged\nin the greatest work in this world — work for the betterment of the children.\n\n"}
{"page": 1301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depanmentl\n\nCHOICE AND USE OF BOOKS IN HIGH SCHOOLS\n\n75 THERE\n\nNEED\nFLORENCE\n\n1285\n\nFOR A COURSE IN THE CHOICE AND\nIN OUR HIGH SCHOOLS?\n\nUSE OF BOOKS\n\nM.\n\nMICH.\n\nHOPKINS,\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nDETROIT,\n\nThe high-school library, like the high-school boy, is a problem by itself. Let us call\nin the doctors, the doctors of philosophy. Dr. G. Stanley Hall and Dr. Huey. The\ndoctors say that adolescence is\nan age of skipping, of sampling, of pressing the keys lightly. What is acquired is not\nexaminable. .... School pressure should not suppress this instinct of omnivorous\nreading, which at this age sometimes prompts the resolve to read encyclopaedias, and\neven libraries, and to sample everything to be found in books at home. Along with it,\nbut never suppressing it, there should be some stated reading, but this should lay down\nonly kinds of reading, or offer a goodly number of large alternative groups of books and\nauthors, and present wide liberty of choice.'\nBeing convinced of these truths, a course was organized in Detroit Central High\nSchool last year entitled \"Books.\" The aim of the course was to help pupils to grasp\nbooks as wholes; to see and examine many books; to read quickly; to focus correctly;\nto skip judiciously; to read interesting selections together from the books themselves;\nto run over tables of contents of many books, with no detailed lesson following; to check\nimportant books for future reading in the American Library Association catalogs and\nother book lists; to know how to find details when needed; to create a desire to become\naccustomed to meeting many books, as we do many people, some to help us practically,\nsome to amuse us, some as speaking acquaintances only, some as closest companions,\nsome as old aristocratic family friends to be deeply reverenced, some simply to make a\ncrowd.\nThe course was offered as an elective in the Junior and Senior years, and the work\nwas credited as a three-hour course on the same basis as literature, or history, or any\nother subject was credited. The class met in the library in the afternoons for two sixtyminute periods weekly. The course was outlined under the ten main divisions of the\ndecimal classification of libraries as the best means of approach, for the majority of libraries, both college and public, are so classified. The leading books of reference, reviews of\nbest authorities, selections from representative books were taken up under each division\nas seemed best for pupils of high-school age whose time, ability, and opportunity were\nclosely limited.\nThe introductory lessons were based mainly upon certain chapters in Richardson's\nChoice and Use of Books, the essence of which was indicated by marked passages. This\nwas done as a beginning for training in rapid reading. Many times, when books\nexamined were long or difficult, they were previously marked, for young people with\nlimited time can seldom extract the essence without spoiling the flavor. Training of\nthis character helped the pupil very much in discriminating and in finding the essentials\nin dry articles.\nNo more reading was required for this course than for any other three-hour course,\nfor \"old Father Time\" is as stern with his young children as he is with us adults who\nrebel against his rigid rule. Less reading, rather than more, was urged; and the bad\neffect of mental indigestion often contracted from \"best sell^s\" was made a prominent\npoint for discussion. Pupils were urged not to read books too far above them, or to have\nthe slightest semblance of false pretense, but to try to grow into the power of wanting\nreal literature, rather than the absorbing mediocre. One of the mottoes of the course\nwas, \"Taste can be developed.\" Three planes of reading, as outlined by Dr. Wenley\nfor a library conference last fall, were emphasized. We can read and enjoy books,\nsaid Dr. Wenley, on three planes: books below our level, such as children's books; books\non our level, such as most of the current publications; and books above otir level; but\nHuey, Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading, Macmillan. chap, xix, passim.\n\n"}
{"page": 1302, "printed_page": null, "text": "1286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nwe can grow only by reading those above our level. Pupils respond to this grading,\nfor it takes away no freedom, and does not preach; it simply reveals the laws of growth,\nto which we must comply if we are to develop intellectually.\nEach division of the library classification was first approached thru some simple\nselection or quotation intended to contain the meaning and spirit of the subject. The\nbriefest possible outUne, suited to pupils of high-school age, was made of important\nmaterial, and it was required that this outlined skeleton, which constituted a lesson of\nfair length, be mastered as carefully as any other lesson would be. The scholarship\nand experience of high-school pupils is not broad enough to enable them to handle many\nbooks profitably without some foundation.\nThe skeleton outline required for the first of the ten divisions of the library classification, that of general works, included important encyclopaedias; general bibliographical\nguides; the best magazines and their indexes; publishers' catalogs; and many other simple\nprinciples, necessary to the intelligent use of a library.\nUnder philosophy an effort was made to awaken a response to its essential spirit,\nand to reveal its earnest search after truth, by reading in class parts of Plato's famous\nfigure of the cave, in the seventh book of his Republic. As pupils begin to understand the\nfigure of the chained mind in a darkened cave, mistaking shadows for reality, a flash of\nreal response shines out in their young eyes. Leibnitz' term and principle of pre-established harmony is easily made, a part of the vocabulary by reading his illustration of\nseparate clocks kept in perfect time because they are so constructed that they work in\naccord with universal laws; or of his musical instrmnents, each playing his own part,\nyet kept in perfect harmony thru the master-mind of the composer. Pupils enjoy these,\nand many other, bits from real philosophy. Later in life even without a college course\nto help them, they may realize\nHow charming is divine philosophy;\nNot harsh and crabbed as dull fools suppose,\nBut musical, as is Apollo's lute.\nWhat books the library contained on the subject of philosophy were put on the table for\npupils to look over; a very little carefully indicated reading was required. With a\nnumber of psychologies before the class, a talk was given on the deep scientific study men\nhave made of the laws governing the action of our hiunan mind. Some of the leading\nchapter headings were read over to reveal methods of treatment. James' chapter on\n\"Habit,\" which had previously been marked, was required reading.\nThe skeleton for the third division, religion, presented great reUgious founders, such\nas Zoroaster, Confucius, Gautama, Mohammed ; and sacred books, such as the Vedas,\nAvesta, Koran, Book of the Dead, etc. Many selections were read from them and\nmaxims and quotations compared. Time was taken to run rapidly thru Gayley's Classic\nMyths, each pupil having a copy before him. As the pages were turned one by one\nattention was called to the most prominent myths, and the point emphasized that if\none is to enjoy much that is best in literature and art he should be familiar with classic\nmythology. Girls, especially, respond to the suggestion that they read these stories to\nyoimg children, and books gixang them in simple language were examined and noted.\nIt was required that the outline, at least, of the most prominent legends and myths,\nsuch as the Nibelungenlied, the Arthurian legends, the Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Aeneid,\nthe Theban cycle of myths, and all myths included by Hawthorne, be perfectly familiar.\nUnder the division of sociology, an effort was made to have the pupils feel that they\nwere part of a great age which was awakening to human interests and brotherly love to an\nextent never before known in the history of the world. As the Renaissance of the fifteenth\ncentury emphasized divine love thru the portrayal of the Madonna and Child, the renaissance of the twentieth century is being expressed thru civic interests, legislative care of\ndependent classes, international peace, and in a hvmdred other ways. Such magazines\nas the Survey and Charities were used as examples.\nThe marvelous sj^tem of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHOICE\n\nAND\n\nUSE\n\nOF BOOKS\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1287\n\nwith concrete examples of their own benefit from it, was shown to be a vital part of this\ngreat subject. Pupils deligjit in a rapid survey of the development of education, and\nreally enjoy short extracts from such books as Butler's Meaning of Education, Spencer's\nEducation, and other selected material if they are left free to catch the spirit of it and are\nnot required to recite upon it too closely. With very little direction the life work of such\nmen as Comenius, Rousseau, Herbart, Froebel, Pestalozzi, could easily be recognized and\ncorrectly placed by the class. Under, the topic government, a few sentences from the\nfirst book of Plato's Laws interested the class in seeing that over two thousand years\nago the secret of all national government was realized in the government of self. In\nthis division, as in each of the others, when possible, pupils were sent to the shelves to\ndetermine what books the library possessed on the subject. Often a carefully selected\nnumber of books were passed around the class promiscuously, each pupil taking any one,\nspending five minutes in examining it, and then reporting on it as best he could, judging\nwholly from the table of contents, index, publisher, and general arrangement. Such\nexercises as these revealed an unexpected power on the part of the pupil to grasp books\nas wholes.\nThe skeleton for the subject of philology included a comparison of the prominent\nEnglish dictionaries, a few chapters in Tucker's Our Common Speech on the development of\ndictionaries, and a number of prominent philologists, such as Littr6, Murray, Muller,\nWhitney, Grimm brothers, and others. Grammars, rhetorics, books of synonyms, and\nas many desirable books as were practical and available bearing on the subject of language\nwere passed about the class for rapid examination.\nA very general survey of the growth of science was traced by means of the table of\ncontents of Buckland's Short History of Natural Science. As different subdivisions of the\nsubject were discussed, all desirable books obtainable were placed in the hands of the\npupil for rapid examination; such as astronomies, books of popular scientific reading,\nbooks on trees, gardening, wild flowers, animals, insects, etc. Pupils were urged to\nread simple books on subjects which they had not taken in school, and thus to introduce\nthemselves to the fairyland of science. All of Darwin's books were placed on the table\nto reveal the extent of his work, attention being called to the epoch-making Origin of\nSpecies, and to the tables of contents of many others. Brief biographies of prominent\nscientific men were given to different pupils and an outlined schedule formed.\nUnder useful arts, books and magazines on domestic arts, cooking, engineering, commerce, business, etc., were passed about the class for five-minute examination and brief\nreport.\nThe subject of fine arts was one of the most fruitful. Three skeletons were used under\nthis division, architecture, painting, music. Many books on art, and many pictures,\nwere passed about for examination, certain results being required. A few lessons of this\nkind awakened the majority of the class to a desire for more, which, of course, should\nlead to self -direction, the final goal of education. In music, each pupil described an\nopera, or symphony, or oratorio, which was followed by some selection from it on a\nphonograph loaned for the purpose.\nUnder literature much use was made of Warner's Library of the World's Best Literature, especially of the synopsis of books in the last volume. Each pupil was given several\nbooks to review by the aid of this or any good synopsis, and requested to secure the book\nto be reviewed from the library, when possible, so that the class could see it and have a\nsense of handling it. In this way, an introduction to the purport of many books, ranging\nanywhere in literature from Aristophanes' Clouds to Browning's The Ring and the Book,\nwas easily and pleasantly gained.\nUnder history, as many books as possible on travel, biography, and history were\nexamined and reported upon. Pupils were urged to outline independently the history of\nnations which they had not studied in school, to read much biography, to direct their own\n\n"}
{"page": 1304, "printed_page": null, "text": "1288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nmental lives, and realize for themselves the pure delights of scholarship, freed from the\nbane of examinations, and the paralysis of too much direction.\nNo pupil was allowed to review a book, describe a picture, or give a recitation on\nany topic which was familiar to him thru some other avenue. At frequent intervals\nalphabetical lists of allusions met with in passing were made. Such lists revealed how\nlacking pupils are in general information outside of a definite course studied. Some of\nthose who had taken little science were unfamiliar with such names as Copernicus and\nDarwin. One boy had never heard of the Parthenon or Phidias. A nimiber were not\nfamiliar with important legends and mythological allusions; prominent painters and\nmusicians were surprisingly unfamiliar to many. The skeleton outline served to reveal\nat least the greatest names, and an appeal to the pupil's pride and ambition awakened\nin some an interest strong enough for self-direction. In schools where elective courses\nprevail, some such vmifying plan as this seems almost necessar>', unless pupils are to be\ngraduated ignorant of common allusions and imprepared to enjoy much of the best in\ngeneral reading.\nVery little detail was required thruout the entire course, aside from the memorized\nskeleton. The aim of the course was primarily suggestive, and was not intended as a\ndrill course for definite results. Present-day study of psychology is revealing the fact\nthat suggestion often awakens more ^response, and creates more power, than direction.\nAre we not, then, neglecting the laws of the mind if we do not find some place for suggestive\ncourses in our educational work ? The great leavening power of concerts, lectures,\nsermons, comes from inspiration, not from detailed study. We all know in our own lives\nthat the gleam which guided us was a spark from some moment of insight, not a spark from\nthe friction of grinding. Inspiration precedes, details follow; inspiration quickens,\ndetails strengthen; inspiration is the master-spirit, details the servant to carry out the\nmaster's bidding; we need both, even as we need body and soul, and that education is\nthe broadest which takes account of both. What the children's story hour has proved\nto be to the young child in opening up delightful reading of cultural value, a course of\nthis kind could be made to mean to children of high-school age. What the handling of\nmany books means to a librarian, a course of this kind, in a relative degree, could be made\nto mean to our high-school pupils. But after all is done, do not let us forget that He\nwho has most deeply influenced the world, did not place a very strong emphasis upon the\nprinted word, but proved that it is the spiritual word made flesh which gives life.\n\n"}
{"page": 1305, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— ]om{ W. Jones, superintendent, Ohio State School for the Deaf\nColuntbus, Ohio\nVice-President — M. P. E. Groszmann, educational director, National Association for\nthe Study and Education of Exceptional Children\nPlainfield, N.J.\ndecretory— Carxie B. Levy, supervisor of classes for the blind\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION— TxrESDAY Afternoon, July 9, 191 2\nThe first meeting of the Department of Special Education was called to order in the\nBallroom of the Blackstone Hotel, by Frank G. Bruner, assistant director. Department\nof Child Study and Pedagogic Investigation, public schools, Chicago, 111.\nIn the absence of the secretary. Miss Frankie Warburton was appointed secretary\npro tempore.\nThe meeting was opened with an address by E. J. Emerick, superintendent of Institution School for the Feeble-Minded, Columbus, Ohio, on \"The Segregation of the Defective Classes.\"\nA paper on \"The Training of the Feeble-Minded Deaf, Based up>on Impressions\nGained Abroad,\" was presented by Frances Wettstein, principal of School for the Deaf,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nA general discussion regarding the institutions and the day schools followed.\nHerman Charles Henderson, teacher of psychology and pedagogy. State Normal\nSchool, Milwaukee, Wis., presented a paper on \"The Training of Native Impulses.\"\nThe general discussion which followed this paper was led by Frank G. Bruner, of\nChicago, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nFrankie Warburton, Secretary pro tempore\nSECOND\n\nSESSION, ROUND\n\nTABLE— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 10, 191 2\n\nThe department met in round-table conference at 9>oo a.m. and was called to order\nby Effie Johnston, chairman.\nJ. A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio, presented the \"Report of\nCommittee on the Prevention of Blindness and Conservation of Vision.\"\nThe discussion on this paper was opened by D. P. MacMillan, director of the Department of Child Study, Chicago, 111.\nA motion was made that the report be accepted and the committee dismissed with\nan expression of thanks and appreciation for their splendid efforts.\nA living exhibition of the methods of instructing deaf children of the Chicago Oral\nSchool for the Deaf was in charge of Annah Taylor and Ruchiel Merrielees.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nTHIRD SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July ii, 19 12\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 p.m. by Edward M. Van Cleve, superintendent\nof the Ohio State School for the Blind, Columbus, Ohio.\n1289\n\nA paper on \"The Possibilities and Limitations of the Deaf Mind,\" by Elmer W.\nWalker, superintendent of State School for the Deaf, Delavan, Wis., was read.\n\n"}
{"page": 1306, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nA discussion opened by Grace C. Strachan, district superintendent of city schools,\nBrooklyn, N.Y., followed.\nThe second paper of the session, \"Some Features of the Education of the Blind in\nPublic Schools,\" was then read by John B. Curtis, superintendent of Day School for the\nBlind, Chicago, 111.\nSome of the work of the blind pupils of the public schools of Chicago was shown.\nM. P. E. Groszmann, who had been appointed chairman of a committee in 191 1 to\nprepare a petition in the name of the Department of Special Education to the Bureau of\nEducation, asking that it collect data relative to the legal status and provision for atypical\nchildren thruout the United States, was not present to report. It was moved and carried\nthat this committee be continued for another year and, at least, make a preliminary report\nat the meeting in 1913.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President — -Carrie B. Levy, supervisor of classes for the blind, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFor Vice-President — Harris Taylor, principal, Institution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf Mutes, New York, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — M. P. E. Groszmann, educational director. National Association for\nthe Study and Education of Exceptional Children, Plainfield, N.J.\nThis report was adopted.\nA motion was passed to the effect that the National Bureau of Education be requested\nto publish for distribution the report of the Committee on Prevention of Blindness and\nConservation of Vision.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nCarrie B. Levy, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE SEGREGATION\nE.\n\nJ. EMERICK,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE DEFECTIVE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nFEEBLE-MINDED,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nINSTITUTION\n\nCLASSES\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nOHIO\n\nThe subject of my talk today is a plea for more thoro segregation of the\ndefective class. We, as superintendents of institutions for feeble-minded,\nfeel it our duty to the public to help throw an informing light upon this\nsubject, and in order to accomplish much, we must have the hearty cooperation ofthe professors in our universities and the instructors in our\npublic schools. They should teach their pupils the danger of marrying into\nfamilies where there is a history of insanity, epilepsy, or feeble-mindedness,\neven tho the contracting parties themselves are apparently normal, as\n\"every child has a right to be well born.\" There are many of these families\nthat should become extinct. It is a sad fact that the defective class seems\nto be gradually on the increase, and it is time for us to call a halt. We\nhave no exact data as to the number of defectives in the United States but\nI think that a conservative estimate for Ohio would place it as high, at\nleast, as 10,000. Professor Johnstone of Vineland tells me that he is positive\nthat there are 6,000 in the little state of New Jersey. I do not think there\nare any more in proportion than in other states of the Union. If we could\nsegregate all of the defective class, it would, to a great extent, depopulate\n\n"}
{"page": 1307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSEGREGATION\n\nOP THE\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCLASSES\n\n129 1\n\nour state prisons, reformatories, workhouses, almshouses, and even our\ninsane asylums. Frank Moore, superintendwit of the New Jersey reformatory, examined the inmates of that institution by the Binet-Simon test,\nand, as a result, found that 45 per cent were mentally subnormal. This,\nhowever, may seem a little high, but if we place it even at 25 per cent,\nwhich would be a very conservative estimate, if that 25 per cent could be\nsegregated during their natural lives, instead of being sent to our reformatories for short terms and then turned loose upon the public to commit\nother crimes, it would be not only a great saving financially, but also a\nsaving to society and a betterment to humanity. They comprise the class\nthat are sent to our reformatories and other penal institutions, that cannot\nbe reformed. What is the use of sending the defective deUnquents (or\nmoral imbeciles, as some have called them) to our industrial schools, then\non to our reformatories, and finally, numerous terms to the penitentiary?\nThey constitute the majority of our habitual criminals.\nThe general public has already been educated to the belief that it is a\ngood thing to segregate the idiot or the distinct imbecile, but they have\nnot, as yet, been quite so fully convinced as to the proper treatment of this\nbrighter and more dangerous class, the defective delinquent. From a\nfinancial standpoint, segregation of the defective delinquent would be great\neconomy, to say nothing about the more salient feature, that of stopping\nthem from producing their kind. If we could segregate these defectives\nwhen they are young and keep them confined during their natural lives, it\nwould obviate the expense of having them committed repeatedly to our\npenitentiaries when they grow older. Under our present plan they are sent\nto our penal institutions for a short term after committing some crime,\nallowed to go out again, scatter their progeny, and commit other crimes\nand depredations, only to be recommitted time after time.\nThe first object in establishing institutions for the feeble-minded was\nto take these feeble-minded children and educate them in hopes of making\nthem useful citizens and redeem them to society. This, however, has long\nago been abandoned and we realize today that if we take khese children\ninto our institution, brighten them up as best we can, and turn them loose\nupon the public, it has not only been a waste of time, money, and energy,\nbut we have done the world an irreparable injury.\nThe education and training they receive in our institutions conceals\ntheir defects to a certain extent, enabling them to marry more easily, often\ninto innocent families, and, as a result, we get back several for one, which\nis often true even if they never marry. Many of the states have today\ninstitutions for the care and training of the mental defectives. They all\nshould have them and the larger states should have several. There should\nbe two kinds of these institutions in every state.. If we cannot have\nseparate institutions we should have separate departments, one for the care\nand training (I might say for want of a better term) of the harmless or\n\n"}
{"page": 1308, "printed_page": null, "text": "1292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Special\n\ninofifensive feeble-minded, and those for the care and training of the defective\ndelinquent. The latter type have more criminal tendencies and are a\ndisturbing element among the others. They should be kept by themselves.\nSome may say, \" Why, it is a pity to confine these children in an institution\nall their lives\"; but that is where they are greatly mistaken, as for instance,\nin Ohio, I can say to you that we have a community of over i,6oo of the\nhappiest children in the state in our institution. They are much happier\nin the institution, where they are protected and kept out of tro\\ible, than\nthey would be in the outside world, where they are subject to the scoffs\nand jeers of the public.\nAs to the training of the mental defectives, everything should tend\ntoward their happiness in the institution, which is their home. It should\nnot be a place of detention or anything in the line of a penal institution,\nbut an institution for education and training. Everyone is happier by\nhaving something to do, and if we can keep these children busy, they are\nhappy. I believe that spending much time in the ordinary grade work\nwith the mental defective is more or less futile, but there can be much done\nwith industrial and manual training, as well as music.\nThese children lack the power of concentration. They are rather\napathetic in their interest in books, but they take quite readily to the\nindustrial branches. These dull minds can be reached more easily thru\ntheir hands than any other channel. For instance, if you will go with me\nfor a moment to our school department, I will take you to a room where\nyou will find a lot of little boys as happy and busy as they can be, weaving\nrugs, making hammocks, laundry bags, doormats, cane-seating chairs, or\nlearning to make shoes; then we will go to another room where you will\nsee some happy, jolly little girls making reed and raflSa baskets; and if you\nwill go to another we will find boys busy at the sloyd and carpenter work;\noiv to another and you will see a group of happy girls learning the mysteries\nof domestic science. I might go still farther but I have only mentioned\nthese things to illustrate our ideas as to the education of the defective. Of\ncourse we spend a considerable time with music and are very proud of our\norchestra and we make much of gymnastics. They are taught how to walk,\nhow to stand, different dances, etc. In fact we try to develop the different\nmuscles of the body, and by training these muscles it is wonderful sometimes\nhow it seems to brighten the intellect. It seems so useless to waste so\nmuch time trying to teach them something they can never do when there\nare so many things they can accomplish which are conducive to their happiness and make them nearer self-sustaining.\nI have here a few charts that I want to show you, illustrating the\ninevitable results of marriage in families where there is a history of mental\ndefectives, or in other words, bad blood, and to emphasize the necessity of\nsegregating the defective child, as it has been a pretty well demonstrated\nfact that from 60 to 75 per cent of mental defectives are due to heredity.\nSome put it even higher than this.\n\n"}
{"page": 1309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSEGREGATION\n\nOF THE\n\nDEFECTIVE\n\nCLASSES\n\n. ,\nSYMBOLS\nSquare indicates\nmale.\nCircle indicates female.\nPlain squares and circles indicate normal.\nSmall black circles indicate miscarriages.\nA capital letter indicates disease, habit, or condition as follows:\nA., alcoholic.\nC, criminal.\nT., or T.B.C., tuberculosis.\nE., epileptic )\nF., feeble-minded > White letters on black circles or squares.\nI., insane\n)\nD. Inf., died in infancy.\nSex. P., sexual pervert.\nProst., prostitute.\nMorph., morphine habit.\nSy., syphilis.\nInd. school, industrial.\nBroken lines indicate, illegitimacy.\nI shows child in Institution for feeble-minded.\nHydro., hydrocephalic.\nPen., penitentiary.\n\nOt-O\n\n&T-©\n\n6\n\nBlind\n\nI\n\n^\n\nf\n\nChart I. — Shows the effect of feeble-mindedness in the mother, when the father's family is good, altho\nthey are known to be a shiftless, easy-going sort of people.\nThe result of this man's marriage with a feeble-minded woman is four feeble-minded children, one blind\na subject of charity, and four normal.\nThis shows a clear case of feeble-mindedness of three generations, transmitted thru the mother.\n\no\no\n\ni7>J^ ii\nChart II. — While the parents and maternal grandparents and great grandparents are themselves normal,\nwe have evidence of a neurotic taint in the family.\nThis shows itself on the maternal side by a feeble-minded uncle and great uncle, and one feeble-minded\nsecond cousin, and two feeble-minded third cousins.\nOn the paternal side there is a feeble-minded aunt.\nThis illustrates the danger of marrying into a family where there is a morbid heredity, altho the parentage,\non both sides, as far back as we can trace, be normal.\n\n"}
{"page": 1310, "printed_page": null, "text": "1294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Special\n\nEh-O\n\nh^\n\nQ\nOS\n\nPfOSt\n\nB\n\n□©\n\nChart III. — Shows a combination of almost every form of morbid heredity; namely, insanity, feeblemindedness, alcoholism, tuberculosis, syphilis, sexual perversion, prostitution.\nAnother interesting factor is that alcoholism runs thru every generation. The maternal great grandfather and grandfather were alcoholics, and the maternal great uncle tubercular.\nThere were three maternal uncles alcoholic, one of whom was insane, due to syphilis. Also another\nmaternal uncle who had syphilis, and one maternal aunt, who was tubercular.\nAll thru the father's family immorality exists, the father being alcoholic, syphilitic, and a sexual pervert,\nas well as a criminal. He has one sister a prostitute, and one sister feeble-minded.\nThe boy in our institution was the only child from this union.\nThe mother has married a second time, and has had one child, which died in infancy, from inanition.\n\no\n\nQ\n\no\n\nm\n\nSi\n\nMorph\n\nMorph.\n\n&\n3 Times\nin Workhouse\n\nO\nt O1D\n\nChart IV. — Shows a combination of feeble-mindedness, insanity, alcoholism, and the drug habit.\nThe result of the marriage of this feeble-minded woman with an alcoholic and shiftless man, who has\nserved three terms in the workhouse, is three feebft-minded children, two of them now in our institution,\nthe third being too young for admission.\nThe maternal grandparents were addicted to the morphine habit, and while the maternal grandfather\nwas not violently insane, yet he was suflaciently unbalanced to be committed to the asylum, and died there.\nThe paternal grandparents were supposed to be normal, altho they had four sons who are chronic\nalcoholics, one daughter insane, and one normal.\n\n^^\n\n^^\n\n^^\n\n^^\n\nt\n\n^^\n\nCnlnrert fnlnrorf\n\nr\n\n^^^\n\nf\n\n^^\n\nf\n\n^^\n\nChart V. — Shows the offspring of a union in which both parents were feeble-minded.\nTwelve children were bom, ten of whom are feeble-minded, the other two, who are normal, are\nundoubtedly illegitimate, as both parents are white, and these two children colored.\nThe chart is so drawn because we have no history of the illegitimacy, which, were it not for the\ncolor, would be unsusi)ected.\nThis chart clearly shows how the impossible event of normal offspring of feeble-minded parents is often\napparently shown.\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 1311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSEGREGATION\n\nOF THE DEFECTIVE\nHalf-Breed\nIndian\n\no^-o\n\niA\n\nB-r®C>\n\nD«\"\"ed\n\nCLASSES\nFull-Blooded\nIndian\n\nBigamist\n\n0^„s^\n\n'^-^\n\n1^ O lib\n\nProsl.\n\nSe», P\n\nt\n\nChart VI. — Shows the effects of intennarriage where morbid heredity exists.\nAn interesting factor of the morbid heredity is the combination of alcoholism thru the paternal side,\nwith feeble-mindedness thru the maternal.\nThe parents of the child in our institution are first cousins, the mother being feeble-minded and the\nfather alcoholic.\nThe results of this union were four feeble-minded girls, one of whom is a prostitute, and one a sexual pervert.\nThere is a maternal aunt who is feeble-minded, and a great uncle who was a bigamist. The maternal\ngrandfather was feeble-minded and alcoholic. The maternal great grandfather was a half-breed Indian and\nthe great grandmother was a full-blooded Indian.\nThere are two paternal uncles and one paternal aunt who are alcoholics. The paternal grandmother\nwas alcoholic, and the paternal grandfather insane and alcoholic.\n\nInd School\n\nInd.\nSchool\n\n^\nf\n\n^^\nf\n\ni;J]6iiii\nf\n\nChart VII. — Shows the descendants of an alcoholic man who served a term in the penitentiary, and\nwho was married three times. His first and second wives were sisters, both normal. By his first wife he had\nfour children, all normal; but one daughter who married twice had an epileptic, hydrocephalic son by her\nfirst husband. By his second wife he had six children, four normal, one feeble-minded, and one insane. For\nhis third wife he married a woman who was raised in an industrial school, and who afterward became insane,\nbeing in the asylum three different times. The result of this marriage was two feeble-minded girls who arc\nin our institution, one boy who is a patient in the Ohio Hospital for Epileptics, and one boy in the industrial\nschool.\nThe man has died, and the woman has married a second time.\nThe third wife has a half-sister who is insane. She was also raised in the industrial school. This\nwoman married a tubercular and alcoholic man, and to them were bom six children, three normals, one boy\nsyphilitic, one boy feeble-minded, and one girl feeble-minded, who is in our institution, and who, of course,\nis a half-cousin to the two children shown on the chart as inmates of our institution.\n\n"}
{"page": 1312, "printed_page": null, "text": "1296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n-\n\n- ^— ^\n\n(Special\n\n^\n\nJ^\n\n^^ '\n\n#\n- -\n\n^-\n\n-\n\n^\n\nD.\nInf.\n\nD\nInf,\n\n0.\nInf.\n\n•\n\n^\n^\n\nChart VIII. — Shows the result of a feeble-minded woman being left at large, she having had seven\nillegitimate children, all feeble-minded.\nAfter her marriage, she had four children, three of whom died in infancy, before their mentality could\nbe determined. The other child, a girl, is feeble-minded.\n\nTEE\n\nTRAINING OF THE FEEBLE-MINDED DEAF, BASED\nUPON IMPRESSIONS GAINED ABROAD\nFRANCES\n\nWETTSTEIN,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nOF SCHOOL\nWIS.\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF,\n\nIf we are to gain an adequate understanding of the classification of\nthe deaf as attempted in Great Britain and northern Europe today, we\nmust take a glance backward and note the progress of deaf-mute education\nduring a period of one or more centuries.\nDown to the latter part of the eighteenth century attempts to educate\nthe deaf had been sporadic only, and mainly confined to the homes of the\nwealthy. The first public school for the deaf was opened in France in\n1760 by De L'Epee, who perfected a sign-system of his own. But this\nsystem failed of success owing to its inability to fit a deaf person for life\namong the hearing.\nIn 1778, Heinecke in Germany, and Braidwood, four years later, in\nGreat Britain, also founded public schools for the instruction of the deaf.\nThe method by which they taught was purely oral — speech for the deaf\nby means of speech — ^being convinced that any compromise between speech\nand signs would prove ineffectual.\nFrom that time to the present, a war of methods has been carried on\nunceasingly. Each system, supposed to be perfect, has been tried and\ndiscarded, having been found wanting. But each failure has been followed\nup by some sincere attempt at improvement, with such success that,\ntoday, speech is taught in nearly all schools for the deaf, except those for\nthe feeble-minded; and educators have arrayed before their minds ideals\nof a high order which they are hoping and striving to realize.\n\n■v\n\n"}
{"page": 1313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF THE\n\nFEEBLE-MINDED\n\nDEAF\n\n1297\n\nDuring a hundred years, the institution did as much for the deaf as\nany other system could have done. But with the passing of the centuries,\nchanges vast and far-reaching have transpired. Hearing children are\nnow kept at home and it becomes a natural question whether the deaf\nchild should not be treated as nearly as possible as is the hearing — that\nhe be educated at home and that the home ties be not broken.\nI allow Dr. James Kerr Love, of Glasgow, to speak for the sentiment\nentertained by the principal educators of Great Britain relative to the\nday-school movement.\nHe says:\nI shall assume that tife home life of a deaf child is so important that it should be\nretained where possible. The institution came into vogue before the capacity of deaf\nmutes was properly understood and before our educational system was sufl&ciently\norganized to permit of day schools.\nThere are many advantages in the family life for the deaf child. I do not need to\npoint out the superiority of good home life to that of any institution. It is better for\nboth parent and child, unless the parent or parents be deaf mutes, for the child is in an\noral environment during the whole of his waking hours. The plunge from the institution\ninto the world at the end of the school period must, to a deaf child, be like a cold bath.\nHe is afraid his speech will be laughed at, and he has had no practice in reading the\nspeech of even his father and mother.\nThe day school has no such plunge in store for him. When he meets another deaf\n•person, of course, he either signs or finger-speUs, but he has already formed many hearing\nassociations, and, at the end of his school period, he has not a strong inducement to\nassociate chiefly with the adult deaf and dumb. Thus he is more likely to keep up his\nspeech than the institution child.\n\nDr. Love has also made scientific research as to the mental and\nphysical condition of pupils trained in institutions and day schools, and\nthe summarized conclusions are in favor of day schools.\nDr. Kirk, a teacher of long experience in England, writes:\nThe day scholars acquire self-reliance. Before I came to Leeds I was led to believe\nthat the deaf must all be shut up in institutions. Now I think otherwise. Institutions\ndo not train a child to live in a cottage. The average home and the day school are all\nright for the deaf boy and girl.\n\nThus modern thought and the mature and undisputed judgment of\neducators in Europe support the position that bright pupils should either\nattend day schools or be boarded in families.\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nAt the present time another classification is being recognized as\nadvisable — one which separates those whose hearing is defective from\nthose who are wholly deaf and dumb. In consequence of this further\nclassification separate schools or classes for the partially deaf are being\nformed. Denmark, Norway, several provinces in Germany, and the city\nschools in London have adopted systems of classification, and other countries\nare likely to follow their lead.\nThe general classification is as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 1314, "printed_page": null, "text": "1298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nA. The semi-deaf, those who hear conversational tones but one yard away, and\nthe semi-mute, who still retain auditive impressions, should be grouped in separate\ndepartments in the pubUc schools. Where this is impracticable, owing to a lack of\nnumbers necessary for proper grading, they should be placed in separate classes in the\nschools for the deaf.\nB. The mentally nortiial, toto-congenitally deaf, and those who lost their hearing\nbefore they acquired speech should be classed together and taught in special day schools\nand by the oral method.\nC. The dull or backward ones should be treated in like manner as the B pupils.\nD. The feeble-minded deaf: and this brings me to the most important problem\nthat confronts the educator of the deaf today.\n\nIn Germany, all children of the A, B, and C classes are taught speech.\nIf the mind is developed by speech and lip-reading, a theory now imdisputed, the Germans reason and act logically when they give the mentally\ndeficient as much speech as possible as a means of developing the defective\nmentality.\n'\nHerr Harden, speaking for the Germans, remarks:\nWhen we believe in oralism and apply that method to both good and poor speakers\nof A and B pupils .... I do not see why the deaf of feeble intellect should be taught\notherwise than their more fortunate fellow-sufferers. Why deprive these poorest among\nthe poor of that blessing which oral speech is recognized to be to the deaf ?\n\nThe distinction between \"idiotic\" and \"backward\" children may\nbe responsible for what seems to be a certain difi\"erence of opinion in different European countries, tho, upon further careful examination and\nconsideration, substantial agreement may be successfully reached.\nIn Germany every child is taught speech, and speech that is intelligible, but the observer is struck with the absence of feeble-minded deaf,\nfor the German pupils respond readily and their speech is easily understood. When I expressed my surprise at this feature I was told that the\nfeeble-minded children were not admitted to the schools, but were sent to\ninstitutions for the feeble-minded in general. Thus we see that Germany\nhas not made any special provision, as yet, for those most pitiable of human\nbeings — the feeble-minded deaf.\nDenmark places her backward and feeble-minded deaf in an institution in Copenhagen where they are all taught by manual methods. But\nis this quite fair to those who are merely backward ? For some, at least,\nof these appeared bright enough to profit by oral instruction; therefore\nto class them with mentally deficient pupils seemed like condemning them\nto a life of utter isolation — dragging them down, rather than lifting them up.\nThose above the average, the average, and the dull ones should all be\nadmitted to the same advantages, for the time may come when even the\ndullest child will suddenly wake up as from profound slumber and start\nforth to work up toward the \"average\"; but, confined in an institution\nwith the feeble-minded only for his associates, he is lost.\nIn London, I found that which appealed to me as the most effectual\nsystem of disposing of this difficult problem.\nAll A, B, and C pupils go\n\n"}
{"page": 1315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOP TBE\n\nFEEBLE-MINDED\n\nDEAF\n\n1299\n\nto day schools and are taught by the oral method. The feeble-minded are\nplaced in one residential school; but, before a child is entered there, he\nmust have attended an oral school for at least two years, and he can be\ntransferred to an institution only upon the unanimous recommendations\nof the teacher, the principal, and the attending physician. Should he,\nat any time, show sufficient improvement as to intelligence, he can be\nreturned to the day school.\nTREATMENT\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nWhat are the treatment and training that ought to be given at such a\nresidential school ? To this question I have formulated an answer based\non my own observation made not only in the schools for the deaf, but in\ndifferent schools for cripples, orphans, and backward children.\nI.\n\nMENTAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nThe intelligence of the child has to be reached and awakened, and how\nis this to be done? Speech, at any rate, should always be employed by\nthe teacher, for, unconsciously perhaps, she will be more expressive in\nher facial movements when speaking than when merely spelling. Besides,\nsome pupils may have a degree of latent hearing which needs only development of mind to awaken it to responsiveness, and the natural gestures\nwhich accompany speech, being the most simple and primitive of all means\nof communication, must needs be a powerful element in the mental development of the child. Signs and the manual alphabet may be used wherever\nadvisable. In each case a thoro* study of the individual child should be\nmade, and that method which appeals to each one separately be employed.\n11.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\n'\n\nA sound mind can live in a sound body only. Consequently the physical\ncondition of each child should be as carefully and accurately diagnosed\nas possible; the diet prescribed by a physician; baths of all kinds, including\nelectrical and sun baths, given when advisable; physical training and\ncorrection, where necessary, imparted by an expert orthopedist; in fact,\nthe cFiild should be afforded every opportunity of developing as healthy\na body as possible.\nIII.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nThe teacher of the feeble-minded never knows when she will be brought\nup against a wall thru which she cannot penetrate. She must, therefore,\nsearch for and discover what the child is capable of doing or what he may\nbe taught to do. If, after a fair trial, she finds that her pupil cannot\nplace a round peg into a round hole or a square one into a square hole,\nshe must realize that he will never do anything that requires an eye for\nform, and she must look elsewhere for signs of development. If he has\nno eye for form, he may have for color, which may be turned to account\nby instruction in beadwork or woven designs.\n\n"}
{"page": 1316, "printed_page": null, "text": "I300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Special\n\nAnother child may be able to learn crocheting lace, or making torchon,\nor other desirable articles, for the market. Some may learn to do one\nkind of embroidery, or hemstitching. Boys might learn to make brushes,\nor to finish furniture, or make a certain part of furniture, or be put to work\nin the garden.\nIn short, each child should be given opportunity to learn something\nuseful and helpful toward his own support.\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\n\nADVISER\n\nA child of well-balanced mentality can become useful in more than\none way; but one of unequal balance may be capable of doing only just\none thing. It becomes, therefore, the primal duty of the teacher of the\nfeeble-minded to find out, in any given case, what this one thing is. She\nneeds to be resourceful and original, in order to determine what capabilities\nexist and how to develop them, and, for this dij05cult task, there ought to\nbe placed at her disposal the assistance of an expert psychologist employed\nas a supervisory and advisory member of the faculty of the school.\nHOME\n\nFOR\n\nADULTS\n\nSegregation from the general community should be observed in the\ncase of the feeble-minded in order to prevent them propagating their\nkind. Therefore residential schools must give way to homes for the adults\nwhere inmates may enjoy all the privileges of companionship and helpfulness— the best substitute for a home.\nCOTTAGE\n\nPLAN\n\nWherever the institution is inevitable it should be established on the\ncottage plan. Not more than eight or ten should become inmates of a\ncottage, and each cottage should have a big brother or sister who could\nassume and perform the duties of the head of the family. Certain home\nduties might be assigned those capable of doing them. Others might be\nemployed in a community shop in making articles of economic value which\nwould help them to become self-supporting and thus awaken in them a\nsentiment of self-respect which will contribute to their happiness.\nI visited a home for cripples in Christiania, Norway, where each inmate\nhad the opportunity of working at something for which he was fitted, and\nI could not conceal my surprise at the manifest happiness that pervaded\nthe whole institution. One girl without arms embroidered hardanger\nwith her mouth only, the machine for catching the needle having been\nespecially devised for this purpose. She was partially earning her living\nand, thereby, cultivating a wholesome sense of self-respect which would\nhardly have been possible had she been merely an object of charity, however\nwell meaning. The men in the shops made pretty hand-carved furniture\nthat sold at high prices, some doing only the finishing. Some were\nbrush-makers, others wheelwrights, or bakers, or tailors. Each one was\nhelping to support the home.\n\n"}
{"page": 1317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nNATIVE\n\nIMPULSES\n\n1301\n\nThe Home for Dependent Deaf Women in Copenhagen was almost\nself-supporting, and I cannot see any reason why a public institution of\nthis character, properly managed, should not be made entirely or almost\nself-supporting and the burden at least partially lifted from the state.\nThe great cry of the hour is \"the individual,\" and an equally great\nfact is that a system is only as strong as its weakest link. America justifies\nthe existence of all her universities and other palatial institutions in their\npower to qualify men, women, and children to live happily under any and\nall circumstances, but before she can claim to be an unquestioned and\nunsurpassed leader in education, she must also recognize the fact that\neach individual, however feeble, after he has been brought into this world\nhas a right to receive care and training that will fit him to become useful\nin whatever line his capacity may lie. She must recognize the fact that\neach element in the community should be made constructive of law and\norder, of self-respect and mutual confidence and happiness — that it should\nbecome less and less possible 01 necessary to fill her prisons with criminals\nand her almshouses with paupers, who, by proper and well-balanced care\nand training, might be made to lead useful and happy lives in a community\nhome, thereby preventing them from becoming a menace to themselves\nand to society at large.\nTHE TRAINING\nHERMAN\n\nCHARLES\nHENDERSON,\nSTATE\nNORMAL\n\nOF NATIVE\nTEACHER\nSCHOOL,\n\nIMPULSES\n\nOF PSYCHOLOGY\nAND\nMILWAUKEE,\nWIS.\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nIt is simple truth and no paradox to say that we can educate a child\nonly so far as he will let us. The limitations as well as the possibilities of\neducation are set by the child's own nature. In the work with defective\nchildren there has been an inclination to put the emphasis upon the limitations of that nature and to minimize its possibilities. In seeing the\nparticular points of difference existing between the defective and the normal\nchild, we have been inclined to ignore the many points of likeness. In the\nexcellent work that is being done today in the education of defective\nchildren, it is a pleasure to note the effort to treat them as if they were\nnormal children possessing the common characteristics of childhood. It\nshall be my object to call attention to some of these common features, and\nto indicate their relation to the work of education.\nVarious figures of speech have been current at different times to denote\nthe facts of child nature. Among those that have had their day are Locke's\nsheet of white paper, the plastic clay that can be molded at will, the empty\nvessel that the teacher out of her abundant storehouse is to fill. All of\nthese conceptions had behind them the erroneous assumption of passivity\nof attitude on the part of children and the absence of any dynamic force\nworking from within.\nEducation was thus largely a matter of external\n\n"}
{"page": 1318, "printed_page": null, "text": "I302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nimposition, and conformity the all-inclusive j:ask of childhood. The newer\nconception, or that of the developing organism, with active, propulsive\ntendencies seeking for expression, puts the emphasis upon the child's own\nnature and gladly accepts its assistance in the work of education. It is the\npossession of a wealth of native tendencies, the inheritance of long generations, that makes childhood akin the world over. It is these that give us\navenues of approach to child life even if the senses should be impaired or\nthe mental life be defective. In them, in fact, is largely to be found the\nsecret of educability.\nThe primary thing in life, as we have been so often told, is movement\nin response to stimuli. The whole life-process may be described in terms of\nreaction, stimulus followed by response, response by a new stimulus, this\nby a new or modified response, and so on. Tendencies to action, whether\ndefinite as in the case of the relatively fixed instincts of animals, or indefinite\nas in the modifiable instincts or impulses of children, require appropriate\nstimuli to call them forth, hence to a large extent we have it in our power\nto say what shall be done with them. We may repress them, we may\nignore them, or we may stimulate and guide them. It is a trite saying but\ntrue, that the bad in this world is in most cases but a perversion of the good.\nThe native impulses of children do not always manifest themselves in a\nlovely form, but under wise direction there probably is no one impulse that\ncould not be turned to good account in the child's moral and mental\ndevelopment.\nIf rightly viewed, the native impulses of children constitute our chief\neducational stock in trade, and education itself may be regarded as nothing\nmore than the direction of these impulses toward ends that are worth while\nby means of appropriate material. The training of children's impulses\nleads to the formation of useful habits, to the acquisition of dynamic\nknowledge, and to the gaining of right ideals of conduct. If this is true of\nthe normal child, it applies with equal, if not with greater force, to the\neducation of children physically or mentally defective.\nWith these impulses are associated the interests of childhood which we\nare learning to turn to such good account in the educative process. We are\nrealizing that learning on the part of the child is not a mere matter of\nintellectual comprehension, but that it implies an attitude of mind and a\ncertain warmth of feeling toward that which is being apprehended. In\nother words, we must establish lines of contact between the material we\nwould teach and the child's own interests. As we have been frequently\nreminded, there is all the difference in the world between educating a child\nin accordance with his nature and attempting to educate him in opposition\nto it.\nLet us now consider a few of the many important impulses in child life\nthat may be put to educational advantage. I shall mention first the one\nthat is most commonly appealed to, whether in normal children or in defec-\n\n"}
{"page": 1319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nNATIVE\n\nIMPULSES\n\n1303\n\ntives — the impulse to communicate with others. This impulse, manifesting\nitself at first thru inarticulate cries, signs, and gestures, becomes the basis\nof all language whether produced orally or by the use of written or manual\nsigns. Unfortunately language exercises are often conducted without any\nspecific reference to the communicative impulse which should furnish the\nmotive. The results are thus highly formal and lacking in that life and\nfreedom of expression that comes when the child has really something he\nwants to say.\nRichness of content of experience on the one hand, and on the other the\npresence of one or more personalities interested in learning of that experience\nare fundamental in securing free exercise of the communicative impulse.\nI quote from Miss Sullivan in her interesting account of the education of\nHelen Keller:\nLanguage grows out of life, out of its needs and experiences. Good work in language\npresupposes and depends on a real knowledge of things. I never taught language for the\npurpose of teaching it, but invariably used language as a medium for the communication\nof thought; thus the learning of language was coincident with the acquisition of knowledge. In order to use language intelligently, one must have something to talk about,\nand having something to talk about is the result of having had experiences; no amount\nof language training will enable our little children to use language with ease and fluency\nunless they have something clearly in their minds which they wish to communicate, or\nunless we succeed in awakening in them a desire to know what is in the minds of others.\n\nOf written language Miss Sullivan adds:\nIn order to write, one must have something to write about, and having something to\nwrite about requires some mental preparation. The memory must be stored with ideas\nand the mind must be enriched with knowledge, before writing becomes a natural and\npleasurable effort. Too often, I think, children are required to write before they have\nanything to say. Teach them to think and read and talk without self -repression, and they\nwill write because they cannot help it.\n\nI quote at such length because in my judgment these sentences contain\nthe essence of a sound pedagogy of language teaching.\nWhen it comes to the actual learning of language forms, whether oral\nor written, the imitative impulse comes to be the chief agency to rely on.\nIn the case of the deaf child the stimulus to imitation comes thru the sight\nof the moving lips and the feel of the teacher's vocal organs rather than thru\nthe ear as in the case of the blind or normal child. Imitation develops into\na voluntary attempt to do things in the way one is shown. With desire\nkindled thru the impulse to communicate with his fellows, there seems to be\npractically no limit to the efforts a child will put forth to get the right\nmovements of lips and other vocal organs. The blind but hearing child\nimitates spontaneously the speech of his elders and companions; the\nemployment of voluntary imitation comes in as he attempts to master the\ncharacters used in writing.\nThe most obvious of all the native impulses of childhood, at least in the\nearly years, is the impulse to play. We are realizing as never before how\nimportant a factor it is in the natural education of children.\nFrom the\n\n"}
{"page": 1320, "printed_page": null, "text": "1304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nchildren's own free plays and the simple plays and games of the kindergarten,\nto the elaborate group games of later childhood and youth, there is practically no limit to its educational possibilities. Fortunately, the play\nimpulse is strong in defective as in normal children, tho from the lack of\nvisual or auditory stimuli the former are apt to be more inactive and to play\nless than normal children. Teachers of the deaf and blind should themselves know how to play so as to be able to suggest plays and games to the\nchildren and to participate in their play activities. While nothing can take\nthe place of free plays, the play spirit can be introduced into much of the\nwork of the school, particularly with the younger children. The finding of\nfamihar words on the blackboard or in the new reading-lesson, the carryingout of the actions involved in verbs such as jump, run, lie down, etc., the\nforming of number combinations and the performance of simple arithmetical\noperations as games, the holding of spelling and geography contests are\nvarious ways of utilizing the play impulse. I should like especially to urge\nthe introduction of plays involving imagination and those in which impersonation and dramatization play a leading part. The reading and language\nwork, and the history and geography as well, give abundant opportunities\nfor dramatization. In dramatization, the child's ideas become clarified\nand his imagination is set free. Besides the direct benefit received by the\nchildren, the teacher is afforded an opportunity to observe whether the\nchildren comprehend the details of the story told or read. This is of\nparticular value in the case of deaf children.\nThe constructive impulse or the impulse to make things is powerful in\nthe great majority of children. We now no longer ignore it, much less do\nwe seek to repress it, but we are conscientiously setting ourselves to the task\nof directing and guiding it. This is no place for me to make any special\nplea for hand activities. Their value has been demonstrated. Thru\nministering to the need in the child's life for the satisfaction of the constructive impulse, we have been able to discover possibiUties in child life\nhitherto unknown. The blind, the deaf, the mentally defective can all be\nreached for good thru the training of this impulse. Co-ordination of\nmuscles, of hand and eye in the case of the seeing child, the stimulation of\nimagination and growth in the ability to think thru a problem of means\nand ends are some of the advantages secured by the various forms of\nhandwork and manual training. Nor in this connection must the vocational\naspect of constructive activities be forgotten. The problem of earning\none's living becomes even more acute in the case of defective children, who,\nwhether in private institutions or in connection with our public schools,\nundoubtedly should be given an opportunity to select some occupation\nrequiring skill of hand, and be given a chance to become prepared for\nthat occupation.\nSinging as an oral form of expression has its limitations in the education\nof the deaf, but the rhythmic impulse with which it is related is one that\n\n"}
{"page": 1321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nOP NATIVE\n\nIMPULSES\n\n1305\n\nshould receive the most careful attention. As a means of securing muscular\ncontrol as well as grace of carriage, rhythmic exercises are invaluable.\nMarching, calisthenics, dancing, club-swinging give a wholesome outlet to\nthe rhythmic instinct. How this may be employed in connection with the\n•piano in producing flexibility of tone among the deaf is a matter, I presume,\nof common knowledge.\nNo consideration of the educational possibilities of children's natural\nimpulses should omit reference to the place curiosity holds in a child's life.\nIt is par excellence the means by which the child comes to know the meaning\nof the world around him. Curiosity is the natural stimulus to the learning\nprocess.\nOf Laura Bridgman at the age of twelve, Dr. Howe remarks:\nHer curiosity is insatiable and by the cheerful toil and patient labor with which she\ngleans her scanty harvest of knowledge, she reproves those who, having eyes see not,\nand having ears hear not.\n\nOf Helen Keller at the age of ten Miss Sullivan writes:\nShe almost overwhelmed me with inquiries which were the natural outgrowth of her\nquickened intelligence.\n\nAs evidence of her active, inquiring mind she quotes as some of the\nquestions asked:\n\"Who made the earth and the seas and everything?\" \"What makes the sun hot?\"\n\"Why does not the earth fall, it is so very large and heavy?\"\n\nAre such questions to be lightly set aside, or shall they not be taken as\nstarting-points for the comprehension of some of the great truths of life\nand nature? When we realize the important part that curiosity or the\nimpulse to inquire has played in the development of knowledge, we should\ncarefully guard against doing anything that would stifle this spirit of\ninquiry. On the other hand, knowing that the presence of curiosity is\nsynonymous with mental alertness and is one sure guaranty for the\nsecuring of interest, we should see to it that it is stimulated and then\nguided in directions that will be worth while. In this connection I should\nlike to specially recommend Professor Dewey's second lecture in The School\nand Society, for an illuminating discussion of the distinction between\n\"indulging\" an impulse by merely stimulating it on its own level and\n\"satisfying\" that impulse by directing it so as to secure increased power\nand wider experience.\nInstincts and impulses are signs of future possibilities; they represent\nthe dynamic at our disposal in the educative process; it is for us as teachers\nthru our wider knowledge and deeper insight to indicate the direction they\nare to take so that richness of experience and efiiciency in action may be\nthe outcome. And in the case of children handicapped by sense defects to\nwhom are closed the usual gateways to knowledge, to beauty, and to love,\nit seems doubly important that we make much of the inner tendencies of\ntheir nature and see in their training not only the guaranty of a fuller\nintellectual life but of a happier and richer emotional life as well.\n\n"}
{"page": 1322, "printed_page": null, "text": "1306\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE PREVENTION\nBLINDNESS AND CONSERVATION OF VISION\nJ. A.\n\nSHAWAN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\n[Special\n\nOF\nOHIO\n\nWhen this committee began its work, it soon became apparent that\nthe field was a much larger one than at first contemplated. Assuming\nthat its investigations should be confined to school conditions and school\nactivities, it has endeavored to limit its operations to such. At its first\nmeeting, an appeal came from the representative of a body of sewing girls\nin New York City who stated that these girls were compelled to work in\nrooms with light insufficient for them to see how to thread their needles.\nA standard for such conditions was asked for; this, together with the\nkind and quality of light required in mechanical and industrial arts, and\nits effect on vision, was at that time considered.\nThe possibility of reducing the dangers to vision from accidents and\nthe liability of corporations in such cases are a fair subject for investigation\nand study. Such work, except as it relates to school children, however\ninteresting and promising, is clearly outside of the province of this committee. The work of the committee has contributed to the founding of\nthe American Association for the Conservation of Vision, which has received\nsubstantial support and recognition from the Russell Sage Foundation.\nThis association will endeavor to study the problems of vision from every\npoint of view and its findings and suggestions cannot be other than beneficial to thousands who need both knowledge and protection. If the committee has done nothing else, this one accomplishment would amply justify\nits existence.\nThe committee in its investigations has foimd:\n1. That there are in the United States one hundred thousand people who are blind.\n2. That in one-third of these cases, blindness might have been averted had right\nprotective measures been taken.\n3. That one-quarter of the children in the schools for the blind have lost their sight\nneedlessly.\n4. That of all conservation movements, the one whose aim is the preservation of\neyesight is the most appeaUng and among the most important.\n5. That it is one of the movements in which the largest results may be obtained with\nthe least expenditure of effort and money.\n\nIn the face of such facts, it is clear that something should be done both\nto prevent blindness and to conserve vision, not only where it is already\nlimited, but also where it is normal and liable to become affected. The first\nstep was to determine exact conditions by questionnaires and otherwise.\nThe lines of inquiry so far have covered the following phases of the subject:\n1. The amount of light admitted into the schoolroom and the direction from which\nit comes.\n2. The effect of a shiny surface, whether the blackboard or printed page, and the\npossibility of getting rid of it.\n\n"}
{"page": 1323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\n1307\n\n3. The size and clearness of type and the tint of the paper used.\n4. The use to which the eyes are put and the reduction in the amount so as to prevent\neyestrain.\n5. The prevention of progressive near-sight by limiting the use of the eyes for close\nwork.\n6. The correction of focal defects in so far as school authorities can act or suggest.\n1. In considering the amount of light admitted into the schoolroom\nand the direction from which it comes, a careful investigation was made\nthru the department at Washington showing the laws and ruling of state\ndepartments on the subject, and by correspondence with nearly 3,000\nsuperintendents, principals, and teachers. The great bulk of this correspondence has been preserved for the use of the committee appointed\nby the National Council of Education on \"Problems of Health in the\nSchools.\"\nBriefly stated:\nA study of state laws and rulings of state departments covering the\namount of light admitted into the schoolroom shows:\n(i) That in reporting the ratio between the window and the floor space,\none state requires one-seventh; four, one-sixth; nine, one-fifth; two, onefourth. A few would allow a lower ratio of light area if strengthened by\nproper reflecting surfaces.\n(2) That in placing the windows, five states allow them on the left\nand rear; nine emphasize the left but allow supplemental light from the\nrear, preferably high half- windows; Indiana admits from the left side\nonly when the pupils are seated for study; when possible, Illinois would\nhave light from the north side only. The eyes of both teacher and pupil\nshould be protected. It follows, and is rapidly becoming universal in\nschool architecture, that light should be admitted from the left only and\nfrom as near the ceiling as possible.\nThe passage of laws, the rulings of state departments of education,\nthe action of health departments, etc., are moving forward so rapidly\nthat data gathered last year will be obsolete next. This is certainly most\ngratifying.\n2. The consideration of the effect of a shiny or glaring surface on\nvision, whether it be the blackboard or printed page, naturally comes\nunder the physiology and pathology of vision, which is in itself a large\nquestion and should be treated in full if at all. But the committee wishes\nto report the following suggestions submitted to the Board of Education\nof New York by the principals of public schools of that city, which show\nthe practical trend of thought along this line and which are the result of\na careful study of this phase of the question:\n(i) That hereafter no calendered or coated paper be permitted in the textbooks\ngiven to children, as the dazzle of such paper is injurious to their eyes.\n(2) That half-tone pictures be not permitted in schoolbooks but that simple, easily\nseen outline pictures be substituted for them.\n(3) That the length of line in schoolbooks be from a minimum of 2J inches to a\nmaximum of 3 inches.\n\n"}
{"page": 1324, "printed_page": null, "text": "1308\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n(4) That the space between the lines be not less than 3 mm.\n(5) That in reading, the children hold their books at an angle of approximately 45°\nand that in oral reading they be required to look up frequently.\n(6) That after a lesson demanding close work, the children be asked to look up at\nthe ceiling or out of the windows to change the focus of their eyes and rest the muscles\nof accommodation.\n(7) That classrooms be equipped with loose chairs of different sizes so that the\nchildren may sit in seats that fit them, placed where they can see best.\n(8) That in the first two years of school all writing be upon blackboards instead of\nupon paper.\n(9) That all rooms in which artificial light is burned continually be closed.\n(10) That no part-time classes be permitted to occupy any room in which the light\nis not entirely satisfactory.\n(11) That electric bulbs used in lighting classrooms be made of frosted glass, and\nthat clusters of such bulbs be provided with pale amber shades to screen the pupils'\neyes from the direct rays of light.\n(Number 1 1 was adopted as a result of a tour of the Evening High School and inspection of the lighting system used there.)\n\n3. The size, clearness, and simplicity of type are very important.\nThe lack of clearness of outline which comes from overuse of plates is a\ncondition for which there should be a remedy. This is particularly true\nof popular novels which are run off edition after edition without change\nof plates, and the eyes of our young people are often ruined thereby. There\nshould be a limit to the use of plates.\nGreat progress has been made in the manufacture of textbooks due in\npart at least to wholesome competition. However, in talking with schoolbook publishers, there is a willingness to co-operate in the matter of paper,\ntype, and spacing. In a recent adoption in the city of Chicago we are\ninformed that the kind of paper, the size of type, the number of copies to\nbe run off without change of plates, and the spacing were specified, and the\ncontract for a large edition on those conditions let. There is no reason\nwhy smaller cities should not duplicate these requirements. But this will\nhardly be necessary, for all publishers are doing away with the glazed\nsurface and using a clear, soft, white page instead.\n4. The amount of use to which the eyes are put and its possible reduction is important. The eye is a willing servant. It responds to the call\nfor service long after it has passed the point of fatigue but in doing so makes\nheavy drains on the nervous system, often with serious after-results.\nUnder the care of the eyes, statistics were gathered from many sources,\nrelative to the amount of work required in the schools. These were reported\nquite fully in the last volume of the Proceedings of the National Education\nAssociation, pp. 1066-67, and need not be repeated at this time, tho much\nhas been added since. Three conclusions were reached:\n(i) That according to accepted standards the number of hours requiring eye- work\nin school was not excessive at the respective ages except in rather extreme cases.\n(2) That the amount of time given to study outside of school was, in most cases,\nquite insignificant.\n\n"}
{"page": 1325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\n1309\n\n(3) That the amount of miscellaneous reading required outside of school is not\nlarge except in a very few cases. The committee is of the opinion, however, that very\nmany books used by school children are inferior both in contents and in quality of print.\nIt is suggested that the child should be more carefully guided both by teacher and by\nparent and that the quality of paper, size of typ)e, clearness of print, as well as the contents, be given great attention.\n\n5. Nevertheless in studying the prevention of progressive near-sight,\nattention is called to the conclusions of the late Professor Dufour previously\npublished, which have been repeatedly verified, viz. :\n(i) In all schools the number of shortsighted pupils increases from class to class.\n(2) The average degree of shortsightedness increases from class to class.\n(3) The number of shortsighted pupils increases with the increase of school demands.\n\nFuchs, as translated by Duane, says:\nMost cases of myopia are those of low degree which develop during youth and come\nto the stop after the completion of the body growth (stationary myopia). In other\ncases, however, the myopia attains a considerable height even in youth, and then does\nnot remain stationary but increases steadily during life, so that finally it reaches the\ngreatest possible degree (progressive myopia). It is mainly these causes which lead to\ndestructive changes in the interior of the eye, and that cause myopia to appear in the\nlight of a disease of the eye, and of a serious disease too, which in advanced age often\ngives rise to amblyopia or even blindness.\nIt has been established by many observations that acquired near-sight is found\nalmost exclusively in those persons who are compelled to strain their eyes with near\nwork.\n\nConcerning this, Hirshberg of Berlin, than whom there is no higher\nauthority, in a monograph recently published on short-sight, says:\nMy observations, especially in my private practice, and my carefully entered clinical\nrecords carried on for more than three decades, have given me the comforting conviction\nthat by means of a long-continued abstention from close work the stretching process\nwhich constitutes myopia can be so far arrested (indeed, relatively speaking, it is by no\nmeans rare for it actually to be brought to a standstill) that further diminution of acuity\nmay not occur. Heedless of all considerations of rapid advance in learning, as soon as\nthe first indications of these important changes appear all ordinary school teaching for\nthe next two years must be set aside or replaced by a special form of home training which\nshould be oral in character and all copy-book writing and prolonged eye study entirely\nexcluded.\nIt will be evident then that our school methods in which the same curriculum is\nemployed for those whose eyes have begun to fail and for those whose eyes are strong\nmust be modified. There should be special classes for those with defective eyes, or\nbetter still, the whole curriculum should be modified so as to limit the amount of eyework which is now required from the adolescent.\n\nIn his address one year ago, the chairman of this committee, in speaking\nof the desirability of using the eyes less and the mind more, said:\nWhen the wheels begin to grind, it means not only that the machine is being destroyed\nbut that power is being lost and progress is being impeded. When, therefore, we find\nthat in the process of educating the child his nerves give way, his eyes are used with difficulty, or his sight becomes impaired, it is in itself evidence that there is internal friction\nand that the highest intellectual results are not being conserved.\nThe excessive use of\n\n"}
{"page": 1326, "printed_page": null, "text": "13 lo '\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Specia\n\nbooks and of note-taking, which by reason of the added visual effort required for near\nwork is the chief cause of eyestrain and of the structural changes in the eyeball, is at the\nsame time an obstacle to direct and logical thinking. The printed word is but a symbol\nof the thing or action which it represents, and it must be interpreted in terms of sense\nimages. The groups of letters constituting the word in and of themselves are meaningless\nuntil they are so interpreted. So definitely are the seeing of the word and its interpretation dual processes that when a break occurs in the line of transmission in the brain\nconnecting these two centers their sense of relationship is lost and the printed page carries\nno meaning to the otherwise intelligent brain. The, action which the word or group of\nwords represents is not immediately understood. This condition is called \" aphasia,\" or\nword-blindness. Its importance in pedagogy seems to have been overlooked. It means,\nif it means anything, that two efiforts are required to convey an idea from the printed\npage when but one would have been sufficient had the act itself been portrayed rather\nthan the symbols used to represent the act. The human mind is incapable of performing\ntwo functions at the same time. While the attention is given to the written or printed\nword it is diverted from the thought which it is intended to convey. Hence every hour\nof book-study means twice the time and twice the effort that would have been needed\nhad direct methods been employed. Apply this to the whole long, costly period of\ntutelage and we can realize how school life might be shortened and eyes and nerves might\nbe saved by teaching the thing sought for itself without the intervention of the impeding\nsymbols.\n\nIt is the act of thinking that is the essential thing. We do not see\nwith our eyes or hear with our ears except as the brain understandingly\nrecognizes the impressions made upon it. We use our eyes so constantly\nthat we fail to hear much that should impress us. \"Eyes have we but\nwe see not; ears, but we hear not! Brain-building comes from thinking,\nand printed books are only the guideposts, not the steps, from point to\nEven the most conservative educator must agree with the general\npoint.\"\npropositions laid down in the above. The process of visualization used\nso freely at the present time is an attempt to fix ideas in the mind without\novertaxing the eyes. The attention given to the development of the\nsense of touch must also serve as a relief to the other senses in conveying\nimpressions to the brain. There is no doubt that merely looking is not\nseeing. It is wonderful what can be done by fixing the mind on a few\nthings definitely stated. By a slight association between the words as\ngiven, any average seventh- or eighth-grade class will listen to a list of\nthirty to fifty words and repeat them in order without the omission of a\nsingle word and then reverse the order, if desired. A mental picture of a\nlandscape may be drawn in the same way, which a class will readily reproduce orally and in many cases by a drawing. Much more can be accomplished than is now done in appealing to the brain thru the other senses\nthan the eye, and much more will be done in the future as the value of such\nwork is fully realized. Securing the attention is easy, if details are presented definitely, clearly, and without confusing additions. To see the\nplans of battle, the great general is able to visualize the entire field and direct\n\n"}
{"page": 1327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\n131 1\n\nthe movements of each column. It is not so important that he should\noccupy an eminence or be up in a balloon so that he can look down, as\nit is that he get reliable information from his aides from time to time and\nthus mentally see what the enemy is doing and change his plans accordingly.\nThe real battle is being fought in his brain. Every great structure must\nfirst exist in some human brain before the details are worked out on paper\nor blueprints prepared. Recognizing these facts, the schools may profitably give more attention to thought than to symbol.\nThe correction of focal defects, in so far as school authorities can act\nor suggest, we shall not enlarge upon at this time. Much material has\nbeen gathered showing that the subject is being carefully considered all\nover the world. Medical inspection has come to be recognized as of\nfundamental importance and it necessarily includes the recognition and\ncorrection of visual defects.\nYour committee would therefore repeat and urge upon school authorities\na consideration of the conclusions of a year ago, viz. :\n1. That the nation's most valuable asset is its children. All other forms of wealth\nare of secondary importance, because later it will be thru their efforts that all progress^\nmaterial, intellectual, and moral — shall become possible.\n2. That except for their minds and morals — and both depend in a larger degree\nthan we realize upon their sight — their eyes constitute their most valuable possessions.\n3. That the present methods of book-study, especially in the large proportion of\ncases in which uncorrected organic defects are present, not only affect the eyes themselves\nbut retard the normal development of the brain, prolonging thereby unnecessarily the\nperiod of tutelage and lessening life's larger opportunities.\n4. That there should be less close work for the eyes in book-study, note-taking, etc.,\nthat the amount of work requiring pen or pencil should be as limited as possible, and\nthat care should be exercised in providing conditions under which the eyes shall be used\nwith the least possible effort.\n5. That in the building of new schools the placing of the windows and the seats of\nthe children should receive special attention and that when artificial light is employed\nas in evening schools it should be adequate, properly placed, and properly shaded.\n\nIt is further recommended that measures be taken in all schools to\ndetermine the acuity of vision of each child — together with the conditions\nunder which school and home work is conducted ; that proper examinations\nof the eyes be made by competent specialists when necessary;, and that\nglasses be provided at public expense when the parents are unable to\npurchase them, thereby adding to the efficiency of the child; and that\nprovision be made for the preservation of the sight of those who cannot\nsee adequately or comfortably, by the arrangement of special classes in\nwhich instruction shall be carried on as far as possible by other methods\nthan the use of books. Furthermore, if in every schoolbook were printed\na page giving simple instructions as to the proper care of the eyes and other\nhygienic subjects, its value would be immeasurable. This is done in\nFrance and gratifying results are claimed. The following is suggested\n\n"}
{"page": 1328, "printed_page": null, "text": "13 1 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nas a form that might with propriety be used and be placed on the first\nblank page with practically no added expense in the cost of the book.\nThis is earnestly recommended:\n.\n\nTAKE\n\nCARE OF YOUR\n\nEYES\n\n1. Always take good care of your eyes! Blindness is one of the most serious afflictions\nthat can happen to you.\n2. In reading or writing the light should come over the left shoulder and be strong\nenough to enable you to see easily.\n3. A good lamp on the table is much better than a flickering gas light hanging from\nthe ceiUng. The light should be properly shaded so that the glare does not hurt your\neyes. The pages should be kept clean so that the type may be easily read. If the margins\nof the eyehds are red or sore, if the lids discharge, if the use of the eyes causes them to\npain or the head to ache, if the letters on the page blur or become indistinct, if the eyes\nare not straight, or if you cannot see distinctly, the eyes should be examined by a\ncompetent person and proper spectacles should be used if needed.\n4. Roller towels should never be used; they may carry disease of the eyes from one\nperson to another.\n5. Do not play with sharp pointed sticks, nor cut with the blade of a penknife toward\nyou. Do not try to untie knots with scissors or with other pointed instruments. Little\nchildren should not play with sharp-pointed instruments or buttonhooks; many eyes\nhave been seriously hurt in this way.\n6. Redness, with the discharge of matter, in a new-born baby is a sign of great danger\nto the sight. To save the child from blindness a good doctor should be called at once.\n7. Injuries or inflammations of the eyes should receive care from a skillful doctor\npromptly.\nBlindness may thereby be prevented.\n\nIn presenting this report, and asking for its discharge, the committee\nis aware that the work has only fairly been begun. In compensation it\nshould be said that all the materials gathered and information in process\nof accumulation will be turned over to the Committee on Problems of\nHealth in the Schools appointed by the National Council of Education.\nThus the work has been provided for and, no doubt, the new committee\nwhich will have the means at its disposal will continue the necessary investigations and study. The one desire of your committee is that information\nbe furnished to those who need it thru the schools, the most effective\nchannel, and that such legislation be secured as will protect and conserve\nthe eye, the most important of all the sense organs. We believe that a\nfair start has been made in this direction and that the work will continue.\nIt is, therefore, recommended that the present committee be discharged.\nTHE POSSIBILITIES\nELMER\n\nW.\n\nWALKER,\n\nAND\n\nLIMITATIONS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nDELAVAN,\n\nOF STATE\nWIS.\n\nOF THE DEAF\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMIND\nDEAF,\n\nIt is with some apologies that I undertake to analyze even in an elementary way the mind of the deaf. The very title of this paper suggests that\nin some way the deaf mind differs from that of the hearing. In a certain\nsense this is true. In a larger sense it is not true. Human minds and\n\n"}
{"page": 1329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nAND\n\nLIMITATIONS\n\nOF DEAF\n\nMIND\n\n13 13\n\nhuman hearts are substantially the same the world over altho the method\nof approach may differ. I fear too in the discussion of this topic I may\nwound the feelings of many of my very best friends, for I do feel intensely\nfriendly to the deaf. We are all very sensitive over our defects. I trust all\nof my friends understand me well enough to know the spirit in which I\ndiscuss this subject.\nLet us understand at the outset what is meant by the deaf mind. The\nnon-professional world speaks of anyone who cannot hear as being deaf.\nFor ordinary purposes this is accurate enough but among those who are\nteaching the deaf this is not sufficient. I mean by a deaf mind not only\none that cannot hear but one that, at least since infancy, never has heard.\nSuch a mind cannot think in audition impressions. It is a great handicap\nto pass one's years in a world of silence, but still this is not the handicap\nthat a deaf mind carries. Serious as this is, it is not to be compared with\nthat condition which forces one not only to pass adult years in silence but\nalso to do one's thinking in terms lacking the audition elements. A very\nlarge proportion of the so-called deaf have heard and still carry in memory\nand imagination the audition impressions of hearing days. Of such this\npaper does not treat. I should say in passing that most of the capable deaf\nstudents in all schools and especially those who make the best oral students\nbelong to this class. They are frequently exploited in such a way as to\nleave the parents of the congenital deaf child to infer that his child belongs\nin this same class. As a matter of professional ethics and justice the\nteacher of the deaf should be frank with the parents of the deaf.\nThis paper discusses those deaf who have never heard; to whom\nexistence brings no sound ; to whom memory recalls no audition impressions;\nto whom imagination presents no image containing an audition element,\nand for whom judgment is never based upon auditory perceptions — the\ndeaf mind.\nOf the many sense avenues to the brain three only are of value in\ndevelopment of the mind — feeling, seeing, and hearing. Of these, feeling\nis in its influence very inferior to the other two. Practically all of our\nmental development is brought about thru the impressions that come to\nus thru the eye and the ear. On the impressions so brought one's thinking\nfor a lifetime is based. For us the hearing memory holds visual and audition\nimpressions which in moments of darkness and silence are represented and\nform the basis of our thinking. For us imagination builds pictures of\nbeauty by recombining the same impressions and in moments of darkness\nand silence this beauty is still ours. For us judgment sits enthroned and\nissues its mandates with precision and authority. For us reason moves to\nits correct conclusion altho light and sound be cut off. For us a fullness of\nknowledge comes because of a completeness of sense perception which\nforms the basis for knowledge and intellectual strength. For us the emotions are rich and inspiring because of what knowledge brings. For us the\n\n"}
{"page": 1330, "printed_page": null, "text": "13 14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nwill directs and impels because of these aroused emotions. For us all\nmental activity is rounded out and completed because of this sequence of\nmental acts. Reflect upon what a lack there is in that mind which not only\ndoes not hear but never has heard. One-half of the sense impressions of\nthe day are omitted. One-half of the material which memory can recall\nis lacking. One-half of the substance of which imagination builds is gone.\nOne-half of the basis for the judgments, the reasonings, the knowledge, the\nemotions, and the will is non-existent. The mind thus deprived of one-half\nof the material for its activities is proportionately inactive and cannot\ndevelop its full intellectual strength and vigor. Deprived of one-half of\nlife's mental experiences, it is lame in mental activities.\nNote the peculiar kind of impressions and mental activities that come\nthru and are aroused by audition impressions. The eye is mainly the\nfactual organ. The ear is mainly the imaginative organ. It presents to\nus not only what is but what may be hoped for. It is the vehicle of the\nsoul's longing. The peculiar intonations and tenseness of the human voice\nset the mind of the hearer roaming in channels it could never follow by\nsimply reading the printed page. Music bears us to lofty flights of imagination. Itinspires us to patriotic fervor. It lifts us upon the mountains\nof hope and sinks us in the valley of despair. Upon the impressions brought\nby the ear imagination and emotion feed. As Carpenter puts it, \"It is the\near and not the eye which moves the heart.\" Thus the deaf mind is\npeculiarly lacking in imagination and emotion. Every teacher of the deaf\nhas in his experience many instances of this deaf mind peculiarity. Some\nyears ago a middle-sized boy entered my office and asked for a hair cut. I\nabsent-mindedly wrote out the usual request using three words instead of\ntwo, thus, \"a hair cut.\" The boy took the paper, but presently came back\nwith distress written over his face and revealed in his disturbed tones. He\nindicated that I had made a mistake, that he wanted many hairs cut.\nHis mind read with practical literalness my statement and he fully expected\nthat should he take that paper to the barber he would have one hair snipped\noff. Very likely this would have occurred, as the barber, himself, was also\ndeaf. They had not imagination enough to build out the uncompleted\nimage in my phraseology. Of course, the joke was on me, not on the boy.\nIt was my blunder, but still no hearing mind would have hesitated a moment\nin grasping the idea and moving directly to the proper objective. I instance\nthis as a type of the deaf mind.\nThe emotions are awakened by imagination, that is, by that power that\ncan combine a strong present sensation with the memory of some past\nsensation. The mind that lacks this recombination or imaginative power\nmust necessarily, therefore, be lame in its emotional qualities. Emotion\nsolicits the will, hence the will of the deaf mind is not pronounced in its\nactivity. This renders the deaf mind peculiarly liable to be imposed upon.\nIt is dependent upon the will of others. Those who deal with the deaf\n\n"}
{"page": 1331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nAND\n\nLIMITATIONS\n\nOF DEAF\n\nMIND\n\n1315\n\ncontinually know with how much greater readiness, after confidence is\nonce won, the deaf will subverts itself to authority.\nWhat I have tried to say thus far is that because of the peculiar handicap\nthat nature has put upon it the congenital deaf mind is lacking in many of\nlife's experiences, mental activities, and power. The case is not, however,\nquite so bad as here presented. Nature, here as elsewhere, has worked out\nbeautifully her law of compensation. One sense frequently becomes\nquickened because of the absence of another and the eye in truth may\nbecome a substitute for the ear.\nLike the human voice, facial expression may reveal something of one's\ninmost thought and feeling. Each betrays personalities. Rhythmical\nmovements in a degree may do for the deaf mind what music does for the\nhearing. A teacher whose movements are graceful, rhythmical, and easy,\nand whose features are facile, is restful to the deaf pupil just as a smooth,\nwell-modulated, and thoroly mastered voice is for the hearing. Thus thru\nfacial expression and controlled movements the deaf mind is aroused to\nsomething of imaginative and emotional activity.\nIrrespective of the manner in which the pupil has been trained, thought\nexpression is much more difficult for the deaf than for the hearing. Statisticians tell us that the average hearing boy in his school and at his play\nhears 136,000 words a day. This alone affords the basis for a liberal\neducation. The average deaf child does not see upon the lips, upon the\nfingers, or upon the printed page one-tenth that number. This means that\nin language experience a deaf man of sixty has the equivalent of a hearing\nchild six years of age. As there is a reciprocal psychological relation\nbetween the expression of thought and thought-power, it therefore follows\nthat those for whom thought-expression is necessarily slow do not attain\nquite the thought-power of others. The adult deaf, of course, may overcome this largely by becoming omnivorous readers, and those who do,\ndevelop a power of thought concentration quite equal to that possessed by\nthe hearing.\nTherefore lameness in the direction of imagination, emotion, and will\nhas its partial compensation. Aside from these handicaps the deaf mind\nseems to me to be like the normal mind. Its possibilities approach the\npossibilities of the normal mind.\nFrom the viewpoint of the psychologist I have endeavored to analyze\nsome of the diflferences between the deaf mind and the hearing mind and\nfrom this viewpoint I am willing to concede that nature has put closer\nlimitations upon the mind of the deaf than she has upon the hearing, but\nfrom the viewpoint of the teacher all in this paper which precedes this\npoint is valueless. The activity of the teacher's mind, whether of the deaf\nor the hearing, should not be focused upon the mental limitations of his\npupils. It may be true that some minds meet tremendous obstacles. It\nmay be true that to some minds certain activities are impossible, but the\n\n"}
{"page": 1332, "printed_page": null, "text": "13 1 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ngreater truth is, and the one that the teacher should always grasp, that\nhuman mind is, outside of Deity, the one omnipotent thing in existence —\nthat it has no limitations. This truth grasped in its fullness by any teacher\nwill put him in such an attitude of mind that he bears down for them the\nvery obstacles which his pupils confront. Limitations of the deaf mind!\nThese are days when there are few limitations in anything. Records are\nbeing broken everywhere. It may be technically true that around every\nfield of himian endeavor there is a line which marks the limitations in that\nfield. I say this may be technically true but in a broader way it is not\ntrue. So promptly and completely does human power rise to broaden and\nwiden that line of limitation that we are more true when we say that there\nis no limitation in the field of human endeavor.\nLikewise each individual may be thought of as being surrounded by a\nline which limits his possibilities. Teachers are prone to think of one pupil\nas having wider possibilities than another. Subsequent teachers, however,\nhave discovered, and subsequent conditions have revealed, that the child\nof so-called narrow limitations has pushed back the limited boundary to\nlarger and larger dimensions until he has outstripped those considered his\nmental superiors. Physicians have classified subnormal minds as being\ncapable of development only to the seven-year stage, or the ten-year stage,\nor the fourteen-year stage, only to find later on that in the hands of a wise\nteacher the stage has been crowded back to a wider range. Just as there is\nno limitation to the field of human endeavor in the physical world, so there\nis no limitation to be set upon any man's individual capacity. He broadens\nit beyond his own expectations by the very hope that is within him. Power\nof himian mind is unmeasurable. We measure the power of steam, of\nwater, of electricity, of wind, but we have no unit for the measurement of\nmind-power; therefore, no limit can be set to this power. Reason may say\nthat somewhere there does exist a limit to mind development, but we cannot\nsense that limit because it is not yet located and because we have no unit\nfor its measurement. We do not feel its existence as a hampering force.\nWe can set no limit on how much we can remember; how vividily we can\nimagine; how deeply we can love, or how reverently we can adore. All\nthese powers grow with their buoyant use and the individual becomes more\nbuoyantly and hopefully powerful because of his appreciation of that\ngrowth. Even tho psychologists may prove that every mind has its\nlimitations, the teacher has no right to base his philosophy on that psychology. The larger truth is that the possibilities of the human mind are\nboimdless; that if limitations exist the teacher should never think of them.\nTo the teacher the indifferent manner, the lack-luster eye, the droning tone\nshould never suggest limitations. As a stream cannot rise higher than its\nsource, so no teacher can carry any pupil beyond the limitations the teacher,\nhimself, has set for that child. Therefore, establish no such limitations.\nThink of no child as dull or subnormal.\nHe may be so, but the teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 1333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nAND\n\nLIMITATIONS\n\nOF DEAF\n\nMIND\n\n131 7\n\nmust not think him so. That habit of thought is bound to reveal itselif in\nyou and draws the child's limitations closer. His mental progress is\nstopped because your aspiration for him is not boundless. It is unfortunate\nfor a pupil to feel or say, \"I can't,\" but it is still more unfortunate for the\nteacher to feel or say, \"You can't.\"\nThis theory of mind-limitations applies to all teachers of all classes of\npupils but it applies with triple force to the teacher of defectives. This is\na department of special education and we all have to deal with some form\nof so-called defectives. We have no right, either consciously or unconsciously, to sink to that habit of mind where we explain to ourselves or to\nothers some poor work on the part of our pupils because they are defective.\nI deal with the deaf and from a psychological standpoint I may recognize,\nas voiced in the early part of this paper, certain limitations that Providence\nhas put upon my pupils, but I have no right to apologize for their frailties,\nto excuse their weakness, or to ignore their shortcomings because of their\ndeafness. To do so would inevitably lower the spirit of the whole school.\nLowell voiced a truth when he said :\nPerhaps the longing to be so\nHelps to make the soul immortal.\n\nThe longing of the deaf child to hear helps to give hearing to his soul, but\nwe as teachers must arouse that longing. We do it by treating the deaf as\ntho they were hearing children ; by expecting the same things of them ; by\nsetting the same standards for them; by doing the same things with them.\nI decry \"special books for the deaf\" as misleading and pernicious. The\ndeaf can use the same books that the hearing use and by the use of such\nthey become more like the hearing.\nSo the mind of the teacher of the deaf must be loaded up with the idea\nthat the deaf mind has no limitations. It is as boundless as all minds.\nThe spirit of the teacher must draw the deaf mind out of its silence. This\nis no impossibility. Good men and women the world over are lifting other\nmen and women beyond the plane of their own limitations, therein performing miracles. It was Jean Valjean who said to the thief:\nyou.\n\nMy brother, you no longer belong to evil, but to good. I have bought your soul of\nI withdraw it from black thoughts and the spirit of perdition and give it to God.\n\nSo the teacher of the deaf, recognizing no limitations upon the expansion\nof human intellect, says to the dullest of his pupils: \"My child, you no\nlonger belong to silence, but to sound, to a possession of the judgments and\nattributes of the hearing. I have bought your soul of you. I lift it out of\nitself. I withdraw it from gloomy thoughts of silence and the spirit of\ndiscouragement and give it to God.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1334, "printed_page": null, "text": "1318\n\nSOME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nFEATURES\n\nJOHN B, CURTIS,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE EDUCATION\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nOF THE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF DAY SCHOOLS\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\n[Special\n\nBLIND\n\nIN\n\nFOR THE BLIND,\n\nNowhere in the educational field are correct principles and methods\nbeing more diligently sought than in the instruction of the blind. The\neighty years that have passed since Dr. Samuel Howe founded the first\nschool for the blind in the United States have been a period of steady\nprogress. Private endowment and management gave place to governmental\nsupport and control as the education of the blind came to be viewed not as\na matter of charity, but as a legitimate part of a wise public policy.\nThe institutions built up by the various states have done, and are still\ndoing, most excellent work; but they necessitate the separation of the child\nfrom home for a long period, and create for him an abnormal environment.\nThe separation from home thus brought about, and the abnormal environment of institution life, tho long recognized as evils, were regarded as\ninevitable. But by 1900 some of the leading educators had come to\nthink that the public-school system of the country might be expanded\nto furnish to many blind children the means of avoiding the objectional\nfeatures in their education; and in that year classes were opened\nin the public schools of Chicago. The work entered upon tentatively\ntwelve years ago has passed the experimental stage and is now firmly\nestablished, not only in Chicago, but also in many other cities. The\nplan is essentially the same in all the cities, so no confusion will result if\nthis paper is confined to a presentation of what has been done in Chicago.\nIn Chicago, elementary instruction for the blind is now given in four\ngrammar schools which are located with reference to serving the different\nsections of the city. The formation of groups of from six to twelve children\nin established centers permits the work to be more effectively supervised\nthan it could be if the pupils were distributed among many schools. Where\nstreet cars must be used in going to and from school, the Board of Education\nsupplies all necessary carfare. Free Braille textbooks are furnished to the\npupils, which are made in the printing-oflSce maintained by the board.\nIn each center, there is a room devoted exclusively to the use of the\nblind, in which are kept Braille books, maps, typewriters, and all special\napparatus required; and the group of children are in charge of a special\nteacher. The time of her pupils is divided between this room and the\nclassroom, the latter receiving a greater and greater share as the higher\ngrades are reached. Since the great aim is to secure to the blind child a\nvery large participation in school life, an effort is made to enable him to\ntake part in the regular classes as soon as possible. As a rule, this cannot\nbe done fully in the first two grades. The pupil often enters school\nhampered by timidity and by a lack of physical control.\nTimidity must be\n\n"}
{"page": 1335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nBLIND\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n13 1 9\n\nreplaced by self-confidence. The necessity of bringing about physical\ncontrol is urgent and calls for special attention. Then, too, the reading\nand writing of the Braille system of print must be taught, and this is\nunfamiliar to the teacher engaged in normal work. Owing to these considerations, the first- and second-grade pupils spend most of the day in the\nroom of the special teacher. In the first grade, they usually take part in\nclasses for singing and in English recitations where the chief feature is the\noral reproduction of stories. When the second grade is reached, they are\ngenerally ready to enter the reading class. The third grade marks the\npoint at which they enter into complete class work, and after that they\ntake an active part in all recitations, tho it is necessary for them to receive\nmore or less assistance from the special teacher during the entire course.\nThe reading recitation presents little difficulty to the bUnd child of\naverage ability. His reading from the Braille text is somewhat slower\nthan that of the children using the ordinary book, nevertheless he seldom\nloses his place, and he reads with agreeable fluency and with observance of\nproper expression. At first these lessons are prepared with the help of the\nspecial teacher, but after the pupil has made a fair degree of progress, he is\nleft to receive only such suggestions as may come from the teacher in\ncharge of the class.\nThe blind pupil maintains himself creditably in the geography class,\ntho his work must be closely followed by the special teacher, as many\nrecitations must be preceded by an examination of globes or maps. Sand\nto the thickness of about an eighth of an inch is glued upon a globe to\nrepresent land, the surface left uncovered indicating water. From a globe\nof this kind an accurate idea of the earth as a whole may be gained thru\nthe touch. For more detailed work, embossed maps are used, distinctive\nlines and characters being employed to represent various features such as\nboundary lines, mountain systems, rivers, and large bodies of water. The\nnames of cities are indicated by one or more letters whose significance is\nexplained by the key accompanying the map. Great care must be observed\nin the making of embossed maps, as they may easily be made to contain so\nmuch as to produce confusion in the mind of the pupil. The best map is\nthat which contains a few features clearly depicted, leaving others to be\ngained from description. The power of interpretation thru the touch\ngrows, and in time the pupil comes to use the map and key with a great\ndegree of independence.\nIn arithmetic, the blind pupils are somewhat handicapped in not being\nable to follow the work done on the blackboard, but this does not prevent\nthem from taking part successfully in the recitation. They read their\nproblems from the Braille book and work them upon what is called a\nnumber slate. This slate is an alupiinum plate ten inches square and a\nquarter of an inch thick. It contains rows of pockets just large enough to\nhold a three-eighth inch cube, upon the faces of which are Braille numbers;\n\n"}
{"page": 1336, "printed_page": null, "text": "I320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nBy properly arranging the cubes in the pockets, any number may be\nexpressed; and with one hundred cubes a problem involving any arithmetical process may be solved. The pupil might be taught to do very\ndifficult work without the aid of the slate, as is done in some institutions,\nbut if he is to maintain his place in a public-school class, he must follow the\nmethods there used, and the number slate is a near approach to the pencil\nand paper.\nLessons in grammar, spelling, history, and civics are prepared from the\nBraille text; and as they call for little more than the careful use of the\nbook, the blind pupils are on practically equal terms with their classmates\nin these subjects.\nIn writing examination tests and also the daily papers required in each\nstudy, the Braille slate is used. In the lower grades, these papers are\ntranscribed by the special teacher, while in the upper grades they are\nreproduced in typewriting by the pupils themselves. As they are then\nmarked by the teacher in charge of the class work, their value is judged\naccording to the standard prevailing in the school. In some classes, it has\nbeen found possible to teach the use of the typewriter as early as the third\ngrade, and it is safe to say that this may be done in the fifth grade with\nany blind pupil of average ability.\nHand-training being especially important in the education of the blind\nchild, much care is given to this subject. A large part of the work must be\ndone under the direction of the special teacher. For the smaller children,\nthe making of bead articles, such as cups and saucers, napkin rings, baskets,\nand flowers, has proved very valuable. It calls for concentration, develops\nhand control, arouses interest, and brings the pleasure of creating a finished\nproduct. Raffia and reed baskets are made later. The boys of the upper\ngrades take the elementary course in manual training, entering the regular\nclasses for this purpose. The larger girls learn to sew, knit, crochet, and\nembroider. They are also admitted to the cooking classes, and they take\nan active part in all phases of the work. Their notebooks, kept accurately\nin both Braille and typewriting, are of value not only to themselves but also\nto the other members of the family.\nThe urgent need of physical training is recognized. So far as possible,\nthe blind children take gymnastics in the regular classroom, but these\nexercises must be supplemented by special work. A teacher from the\nphysical department visits each center twice a month and plans a course of\ntraining to be followed by the special teacher.\nCenters have not been established for high-school work, but each pupil\nattends the high school nearest his home. Some Braille books covering\nhigh-school subjects have been made, tho the number is still insufficient,\nand a large amount of matter must be read to the pupil. This is done\neither at home or at school by classmates in study periods. This lack of\ntextbooks is not wholly a misfortune, because sooner or later the blind\n\n"}
{"page": 1337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nBLIND\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n13 2 1\n\nstudent must gain the power of using books and magazines in ordinary\ntype since expense limits the scope of publications in raised print. This\nyear, two boys were graduated from high school who received all their\nschool training in the Chicago public schools. In high school, they selected\ntheir studies according to their tastes and aptitudes just as other boys and\ngirls do. They joined the literary and debating societies, attended class\nmeetings, and enjoyed all the sides of our stirring high-school life.\nSuch, in outline, is the method of instructing the blind in public schools.\nThe features of it that commend themselves most strongly to those engaged\nin the work are two : first, the preservation of the borne as a factor in the\nchild's life; and second, the securing to him of a normal environment during\nthe period of growth.\nUnless the home falls greatly below the average standard of comfort, it\nexerts a beneficial influence in the development of the blind child. It\npowerfully aids the school in inculcating right principles of living, and in\nbringing out the nobler qualities of character. By remaining at home, the\nchild acquires an interest in all that vitally aflfects the family. It is well\nfor him to share its struggles, its hopes, and its successes. Moreover, the\nmembers of his family, as they are brought into daily contact with his\nschool life, are led to render him intelligent aid; and to them comes a sense\nof responsibility for his success which is sometimes lacking where children\nare sent away to an institution. This sense of responsibility and kinship is\nof great importance, since the family as well as society in general has a\ntendency to regard the blind as a distinct class. If the blind child is made\na normal member of the small family group, he may hope to become a\nnormal member of the larger group of community life.\nIn the public school, the blind child is in an environment which does not\ndiffer materially from that in which he must live when school days are over.\nHe feels the thrill of all the school activities, altho he may not participate\nactively in some of them. He shares in the discussion of civic problems,\nwhich appeal to him because they concern his home, neighborhood, and city.\nEarly subjected to the force of a wholesome public opinion, he becomes like\nhis seeing schoolmates in thought, feeling, and ambition; and in his daily\ncompetition with them, he learns to measure himself by the standards of\nthe world instead of the standards of a distinct class. Estimating self\naccurately and being judged correctly by others are matters of fundamental\nimportance to every blind boy and girl earnestly striving for success.\nTho the public school has these strong features in the education of the\nblind, there is no conflict between it and the institution. Each has a work\nto do. The future will determine just how the broad field is to be divided\nbetween the two agencies, and manifesting a generous spirit ot co-operation\nand giving \"the last full measure of devotion,\" they will strive on toward\nthe solution of the great problem.\n\n"}
{"page": 1338, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1339, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL PATRONS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, principal, Cumnock School\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nVice-President — Mrs. William S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers\nChicago, 111.\nSecretary — Katharine E. Dopp, lecturer. University of Chicago\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 9, 191 2\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Physical Education in\nthe Gold Room of the Congress Hotel, Chicago, 111., at 2:30 p.m., and was called to order\nby Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, principal of Cumnock School, Los Angeles, Cal., president.\nThe resignation of Katharine E. Dopp, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., as\nsecretary, to take effect at the close of the convention, was read and accepted.\nThe first paper of the meeting on, \"Sexual Reproduction in Animals: The Purpose\nand Methods of Teaching It, \" was presented by Mary P. Blount, instructor in zoology.\nUniversity High School, Chicago, 111.\nW. A. Evans, Northwestern University, Evanston, III., then presented a paper on\n\"The Physical Growth of the Child and Its Hygiene.\"\nThis was followed by a paper on \"The Selection of Physical Exercise as Determined\nby the Laws of Growth\" by William H. Burnham, professor of pedagogy and school\nhygiene, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nDiscussion on this topic was opened by W. A. Evans, Northwestern University,\nEvanston, 111., who was followed by Sadie American, executive secretary of Council of\nJewish Women, New York, N.Y.; R. W. Corwin, Pueblo, Colo., professor of surgery,\nUniversity of Colorado; and Mary P. Blount, instructor in zoology, University High\nSchool, Chicago, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July ii, 19 12\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by the president, in the Florentine\nRoom of the Congress Hotel, Chicago.\nThe minutes of the last annual meeting were read and approved.\nThe report of the secretary for the year, including the financial statement, was read\nand approved.\n\"The Report of the Committee on School Revenue\" was then presented by the\nchairman, Mrs. William S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers, Chicago, 111.\nThe Summary of the Reports of the State Joint Committees was presented in printed\nform and distributed. Attention was called to the work being done by the School Health\nCommittee.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report:\nFor President — Mrs. William S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers, Chicago, 111.\nFor Vice-President — Mrs. L. L. Blankenberg, General Federation of Women's Clubs,\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nFor Secretary — Miss Mary Zimmerman,1323\nAssociation of Collegiate Alumnae, Chicago,\n111. (to fill unexpired term).\n\n"}
{"page": 1340, "printed_page": null, "text": "1324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nThe report of the nominating committee was accepted, the secretary instructed to\ncast the ballot, and these ofl&cers were declared elected.\nWilliam H. Allen, director of the Bureau of Municipal Research and the Training\nSchool for Public Service, New York, N.Y., then presented a paper on \"Outside Cooperation with Public Schopls.\"\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Civic and Social Center Development\" by Edward\nJ. Ward, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nDiscussion on this subject was opened by Mrs. William S. Hefferan, National Congress\nof Mothers, Chicago, 111., and was continued by Luther H. Gulick, director of the Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.; Mrs. O. Shepard\nBarnum, principal of Cumnock School, Los Angeles, Cal.; Edward J. Ward, University\nof Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; William J. Allen, director of Bureau of Municipal Research,\nNew York, N.Y.; and Azile B. Reynolds, principal of Armstrong School, Chicago, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nA luncheon at the Blackstone Hotel followed the second session. Among the speakers\nat the luncheon were CarroU G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis., and\npresident of the National Education Association; P. P. Claxton, commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.; Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.;\nJane Addams, head resident, Hull House, Chicago, 111.; David Starr Jordan, president of\nLeiand Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.; and Mrs. O. Shepard\nBarnum, principal of Ciminock School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nKatharine E. Dopp, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nSEXUAL\nMARY\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nREPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS:\nTHE PURPOSE\nMETHODS OF TEACHING IT\n\nPUTNAM\n\nBLOUNT,\n\nINSTRUCTOR IN ZOOLOGY,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nHIGH\n\nAND\nSCHOOL,\n\nNo educational problem commands greater interest than the question\nof teaching about sex. The interest is universal and intense. But the\nsituation has not yet come into clear focus where educators see just what to\ndo. There has been loose terminology. Any effort to teach anything in\nregard to sex has been referred to as the teaching of social hygien^, and that\noften means teaching the prevalence and the awful consequences of venereal\ndiseases. I do not object to this when hygiene is being taught. But there\nis need of education in regard to sexual reproduction in animals without any\nreference to disease and misery. To have the subject of mammalian\nreproduction clearly presented in the science work of common schools is at\npresent our greatest need, because it is the thing we have not got. By\npulpit and press and parents and teachers there have been earnest efforts to\nlead children to moral lives. But while they have pointed to some high\nideals, they have said to the child, \" You must be ignorant.\" I am fortunate\nto have the attention of this audience in the departments of School Patrons\nand Physical Education, and I beg your interest in a less-discussed phase\nof the large subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 1341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSEXUAL\n\nREPRODUCTION\n\nIN ANIMALS\n\n1325\n\nThe purpose in teaching the sexual reproduction of animals is education, not reform. The immediate purpose is not to keep the boy pure and\nthe girl safe (altho we desire that) but to help children to understand\nnature — ^in the twentieth century to educate them above the intelligence of\nthe seventeenth century. When Jamestown and other settlements were\nmade and explorers pushed into the unknown regions of our eastern coast,\nthe most advanced scientists had not explored life's realm far enough to\ndiscover the egg, the beginning of every individual. They believed that\nfrogs came from mud, and eels from the slime on fish. And then it was\nfound that some animals developed from eggs, and the best scholars believed\nthat eggs might arise spontaneously, or they might come from parents.\nBut of the never-failing continuity of life from generation to generation\nscientists had little conception. Certain savage people today believe that\nthe warm rays of the sun cause impregnation. Unfortunately, only a small\npercentage of civilized people know much more than the savage about this.\nA university graduate looking at a two days' old chick embryo in which the\ncentral nervous system, eye, and heart were distinct exclaimed, \"Why!\nI didn't know that it looked like that. I supposed'it was a formless mass.\"\nI have asked intelligent and experienced teachers to describe their mental\npicture of the human embryo or the embryo of any other familiar animal,\nand they are unable to do it. It is to them a formless mass; a vague,\nhardly tangible something of which they have no clear picture. Their\nresponse to the subject is emotional, but not intelligent. In this, they are\nnot superior to the superstitious savage. We teach all other natural\nphenomena, and regard it as essential that an individual be able to think\nclearly in regard to them. My argument today is that the formation and\ndevelopment of the animal egg, being processes in nature, are subjects for\ngeneral study. And further, that the study must include mammalian\nreproduction. Problems in heredity may be studied in frog's eggs or De\nVries' primroses. But the child's need is not satisfied until he knows how\nmammals reproduce. Less than a century ago, nobody knew that mammals\ndeveloped from eggs. In 1827, von Baer demonstrated the mammalian\negg to be a single cell. It is the privilege of science teachers in secondary\nand elementary schools to adapt the researches of the masters to the mental\nability of their pupils. The purpose of teaching that animals develop from\nfertilized eggs is that children may co-ordinate this with what else they\nknow about nature; that they may think in an orderly way in regard to\nit, and not be superstitious.\nThe real problem before us is a problem of methods — what illustrative\nmaterial to use, and how it may be controlled and handled. This is a\nmatter of interest to teachers of all grades. In the kindergarten, use\nkindergarten methods, of course. Only be sure that the child gets something to depend upon ; something of real value to build on for the advanced\ninstruction in later grades. As for mammalian reproduction, the really\n\n"}
{"page": 1342, "printed_page": null, "text": "1326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nessential thing for high-school pupils is that the subject have a scientific\nsetting. There need be no especially delicate or cautious approach to it.\nThe circuitous journey from the algae or the amoebae thru the coelenterates,\nand earthworms, fishes, and birds to arrive finally at the desired subject of\nmammalian reproduction is quite unnecessary. If pupils are studying\nmammals, they know that organs are composed of cells having special\nfunctions. Then they can learn that eggs and spermatozoa are cells.\nAnd they can learn directly about the fertilization of the mammalian egg\nquite as easily as if they are led up to this by a discussion of fertilization in\nthe sea urchin. With this animal, fertilization is external. Eggs and\nspermatozoa are floating and swimming freely in sea water, and they unite.\nThere are many more spermatozoa than eggs. With mammals, fertilization\nis internal. In copulation, spermatozoa are placed in the vagina. They\nswim, not in a large volume of fluid, but in the mere film of moisture that\ncovers the lining of the vagina, uterus, and Fallopian tube. If the spermatozoa meet an egg, one sperm unites with the egg. This forms a single\ncell, the fertilized egg. This cell divides and as a result of many divisions\nand continued differentiation and growth, an embryo is formed. Very\nearly in development, the embryonic membranes are formed and the\nembryo attaches to the lining of the uterus and thru the placenta receives\nnutrition and eliminates wastes. This is the simple story. Make it plain\nwith charts and dissected animals. For the gross anatomy any small\nmammal may be used. In some communities, pregnant cats might easily\nbe obtained. Many teachers will find it more satisfactory to keep small\nrodents in the schoolroom and breed them as they are needed. White rats\nare thus easily kept. They are attractive animals and remarkably clean\nand pleasing in dissection. In schools lacking microscopes, it is impossible\nto study mammalian eggs and spermatozoa, for they are microscopic cells.\nBut they can be described, and cleavage of the fertilized egg can be illustrated with a clay model put into shape as the teaching is going on. With\nsuch material actually before the pupils, they will get definite mental\npictures. Leave no room for vague imagination. Sexual reproduction of\nanimals is so common as a natural phenomenon that the subject should be\na part of common-school education, so that he who knows that Columbus\ndiscovered America will also know what is meant by development from a\nfertilized egg.\nI have spoken of the purpose and methods. Naturally you ask what\nare the results. In a class of boys and girls in the Freshman year of the\nhigh school, demonstration had been made of pregnant animals — a cat and\na rat. A simple diagram had been put on the blackboard to show the\nrelation between embryo and mother. The following parts of the diagram\nwere labeled — uterine wall, amnion, chorion, placenta, and umbilical\ncord. A boy studied the diagram for perhaps ten minutes and then\nexclaimed, \"Well, gee!\n\nThere couldn't be much improvement in. that,\n\n"}
{"page": 1343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILD\n\nAND\n\nITS HYGIENE\n\n1327\n\ncould there? The way that embryo is protected inside of those membranes!\" Pupils respond with interest. They say that a course of study\nincluding this work should be required, not elective. It is only adults who\nare doubtful. We never shall teach this subject right until we \"become\nas little children.\"\nTHE PHYSICAL\nW.\n\nA.\n\nEVANS,\n\nGROWTH\nM.D.,\n\nOF THE CHILD\n\nNORTHWESTERN\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nITS HYGIENE\n\nEVANSTON,\n\nILL.\n\nStanley Hall says (Vol. II, p. 637) :\nThe first aim which should dominate every item, pedagogic method and matter\nshould be health — a momentous word that looms up beside hoHness, to which it is etymologically akin. The new hygiene of the last few years should be supreme and make\nthese academic areas sacred to the cult of the goddess Hygeia.\n\nThe food of a child is burned into energy and tissue. Numerous\nobservers have noted the effect of food on growth. While it is true that the\nbody cell does not know whether the nitrogen which it is building into\ntissue came into the body as milk or meat or carrots or nuts and, therefore,\nthere is but little scientific basis for food faddism, there are several observations on children that show that underfed children average undersize. Of\ncourse, every farmer knows that he can runt a pig or calf or colt by starving.\nThe relation between the use of food for energy or for tissue has also\nbeen pretty well worked out. Without discussing at length, we can say\nthat a moderate amount of exercise coincident with an abundant food supply\nwill increase the amount of tissue-building. Briefly, some of the more\nimportant modifications of this law are these: If the tissue, for instance,\nis overused, the use begets a temporary break in upbuilding. This, in the\ncase of muscle, is due to the development of lactic acid which causes a\ncolloidal absorption of water and salts. The inherent recuperative powers\nare such that presently the protoplasm exudes the toxic elements and a\nstate of potential tissue-building is re-established. The toxic action may\nbe destructive and growth may be stopped or atrophy may ensue. If the\nfood supply is insufficient for the extra demand, growth stops. Illustrations are the well-recognized runting from childwork, the runting of colts\nleft out of doors during cold weather, and finally, tho not entirely apropos,\nif the tissue is a useless or inert tissue, the use of the part causes the tissue\nto atrophy regardless of the food supply. I have reference here to the\ndisappearance of fat from between muscle bundles or other active areas\nduring the periods of activity. This is not my theme, however.\nIn the growth of the child, there are several forces back of food, energy,\nand tissues. One of these is inheritance. Mendelism and eugenics have\nestablished this point very well. A child is born with inherent tendencies\nwhich compel it to be of a certain stature, weight, and build at each year\nof its life. That inheritance may be influenced by food, exercise, hygiene,\n\n"}
{"page": 1344, "printed_page": null, "text": "1328\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nand in other ways, but it cannot be entirely done away with. Children\nare born to be large or small, to grow fast or slow, to be fat or thin, to be\ncatchers or to be immune, to have consumption or rheumatism. This\nview, to my mind, makes two actions imperative: First, that eugenics\nbe made a practical workaday matter of consideration, the time for limiting\nit to academic discussion having passed. Second, that inheritance which\ndrives one toward susceptibility, overgrowth, undergrowth, obesity,\nfeeble-mindedness, epilepsy, migraine, or any other disability- or inefficiencybreeding condition be recognized and promptly taken into account, and\nthat training and hygiene be made use of to correct or to modify the disabling condition.\nBetween the primal growth-instinct of inheritance and the ultimate\ngrowth-means of food, energy, and tissue-building, there interpose two\ngrowth-directing forces. The first of these are the ductless glands stimulating pre-adolescent growth, and these, in the order of their importance,\nare the thymus, the thyroid, the pituitary body, and the adrenals. The\nsecond are the ductless glands stimulating post-adolescent growth. I\nmention these in the order of their importance — the sexual glands, the\npituitary, the thyroid, and the adrenals.\nI am a believer in the efficiency of food intake in growth but I think\nthat this is only a partial view. I am a thoro believer in oxygen as an\nelement without which food furnished the ultimate cell is not eaten by that\ncell. I believe in doing everything possible to maintain the oxygen tension\nin the air, in the air sacs, and in the haemoglobin of the blood. But that,\ntoo, is only a partial veiw. I believe in the doctrine of Martin Fisher.\nThe blood and lymph circulations carry fluid to the tissues and away from\nthem, but what the tissues will take up or give off rests with them, or, in\nsimpler phraseology, the tissues preside over their own nutrition and\ngrowth.\nBut that, too, is only a partial view.\nThe impulse to grow differs in its origin and in its method in its two\nperiods. The thymus period extends from birth to puberty; the sexual\ngland period from the beginning of puberty until growth is attained. In\neach of these periods other glands are contributing, for the mechanism of\nthe growth-impulse is a compound. But there are dominating glands\nand possibly master glands — at least such has been asserted.\nA basic principle is that, during the periods of growth, the body is\nexceptionally impressionable. It is more impressed by bad ventilation,\nbad feeding, prolonged concentration than at any other life-period. I do\nnot mean that bad hygiene causes more disorders than at any other period.\nIt does not. The body, at this period, has a large reserve on which it draws\nwith some extravagance. These strains use up an undue amount of\nreserve, they scar the body, tho the effects may not be seen for many years\nafter the cause has operated and, frequently, for many years after it has\nceased to operate. The best illustration that I can cite is the general\n\n"}
{"page": 1345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nAND\n\nITS HYGIENE\n\n1329\n\nrecognition that the heart and kidney diseases of adult life are, in great\npart, manifestations of infection in childhood. We say that the child's\nrecuperative powers are good. It is the generally accepted opinion, at the\npresent time, that there are approximately a determined number of reproductive impulses in a cell and that to use up an undue number of these in\nchildhood by reason of bad hygiene is to lop off some from the other end\nof the string, even tho recovery appears to have been complete.\nWith the general admonition that, in this period of thymus gland growth,\nthe child will not prosper mentally or physically without a proper regard\nfor hygiene, I pass to the period of adolescent growth.\nAt this period, there is absorption of internal secretions from the\nsexual glands, and, in consequence, the being undergoes most profound\nchanges. There are marked changes in the bony skeleton, in the contour\nof the trunk, in the muscular development, in the size and shape of the\nlarynx, in the skin and its appendages, in the subcutaneous fat. In fact,\nthe changes are universal.\nThese skeletal, muscular, and contour changes are well recognized.\nWhat is not usually understood is that there are organ changes which are\ncommensurate with those more readily appreciated. The chest is deep\nand narrow before birth, round at birth, and relatively deep and narrow\nat puberty, at least as compared with maturity. The chest index is gained\nby dividing its depth by its width. The index of puberty is 78 ; the index of\nmaturity is 71, Rather oddly, the chests of consumptives, of paupers, of\nsocial derelicts are of the adolescent index. The heart and vessels of\npost-puberty are found radically changed from the pre-puberty dimensions.\nNor does the mind escape. In fact, it is the most changed of all. My\nespecial plea is that recognition of the facts of puberty enter into the mental\nand physical regimen of the school. First, the changes are rapid. Therefore, modifications of studies, of hours, of methods, must be done at shorter\nintervals than twelve months. Secondly, the changes differentiate the\nmale from the female mind and the courses should be modified to suit these\nvariations.\nI quote Dr. Scharlieb in Womanhood and Race Regeneration:\nThe changes, physical, mental, and moral, that occur in young girls are so great,\nthe development of their natures is so rapid, that the ordinary hard-and-fast rules of\nschool and college are likely to fail in securing the maximum result. This point may\nbe illustrated by the experience of exercise and game mistresses in Sweden who have\nlong been aware of the fact that, altho girls up to puberty enjoy their exercises and profit\nby them in the same manner as do the boys, yet the time comes when exercises are badly\ndone.\n\nIt is the rule rather than the exception that both the mental and the physical\nwork must be varied with the varied capacity of the pupil. I think about\nthe same is the view stated by Hall in Adolescence. This is not an argument\nin favor of limiting or narrowing the work of women, for I do not believe\nin such narrowing. It is an argument for broadening the work of women\nalong the lines where broadening is natural rather than the employment of\n\n"}
{"page": 1346, "printed_page": null, "text": "133©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\none means for all cases. Nor is this limited to the female sex. At puberty\nthe male type rapidly differentiates. As Metchnikoff has made so clear,\nthere are feminine types of mind in men and there are gradations from that\nup to excess of masculinity and what is a good method for one is not a\ngood method for another.\nAt this second period of growth-activity, we are also in a time of\nplasticity, and in such times good hygiene makes for good, and bad hygiene\nmakes for bad to an exceptional degree. The adolescent in a hot, dry\nschool air gets anaemic, flabby, and neurasthenic, or develops St. Vitus'\ndance more rapidly than does a younger or older child. While ordinar>'\nsusceptibility has been decreased, so-called rheumatic susceptibility has\nincreased and consumption susceptibility has enormously increased.\nThe adolescent is doubly in need of fresh air, exercise, good habits, and good\nfood. On the other hand, the amount of food required per pound of weight\ndecreases. Just after puberty, the tendency to embonpoint comes, due\nto two causes — the thyroid gland is beginning to show senile changes and its\nsecretion to lessen. The amount of food taken in the usual case is greatly\nin excess of the bodily needs. For this reason, in part, this is the pimple\nage.\nWith one other suggestion, I will close. Adolescence is the period of\nintrospection. The mind asks questions as to those sexual glands. It is\nwise to have those questions answered by the wise. The groping mind\ntrying to answer them itself too often finds answer that is ruinous.\nStanley Hall states that, with puberty, we must change not only our\neducational but our hygiene methods, not only as compared with those\nof the pre-puberty period but also as between those adaptable to boys and\ngirls and, in greater measure than ever before, as between individuals.\nStandardizing becomes increasingly difficult.\nIn passing, it would seem to me that we should not drop this view of\nthings where the school teacher leaves ofi^. A man may be of a feminine\nt)^e and regarded as useless or harmful by men who gauge men by\na standard in which masculinity scores fifty out of a possible hundred, yet\nmany of the artists, litterateurs, and others who have dreamed the world\ninto better things have been of this type. Much of the leadership in times\nof great stress has been by men of this type. A woman may be of the\nmasculine type driven by physical, organic forces over which she has no\ncontrol.\nStandardizers using a score card on which femininity calls for fifty out\nof a possible hundred would reject such, yet, the proper sphere found, she\nscores a hundred. It has never seemed to me that this view of variation\nin type meant limitation of the field for women or for men. Rather it seems\nthat it is a part of the general tendency to recognize variations in type of\nwork and, therefore, in the type of individual who, in doing that work,\nwould score one hundred.\nI am sure that, with such a view prevailing\n\n"}
{"page": 1347, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmenO\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILD\n\nAND\n\nITS HYGIENE\n\n1331\n\namong teachers teaching adolescent pupils and among people at large, we\nshould have fewer square pegs in round holes, fewer misfits, fewer failures,\nfewer discontents, fewer suicides, greater social stability as well as greater\nsocial efficiency.\nMetchnikoflf, whose opinion is probably more broadly founded than\nthat of any man living or dead (for he draws alike on sociology and biology),\nis of the opinion that, in all of this social trend, there is nothing which\nsuggests the development of an asexual group much less of an asexual\ntype.\nThe technique neither of pedagogic nor of hygienic method lies within\nthe scope of this paper. They «,re to be found hinted at in works dealing\nsome with one and some with the other. At best, there is still need of\ngreat study and trial in each field. Dr. Hall has rightly said that, in this\nfield, neither teachers, physiologists, nor hygienists are ready to say the\nlast word. Just this confession universally made would clear the field for\nfurther advance.\nThere are certain hygienic requirements that pertain to both preadolescence and adolescence. I think even these are modified by adolescence— the harm done by their neglect being greater than that done the\nyounger child. Of these requirements, which begin at the beginning and\nrun thru, are good air, good water, good food, and exercise. That air may\nbe judged good, it is necessary fhat it conform to requirements of condition\nrather than of chemical constitution. These conditions are that the\ntemperature should not rise over 70°, that the humidity should not fall\nbelow 50°, and that there shall be perceptible air movement all of the time\nand violent air movement from time to time. Light and dust conditions\nare of lesser consequence.\nWhile it is necessary that temperature should never exceed 70°, it may\nbe kept below 65° with advantage under certain exceptional circumstances.\nThese are, provided clothing is heavy enough, physical exercise is active\nenough, and feeding is abundant, that the heat made by the child may keep\nthe skin as warm as 97° at all times.\nTaking it on the basis of the law of averages, large stature cannot be\nattained without the stimulus of cold. Inheritance may be driving for\n180 pounds at maturity; constant immersing in warm air will stop growth\nat 170. Good feeding and exercise, it may be calculated, will make a frame\n5 feet II inches; warm air will stop it at 5 feet 10.\nThe peoples of colder climates are larger in frame than those of warmer,\nthe exceptions being those races whose food supply is poor and whose hygiene\nis bad. In order to make heat, larger quantities of food are absorbed, and\nsome of this excess, if the supply is ample, goes to building tissue.\nIn school, dealing with the human in its plastic phases, they should strive\nfor the standards of the colder climate rather than the warm and that is\na maximum of 70°, a temperature of 55° for catchers, adenoid cases, and a\n\n"}
{"page": 1348, "printed_page": null, "text": "1332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nfew allied subnormals, outdoor schools for more definite subnormals of the\nsame type, and opportunities for periodic play in the cold for all children.\nAs to humidity — while a low humidity adds to comfort in hot weather,\nit adds to both discomfort and susceptibility in cold weather. I refer now\nto indoor humidity. \"\nThe next requisite of good air is that it shall be moving. Currentless\nair is harmful air. Draftless air is deadly.\nThe teaching of Rosenau who thinks much of the harm of air is due to\nchemical toxicity, of Pflugge who thinks the harm in the main is from heat\nand humidity, and of Leonard Hill who thinks it comes from a polluted\naerial envelope, or of Sedgewick who thi»ks it comes from pollution of\nthat part of the envelope known as the breathing zone — all of these teachings unite in requiring that the air move at all times. In addition, from\ntime to time, the air must be blown out by throwing the windows wide open.\nIf the harm done by bad water were limited to typhoid fever, it would\nscarcely be worth while to discuss the question, but the Hazen and\nWhipples law that the harm done by water-born typhoid is but one-fourth\nthe harm done by bad water is pretty generally accepted now.\nAs to the relation of food to the hygiene of the growing child, I would\nadvocate that energies be especially concentrated on furnishing him more\nfood. Growth having been attained, filling out begins. Filling out is\nthe deposit of fat in different parts of the body. Fat means an excess\nof food intake over food use. The adult stands convicted of overeating. It is res adjudicata of the United States Senate. Per contra,\nthe figures furnished by those who have examined large numbers of school\nchildren, the dietary investigations of the national government and various\nstate colleges prove that the average school child is not overfed.\nRegulated exercise is hydra-headed. Its benefits are many. Its results\nramify widely. It has to do with oxygenation, with nutrition, with social\ntraining, and with education, Martin Fischer has proven that the use\nof food by the tissue is dependent upon a local oxygen supply. Exercise\nmeans a greater oxygen intake, a greater oxygen tension in the lungs, in the\nhaemoglobin, and in the tissue spaces. Exercise is a circulation aid, assisting\nboth blood and lymph circulation, pumping waste out of the tissues and\npumping food into them. Exercise develops the social instinct in that the\nbest exercise is play and practically all play is communal.\nAnd finally, that educational effort in which each one thousand units\nof effort return the largest number of units of result is that in which\neducation is based on the play instinct — and the best exercise is that called\nplay. Perhaps certain requirements of training cannot be brought about\nby play, but in such we must recognize and accept a smaller return\nfrom effort expended.\n\n"}
{"page": 1349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTHE SELECTION\nWILLIAM\n\nH.\n\nEXERCISE\n\nAND\n\nOF PHYSICAL\nBY THE LAWS\n\nBURNHAM,\nCLARK\n\nLAWS\n\nOF GROWTH\n\n1333\n\nEXERCISE AS DETERMINED\nOF GROWTH\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF PEDAGOGY\nUNIVERSITY, WORCESTER,\n\nAND\nSCHOOL\nMASS.\n\nHYGIENE,\n\nThe subject allotted me presents a group of problems. We know\nlittle about the laws of growth. Growth is determined by many conditions.\nFor some reason it is not continuous but periodic. All investigations\nshow this. There is usually a spurt of growth and then a retardation.\nGrowth, too, is by parts; different organs grow unequally at different times.\nPerhaps the best known of the spurts of growth is that correlated with, or\nas used to be supposed, preceding the sexual development of puberty. The\nwhole mysterious growth impulse is perhaps correlated with, perhaps determined by, the sex instinct. Both perhaps are determined by a deeper\nrhythmic nisus. At all events, there are marked periods of growth and\nthese cannot be determined by mere age. Physiological age does not coincide necessarily with chronological age.\nWhat does physical training directly accomplish ? To give a general\nanswer, it modifies function; and here lies its whole value for health and\ndevelopment. A general statement of the prime condition of health may\nperhaps be formulated somewhat as follows : it is a condition or unhindered\nfunctioning of all the organs of the human mechanism. Without normal\nfunctioning the normal development of structure is impossible. And more\nconcretely, the advantages of functional activity may be illustrated in many\nways. Take, for example, the heart and the circulatory system. Not only\nis the functioning of the heart essential for the maintenance of the life of\nthe whole body, but the health of this organ itself depends upon its activity,\nand cardiac disease is often cured by stimulating its exercise. Sir Lauder\nBrunton maintains that the heart in its contraction and dilatation effects\na kind of self-massage which promotes its nutrition, and that the arteries\nalso have a power of self-massage, and the full and healthy arterial pulse\nexercises a form of massage on the veins and on the nerves also which are\nbound up in the same sheath. Again we find that the nervous system\napparently functions in rhythmic periods, and probably the discharge of\nenergy and the breaking-down processes are an essential condition for the\nanabolic or building-up processes that go on in a succeeding period of rest.\nThe great problem is that of the relation of function to growth. Does\nan organ have a special period of growth and then a period for the acquisition of function, or do the two processes go on simultaneously ? We have\nusually made the simple assumption that an organ first grows and then\nacquires function, or at least that the predominating factor is one or the\nother at any given period of development. Perhaps the matter is much\nmore complex than this. Apparently the nascent period of an organ is the\nspecial opportunity for the development of function and the time of special\n\n"}
{"page": 1350, "printed_page": null, "text": "1334\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\ndanger of premature and unrelated developments. Take, for example, the\ngeneral bodily and mental development at puberty, the spurt of growth, the\nsexual development, the apparently greater vitality and ability to resist\nchronic disease, the remarkable mental development. Are these consecutive developments or the manifestations of a general impulse of acceleration\nappearing in different ways ? We do not know. Dr. Boaz, our greatest\nexpert in the study of growth, inclines, I understand, to the latter view.\nThis problem is fundamental. The views we take of it will determine\nlargely our attitude to many concrete practical questions.\nIs a child capable of more work during the period of accelerated growth,\nor should, as popular opinion has it, the work be relaxed when growth is\nrapid? Should an organ receive training during the period when it is\nrapidly developing, or should it be spared ? Should the voice, for example,\nbe trained during the period of mutation at puberty; or should it be spared\nfrom training altogether? About all we can say is that function, in the\nfirst place, conditions growth. In the second place, it is probably correlated with growth, and, finally, it remains as a condition of health after\ngrowth, in the narrower sense of the term, has ceased.\nThus I would call your attention to a general subject of vital importance\nabout which we know little. It will take a long time to investigate this\nproblem.\nMeanwhile a few practical suggestions may be made.\nFirst : Until we know more about physiological age and this problem of\nthe relation of function to growth, it is well at periods of accelerated development to make the work as spontaneous as possible, giving ample opportunity for free play and manifold physical activities; also perhaps giving\nopportunity, as Jean Paul Richter urged, for inactivity, even for idleness\nat certain periods.\nSecond: In a general way we can determine physiological age and\nadapt our training to the sequence of the stages of physiological development. In a general way this is recognized; but with our present inadequate knowledge of physical development, we cannot outline any thoroly\nscientific course. We do know, however, that there is a great difference\nbetween the physiological condition of the child up to the age of puberty\nand the adolescent after puberty. The old investigations of Beneke indicate\nthat during the period of development the volume of the heart increases\ntwelvefold, but the width of the aorta only threefold; or in respect to\nIOC cm. of height, in the case of the child the heart volume is about 50 c. cm.,\nin the case of the adult 150 to 190 c. cm. These measurements should be\nrepeated with much larger numbers; but whether or not these figures are\nright, during the school period there is a great change of the circulatory\ntype. In the child a relatively small heart drives the blood thru large\narteries; in the adult a large heart drives the blood thru relatively small\narteries.\nHence, as everybody knows, the child is capable of violent exercise\n\n"}
{"page": 1351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEXERCISE\n\nAND\n\nLAWS\n\nOF GROWTH\n\n1335\n\nfor short periods, because built for it, and the adult is liable to be injured\nby such exercise. This is merely an illustration. There are many differences between the physical mechanism of the child and that of the adult.\nLikewise there are differences between children at different ages.\nProbably there is a difference between the nervous system of children\nand adolescents and in the capacity or ability of the nervous system for\nstoring energy. For some reason not well understood, neuro-muscular\nenergy does not seem to be stored up by children in the same way that it is\nby boys and girls after puberty. Roberts, the English anthropologist,\napplying this to athletic sport says:\nWith respect to the more active form of exercise it is certain that football, cricket, and\nathletic contests, running, etc., do not meet the requirements of young children\nFor some reason not well understood, children under the age of twelve or thirteen cannot\nbe trained like older boys for athletic sp>ort. The muscles will not increase in size and\nharden in the limbs, in short, will not \"train.\" .... The physical work done, therefore,\nis the day's supply of energy and not the accumulated energy and adaptiveness of muscle\nassociated, with training, hence football soon exhausts young children and is too violent\nwhile it lasts to be of permanent advantage. The same objection applies to all forms of\nviolent exercise in the gymnasium or elsewhere, hence small children enjoy playing games\nand are more benefited by them than by athletics or gymnastics with apparatus. There\nare, however, many light gymnastic exercises with light dumbbells, bars, and clubs, suitable for young children of both sexes, and they are frequently taught in school.\nAfter the age of thirteen years the body becomes capable of training and the sinews\nand muscles add to their energy from day to day, provided the exercises are not carried\non to the extent of producing fatigue and exhaustion.\nAthletic and active games are the\nmost useful form of exercise after the age of thirteen or fourteen\nThey should\nbe made the central feature of physical education to which all other forms should be\nsupplementary.\n\nWe cannot set down the capacity for training at a definite age as Roberts\ndoes; but he is quite right that prolonged violent exercise is not the proper\nkind for children, but that play should have the chief place in the years\nbefore puberty.\nPerhaps the most successful attempt to devise a plan for physical\ntraining adapted to age and physiological development is that made by Dr.\nSchmidt of Bonn and elaborated by Superintendent Johnson of Pittsburgh.\nDuring the first period of school life, from six to nine, a child's exercise\nshould be entirely in the form of free play, and this out of doors as much as\npossible. Exercises which involve the large muscles and which stimulate\nrespiration and circulation are required. Such exercise is best given in the\nform of children's movement plays. During the next period, from nine to\ntwelve, the plays can be richer in content and greater demand can be made\nupon skill and speed. The various ball plays, running, jumping, and the\nlike, are in place. Gymnastic exercises as such should have only a small\nplace, amounting to half an hour a day. The period from twelve to fifteen\nis characterized by the beginning of stronger growth of the lungs and heart.\nRunning exercises, swimming, skating, and the like, are in place. The\n\n"}
{"page": 1352, "printed_page": null, "text": "1336\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\ngymnastic exercises and the demands upon skill and strength may be\nincreased. Exercises with apparatus may be given sparingly. During\nthe period from fifteen to seventeen a special characteristic is the growth of\nthe heart in relation to the arteries. Connected with this usually is greater\nincrease in height. Plays involving competition are in place, association\nfootball, cricket, basket-ball, and the like.\nWhile perhaps open to criticism in some details, the main features of\nsuch a program appear hygienic. But beyond a few general points like\nthese we cannot go. We have no data to show in detail what system would\nbe adapted to the sequence of the stages of development.\nThird: It helps very much to determine many practical problems if\none has a clear idea of the aim of physical education. Applying to it the\nprinciples of educational psychology, as we should to any other subject, the\naim is the acquisition of habits of healthful activity and the development\nof permanent interests. The only way to develop habits and interests is\nto base the new on the habits and interests already existing. Now physical\neducation appeals to some of the deepest of all interests. It is based upon\nthe most generic of all instincts, what may be called the instinct of activity,\nthe tendency to display energy, the impulse to action for its own sake, the\nmatrix out of which the special instincts are developed and the germ of\nproductive activity. It is associated in its origin with the most fundamental activities and emotions of the human race. Thus physical education\nshould be considered in the perspective of racial history, and appeal\nshould be made to the fundamental instincts and to the interests that have\ndeveloped out of them, and the aim of it all should be to develop permanent\ninterests in healthful forms of activity.\nLikewise, these interests vary at different stages of psychological\ndevelopment. Young children, for example, are particularly interested in\nliving things and in moving toys, and in their own physical accomplishments as individuals. Adolescents become interested in group games and\nvarious group activities. In all stages of development there is interest in\nmovement and in whatever the individual can do easily and well. The\ngreat fundamental instinct of activity in its different manifestations, in the\nvarious work activities on the one hand, and the various play instincts on\nthe other, is fundamental and omnipresent.\nThe importance of such development of interests in physical exercise\nmight be emphasized from many different points of view. There is time\nhere for notice of only one. Every interest is a means of self-control, and\namong the most wholesome interests, those that serve as an anchor in time\nof stress for their psychological quite as much as their physiological value,\nare the interests in various forms of physical activity. The development\nof such interests means real hygienic, pedagogical, and moral training.\nAn earlier paper this afternoon related to sex hygiene.\nA moral might be\n\n"}
{"page": 1353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEXERCISE\n\nAND\n\nLAWS\n\nOF GROWTH\n\n1337\n\nadded from our present point of view: physical education gives opportunity for a certain preventive training.\nThere is an old story of the experience of Ulysses with the sirens, somewhat as follows, as I recall it: When Ulysses passed the island where th6\nsirens dwelt, so the story runs, he filled the ears of his crew with wax and\nhad them bind him with the stoutest thongs, giving orders that under no\nconditions, by no appeals or threats, should he be released until they had\npassed this place of temptation. But the sequel is, on another occasion,\nwhen Orpheus was on board, neither crew nor leader had need of thongs\nand wax, because Orpheus could make better music than the sirens.\nThe old story teaches the soundest psychological truth and illustrates\nthe pedagogy of training. In our modern life the adolescent girl is not safe\noutside of a nunnery, and the adolescent boy is not safe outside the walls\nof a reform school, unless they have heard better music than the modern\nsirens can make. If you allow them on the streets of a modern city, you\nmust stuff their ears with wax, shade their eyes, and hedge them about\nwith all manner of limitations, unless you have given them this better\nmusic; in other words, unless they have had actual moral training, and\nwholesome interests in legitimate activities have been developed. Physical\ntraining gives opportunity for the development of an important group\nof such interests.\nAll this, too, is very general; and it may be added that most of the\nliterature on physical training presents the merits of physical exercises in\na general way. Exercise is represented as a good thing because of its effect\non the structure of the physical organs and the physical functions of the\nbody, but this is all very general. We must now be more concrete and more\ndefinite. The physical organs and functions differ at different stages of\ndevelopment and the great problem of the future in physical training is to\ndetermine the proper adjustment of exercise to the different stages of\nphysiological development.\nIt is worth a great deal, however, to have gained a clear insight that\nth'e aim of physical education, like the aim of education in general, is the\ndevelopment of permanent interests; and here all the accepted laws of\ninterest apply. Interests vary at different stages. Interests may be\nprematurely developed and in this way dulled and destroyed. On the\nother hand, undue delay means loss of opportunity and the probability\nthat proper interests will never be developed. If, for example, youths at\nadolescence do not acquire an interest in physical exercise, if they do not\nacquire an interest in group sports and the like, the chances are that\nsuch interests will hardly be developed later.\nThe most that is possible now is to emphasize the importance of this\nproblem of adaptation. The problem has two aspects — adaptation to\nphysiological development on the one hand, adaptation to psychological\n\n"}
{"page": 1354, "printed_page": null, "text": "1338\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\ndevelopment on the other. The importance of studying this problem can\nhardly be overemphasized. While waiting for the results of such investigation we should adapt the exercise to the more obvious differences\nbetween children and adolescents and in cases of doubt make the exercise\nas free and spontaneous as possible.\nDISCUSSION\nW. A. Evans, M.D., Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. — I served on the\nVice Commission in Chicago. The commission agreed that it would not publish any\nrecommendation that was not the unanimous vote of the commission. When it came\nto the consideration of the teaching of social hygiene, the commission was divided and\nso no recommendation was made. If the commission were to go over its work again\ntwo years hence, I venture it would be ready to recommend the teaching of social hygiene\nin the schools. I take issue with the one who read the paper who said that the purpose\nof the teaching was not reform. The scientific teaching of the subject is not enough.\nIt is a question of reform as well as education and should include a consideration of\nlegislation, of eugenics, as well as other phases. As a member of the Vice Commission\nof Chicago, I gained much experience which bears upon this topic. It seems necessary\nto understand and to do away with the diseased mentality, and the conditions from which\nvice develops.\nSadie American, executive secretary of Council of Jewish Women, New York,\nN.Y. — The scientific teaching in regard to sex is not enough. It must be carefully done,\nelse more harm than good will result. It must be done only by the most skillful and\nthose especially prepared. The ordinary teacher cannot do this work, and it should\nnot be put upon her. We should work with the child's emotions. There is a great work\nfor the home and the church to do. The subject should be taught simply and reverently,\nnot too much in detail, lest the child's mind dwell uf>on it too much.\nR. W. CoRWiN, Pueblo, Colo., professor of surgery. University of Colorado. — I\nbeheve the teaching of sex hygiene is good if properly taught. I believe in the segregation\nof the sexes for this teaching and that we should look to the Mendelian theory in our\nteaching of eugenics.\nMary P. Blount, instructor in zoology, University High School, Chicago, 111. — ^I\nam interested in the work of the Vice Commission of Chicago, but neither that nor social\nhygiene is my subject. The discussion that has followed my paper simply proves the\npoint I made — that any reference to teaching about sex has been taken to mean teaching\nsocial hygiene, and about sexual vice. I would not have the education stop with mere\nscientific instruction, but would have science plus ideals. If there were no sexual vice\nin the world, and if there were twice as much as has been revealed by the work of the\nVice Commission of Chicago, there would be reason for teaching children about the sexual\nreproduction of animals, because this process is a part of nature. Those who are teaching\nsocial hygiene will get much help from a textbook in physiology to be published next\nautumn by Scott, Foresman & Co.\n\n"}
{"page": 1355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nREPORT\nHELEN\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE\n\nM. HEFFERAN,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREVENUE\n\nON SCHOOL\n\nCHAIRMAN\nNATIONAL\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nCONGRESS\n\n1339\n\nREVENUE\nOF\n\nMOTHERS,\n\nThe following editorial appeared in one of the Chicago papers recently:\nTEACHERS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDr. p. p. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, in a newly issued report,\nannounces that, counting all public-school teachers, both men and women, high-school\nteachers as well as elementary teachers and city teachers as well as country teachers, the\naverage annual salary for the whole country is under $500. In eleven states the average\nsalary is less than $400; in eight states it is less than $300; in two states it is less than\n$250. \"For salaries like this,\" declares Dr. Claxton, \"it is clearly impossible to hire the\nservices of men and women of good native ability and sufl&cient scholarship, training, and\nexperience to enable them to do satisfactory work.\"\nIn view of these statistics as to salaries it is not surprising to learn from another\nsource that 50 per cent of all the teachers in the United States are under the age of 24\nyears; that 25 per cent have had but one year's experience or less; that 50 per cent have\nhad only a high-school education or less, and that the average time of service of a teacher\nbefore leaving the profession is about four years. These figures present a perfectly plain\nproblem. Low salaries mean that as a rule the more ambitious, forceful, capable, and in\ngeneral more desirable teachers soon leave the profession.\nIn general, one may say that even the competent teachers who continue in the service\noften cannot do their best work because their salaries are not sufficient to relieve them\nfrom worry and otherwise enable them to make full use of their talents.\n\nA Statement of this kind is sufficient to show the need of a revenue\ncommittee in connection with the Department of School Patrons, the\npurpose of which is to arouse the civic consciousness of the community to\nthe need of more school revenue, to the need of studying school budgets\nand bringing about vigorous action on the part of school patrons to enlarge\nthe revenue for school purposes. At the beginning of this year a leaflet was\nsent out with the ultimate object of arousing organizations doing civic work\nto the need of giving programs during the year to the discussion of revenue\nfor school purposes — how obtained and what citizen co-operation would be\neffective in increasing school revenue. The leaflet contained the following\nmessage:\nFirst: A quotation from Hon. Francis G. Blair, state superintendent\nof public instruction of Illinois :\nI am convinced by my experience here in Illinois, and by comparisons with conditions\nin other states, that the only way to make our schools what we think they should be and\nwhat they ought to be is to secure more money to employ better prepared and more competent teachers, to buy better grounds, to build better buildings, and to project better\ncourses of study. This means a campaign to create sentiment among school patrons,\ntaxpayers, and lawmakers.\n\nSecond: Suggestions for the joint state committees as follows:\nThe school budget is a matter about which many citizens are not well informed.\nThe first that they know about it comes from the newspapers which publish the rate of\ntaxation which the board of education has fixed for the year. The budget itself is not\n\n"}
{"page": 1356, "printed_page": null, "text": "1340\n\nNATTONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\npublished, and seldom is any adequate account given of the educational work planned for\nthe year. The attention of the citizen is thus focused upon the rate of taxation; and if\ntenure of office in the board is dependent upon the public, the members are held politically\nresponsible for any increase in the tax rate. Is not this situation largely due to lack of\ninformation concerning the budget? This surely is a question deserving the attention\nof the joint state committees.\nState committees can co-operate with school authorities in arousing a general interest\non the part of school patrons and taxpayers in the school budget and its relation to actual\neducational needs. School superintendents can call meetings of school patrons and citizens\nto consider such problems as these, as well as those outlined in \"An Appeal to the People\nby the Committee on School Revenue of the Department of School Patrons\":\nI. The ideals for which the community shall stand:\n1. Shall the school property and equipment in general be a model in proper heating,\nventilating, and cleanliness for all homes of the city ?\n2. Shall the school grounds be such as to inspire civic pride?\n3. Shall the school property become a social center for the common activities of\nthe community ?\n4- What shall be the policy of the administration with regard to such questions as:\n(a) the public kindergarten; (b) the educational use of industrial occupations in the\ngrades; (c) the estabhshment of special departments for manual training and domestic\nscience ?\nII.\n\nThe means of raising school revenues:\n\nAs an illustration of what can be done, it may be stated that thru the co-operation of\nteachers and school patrons, the state appropriation in Illinois was increased last legislative year by $1,000,000. This means that each school district will receive fifty cents\nmore for each child than it has heretofore. A city the size of Bloomington will receive\nabout $4,000 more than formerly, while Chicago will receive an addition of about one-third\nof a million.\nWhat has been done in Illinois can be done in any state. Let us focus attention\nupon two problems:\n1. How to secure thru a fixed rate of taxation an adequate state fund for distribution to all districts of the state, and more especially to those districts which are unable\nto raise sufficient revenue to maintain schools.\n2. How to secure a law enabling the district to tax itself liberally for the establishment\nand maintenance of schools.\nWill your organization co-operate with the school authorities in the solution of\nthese problems ?\n\nThe response from the states altho not showing any startling results\nshows that a campaign of enlightenment has started in a small way.\nFrom one state comes the word that \"the state board o\" education is\nmaking a study of the question so as to present some definite recommendations to the legislature of 1913.\" From another state comes the word\nthat the matter will be taken up at the meeting of the State FederaCtion of\nWomen's Clubs and that all affiliated clubs will be asked to begin a campaign\nof enlightenment as to sources of revenue for school purposes. This was\nvery emphatically emphasized in the report of the chairman of the Education Department of the Illinois Federation of Women's Clubs, especially as\nto the restoration of the two-mill tax. Twenty-one states thru their joint\ncommittees responded to the request to take up the study of the question\n\n"}
{"page": 1357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nOF COMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n1341\n\neither this year (if not too late) or next year, which in many states will be\nthe legislative year.\nIn conclusion, I would quote from the \"Declaration of the National.\nEducation Association,\" in session in San Francisco last year (July, 191 1)\nto this effect:\nThe increased cost of living and the steadily increasing number and scope of educational activities have rendered it necessary that larger expenditures be made for schools\nthan in the past; it therefore becomes imperative that all communities in the nation\nrecognize, as many have already done, that more money must be contributed and expended\nfor schools, both locally and by the state, if our young people are to have that kind and\nquality of education demanded by the times.\n\nSUMMARY\n\nOF STATE\n\nREPORTS\n\nAFFILIATED\n\nOF JOINT COMMITTEES\n\nORGANIZATIONS,\n\nAND\n\n1911-12\n\nIt has proved impossible this year to incorporate or even to indicate\nin this summary all the many and full reports received. The necessary\nomissions are deeply regretted. Two groups were decided upon because\nthese particular groups will be represented in two other reports now printed\nand available on application. First, there were more than thirty reports\nfrom joint committee members representing federations of women's clubs.\nSee report of the Education Department of the General Federation of\nWomen's Clubs for this biennial period, 1910-1912. Second, in many\nstates, efforts were concentrated on improving the health conditions of\nschool children and urging attention to personal and sex hygiene. See\ntabulated report of the chairman of the School Health Committee, Mrs.\nMaggie W. Barry, North Texas College, Sherman, Tex.\nAlabama. — The Joint Committee plans continuance of work begun in\n1910-11 for compulsory education and for a woman's dormitory at the\nstate university.\nThe Montgomery Circle of Mothers reports lectures on hygiene and\neducational topics. Copies of One Thousand Good Books for Children\nhave been placed in the hands of mothers, and support given various\nco-operative undertakings.\nIn 191 1 there was $39,622.54 expended upon the improvement of\nrural schools thru rural school improvement associations. In 1912,\n$50,000.\n\nArkansas. — The Joint Committee reports efficient co-operation with\nthe juvenile court, aid by college women of the playground movement\nand associated charities, and scholarships. For increased school revenue\nthe state tax commission has \"very materially increased the valuation of\nproperty thruout the state.\" For the improvement of health conditions\nof school children a bill was passed (i) giving the state board of health\nthe supervision of all school building plans, for approval as to ventilation,\n\n"}
{"page": 1358, "printed_page": null, "text": "1342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nlighting, etc.; (2) securing plans for effective medical inspection. Thru\nan error in engrossing, the correct bill failed of signature by the governor.\nThe state department of education expects its renewal and success at the\nnext session.\nDelaware. — The member for the Congress of Mothers reports courses\nof lectures and demonstration in nursing and domestic science; work for\npure milk, for dental care of school children, for the improvement of school\nbuildings, the installation of sanitary fountains, and the provision of playgrounds; also aid in organizing Boy Scouts, boys' guilds, and road patrols.\nDistrict of Columbia. — A member of the Joint Committee reports\nadmirable work by the Jewish women for immigrant aid, especially night\nschools, English classes, and patriotic instruction preparatory to good\ncitizenship. An appropriation of $12,000 was secured from Congress for\nthese night schools. Clubs giving training in various practical industries\nare maintained. The Children's Welfare Committee is doing peculiarly\nthoro personal work for children in need of bodily upbuilding, moral\nregeneration, or improved home conditions.\nThe Federation member reports consideration of health matters and\nsex hygiene, and a valuable course of medical lectures on the subject.\nGeorgia. — The excellent work planned last year has been continued.\nThree of the desired improvements have been attained: \"The reorganization of the state board of education so as to provide for a partly professional\nboard; the changing of the office of state school commissioner to state\nschool superintendent, with increased salary and an increased force of\nassistants; the necessary appropriation to operate the state normal\nschool at Valdosta previously legally established but not financed.\" A\nnew leaflet clearly indicating state-wide needs has been circulated and\nwill be used as a program for work and study by several organizations.\nIllinois. — The Patrons Department enjoys this year the great opportunity of meeting at Chicago, and of learning directly the progressive\nmethods of the schools, of the volunteer organizations, of national leaders\nin social service. A crowded summary of the admirable reports received\nwould be a work of supererogation when the authors may be met and the\nactual achievements studied.\nThe Illinois Joint Committee has co-operated most generously in\npreparing for the Patrons Department meetings.\nIowa. — Mrs. Conrad of the Joint Committee forwarded valuable\nprograms from Mothers' Association meetings at Grinnell. Mrs. Faville\nof the Federation household economics committee has made appreciative\nuse of the Patrons Department health leaflets.\nKentucky. — ^The chairman of the Joint Committee reports that in one\ncity four prominent organizations have become interested in hygiene and\nmedical inspection for the schools; that one university has carried thruout\n\n"}
{"page": 1359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nOF COMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n1343\n\nthe year a scientific course for men, and for one semester a course for\nwomen; its lecturers have gone out to the high schools and clubs of near-by\ntowns. The normal-school presidents have been urged to have their\nstudents trained in these subjects.\nOne member, now of the state department of education, has visited\nbetween 60 and 70 counties, organized in them school improvement leagues,\nand helped raise sums for school improvement ranging from $300 to $32,000.\nIn half the schools of one city she has organized parent-teacher associations, and in all sought to arouse interest in medical inspection and home\neconomics.\nOther good news is the School Suffrage bill for women, the abolition\nof the public drinking-cup, and large appropriations for the state university\nand normal schools.\nThe Council of Jewish Women have \"completely metamorphosed\"\none rural school, making it a true neighborhood center, with larger sanitary\nbuilding, greatly increased attendance, manual training, individual drinkingcups, penny lunch, and with mothers and neighbors vitally interested.\nThe Daughters of the American Revolution have concentrated on education, providing more scholarships, a standing committee on school health,\nand volunteer members who quietly and personally gain the confidence of\nhigh-school boys or girls, who need such wise friends in many unrealized\nways.\nThe S.A.C.W. has investigated high schools in the state and made a\nreport which shows their status and relation to an acceptable standard.\nLouisiana. — The member for the Federation reports earnest attention\nto household sanitation, to the fight against tuberculosis and typhoid, to\nthe necessity of having schools with better sanitation and ventilation, to\nthe importance of protecting pupils from communicable diseases by\nsystematic examination, and to the need of teaching personal and social\nhygiene.\nMaine. — The chairman reports that after investigation of the work\nof about ten organizations doing something for rural-school betterment,\nthe Joint Committee decided to concentrate for the present on the improvement of rural-school libraries. Each member makes her town a center\nfor this work; one is collecting a good library for a rural community and\nhas already given three such to rural communities; another reports that\na library of forty volumes is sent to each school, read eagerly, and exchanged\nat the middle of the term.\nThe Federation member reports effort thruout the state for the objects\nemphasized by the Patrons Department. \"All along the line the health\nconditions have been improved, drinking-fountains installed, ventilation\nimproved, and critical attention given to the physical side of school life.\nMany small towns have for the first time made appropriations for examina-\n\n"}
{"page": 1360, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 344\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[School Patrons\n\ntions of pupils by physicians.\" Concerning school revenues, \"The appropriations have been more liberal for teachers' salaries, which are becoming\nhigher every year, especially in the lower grades and rural schools.\"\nMaryland. — As nearly all organizations interested in education successfully concentrated theif efiforts on securing a state school attendance law,\nthe usual \"unifying function\" of the Joint Committee was not needed\nthis year. Concerning social hygiene, it was reported that the \"Maryland\nSociety for Social Hygiene is formulating plans for instruction along these\nlines in the normal schools of the state. They recognize its importance\nand have under consideration the selection of books that can be recommended, out of the multiplicity now being printed.\" Concerning school\nrevenue, a report was made of the sources of revenue in the state and\nthe methods of distribution, after study of such excellent authorities as\nthe following: Reports of the United States commissioner of education;\nReports of the state school board of Maryland; Reports of the county\nsuperintendents of Maryland; Public Permanent Common School Funds\nin the United States (Swift).\nThis report will be forwarded to the chairman of the Patrons' Department Committee on School Revenue, with thanks, and the wish that a\nsimilar one might be received from every state to facilitate the work of\nthe committee. One item is of special interest: \"Maryland's appropriation per capita for her school children is smaller than in most states\nof her wealth and population. In the latest report of the United States\ncommissioner of education it amounted to $24.49 P^r annimi. In one\nstate for the same year it was $6.66, but in another the sum was $59.01.\nIt is but fair to say that our state is gradually increasing its proportion.\"\nThe S.A.C.W. investigated education laws and the powders and functions\nof the state board of education and the county boards. Articles have\nbeen sent to county newspapers and exercises held in ten county high\nschools to arouse interest in higher education.\nMassachusetts. — The Massachusetts Joint Conamittee finds itself\nin the enviable position of being able to point with pride to the admirable\npro\\dsion already made for many of the school needs which are the problems\nof most communities less mature educationally. As regards school revenue,\nthe state board of education was authorized a year ago to investigate the\nquestion of adequate revenue for school purposes and to report its findings\nto the legislature of 19 13. As regards the health conditions of school\nchildren, medical inspection has been compulsory since 1906 thruout the\nstate. Since then the increase of attention to health conditions, and the\nprogress in them, have been steady. The Joint Committee has therefore\nturned to other work, including vocational training and vocational guidance,\nparticularly of girls, and very particularly the girls of one's own community.\nA clear and excellent leaflet has been issued. A card catalog is being\nprepared which in the future will give a fairly complete record of the yearly\n\n"}
{"page": 1361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nREPORTS\n\nOF COMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n1345\n\nactivities of the affiliated organizations, and a list of other organizations\ncarrying on similar work.\nThe member for the Congress of Mothers reports several new parentteacher associations and affiliated clubs. The appointment of a commissioner has been secured to investigate the advisability of pensioning\nwidowed mothers with minor dependent children, in order that the home\nmay be kept together. Legislation for this is expected next year.\nThe member for the Council of Jewish Women reports continued\nwork for vocational guidance; for the juvenile court (which was started\nwith their urgent co-operation); immigrant aid. In this great work,\nthe council meets and protects immigrant girls, keeping in touch with\nthem personally until they are self-supporting and safe. Much other\nhelp is given, especially in evening classes where English is taught.\nHome and school associations have grown at Everett to the number\nof fourteen, reaching 1,400 parents and teachers; many talks on sex hygiene\nand other vital matters have been given ; truancy has been reduced more\nthan one-half.\nMichigan. — The Michigan Joint Committee \"devotes its energies to\ncorrecting those evils in the school system that are to be dealt with by\ncivic and legislative means.\" In the legislature of 191 1, eleven measures\nwere adopted relating to school improvement which had been urged by\nthe committee, in co-operation with many agencies. Systematic work is\nbeing done on a definite program for 1913: the Commission School Board\nbill, measures for increasing the efficiency of the rural schools, Teachers'\nPension bill, and a Textbook bill.\nAddresses and printed matter indicating methods of studying the\nquestions involved are presented to interested organizations, as the Federation, the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, the State Teachers' Association, the State Grange, and the Farmers' Institute. Most of the women's\norganizations have an annual program on education, and many of them\nan outlined course of study. The chairman pleads particularly for scientific\nefficiency in school administration, for freedom from politics, for high-class\nboards that will appoint teachers for their merits and select schoolbooks\nfor their quality.\nMinnesota. — Among work reported, especially from the clubs, are\nmany steps toward better health conditions. Programs of district meetings\nhave included entire sessions occupied by physicians and school superintendents discussing the teaching of sex hygiene in schools.\nThru a school census by club volunteers, cases of violation of childlabor laws were detected, also truancy and unreported cases of tuberculosis\nand other diseases. Hygienic experts were hired by the clubs to inspect\nthe schools of several cities of the state. Their lectures and reports were\nmade public with good results. Visiting nurses have been secured and the\nfunds raised in ways that interested the public in their support.\n\n"}
{"page": 1362, "printed_page": null, "text": "1346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nMississippi. — Concerning revenue for school purposes, the chairman\nreports that the last legislature increased the appropriation for agricultural\nand night schools; it also made an appropriation for $1,200 to defray the\ntraveling expenses of the supervisor of school improvement; it made it\nlegal for counties to operate wagons for transportation to consolidated\nschools; it appropriated $126,500 for support of the normal college.\nFor improving health conditions, the state improvement association\nand the state board of health joined in a \"Health Campaign.\" \"Health\nDay,\" \"Clean-up Day,\" and \"Beautify Day\" were observed in a practical\nway in 2,000 schools. As a result of the campaign more than 500 schools\nreport medical inspection for tuberculosis and hookworm. More than 1,000\nrural schools report covered water-coolers and individual drinking-cups.\nBulletins on the fly, the mosquito, and on sanitary toilets have been distributed bythe thousand. A \"Health Placard\" on consumption was sent\nto every school, and the law requires it to be posted in a conspicuous place.\nThe girls' canning and poultry clubs have been supervised by the school\nimprovement association; this second year finds twelve counties organized,\nwith a membership of 2,816.\nThe Congress of Mothers' parent-teacher associations are doing\nexcellent work in several towns; they have had women physicians and\ntrained nurses visit these towns and talk to the mothers and teachers\non sex hygiene. Rural schools have been improved by getting better\nroads, better houses, and planting flowers. In the cities they have worked\nfor cleanliness, and fewer flies and mosquitoes. Domestic science has been\nput in some schools. Legislation has been urged for kindergartens and\nfor a state reformatory.\nMissouri. — The work of the Joint Committee as such has been devoted\nto two fields of study and action :\n1. The school revenues of Missouri. A study of these has been\nmade by the member for the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, aided by\nthe St. Louis Branch. It shows (a) permanent funds, origin and amount;\n{h) taxes, local rate, etc.; (c) state basis of apportionment; {d) comparison\nof Missouri's expenditure per capita for buildings, salaries, and incidentals\nwith that of other states; {e) a map showing expenditure for each county\nin the state. A report is to be printed for distribution and study next\nyear.2. An effort to have sex hygiene taught in the normal schools of\nMissouri. A very successful conference was held by the members of the\ncommittee and the presidents of the normal schools during the National\nEducation Association meeting of the Department of School Administration, with the result that lectures are to be given on the subject next year;\nand as soon as feasible regular instruction is to be given in connection with\nthe work in biology. The chairman, at a banquet to visiting normalschool faculty members, was asked to give a toast on \"What Women\n\n"}
{"page": 1363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depariment]\n\nREPORTS\n\nOF COMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n1347\n\nWant the Normal Schools to Do.\" She utilized the opportunity to call\nattention to the need for better teaching of hygiene, including sex hygiene.\nThe reality of the need was recognized heartily. The outlook is promising,\nand Missouri hopes to have much to report in this direction next year.\nFor the educational work of the Missouri Federation see the Greneral\nFederation Education Report.\nThe Congress of Mothers, at the request of the dean of the Department\nof Education of the State University, presented before the Superintendents'\nSection the subject of practical co-operation of parents and teachers;\nalso aided in preparing a bulletin on the aims, methods, and results of\nparent-teacher associations, which is to be sent to every city and county\nsuperintendent in the state. In St. Louis, 1,000 mothers have been taught\nthe value of closer co-operation between home and school. In Kansas\nCity, thru the Public Welfare Board's work in fourteen school social centers,\nthe congress has brought the same thought to parents, both men and women.\nA parent-teacher society induced the board of education to print thousands\nof circulars on the proper care and diet of school children; these were\ndistributed to the parents.\nMontana. — In regard to school revenue, the chairman of the Joint\nCommittee reports that Montana is in an enviable position. \"The public\nschools are supplied by taxation and have a rich endowment, in the two\nsections of land in each township — the school lands were originally about\nfive million acres. A small portion of the land has been sold — the greater\npart of the school land is leased, and a large income is derived from the\nrentals.\"\nRural schools have heating and ventilating systems installed, and\nnearly all schools in one city have sanitary fountains. A state law requires\ninstruction concerning communicable diseases.\nThe member for the Association of Collegiate Alumnae reports that\nthru certain women's organizations various schoolhouses have been opened\nin the evening for lectures on vital subjects. The superintendent of schools\nin one of the cities has suggested the appointment of visiting committees\nof ladies, to bring about more active co-operation between parents and\nteachers.\nNebraska. — Work reported only by the Federation representative.\nTo improve health conditions of school children the following things are\ndone: Each club provides a \"Health Day\" program in schools. Local\ndoctors give short talks to children on tuberculosis, emergencies, germ\ndiseases, evils of drinking-cups, danger of flies, care of babies, clean food,\nor dental hygiene. All clubs are working for medical inspection; five\nhave accomplished it this year. Sanitary fountains have been installed\nby club women in the schools of fourteen towns.\nOhio. — The Ohio Joint Committee has devoted its first year to investigation concerning the work already being done by women's organizations,\n\n"}
{"page": 1364, "printed_page": null, "text": "1348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nthat duplication might be avoided. Letters making this inquiry were sent\nto eighty superintendents of schools. Twenty-eight responded; 22 reported\nco-operation in greater or less degree; 4 reported none at all. Correspondence was opened with the state commissioner of schools, and with\nthe Ohio School Improvement Association, which was successful in having\npassed the minimum salary law for teachers. As a result of this study of\nthe field, the committee plans next year to unite with the School Improvement Association and all women's organizations in the effort to improve\nrural schools, to secure a normal course for teachers in sex hygiene, to\nestablish social centers, and continuation schools giving industrial and\nvocational education.\nThe Council of Jewish Women has four sections in Ohio, and in its\nfour sections it has secured medical inspection in public schools, school\nnurses, vacation schools, penny lunches, has superintended the meals\ngiven anaemic children in the open-air schools, has initiated and co-operated\nin a safe and sane Fourth of July celebration, established mothers' clubs\nof immigrant mothers, a kindergarten in a congested immigrant quarter,\nmonthly lectures on health and hygiene, opened classes in English and night\nschools for teaching English to immigrant men.\nThe Association of Collegiate Alumnae reports that one branch has\nformed a Home and School Association with eight or nine district parentteacher organizations. Another branch has decided to emphasize vocational work for girls.\nOregon. — The past year has been devoted more to study than to executive work (see full reports of last year and the year before). The needs\nof the rural schools have received most attention and an attempt to reach\nthem has been made thru the state grange.\nPennsylvania. — See the report of the General Federation Education\nDepartment for report of the Pennsylvania Educational Alliance, which\naffords sufficient means for concerted action in the state. While it obviates\nthe need of any additional unifying agency in Pennsylvania, it admirably\ndemonstrates the usefulness of such unification,\nRhode Island. — Reports were received from three of the affiliated organizations. For that of the Federation see the summary of Federation reports.\nThe Council of Jewish Women of Providence has started an industrial\ndepartment in one of the primary schools there, all supplies being bought\nby the council; the girls are taught domestic science, from sewing to\npractical housekeeping; the boys are taught chair-caning and hammockmaking, among other things, also to sew on their own buttons! Outside\nwork is taken in and the proceeds used to purchase additional material.\nThe Association of Collegiate Alumnae is continuing to arouse interest\nin college education by offering certain prizes and bringing the girls in\ncontact with college women and ideals. It helps toward scholarships,\ntoward legislation, and toward playgrounds and school gardens. At New-\n\n"}
{"page": 1365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nOF COMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n1349\n\nport the work of the medical inspector has recently been aided by the\nservices of a school nurse (provided by the school authorities at the instance of the board of health) who follows up his work by personal visits\nin the homes. Free dental examination has been provided for and wil^\nprobably soon be in operation.\nTexas. — The Texas Joint Committee during the year 1911-12 has\ndirected its efforts for the following objects, which will be the objects of\ncontinued labor in the coming year: compulsory education; professional\ncounty supervision and county boards of education; the establishment of\nrural high schools and the extension of the rural-school term; removal of\ntax limitation for the support of public schools thru constitutional amendment; a six years' term for governing boards of educational institutions;\nmajority rule instead of two-thirds rule in school tax elections in independent\nschool districts; adequate and permanent financial support of the higher\ninstitutions of learning; the wider use of the school plant; for the construction ofscientifically lighted, ventilated, and heated school buildings;\nfor attractive school grounds, equipped with playground apparatus;\nphysical examinations of school children; abolishment of the public\ndrinking-cup; instructions in personal and sex hygiene in normal schools;\nfor the inclusion of manual training, domestic science, domestic art, and\nagriculture in the school curricula; for the special teachers for backward\nchildren; a custodial institution for feeble-minded children, and kindergartens.\nUtah. — \"A healthy, live committee\" has been meeting thruout the\nyear, and working for improved health conditions for school children.\nIt has had hot cocoa served, to supplement the cold luncheons, at one\ndistrict school, and plans to extend the service to another next year. It\nprovided sanitary paper towels for a month at a city school and hopes\nall the school authorities will be convinced of their superiority soon, as\nsome are now. An open-air school for anaemic children was projected.\nThe committee, with one from the Federation, completed arrangements\nto do their allotted part; namely, provide transportation for the children,\nthree meals during the school day, Eskimo garments, the matron, and\nthe cots upon which the children should take their naps. The school\nauthorities were to provide the building accommodations, teacher, and\nusual school implements; unfortunately they decided that they were\nunable to do so for lack of funds for the building.\nAmong school improvements, a noteworthy one concerns revenue.\nA constitutional provision of half-mill state tax, providing annually $ioo,cxx3\nwhich is available for the high schools of the state, in addition to their\nusual income, became effective this year. Others insure a high standard\nof preparation for teachers, and a state high-school inspector reporting\nto the state board of education. Salt Lake City has an admirably developed\ndepartment for atypical children — the first mentioned officially west of\nChicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 1366, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 350\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nVirginia. — The Joint Committee worked, among other things, for\nthe Virginia Woman's College, endeavoring to induce the legislature to\nestablish a co-ordinate college at the University of Virginia. The bill\nwas defeated, but the idea is not abandoned.\nThe member for the S.A.C.W. reports work for the establishment of a\nfree circulating library. Thru the state board of charities an appropriation\nfor a school for exceptional or defective children has been secured. The\nwork last year was specially for medical inspection of public-school\nchildren, and this has advanced rapidly, with a trained nurse in appointment and a physician in charge for each school.\nWashington. — See report of Joint Investigation of the Teaching of\nPersonal and Sex Hygiene in the Normal Schools.\nThe Association of Collegiate Alumnae is establishing scholarsh'p funds,\nand aiding in a library and high school. They are urging the institution\nof medical inspection.\nWest Virginia. — The question of revenue for school purposes has\nbeen greatly improved in the last four years. Local conditions have\nbeen carefully studied, made public, and consequently improved. Medical\ninspection, recently established, has been the object of effort, and is now\naided by \"follow-up\" measures with parents. Special concern is felt for\nimprovement of rural schools and careful attention given to teachers\npreparing for that field.\nThe object of the Department of School Patrons is fourfold:\nFirst, to ascertain from highest educational authorities the needs of\nthe schools and approved methods of meeting them.\nSecond, to transmit this educational message systematically to strong\nvolunteer organizations, national and state and local, which can do tremendous good by such directed and united effort.\nThird, to provide a simple means of giving unity and continuity to\nstate work thru its state joint committees, which comprise one state member for each affiliated organization and members-at-large representing\nstrong state or local associations.\nFourth, to collect in convenient form, for mutual suggestion and\nencouragement, brief statements of co-operative work accomplished or\nunder way. Most important undertakings require the concerted effort\nof the entire community. When possible to segregate the work of individual organizations from general results in accordance with reports sent\nin, specific credit has been given.\n\n"}
{"page": 1367, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deparimentj\n\n'\n\nOUTSIDE\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nOUTSIDE CO-OPERATION\n\nWITH\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1351\n\nWITH PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nWILLIAM H. ALLEN, DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU\nOF MUNICIPAL RESEARCH\nAND THE TRAINING SCHOOL FOR PUBLIC SERVICE, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\n[Abstract]\n\nThe most complete index to opportunities for public service is furnished\nby the needs-not-yet-met in public schools. Had those familiar with\nschool needs been consulted by the private philanthropists who have given\naway an average of $120,000,000 a year for the last ten years, the history of\nphilanthropy, of education, and of government would have been quite\ndifferent. There is really nothing about a will-maker or donor, philanthropist or taxpayer that makes him prefer to give money to help i per cent\nrather than 100 per cent of the children of his city or to prefer correction\nto prevention, or deficient to normal children.\nIn only 4 of 142 cities whose local school needs that cannot now be\nmet by taxes were recently reported to the New York Bureau of Municipal\nResearch, have will-makers remembered the public -schools. Yet these\n142 cities mention buildings, equipment, and services beyond the present\nwillingness or power of taxpayers that would cost $3,000,000 plus the\nincome on $7,500,000 for maintenance.\nNeither school men nor communities have as yet generally begun to\nlist ways in which citizens can help the schools. Nobody has seriously\ntried to picture the possibilities of co-operation between philanthropy and\npublic schools on a national scale — excepting, of course, four notable\nservices still on too limited a scale : the child hygiene division of the Russell\nSage Foundation, the General Education Board's promotion of high schools\nin the South, the propaganda by the National Association for Promoting\nIndustrial Education, and the co-operative Efiicient Citizenship bulletins\nby the New York Bureau of Municipal Research.\nReturns from 142 city superintendents show:\n1. Superintendents when they stop to summarize find long lists of new buildings,\nnew equipment, and new services which they feel their general publics are not yet prepared to furnish but which their children sadly need.\n2. American school boards and taxpayers learn more readily from local demonstrations than from reported experience of other school systems; hence the need of private\ninitiative in demonstrating advantages or disadvantages of proposals.\n3. Many cities are suffering for want of school facilities which smaller and poorer\ncities are providing from taxes.\n4. Many school needs must be met at first by effort outside of schools rather than by\noutside gifts to schools.\n5. The best available index to help needed outside of schools is the list of needs disclosed within schools.\n6. Superintendents have not thus far generally thought of wills and private gifts as\npotential assets for public schools; in only 4 of the 142 cities they reported that will-makers\nremembered the public schools.\n7. Givers have thus far overlooked their opportunity to help, without hurting, thru\ngifts to and for public schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1368, "printed_page": null, "text": "1352\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nA SSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[School Patrons\n\n8. Private giving is apt to paralyze public responsibility unless private gifts are\nconfined to purposes \"not possible thru revenue obtained from ordinary channels.\"\n9. The school report's opportunity to show school needs so as to enlist private giving\nand public support has not yet been used.\n\nListing needs is the- first step in securing outside help. School men and\nphilanthropists, including taxpayers, will act upon one another's suggestions\nin proportion to the definiteness and continuity of the opportunities suggested byone to the other.\nWhen on May 17, 191 2, representatives of over 150 distinct New York\nCity agencies, private and semi-public, met in a conference on outside cooperation with public schools, everyone was surprised with the help that\nwas available to schools. No less than a million dollars a year is being\nspent annually by citizens of New York in co-operation with public schools.\nIt is felt that many times that amount is available if the school officials\nwill tell where help is most needed.\nIn the report by the Bureau of Municipal Research which led to the\nconference, it was shown that New York school documents had not heretofore shown opportunities or needs for civic co-operation. Whenever outside\nassistance is mentioned, suggestions have not been given as to how it might\nbe increased or made more available. Allied educational institutions have\nbeen mentioned, but openings for extended connections with schools have\nnot been outlined. Many agencies report lack of encouragement, difficulties encountered, in their efforts to co-operate, or undue delay in extending their co-operation. In the conference just mentioned, President\nWinthrop suggested that the board of education wished co-operation and\nwould be glad to make special eflFort to meet outside individuals and agencies\nmore than half way.\nAnother defect in most cities is that outside agencies wishing to work\nwith and for the schools have not co-ordinated their work. They are apt\nto duplicate and overlap. Organizations with the same problem are less\nforceful for want of co-operation. Seldom have agencies outlined either\nfor themselves or for the public 100 per cent of the work which ought to be\ndone along the lines in which they are interested.\nThe results of a comprehensive study by Miss Elsa Dennison, for the\nBureau of Municipal Research, on outside help for the schools, as described\nby 350 city superintendents and 700 men and women, are now in press and\nwill be available in book form next October. The book will be called Helping School Children. The division of school patrons can do little that would\nhelp so much as to interest local school superintendents in their interim\nand annual reports to stimulate and guide outside co-operation:\na) By giving adequate, specific credit and acknowledgment to all co-operating\nagencies\nb) By stating the number and character of communications received during the year\nfrom outside agencies and individuals by the school authorities\n\n"}
{"page": 1369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCIVIC\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n1353\n\nc) By explaining why important suggestions on which outside agencies may have\nspent time and money and public attention were found impracticable\nd) By frankly showing how outside agencies might change their mode of co-operation\nso that the schools might make more use of it\ne) By mentioning lists of definite school needs which might be met by outside interest\n/) By noting the approximate cost in time and money of such co-operation\ng) By using photographs and charts in school reports which will show types of school\nactivity fostered by outside agencies, or needed and not yet available in the schools\nA) By noting especially \"educational\" or \"pedagogical\" or other \"scientific\" questions respecting which the school authorities would like the advice of acknowledged\nexperts, such as college professors in psychology and school administration, dentists,\nphysicians, architects, etc.\ni) By reporting to principals, newspapers, and the public, especially thruout the\nsummer and early fall, and as they happen, new developments, gifts, and manifestations\nof outside co-operation given or lacking.\nWhile making social centers of schools will increase gifts to and for\nschools, a change in the attitude of givers, which will include school decorations, school grounds, scientific study of school problems, educational\nexperiments, etc., will multiply the reasons for making social centers of\nschool buildings.\nWhen school needs are listed, working thru schools will be recognized\nas more important than working apart from schools.\n\nCIVIC\nEDWARD\n\nAND\n\nJ. WARD,\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nWISCONSIN,\n\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\n\"Liar!\"\n\"Thief!\"\n\"Robber!\"\n\"T<5ot-toot!\"\nFrom the brawling and the rough-house of the party convention that\nmet in this city a month ago, we must not in disgust turn away. We must\nnot ignore it nor shut our eyes to its meaning. That kind of eruption upon\nthe political face of America is a symptom of disease underneath. This\nwild hoodlum noise is not peculiar to Republicans. It is just as common\namong Democrats.\nIt is the result of the disease of political partition.\nWhen men retain their citizenship, and look at public questions without\npartisan bias, then they keep their heads. When men become partisan,\nwhen they give over their prerogative of looking at every side of public\nquestions, then in their political activities they lose their heads.\nMen talk of a new alignment of parties, the present division having\nbecome meaningless, and it is suggested that the new line-up be Progressive\nversus Conservative. In a few years this means confusion, when the young\nmen who would be the progressives become old and conservative.\nOur problems are too complex to be solved by party division, they\ndemand conference. The time has come to effect the comprehensive\norganization of the citizenship, not into divisions which make us easy to\nboss, but into one body, to look out for the common interest.\n\nThe school-\n\n"}
{"page": 1370, "printed_page": null, "text": "1354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nhouse is the means by which we can get together, not only to vote upon\npublic questions, but by which we may gather to deliberate and to develop\ncapacity for controlling wisely the common business. The public school\nbuilding in every neighborhood in America stands inviting its use by the\ncitizens as a common touncil chamber, a place for the organization of the\nfinal legislative body, the ultimate Supreme Court, the single political\ndeliberative organization of the citizenship.\nWhen every schoolhouse is used by the adults of its neighborhood as a\npolitical headquarters, then every schoolhouse will come to be naturally\nand spontaneously a complete social center — a gathering-place not only\nfor the little children, as it is now a .nursery for the neighborhood, but a\ngathering-place for the young men and young women in training for citizenship and in such wholesome association as will promise wiser marriages\nhereafter, and so a gathering-place of the whole community, a heart and\nhearth of the neighborhood household spirit, a place wherein democracy\nmay find a stronghold and a home.\nThe first logical step is being taken in many cities in the location of the\npolling-place, the voting headquarters, in the schoolhouse. The next\nstep is the organization of the neighborhood body of the electorate which\nnow is bound together in each voting district by the responsibility for deciding public questions, into a single body for deliberation upon public questions.\nThis is no new proposition.\nAt the corner of the college campus at Ripon, Wis., stands a little\nframe schoolhouse. It does not look as old as it is, for when it was moved\nfrom its original location down town, it wa, carefully repaired and freshly\npainted.\nUpon the front of the building are these words :\nThe Birthplace of the Republican Party\nIN\n\nTHIS\nwas\n\nschoolhouse,\nheld\n\nIN THIS\n\nthe\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nPOSITIVELY\nPARTIES\n\nCUT\n\nAND\n\nUNDER\n\n20,\n\n1854,\n\nMASS-MEETING\n\nTHAT\n\nDEFINITELY\n\nAND\n\nLOOSE\n\nFROM\n\nOLD\n\nADVOCATED\nTHE\n\nMARCH\n\nFIRST\n\nNAME\n\nA\n\nTHE\nNEW\n\nPARTY\n\nREPUBLICAN\n\nStanding on its porch, Mrs. Silas Evans, wife of the president of Ripon\nCollege, said:\nMy husband has made \\^at I regard as a good suggestion. It is that there be\npainted under that legend the words:\n\n\"Ye must be bom again.\"\n\nIf one were to paraphrase the question of Nicodemus by asking, \" Shall\ncitizens of all parties gather again in schoolhouses as those Whigs, Free\nSoilers, Democrats, and miscellaneous others did that night, to discuss the\nproblems of our time and to form a new political party ?\" the answer would\nbe—.\n\n"}
{"page": 1371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCIVIC\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n1355\n\nOn the evening of November i, 1907, in the city of Rochester, N.Y.,\ntwelve men of various views, creeds, and incomes came together in the\nschoolhouse in their district, and inaugurated a movement, not to form a\nnew party, that is, to create another division of citizens; they did something\nmore important, they created for their community a new institution of\ndemocracy.\nThe members of every public body which has questions to decide and\nappointments to make — that is, of every public body except the highest —\nhave a building, maintained at public expense, in which to meet for deliberation and at public expense; they have provision for the all-sided presentation and discussion of the questions and appointments at issue before they\nrender their decisions. The national congressmen have the capitol and a\nstaff to look after dockets, records, etc. ; the legislators have the state house\nwith their secretarial functionaries; the aldermen or commissioners have\nthe city hall and the service of a clerk ; judges have a courthouse in which\nprovision is made at public expense for deliberation and discussion, before\ndecision is rendered.\nIn all these subordinate public bodies, the ballot box is never found\nalone. It is always accompanied, as a matter of course, by the forum.\nCongressmen, state legislators, aldermen have access to the newspapers and\nother private sources of information, but in order to render intelligent\ndecisions it is recognized that there must be publicly provided opportunity\nfor counsel together.\nOnly the citizenship, the highest authority in this country, is without\npublic provision for all-sided presentation and discussion of questions to be\ndecided and appointments to be made, and this in spite of the fact that,\nwhereas the delegated bodies are made up of men presumably selected for\nintelligence upon public matters, the citizenship includes all of us, and in\nspite of the fact that the strongest tendency today is to increase the number\nand importance of the questions which must be directly decided by the\ncitizenship.\nThese men who gathered in that Rochester schoolhouse that night\nwould have done nothing new if they had merely recognized the fundamental\nimportance of an intelligent citizenship in a democracy. Men were doing\nthat before Washington said, \"In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should\nbe enlightened.\" Nor would they have made any contribution to the\nAmerican problem if they had hopelessly said with President Taft that, having no adequate machinery for the formation of intelligent public opinion,\nthe citizenship is incompetent for judging upon the merits, and reviewing\nthe decisions of its creatures. Nor did they merely advocate the establishment of such deliberative machinery for the use of other people, as any\nconstructive political student or reformer might, quoting such words as\nthpse of John Stuart Mill:\n\n"}
{"page": 1372, "printed_page": null, "text": "1356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nWhere this School of Public Spirit does not exist, scarcely any sense is entertained\nthat private persons owe any duties to society except to obey and submit. There is no\nunselfish sentiment of identification with the public. Every thought and feeling, either\nof interest or of duty, is absorbed in the individual or in the family. The man never\nthinks of any collective interest, of any objects to be purchased jointly with others, but\nonly in competition with them and in some measure at their expense. A neighbor, not\nbeing an ally nor an associate, is therefore only a rival.\n\nThey there, for their own district, constructed such a machine of democracy, organized such a school of public spirit. They established alongside\nthe civic instrument of decision — the ballot box — and upon the same allinclusive public basis, the civic instrument of deliberation — the open\nforum.\nWhen aldermen, legislators, or other civic agents come together, they\nform an organization which includes them all, elect oflEicers, and establish\nrules of procedure.\nSo these men there formed an organization including as members the\ncitizenship of the community. They elected, as president, a well-to-do\nphysician, a conservative Republican elder in a Presbyterian church; as\nvice-president, a Jewish tailor, an avowed Socialist; as secretary, a union\nprinter; as treasurer (to handle money collected for banquets and other\nextra-civic affairs), a director in several banks in the city. There were,\nof course, no dues, for the members paid their dues when they paid their\ntaxes. They decided to meet weekly in the schoolhouse. As to programs,\nthe first part of each evening was to be devoted to an address upon some\nquestion of public interest, the remainder of the evening to the discussion\nof the topic in five-minutes speeches from the floor. As to limiting the\ndiscussion to politics, and barring religion, this suggestion was voted down,\nbecause it was felt that such prohibition would make religious discussion\nattractive, that, moreover, there were so many questions that can be\ndecided that there would be no time for those which cannot. They\ndecided to begin near home with the first topic. The commission plan\nof city government was suggested and this led to the question: \"What is\nan alderman for — the alderman of this ward, for instance?\" It was\ndecided to invite the alderman to come and speak on \"The Duties of an\nAlderman\" at the first meeting after organization.\nNow these men were not civic enthusiasts. They were just ordinary\ncitizens, with the usual degree of public interest. They were willing, indeed\nglad, to come to meetings and listen and talk, but they wouldn't have been\nany more willing to do the detail errand-boy work of publicity, securing\nspeakers, and arranging for the convenient use of the meeting-place, than\naldermen or legislators would be willing to take care of the clerical work of\ntheir assembling. These citizens had at their service a community secretary, otherwise called a social center director, whose salary was paid out\nof a public appropriation.\nAt the next meeting there were something over fifty men present.\n\n"}
{"page": 1373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeni]\n\nCIVIC\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n1357\n\nThe alderman told what he thought he was supposed to do. Then in fiveminutes speeches, those who had any ideas on the subject told what they\nthought about it, and at the close they gave the alderman a chance to answer\nquestions and sum up the discussion. Then they gave him a vote ot thanks.\nHis response was significant of the fact that not only the citizens themselves\nbut their servants need and welcome such comprehensive civic organization for political deliberation:\nYou have given me a vote of thanks. I want to give you a vote of thanks, and to\nsay that if every member of the common council and every other public servant had\nfrequently such opportunities as this, to come before the people whom he is supposed to\nrepresent and discuss with them the things in which he is supposed to represent them it\nwould mean that we would have a more intelligent city government.\n\nAt the next meeting the man who Was drafting the new city charter was\ninvited to come and talk it over. The attendance increased.\nThe next week a request came from the citizens in another part of the\ncity for the services of the civic secretary, and they asked to have their\nneighborhood public building, the schoolhouse, opened for use as a citizens'\ncommon council chamber.\nWithin another month came a similar request from a third district.\nBy the end of the year there were twelve schoolhouses being used as neighborhood centers of democratic deliberation, as public forums.\nWith the opening of the fall of 1908, the work of the community secretary (who was, of course, to blame if interesting programs were not\narranged) became easy. A presidential campaign was on and there was\nno difficulty in finding speakers and topics of live, immediate interest. The\nmerits of Taft and Bryan, the claims of the Socialists and the Prohibitionists\nwere presented, sometimes successive evenings being devoted to their\nrespective champions, sometimes the several conflicting arguments being\npresented together in debate. Candidates for various offices were invited\nto appear for a \"threefold purpose,\" as the successful aspirant for a local\noffice said:\nFirst, that the voters may see what sort of men we are who seek oflSce; second, that\nwe may tell what has been the history of our relation to the ward we seek to represent;\nthird, that we may tell what we mean to do if elected.\n\nDuring the second year sixteen schoolhouses came to be used by the\ncitizenship for the many-sided consideration of all sorts of matters of common interest and at the end of this season it was decided to invite Justice\n(then Governor) Hughes to speak at the anniversary banquet and celebration. A delegation visited him with an invitation. He responded that he\ncould not and would not visit the city at that time, whereupon the citizens\ndecided not to depend upon representation, but to give direct expression\nto their desire. A letter was drafted and signed by some fifteen hundred\nactive \"members\" of neighborhood clubs. Governor Hughes responded,\n\" I cannot bring myself to refuse an invitation of such an unusual character,\"\nand he came. He said it was the only time he was forced to break his word\n\n"}
{"page": 1374, "printed_page": null, "text": "1358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nwhile in office. His perception of the significance of this movement was\nexpressed in the words, \"I am more interested in what you are doing and\nwhat it stands for, than in anything else in the world. You are buttressing\nthe foundations of democracy.\"\nAmong the invited visitors and speakers before these citizenship\nassemblies in the schoolhouses was a senator from Wisconsin. There had\ndeveloped many other uses of the school buildings as community or social\ncenters. For instance, young people's clubs, modeled upon those of the\nadults, and called Coming Civic Clubs, had been formed (not of school\nchildren but of youths beyond school age and not yet twenty-one) ; some\nof the buildings had been equipped with gymnasium outfits and baths for\nuse in the evening; libraries and reading-room facilities had been installed,\nand some buildings opened six evenings each week and (upon the request of\nthe Ministers' Association) on Sunday afternoon; a public-lecture system,\nmodeled upon that developed under Dr. Leipziger in New York, but differing in the fact that the citizens had a voice in the selection of the topics, had\nbeen developed; a beginning had been made in the use of the schoolhouses\nas motion-picture theaters; thru co-operation with Dr. Goler a start had\nbeen made in the use of the schoolhouse as a local health office; a neighborhood dental office had been established in one building; a successful art\nexhibit had been arranged using the schoolhouse as an art gallery, and,\nindeed, the economy of focusing a dozen sorts of public service thru the wider\nuse of the schoolhouses has been demonstrated; but the basis of the institution was, in every case, the use of the building as a center for free all-sided\ndeliberation upon public questions, a community headquarters of a selfinforming, conscious democracy. This was, of course, the feature which attracted the attention of the Badger senator, who spoke of it in these words:\nThis continued civic expression is a miracle in New York state. It has no relation\nto its environment. It is manna which, in this political wilderness, tastes good and is\nundoubtedly nourishing, but I have doubt about its lasting. Now if this had appeared\nanywhere in the West, especially in Wisconsin, it would not be miraculous manna, it\nwould be a crop growing naturally out of the ground, and it would last. It fits in with\nthe Wisconsin idea.\n\nHe carried the news of Rochester's experience back to his home state.\nDean Louis E. Reber, of the Extension Division of the University of WJisconsin, the part which regards the state as the university campus and the\npopulation of the state as the university student body, at once recognized\nthat the use of each schoolhouse in the state as a local center of democratic\ndiscussion and of other community self-educational and self-serving\nactivities would facilitate the benefit of the university to its owners. He\nrecommended the establishment of a Bureau of Civic and Social Center\nDevelopment which would put at the service of the various communities\ninformation regarding successful methods of organization, equipment, etc.,\nin this movement \"for the citizens to get their money's worth out of their\nown property.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCIVIC\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n1359\n\nAt the next session of the state legislature a bill was introduced, not\nso much to force unwilling boards of education or superintendents to permit\nthe citizens to use their buildings during times when they would otherwise\nbe idle (school boards and superintendents are quick to recognize the\nimproved architecture, better equipment, and increased support for the\nregular school which always results from adult use of the schoolhouses), as\nto define the right of the organized electorate to the use of public property\nfor deliberation upon public questions at public expense on exactly the same\nbasis that provision is made for the decision of public questions by the\ncitizens at elections.\nAs soon as the fact was understood that this simply puts back of the\ncitizens' decision at the ballot box the opportunity for that discussion which\nsubordinate public bodies always have before they are required to decide\nany matter, it became a law in Wisconsin that the school board or other\ndepartment having charge of public property which is capable of being used\nas a public forum shall provide for free and gratuitous use of such property\nas often as once a week. This law permits school boards and other public\nbodies to provide at their discretion for recreational and wider educational\nactivities of various kinds, but it requires them to provide for public forums.\nAnother man who became interested in the social center idea as it was\ndeveloped in Rochester was Dr. W. D. P. Bliss, who, as a special investigator\nunder the Department of Commerce and Labor, visited that city and spoke\nat several of the centers. He told Mrs. David Kirk of Pittsburgh of the\nmovement. She had been a superintendent of schools and at once recognized the great undeveloped resources in this field. With the co-operation\nof Mrs. Francis Vandergrift of Pittsburgh, she offered to help finance a\nnational conference upon civic and social center development to be held\nat Madison under the auspices of the University Extension Division. The\noffer was accepted, a program was arranged for three days of last October,\nand a call issued.\nThe attendance at this meeting was beyond all expectations remarkable.\nIn the previous February there had been a conference upon the subject\nheld at Dallas, Tex., financed by Frank Holland, publisher of Farm and\nRanch, who had sought to have the University of Texas follow the example\nof the University of Wisconsin in establishing a Bureau of Social Center\nDevelopment, and, upon learning that the University of Texas, while\nindorsing the idea, was at the time without funds, had put into the field a\nremarkable civic organization promoter in the person of Charles W. Holman.\nIt was, therefore, known that the Southwest was familiar with the idea of\ncommunity organization and social center development, but it was not\nonly a matter of surprise, but a demonstration of the fact that the chief\nsocial currents are today not centrifugal but centripetal, that men and\nwomen came to this meeting at Madison from California and Washington,\nfrom South Carolina and Massachusetts, and nearly all the states between.\n\n"}
{"page": 1376, "printed_page": null, "text": "1360\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nThe whole subject of social center development in its various phases\nwas considered. Dean Walter T. Sumner put behind the demand that the\nschoolhouses be opened for wholesome recreation the challenge of the\nChicago Vice Commission's report; Herbert Quick and P. V. Collins urged\nsocial center development for rural communities as an absolute necessity for\nthe nation's health; John Collier, of the National Board of Censorship of\nMotion Pictures, said the failure to use the schoolhouse as a motion-picture\ntheater is the mark of unbelievable public stupidity; Mrs. M. F. Johnston\ntold of the remarkable development in Richmond, Ind., where the schoolhouse is a neighborhood art gallery and a center of democratic musical\nexpression; Charles McLenegan pointed out the economy of the use of the\nschoolhouse as a branch library and Drs. John R. Commons, and Charles\nMcCarthy told how this neighborhood librarian's desk might serve as a\nbranch employment office and legislative reference bureau; and Dr.\nGeorge B. Young, the new health officer of Chicago, pictured the use of\nthe schoolhouse as a local health office. Indeed, by this analysis was shown\nhow very many things are included in this institution of which Dr. Josiah\nStrong said, \"The social center represents all the people in all the things that\nare common to all.\"\nBut the great point of reiterated emphasis thruout the whole conference\nwas not the increased enjoyment or culture or health that shall come thru\ndeveloping these resources in the wider use of the schoolhouse as a community center; it was the obvious need and feasibility of making every\nschoolhouse in America a center of self-informing, self-expressing democracy.\nDoesn't the press meet the need ? Richard Lloyd Jones, formerly of\nColliers; William Allen White, of the Emporia Gazette; Frank Parker\nStockbridge, formerly of the Cincinnati Times Star; Livy S. Richard, of\nthe Boston Common; Louis F. Post, of the Public, and Dante Barton, of the\nKansas City Star, all at this meeting agreed that, great as is the service of\nthe press, it cannot furnish the elbow-rub and the hand-hold of democracy.\nAs one of them said:\nThe more I see of newspapers, the more I like the idea of the organization of the\nelectorate to use the schoolhouses for man-to-man, first-hand political discussion.\n\nA unique and dramatic incident illustrating the character of the social\ncenter as the common ground was given at the closing banquet of this\nconvention.\nBetween courses songs were sung. One of them began:\nThere are several parties in this community,\nRepublican and Democrat and Socialist, that's three;\nWe never got together just because we disagree.\nBut there's a place where all of us can talk things over free.\nIt's at the center,\nThe social center.\nThe place where everybody feels at home,\nForgets the external,\nBecomes fraternal,\nAnd knows the time for friendliness has come.\n\n"}
{"page": 1377, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCIVIC\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n1361\n\nAt the end of this verse, the music was stopped and the spotlight was\nthrown upon the speakers' table. There, sitting side by side, just as tho\nthey had something in common, were J. W. Howes, Republican mayor of\nPrescott, Joseph Schubert, Democratic mayor of Madison, and Emil\nSeidel, Socialist mayor of Milwaukee. And indeed they showed that they\nhad much in common when, in response to the toast, \"Who Needs the\nSocial Center Most? The Mayor!\" each expressed the benefit that the\npublic official may derive from the opportunity to meet the organized\nelectorate in frequent conference assembled.\nBut the great sure prophecy of the national sweep of this movement\ncame in the indorsement of Senators Pomerane, of Ohio, and Clapp, of\nMinnesota, of President Herbert Bigelow, of the Ohio Constitutional Convention, ofGovernors Stubbs, of Kansas, and McGovern, of Wisconsin, and\nespecially in the address of Governor Wilson, of New Jersey, who expressed\nthe common thought of all these men when he said :\nIt seems to me what is going to be produced by this movement — ^not all at once, by\nslow and tedious stages, no doubt, but nevertheless very certainly in the end — is, in the first\nplace, a release of common forces now undiscovered, now somewhere banked up and now\nsomewhere unavailable, the removal of barriers to the common understanding, the op>ening of mind to mind, the clarification of the air, and the release in that clarified air of\nforces that can live in it; and just so certainly as you release those forces you make\neasier the fundamental problem of modern society, which is the problem of accommodating the various interests in modern society to one another.\n\nA year ago the National Education Association, at its annual convention at San Francisco, passed unanimously a resolution indorsing the idea\nthat the schoolhouses should be equipped, manned, and opened as community centers. At the recent meeting of the Department of Superintendence at St. Louis, the enthusiastic indorsement of this movement by these\nmen was shown in the fact that the topic \"The Schoolhouse as the Civic\nand Social Center of the Community\" was placed on the program of the\ncentral session of the convention. This approval of school men is significant, for they are a conservative body, and if the demonstrations made in\nthe hundred cities and towns in which the social center movement has\nbegun had not shown that the plan works out as well as it sounds, it\nwould have to go ahead without their co-operation.\nThe hardest jolt that we Americans have recently received reminding\nus that there are problems which must be solved either by brains or bombs,\ndebate or dynamite, was the Los Angeles uncovering.\nEverywhere citizens are beginning to feel the need of a civic common\nground. But in Los Angeles they see it plainly. Joseph Scott was a\nmember of the counsel in the McNamara case. Soon after the confession,\nin an address at a great meeting in the auditorium, he pointed out that the\nproblem of industrial control is the problem of this century, than which\nthere is only one greater; and this greater problem is whether, in the solution of the economic question, we shall preserve our basic sense of civic\n\n"}
{"page": 1378, "printed_page": null, "text": "1362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nunity, our fundamental common good will. \"And,\" said he, \"the right\nsolution of this greater problen lies chiefly in our common use of this community institution — the schoolhouse.\"\nThere are two bright spots in the story of the Los Angeles excitement :\none was the satisfactory demonstration that the schoolhouse may well and\neconomically be used as a polling-place; the other was the demonstration of\nwhat has been found and is being found in other places, that even such an\ninteresting meeting as that between \"Good Government\" and Socialist\nchampions becomes surprisingly human and fair when it is held under the\nauspices of a community organization of the whole citizenship in a common\nschoolhouse.\nThe experience of various communities thruout the country bears out\nthe statement of Professor George M. Forbes, president of the Rochester\nBoard of Education: \"It means that our school buildings, consecrated to\neducation, may become the instrument of that deepest and most fundamental education upon which the very existence of democracy depends, as\nheadquarters for an organization in which every narrower interest of sect\nor party or class is swallowed up in the consciousness that the interests of\nthe whole community are supreme.\"\nDISCUSSION\nHelen M. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers, Chicago, III. — One of the\naims of the Department of School Patrons is to secure more revenue for the public\nschools. The subject of school revenue is usually considered too dry to call forth an\naudience. But we intend to keep working upon this subject until we arouse a general\ninterest.\nLuther Halsey Gulick, director of the Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage\nFoundation, New York, N.Y. — ^The co-operation of the community with the school is\neven more complex than Mr. Allen's brilUancy would make it appear. Voluntary agencies\nsometimes are meddlesome and take up much time in seeking the introduction of fads.\nIt is the business of the city to put the best man to be found in authority and it is also\nthe business of the city to back this man up. Voluntary agencies do not represent expert\nknowledge, and on technical questions volunteer bodies should be very humble. I can\nname schools greatly hindered by so-called \"helpful\" agencies. These bodies have their\nplace in representing pubUc opinion, and those in authority cannot afford to isolate\nthemselves from the public. I know of an educator who does not care what the public\nthinks. He says that he is concerned with the \"education of the child.\" He illustrates\nthe idea some teachers have of teaching as isolated from the interests of the pubhc.\nMrs. O. Shepard Barnum, principal of Cumnock School, Los Angeles, Cal. — One of\nthe reasons why the Department of School Patrons was welcomed in the National Education Association was to meet this problem. It is the effort of the department to guide\nvolunteer work so that interfering, spasmodic efforts shall not reach the schools. This\npurpose is printed on the back of our program and is as follows:\nThe purpose of the Patrons' Department is to ascertain yearly from educational\nauthorities the greatest needs of the schools and the best methods of meeting them; to\ntransmit this professional guidance systematically to strong volunteer organizations in\n\n"}
{"page": 1379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCiVIC\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nCENTER\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n1363\n\nevery state and city; thus to unify and stimulate co-op>erative work, until every school\nreceives the active, sympathetic support of every community.\nWe wish to find out what the school people want. We wish, always, to co-operate,\nand never to criticize.\nEdward J. Ward, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. — Dr. Gulick talked\n\"mighty good stuff\" when he spoke of interference. We are too paternalistic. We must\nbe democratic. At present very few school principals serve as election clerks. This should\nbe changed and we should shift the voting center into the schoolhouse. The money saved\nby such a plan would put social experts at the service of each neighborhood.\nWilliam H. Allen, director of Bureau of Municipal Research, New York, N.Y. —\nNothing is quite so undemocratic as being loved by people who do not understand you.\nWe can't get democracy on that basis. It is a mistake to think we should not accept\ngifts for good work. We can spiritualize money, put it to interest and affect 500,000\nchildren. Who is to say I am not to do this ? If Mr. Ward thinks he can get a democracy\nin this country which will not let Mrs. Sage contribute money to alleviate millions of\nchildren, he is mistaken in regard to his idea of democracy, in regard to neighborliness.\nYou can't have democracy where you do not have information. The only democracy is\none of knowledge.\nMoney will produce the facts. Money will circulate the facts.\nAzile B. Reynolds, principal of Armstrong School, Chicago, 111. — 'In closing the\ndiscussion on a subject presented by men and women of national and city-wide experience,\nanything I can say will be of value only because of the more intimate view that a\nneighborhood experience can give.\nIf civic education is the adjustment of all social relationships, let us consider a\nneighborhood center that shows the constructive power of philanthropy, which finances\na school center, and proves its value as a department of education; that redevelops\nneighborliness in a community where homes have been isolated by the encroachment\nof city evils: factories, hotels, and vicious resorts; that brings all members of a family\ntogether engaged in the same social recreation; that causes sixteen nationalities to work\ntogether for one end and that the common good; that induces a politician and a saloonkeeper to forget loss of power and money brought about in the interests of a center and\nwork for the growth of that center; that draws together in its development the rich and\nthe poor, the great and the small, the voter and the office-holder, the Catholic, the Jew,\nand the Protestant, the social leader and the social outcast; that awakens the initiative in\nneighborhood improvement and stimulates the members of other communities to organize\nfor neighborhood education and expression — surely such a center has been a factor in\ncivic education typical of the sort needed thruout any democracy.\nThe greatest of all material gifts is promised to the meek. Does that mean that\nwhen we have come together, argued out our differences, fought out our fights, laid aside\nthe arrogance of power, and so realized our brotherhood and common heritage that we\ncan live in harmony, we \"shall inherit the earth and the fullness thereof\"? If it does, and\nI believe it does, then even a neighborhood experience may point the way to our inheritance.\n\n"}
{"page": 1380, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1381, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n(OFFICERS\nPresident — Benjamin M. Davis, professor, Miami University\nVice-President — Cyril A. Stebbins, University of California\nSecretary— Ersest E. Balcomb, State Normal and Industrial College\n\nFIRST SESSION — Monday\n\nOxford, Ohio\nBerkeley, Cal.\nGreensboro, N.C.\n\nForenoon, July 8, 191 2\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 : 30 a.m. in the Banquet Room of the Auditorium\nHotel, Chicago, 111., by President Davis.\nThe minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.\nThe president announced that at a called meeting of the department in St. Louis\nat the Planters Hotel, in February, during the meeting of the Department of Superintendence, itwas decided that it would be to the advantage of the Department of Rural\nand Agricultural Education to hold a midyear meeting in connection with the Department\nof Superintendence. At this meeting, a motion was made and carried that the president\nof the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education be instructed to appear before\nthe Board of Directors of the National Education Association and request that arrangements be made permitting a meeting of this department at the midyear meeting of the\nDepartment of Superintendence.\nPhilander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.,\nbeing absent, E. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of public instruction, Topeka, Kans.,\npresented a paper on \"The Plans of the Special Committee of the National Education\nAssociation on Rural Education.\"\nThis paper was followed by an address on \"The Betterment of Rural Schools thru\nAgriculture: the Ohio Plan,\" by F. W. Miller, state commissioner of education, Columbus,\nOhio.\nJames E. Delzell, state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Nebr., then\ngave an address entitled \"The Betterment of Rural Schools thru Boys' and Girls' Clubs:\nthe Nebraska Plan.\"\nA paper on \"The Work of the National Committee on Agricultural Education\" was\nthen read by the chairman of the committee, Homer H. Seerley, president of Iowa State\nTeachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nThis was followed by a short address by S. B. McCready, Ontario Agricultural\nCollege, Guelph, Canada.\n\"The Work of the United'States Bureau of Education\" was then presented by\nPhilander P. Claxton, commissioner of education for the United States.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July ir, 191 2\n\nJoint session with the American Nature-Study Society and the School Garden\nAssociation of America.\nGenial Topic: \"School Gardens and\n1365 ;\\gricultural Experiment Plots for Rural\nSchools.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1382, "printed_page": null, "text": "1366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Banquet Room, ninth floor, of\nAuditorium Hotel, Chicago, 111.\nIn the absence of the president of the department, Elliot R. Downing, School of\nEducation, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., presided.\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\nN.C.\n\nFor President — Ernest E. Balcomb, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro,\n\nFor Vice-President — F. W. Howe, professor, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — E. C. Bishop, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.\nThe report was adopted and the nominees elected.\nIt was moved and carried that the Committee on Course of Stixiy in AgrictJture be\ncontinued indefinitely.\n*\nVan Evrie Kilpatrick, president of the School Garden Association of America, New\nYork, N.Y., then presented a paper on \"Rural School Gardens Differentiated from City\nSchool Gardens.\"\nA paper on \"Progress of Agricultural Education in Ontario, Canada\" was then\ngiven by S. B. McCready, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Canada.\nThis was followed by an address by Elliot R. Downing, School of Education, University ofChicago, Chicago, III., on \"The Home Garden and Experimental Plots.\"\nE. R. Jackson, United States Forest Service, Washington, D.C., then read a paper on\n\"Forestry and the Public Schools.\"\nAfter a general discussion, the meeting adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION, ROUND\n\nTABLE— Thursday Afternoon, July ii, 1912\n\nThe department met in round-table conference in Recital Hall, Auditorium Hotel,\nChicago, 111., at 2:30 p.m.\nE. C. Bishop, schools section. Extension Department, Iowa State College, Ames,\nIowa, presented the \"Report of the Committee on Courses of Study in Agriculture.\"\nThose taking part in the general discussion which followed this report were: EUiot\nR. Downing, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. ; C. H. Robison, head of the Department of Geography and Nature-Study, State Normal School, Upper Montclair, N.J.;\nS. B. McCready, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Canada; B. C. Moore, superintendent ofMcLean County Schools, Bloomington, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nE. E. Balcomb, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTHE BETTERMENT\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF RURAL SCHOOLS THRU\nCULTURE: THE OHIO PLAN\n\nF. W. MILLER, STATE COMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nAGRI-\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO\n\nIn the year 1903 it was the privilege of the writer of this paper to\nmake a trip thru the rural sections of Germany. Instead of following the\nbeaten tracks of travel usually followed by tourists he went into regions\nin which the face of a foreigner was rarely seen. Instead of traveling by\nexpress train he traveled by stage coach, carriage, and often walked from\nvillage to village talking with the people who were at work in the fields,\nwith the shepherd, the swine-herder, the goose-herder, the forester, the\n\n"}
{"page": 1383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBETTERMENT\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTHRU\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1367\n\nmail-carrier, or any wayfarer whom he might chance to meet. He found\nthe people hospitable and as eager to learn from him as he was to learn\nfrom them. He slept in their homes, ate at their tables, helped to feed their\ncattle, and even worked with them in the fields.\nTheir homes were not elaborate but comfortable. Their food was\nsimple but wholesome. Their clothing was not made of broadcloth but\nkept their bodies warm, and they seemed to be a contented people. Their\nfields produced large crops, but having small farms, they were of necessity\neconomical. It did not require a keen observer to see that the condition\nof those farmers was greatly improved over what it had been thirty years\nbefore. This great change in the condition of a whole class of people must\nbe due to some fundamental cause. In reply to the question, \"How do\nyou account for your improved condition over what it was thirty years\nago?\" the same reply came from everyone to whom the question was put:\n\"An intelligent use of artificial fertilizers and better farming. By better\nfarming we have increased the productions of our fields by one-third and it\nis this extra one-third which we now get that makes us better off than we\nwere thirty years ago.\" Such an experience with the German husbandmen\ncould not fail to leave any but a deep and lasting impression.\nThe question naturally arose: If better farming improved the condition\nof the farmers in Germany why cannot the same thing be true in Ohio ?\nFor a. change of this kind the first place to which we look is to the schools.\nWhen I was elected school commissioner the thought which was uppermost\nin my mind was: Is not the introduction of the teaching of agriculture\ninto the public schools the best service I can render to the state? In\nscattered places the subject had been taught but it still lacked general\napplication. To ascertain what the farmers themselves desired in this\nmatter a small article appeared in one of our agricultural papers asking\nthe farmers to send in their replies to the questions:\n1. Do you wish to have the subject of agriculture taught in the public schools?\n2. Do you wish it to be taught only in agricultural high schools?\n3. Do you wish it taught as a part of the course in your regular high schools and\nelementary schools ?\n\nOver one hundred replies were received and they were practically unanimous in asking it to be taught in their own schools near home.\nThe one man in the legislature more interested than any other in this\neducational problem was Senator Cahill. In response to the general request\nof the farmers of Ohio and acting upon information thus acquired, there\nwas drawn what became known as the Cahill bill, but this bill was destined\nto become a law only after a hard struggle. The opposition used and\nexhausted all of its resources but Senator Cahill, inspired by a feeling that\nhe was right, put his whole soul and energy into his bill. After one of the\nmost spectacular fights witnessed in the Ohio legislature for years the Cahill\nbill on March 11, 191 1, was enacted into the Cahill law.\n\n"}
{"page": 1384, "printed_page": null, "text": "1368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntAgricultural\n\nThis law makes it mandatory that the subject of agriculture be taught\nin every high school and elementary school of the rural and village districts\nin the state. In order that the law might not become a dead letter, provision was made for four supervisors of agriculture whose duty it is to assist\nthe teachers and boards of education to formidate their courses in agriculture and keep them in touch with the latest and best thought and\naccomplishments along agricultural lines. The state is di\\dded into four\ndistricts, each district being in charge of one of these supervisors of agriculture. These supervisors are appointed by the state commissioner of\ncommon schools, who is made by this law the state superintendent of agricultural education. In addition to assisting the teachers and boards of\neducation in arranging their courses of study their duty is to visit the\nschools, address teachers' institutes, teachers' meetings, farmers' institutes,\nand farmers' meetings, visit school exhibits, county fairs, and whatever and\nwherever they can be of service to the interest of teaching agriculture and\nto the uplift of the social conditions of the people in the country. Thru\nthese supervisors of agriculture the school commissioner is brought into\ncloser touch with the entire school system than ever before was possible.\nAfter one year's experience their influence and the influence of teaching\nagriculture is strongly felt.\nIn the past the country school had little in common with the life of the\ncommunity. Our rural schools have largely been imitations of the city\nschools, instead of having a distinctive character of their own. The pupils\nin the country schools have been taught not country life, but city life. The\nideals which have been held up before them were taken, not from the\ncountry, but from the city. Under such a system of teaching, nothing\ncould be more natural than that, as our boys and girls of the country grow\nup to be young men and young women, they will turn toward the city, where\nthey hope to realize those ideals which they have been so faithfully taught\nduring their childhood days.\nPrior to the enactment of the Cahill law agriculture in our rural schools\nwas taught in isolated places where there was a teacher or superintendent\nwho taught the subject by his own initiative or by the special request of his\nboard of education. When it was learned that agriculture was to be taught\nin all of the rural and village schools many superintendents and teachers\nhad their misgivings. They felt that they were unprepared for this new\nsubject. But the teachers who had their heart in the work were equal to\nthe occasion. They studied first with the sense of duty but they soon\nstudied because they were interested. The supervisors of agriculture\nlabored hard to render every assistance to the teachers and boards of\neducation. They addressed teachers' institutes, teachers' meetings, farmers'\ninstitutes, agricultural societies, and schools, planning and helping wherever\nthey could.\nSchool had not been in session very long last September before it became\n\n"}
{"page": 1385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] BETT^MENT\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTHRU\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n1369\n\nevident to the teachers who were trying to teach the subject well that more\ninterest was being taken by the boys and girls in the subject of agriculture\nthan in any other subject taught in the school. The children soon manifested alove for doing things and many ingenious devices were thought\nout which added to the interest already taken. Boys who cared little for\nbooks and less for school, but who knew about toads and bugs, trees and\nother growing plants, the brooks, the forests, and the domestic animals of\nthe farm, found a new interest in the subject of agriculture which brought\nto them a new interest in the school.\nMy attention was called to a number of interesting incidents during\nthe past winter. Boys and girls as they returned to the school in the morning reported to their teachers that they were not prepared in their lesson\nin agriculture. On being asked why, the answer was, \"Father used my\nbook and would not let me have it to study my lesson.\" Those fathers\nprobably like many other men had thought that school agriculture, like\nmany of the problems in our arithmetics, was some theoretical and impractical thing which had no practical application. But when they found that\nit told of the work in which they were engaged and offered suggestions\nwhich they recognized as practical, but which they had not known before,\nthey became interested. The interest in the subject of agriculture stimulates in those fathers a new interest in their schools.\nSome of the objections raised against the Cahill bill were that many\nof our rural teachers are women and hence cannot teach agriculture, that\nsome of them came from the cities and know nothing about the farm and\nfarm life, and that the beginners knew nothing about teaching agriculture.\nThere is a young lady whose name I was requested not to mention and hence\nshall call her Miss Blank, who graduated from a city high school in the\nspring of 191 1 . She procured a position to teach in the country. Knowing\nthat the subject of agriculture was to be taught she applied herself diligently\nto that study.\nAfter school had been in session for about three weeks she took her class\nto a neighbor to see his dairy, which was reputed to be one of the best in\nthe county. The man, who happened to be a member of her board of education, met her at the gate saying, \"Well, you are going to show us old hayseeds how to farm, are you ? \"\nShe replied, \"I expect to teach your boys and girls at least a few things\nthat are worth knowing.\"\nAgain he asked, \" Can you tell the age of a horse ? \"\n\"Yes sir, I can.\"\n\"I would like to see you do it.\"\n\"All right, where are your horses?\"\nShe surprised him with the readiness with which she could tell the age\nof a horse. Then turning toward the farmer's fourteen-year-old son Miss\nBlank asked, \" Can Will tell the age'oflajhorse ? \"\n\n"}
{"page": 1386, "printed_page": null, "text": "I370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION g\n\n[Agricultural\n\n\"No ma'am, I have never shown him.\"\n\"Here, Will, let me show you.\"\nIt took but a short time until Will said he understood. As they walked\nout toward the dairy Miss Blank said, \" I see you have a good stand of clover\nin your west field, but why don't you raise clover on that knoll in the north\nend?\"\nHe replied, \"Clover will not grow there.\"\nAgain Miss Blank asked, \"Have you ever tried it?\"\n\"Now see here, don't give me any of that book agriculture; I have\nbeen li\\dng on this farm for twenty-one years and I know no clover can be\nmade to grow on that knoll.\"\nThere was no use to argue the matter but as they went thru the clover\nfield on their way back to the schoolhouse, Miss Blank asked every one of\nher pupils to take with them a handful of dirt from the knoll. Blue litmus\npaper was applied and turned red. The children understood that this\nindicated an acid condition of the soil, that clover does not thrive in an\nacid soil, and that lime overcomes the eflfect of the acid.\nThat evening Miss Blank purchased five cents' worth of lime, some\npotash, and clover seed. The next morning she asked the children to join\nher in a secret, to which they agreed. Armed with their spades, hoes, and\nrakes the entire school proceeded to the knoll and soon a barren spot of\nground on that knoll had been worked fine, limed, fertilized, and sown in\nclover. Being in the fall of the year and fearing an early approach of cold\nweather, they watered the spot every other day with warm water. In two\nweeks the bed was green. Will was told to go home and bring his father.\nWill ran all the way and urged his father to come to the clover field quick\nwithout telling him why. Thinking something was wrong, he hastened, and\nthere on the knoll stood Miss Blank with the children, by the side of the\nbed of green which the farmer recognized as young clover, and this upon\nthe knoll which for twenty-one years refused to grow clover, but which\nresponded to school agriculture as if by magic touch, the school agriculture\ntaught by a young lady from the city.\nTen days later this farmer, who, you recall, was a member of the township board of education, asked Miss Blank not to look for another school next\nyear. In January while addressing the board of education he said that. he\nwas ready to vote ten dollars more per month for every teacher in the township who was doing wort like that done by Miss Blank.\nWhat the influence of the school agriculture taught by Miss Blank has\nbeen, my good friends, I will leave to you to judge. She who wills, will,\nbut she who wills not, cannot.\nThe agricultural exhibits and contests of the schools bring men and women into schoolhouses where they have not been since their childhood days.\nThe fact that men and women are brought within the four walls of the\nschoolhouse by means of these exhibits will create within some of them at\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] BETTERMENT\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTHRU\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n137 1\n\nleast a new school spirit and new school sentiment. Life in the country\nis too solitary. New movements can be started only by getting the people\ntogether. The germs of new educational movements are given birth at\nthese meetings. Here are given the opportunities for friend to meet friend\nand neighbor to meet neighbor to exchange a few words of friendly greeting\nand to discuss what they can see at the exhibit. The farm papers that are\non display are picked up by the visitors and soon you see some farmer\nglancing over one of these papers, when suddenly his hands become quiet\nand his eyes become fixed upon some spot on that paper. He has found\nsomething in which he has become interested and before he parts with\nthat paper he jots down the name and address and becomes a subscriber.\nAnother picks up a book on agriculture. At first he thumbs the leaves but\nsoon his thumb ceases in its operations and he is reading. That book soon\nfinds a place in his home.\nThat exhibit becomes a common topic of conversation and the thoughts\nof many people are directed toward their school. Parents begin to read\nmore extensively and take more interest in, education. This means better\nschools, for, just as a speaker is inspired by an interested and attentive\naudience, so a teacher is inspired by an interested community.\nIn the past the time used in arithmetic has been spent upon problems\nwhich have little bearing upon farm business. A farmer sells a load of hay\nat $17 . 50 a ton. On his return home he hands the weight bill to his son and\nasks him to compute what this load of hay is worth. The son must admit\nthat he cannot do it. Can you blame that farmer for being disgusted and\nlacking appreciation for the school?\nOn the other hand, what would be the contrast if his son had been\ntaught the principles of farm business and farm problems ? He could then\nbe his father's helper and counselor in transacting business. The advantages of an education have not been so plainly visible in the country as they\nhave been in the city, but when the teaching of our rural schools is such as\nto teach farm business and farm work, the value of an education will become\nmanifest to the farmer, who will show his appreciation and gratitude by\nloosening his purse strings.\nWhen it is discovered that practical subjects are taught and that the\nschool prepares for life-work, school in general becomes more popular with\nthe public. The study of the subject in the past in foreign countries has\nresulted in increased yields and permits better living. This improved condition of life will soon be reflected by improved schools. The habit of\ntruancy will become less as a result of increased interest on the part of the\npupils and a better co-operation on the part of the parents. That boys\nand girls take more interest in farm work and farm life after studying agriculture in the public schools has been clearly demonstrated by Mr. Ivins,\nat present one of the supervisors ot agriculture, who in the fall of 1906 was\ncalled by the board of education ot Turtlecreek Township in Warren County\n\n"}
{"page": 1388, "printed_page": null, "text": "1372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nto introduce that subject. At the beginning of his term he asked all pupils\nwho intended to remain on the farm to raise their hands. Only 15 per cent\nof the pupils of the township indicated their intentions to remain on the\nfarm. After the subject was taught for four years, the same question was\nasked and 85 per cent indicated their intentions to remain on the farm.\nIn those same schools during these four years the average daily attendance\non monthly enrollment rose from 75 per cent to 96 per cent.\nWhen contentment arises on the farm, people will become more interested in their own institutions. They will care more for their schools, which\nthey will regard as the hen which lays the golden egg. Better school buildings will be constructed and consolidation will be encouraged in order that\nthe pupils may have the use of better apparatus and have access to better\nand larger libraries. Arbor Day was better observed this spring than ever\nbefore in the history of the state and hundreds of shade trees have been\nplanted upon school grounds where trees had never been planted before.\nMany lawns and yards have been beautified as a result of this educational\nmovement in the schools.\nThe secretary of agriculture of Ohio has been of great assistance to us\nin promoting this work. We have secured the co-operation of the National\nAssociation of Audubon Societies for assistance in promoting the study of\nbirds. Our work has encouraged the experiment stations and the national\ndepartment of agriculture to co-operate with us by issuing bulletins for the\nespecial use of teachers and pupils. As a result they have been brought\ninto closer relations with the patrons of the schools.\nThe time was when it was said, if you can do nothing else you can farm.\nThe teaching of agriculture has disclosed the fact that to be a successful\nfarmer there is required executive ability, business acumen, and wide range\nof knowledge, a range of knowledge wider than that required by the merchant, the lawyer, or the doctor. The successful farmer must understand\nthe feeding and care of all of his domestic animals, dairying, horticulture,\nthe nature and care of his soil, the condition of crops over the entire\ncountry, and other subjects almost without number. By putting intelligence into farming, farming is becoming dignified. As this is becoming\nrecognized by the people of the city their attitude toward country people\nis fast changing. The country boy need no longer be ashamed to admit\nto his city cousins that he is from the country. Such expressions as\n\"Rube\" and \"clodhopper\" wiU soon be relegated to the past and become\nobsolete. With this uplift of the social status of the country people they\nwiU have a greater social self-respect and greater respect for their own\ninstitutions, including the schools.\nIt is not the desire of the school men of Ohio to have only agriculture\ntaught in the rural schools, neither do they wish agriculture in the schools\nto run to seed altho it is their desire that the spirit of the farm permeate\nthe rural school system. Agriculture is entitled to its rightful place and\n\n"}
{"page": 1389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nBETTERMENT\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTHRU\n\nCLUBS\n\n1373\n\nptnrtiqii;<rfjtilBe in our school curriculum. It should be taught together with\nthe'Sthe'D subjects so as to develop the highest type of citizenship. Each\nsubject should be given its proper share of time so that our educational\nsystem will be in a state of equilibrium.\nIn this progressiKfi. movement it has very naturally followed that the\nteacher has not bedik taaiqed before the creation of the needs of the community and the derakKfls for his labor. Methods in education will always\nconform to the contemporary demands of the age. This has never been\ndemonstrated with greater clearness or force than in the manner by which\nteachers have cheerfully conformed to the requirements and adapted themselves to the new situation. To the ready and willing support of thousands\nof teachers in Ohio is due greatest credit for the remarkable \"Success of this\nundertaking.\nTHE BETTERMENT OF RURAL SCHOOLS THRU BOYS' AND\nGIRLS' CLUBS: THE NEBRASKA PLAN\nJAMES E. DELZELL,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nLINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nOF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nThe idea of establishing boys' and girls' contest clubs was conceived\nby our former worthy state superintendent, E. C. Bishop, now superintendent of agricultural extension in schools in the Iowa State College,\nAmes, while he was deputy under State Superintendent J. L. McBrien.\nThis plan invested in the state department of public instruction the central\npower, made county superintendents the co-operating generals, city, town,\nand rural teachers the under-ofl5cers, and the pupils the \"infantry.\"\nWith this vast and well-disciplined army of co-workers, the children\nof the entire state were united in a definite line of vocational work.\nAgriculture and domestic science were prominent themes. Corn contests,\npotato contests, cooking and sewing contests, school garden and home\ngarden clubs were organized for the boys and girls. This work was further\npromoted by monthly bulletins sent out by the state department of public\ninstruction, and a card system record was kept in this oflSce of the work\ndone by the individual pupils.\nThe work was so planned that the boys and girls entered into the\nscheme and ideas with really more zeal than into the ordinary school\nsports.\nIt would seem at first that the \"Nebraska plan\" would detract from\nthe regular school work. However, it was soon discovered that Superintendent Bishop had hit upon a practical plan which not only added to\nthe financial side of the boys' and girls' lives but also gave the boys and\ngirls of the rural districts a \"vision\" of the real meaning of life. It taught\nthem that in becoming good farmers and good homekeepers, there was more\nin life than drudgery, and that their school work prepared them to see that\n\"vision\" of life.\n\n"}
{"page": 1390, "printed_page": null, "text": "1374\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n■\n\nlAgrkultural\n\nWhen Superintendent Crabtree entered upon his duties as state superintendent, he followed in part the \"Nebraska plan,\" but gave the State\nAgricultural School a wider range of control. When I took up the work\nof this department, I placed the entire management of the boys' and girls'\nclubs in the hands of the State Agricultural School. The work is now\ncarried on the same as formerly, with the exception that the clubs are in\nactive touch with the State Agricultural School. This gives the boys and\ngirls an incentive to become actively engaged in a scientific course of home\nand farm work. With this in view, the pupils in the rural schools are\nmore earnest in their work, our rural teachers are better prepared than\nbefore, our schools are more like workshops, and the \"completed products\"\nare demonstrations of the facts.\nThe following report made by Assistant State Superintendent Anna V.\nDay, upon her return from visiting the Keith County rural schools, will\nsuffice to show some of the benefits of domestic science clubs in the rural\nschools:\nThe schools of Keith County are making a point of serving hot lunches at noon to\nthe children, instead of the unappetizing cold lunch of time-honored custom. The first\nschool visited was District No. 5, about five miles from Ogalalla. Here Mrs. Rosengrant\nhas five pupils in attendance. While they study their arithmetic lessons, she does the\nsimple cooking necessary. On this particular day they knew that company was coming\nand the menu was a little more elaborate than usual — boiled loin of pork, macaroni, and\npotatoes baked in the ashes. These, with the bread and butter, and the fruit provided\nby Mrs. Richmond (the county superintendent) furnished a meal good enough for anyone,\nand those who were fortunate enough to be present did it ample justice. Mrs. Rosengrant\nbegan this work because she felt that some of her pupils were not getting sufficient nourishing food at the noon meal, so teacher and pupils now talk over from day to day what\nthey will have, and each one furnishes that which is most convenient. So satisfactory\nhave been the results of this plan that the members of the board are considering furnishing\nthe supplies for these lunches theiJiselves next year. Usually only one hot dish is provided.\nSome of the neighboring districts are taking up the work. It seems destined to become a\npermanent feature of the rural school program, as well as of many city schools.\n\nThese clubs will, within a decade, have so changed the ideals of farm\nlife in Nebraska that the boys and girls will hail with delight the time when\nthe preparatory stage of school life is over and a nice farm and farm home\nis the reward for the preparation made under the \"club\" movement in\nNebraska. We shall then have better schools, more happy farm homes,\nand the ideals of farm life will be of such high standard that Nebraska\nwill rise up and call Professor E. C. Bishop \"a man who was worth while.\"\nNebraska today envies Iowa's opportunity of having a man with vision\nso clear that she will have a chance to outshine us; but we have one consolation, and that is, that the seed sown in Nebraska has taken deep' root\nand we are now in the race to keep our schools to the front.\nThe Nebraska plan for boys' and girls' club work is doing much toward\nmaking the rural school a social center. It aims to make the school represent, as it should, all the ideals of beauty, culture, refinement, and goodness\nof the commimity.\n\n"}
{"page": 1391, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nTHE TURAL\nNATIONAL\nCOMMITTEE\nEDUCATION\n\nHOMER\n\nH. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT OF IOWA STATE TEACHERS\nFALLS, IOWA, CHAIRMAN\n\n1375\n\nON AGRICUL-'\nCOLLEGE, CEDAR\n\nOrganization. — Seven years ago the National Committee on Agricultural Education was organized at Chicago for the main purpose of promoting\nthe cause of the education and training of teachers in agriculture for the\npublic schools. This committee was organized with twelve members\nselected from the different parts of the country and was authorized to give\nits attention to the publicity and promotion of such measures as gave\npromise of securing results in extending agricultural education. This\ncommittee has been enlarged from time to time as circumstances made it\nnecessary, until today there is an active member in each state in the United\nStates, where agricultural education is of dominant interest. The chief\nundertakings of this national committee have been managed by an executive committee consisting at present of Homer H. Seerley, of Iowa, president,\nand Ernest E. Balcomb, of North Carolina, secretary. The other members\nare E. C. Bishop, of Iowa, formerly of Nebraska, D. B. Johnson, of South\nCarolina, Thomas C. Miller, of West Virginia, and H. G. Williams, of Ohio.\nWork done. — This committee has conducted a constant campaign to\nobtain national aid for this cause. It has given all of its time and strength\nto the promoting of such national measures as the Burkett bill, the Davis\nbill, the DoUiver-Davis bill, and the Page bill, which proposed plans\nfollowed each other in successive development. The Burkett bill chiefly\nsought the education of teachers in agriculture, the Davis bill added to this\nsingle aim the granting of aid to secondary schools for the teaching of agriculture and mechanic arts, while the Page bill — the present-day m.easure —\nprovides for the appropriation of $15,000,000 annually from the national\ntreasury to be used for vocational education in normal schools, secondary\nschools, agricultural colleges, and other phases of industrial educational\norganization.\nThe work done included a hearing before President Roosevelt, another\nbefore President Taft, another before the Senate Committee on Agriculture,\nanother before the Congressional Joint Committees on Agriculture, and an\nextensive correspondence with educators in all the states to secure cooperation in asking the support of congressmen and senators for this\nnational aid for agricultural education in the public schools. In addition\nto these more prominent activities, the National Committee has held\nmeetings in connection with the Departmient of Superintendence, the\nDepartment of Rural and Agricultural Education, and the Department\nof Normal Schools. It has also prepared many articles for the educational\npress and has had a part in many state and district conventions where the\nquestions of agricultural education have had large and prominent place.\n\n"}
{"page": 1392, "printed_page": null, "text": "1376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agiicultural\n\nService free. — During these years this work has been done by the\ndifferent members without any remuneration and even without any contributions topay expenses of postage, printing, or travel. The members of\nthe committee have cheerfully done this work with the settled con\\dction\nthat such a change in educational endeavor was absolutely essential if the\npublic schools were to be the instruments of culture and training that the\nneed of the present age demands. There is a growing sentiment in favor\nof such instruction in agriculture. Much progress is being made in all these\nphases of industrial activity and interest and the National Committee\nbelieves that its work has not been in vain, as the need of training the\nteachers is now an accepted fact in every measure that is proposed by\neither states or nation.\nProspects. — There are good prospects for the securing of national aid\nfor this modern kind of education. On June 5, 1912, Hon. Carroll S.\nPage made a speech in the Senate of the United States on Senate Bill 3, in\nwhich he presented the plans now approved:\nTo co-operate with the states in encouraging instruction in agriculture, the trades\nand industries, and home economics in secondary schools ; in maintaining instruction in\nvocational subjects in state normal schools; in maintaining extension departments in\nstate colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts.\n\nThis co-operation was to consist in the appropriation of money by the\nUnited States and in the wise expending of the same so as to develop\npractical education.\nThis great measure has had majority support in both houses of Congress\nfor several years. The chief difficulty has been the preparing of a suitable\nbill which can be satisfactorily applied to the needs of the different school\nsystems of the several states, and yet guarantee that the United States hassome way to compel the proper expenditure of such funds by every state\naccepting them. Some states are \"willing to accept the proposed money,\nif they are to be allowed to use it according to their own notions of application. They seem to think interference by the general government\nundesirable and unsatisfactory. They demand a free hand and they\ntherefore resist any semblance of supervision or inspection on the part of\nthe United States. Because of differences of opinions regarding administration the day of success is being postponed from session to session, but\nthere is every reason to believe that these problems are gradually being\nsolved and that the nation will assume the prerogative of assisting educational development and improvement as much as it now does every other\nkind of progress and endeavor. Because of these facts, every friend of\nagricultural education can afford to co-operate heartily with the National\nCommittee in securing the passage of Senate Bill 3, the Page bill. There\nis no need of growing weary in well-doing, as national movements are not\nripened and accomplished without much unexpected delay and without\nmuch strenuous and continuous activity. Educators should keep up the\n\n"}
{"page": 1393, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depanment)\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\n1377\n\nagitation and demand the grants which are essential to the proper education\nand training of the masses. Anything less than this is unhumanitarian\nand unpatriotic.\nLet the good work of increasing capability and happiness for every child\nof school age be the slogan of the progressive educator who realizes the\ngreat needs of this time.\nRURAL\nVAN\n\nEVRIE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS DIFFERENTIATED\nSCHOOL GARDENS\n\nKILPATRICK,\nOF\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE SCHOOL\nAMERICA,\nNEW\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nFROM\n\nGARDEN\n\nCITY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIn the continent-wide movement for school gardens, or a return to\nthe outdoor education, there seems to have been little appreciation of\nthe real points of contact and of difference that exist between rural and\ncity school gardens. The common elements are fundamental, the points\nof difference control the entire field of application. The rural school\ngarden is very different, both in direct objects and methods from the city\nschool garden,\nTHE\n\nCOMMON\n\nFACTORS\n\nAll school gardens, or the effort to educate children in the open, are\njustified upon these reasons taken from many others:\nSchool gardens offer a fundamentally educative material. The knowledge of the manifestations of Nature is certainly just as important as any\nother body of knowledge. This work develops the mind; for example,\nwitness the commanding leadership of the farmer and the farmer's boy.\nThis work also is most useful in self-support, as agriculture is and always\nmust be our greatest industry.\nSchool gardens promote health.\nWe have found that the habituation of living in the narrow confines\nof a classroom is a positive detriment to the fullest physical development\nof children. Young children, particularly, should be kept out of doors.\nThe school garden offers just the right sort of educative activity to keep\nthem in the open air. I have come to believe, from many years' experience\nas a teacher, that children under the age of ten years would learn much\nmore of the three R's, if confined not more than three hours each day in\nthe classroom. The remaining three hours should be spent out of doors\nin supervised play and garden work.\nIt is just as incumbent upon the state to provide land for the outdoor\neducation as it is to provide buildings for the indoor education. Again\ngardening, everywhere, if conducted properly, is very interesting. Interest\nwhich arouses the will-power is the most potent force in the educative\nprocess.\n\n"}
{"page": 1394, "printed_page": null, "text": "1378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agikultural\n\nIt is nature, yes, it is life itself for a child to enjoy the growth of his\nown plant. When the flower bursts forth he becomes ecstatic.\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDEN\n\nGardening in the Country school will never be made interesting and\nprofitable until we fully realize its most primary objects.\nRural school gardens should aim to idealize agricultural work. The\nschool that habituates the farmer's boy to the fine arts and letters teaches\nhim to look down upon farm life, if not to despise it. We do the work\nthat we think is most worth while or most respectable. The rural school\ngarden must surely lead the child to look upon agriculture as an important\ncalling.\nThe second great purpose of the rural school garden is that it leads\ndirectly to improved agricultural methods. The whole field of advanced\nagriculture should be developed. Every elementary activity of husbandry,\ngardening, and forestry is quite within the possibilities of the broad notion\nof the country school garden. For example, potatoes may be raised under\nvarying conditions. Different seeds may be tried as well as various plans\nof harvesting and marketing.\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDEN\n\nThe objects of the city school garden are primarily to give the city\nchild an opportunity to be educated, in part at least, out of doors, to give\nhim a taste for more open living, and to occupy his idle time pleasurably\nand profitably.\nIt is idle to say that there is not room in cities for school gardens.\nRoom will be found the moment the public is aroused. The city must\ncome to understand that the child cannot be properly educated while\nhoused in congested quarters the greater part of all working-hours. It is\nmadness to think we can educate thru incarceration. The question is\nnot, ''Can the city child have a school garden ? \" He must have a garden\nor not come into his own. The evidence is on every hand that children\neducated in our city schools are found seriously wanting. The city child\nneeds first of all an opportunity to work in the open air and the sunlight.\nHe is not learning so much to be a gardener or an agriculturist as he is to\nutilize the manifestations of Nature to become an educated being. It is\nnot necessary for him to grow potatoes in different ways. He has attained\nhis -purpose when he has learned to grow them at all. To thousands of\ncity children it is not a little matter, even, to find out that a potato grows\nin the ground. A taste for better living conditions is bound to follow city\nschool gardening. The child that nurtures a plant from seed to maturity\nlearns to love that plant. He learns to love plant life. When he grows\nto be a man he will refuse to be confined in tenements, but will seek a home\nthat is near Mother Earth.\n\n"}
{"page": 1395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\n1379\n\nThe city garden, open during the entire season including vacation,\nofTers a means of providing for the proper employment of the city child's idle\ntime. In the country, children have chores to do, but not so in the city.\nParents do not know what to do with their children in the summer time.\nThe garden is the very best form of an industrial summer school.\nHOW\n\nTHE\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nAIMS\n\nWORK\n\nOUT\n\nIN APPLICATION\n\nThe rural school should first of all be much larger than the city school\ngarden. Room should be given to try a variety of experiments on the\npart of the school, if not on the part of each pupil. Practical comparative\ntests, to be of value, need room. If the scope of the rural school is extended\nto cover at least the elements of agriculture, such as animal husbandry\nand the production of field crops, then a rural school may profitably be\nplaced in the center of a small farm. This, however, should be looked\nupon as a development of future agricultural teaching which has not yet\nappeared. But it is bound to come. In fact, this school farm may become\nthe educative center of an entire agricultural community and serve both\nyoung and old.\nNow the city school garden should be a garden of one-half to an acre\nof ground around the school where each child may have a plot about 5\nby 8 feet. This will occupy his idle time and keep him engaged in the\nopen air to his great benefit. Thru expert supervision and intensive\ncultivation he will be enabled to derive a really valuable product in vegetables and flowers. He will gain in his knowledge of all plant life and\nbecome familiar with the chief food products.\nA city school garden may also contain observation plots which may\nshow a wide botanical scope of plants from different parts of the world.\nA corner of the garden may contain a fish pond and another corner may\nbe devoted to animal life, such as the culture of chickens. A school\nkitchen which uses the vegetables may be placed in a third corner. The\nfourth corner may be made a nursery of trees, shrubs, and vines. With\nthis equipment the city child will best come into his own thru living.\nThru creating in the mind of the boy an ideal, the farmer's son is\nsaved to develop the farm. He is not made ashamed of his birthright.\nHis education trains for greater efficiency.\nThe city child on the other hand, altho he does not become a farmer,\nis trained for a greater citizenship. In the open air and sunshine, he must\ngrow to become a stronger man. Surrounded with plants and flowers,\nhe must become a better man; and busy in their cultivation, he is ever\nout of the malevolent mischief of the city streets. He, too, must have\ngained a saner and more intellectual mind from so natural a training.\nWith such citizens, the squalor of the city must go. The new city, which\nis the coimtry, will arise to take its place.\n\n"}
{"page": 1396, "printed_page": null, "text": "1380\n\nPROGRESS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION\nCANADA\n\nS. B. MCCREADY,\n\nONTARIO\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\n[Agricultural\n\nIN ONTARIO,\nGUELPH,\n\nCANADA\n\n[Synopsis]\nThe problem of introducing agriculture into the schools of Ontario has\nbeen constantly with us since the organization of the schools into a provincial system over sixty years ago. At that time the teachers were\ninstructed in the subject at the pro\\dncial normal school, and educational\nleaders looked forward to agriculture becoming commonly taught.\nThere have been many ups and downs in the attempt to introduce the\nsubject since then. At different times three different textbooks have been\nspecially prepared. The subject has been at one time optional, at another\ntime obligatory, and then again optional; at one time it was a subject of\nexamination; up to -w-ithin a few years it has been practically unheard of.\nNineteen years ago an attempt to have teachers specially trained was made\nand the first teachers' siunmer course given at the Ontario Agricultural\nCollege; this scheme was abandoned when the subject was removed from\nthe list of obligatory studies. For many years the schools have been\ninvited to organize special courses for the highest classes of the public\nschools and the lower classes in the high schools along lines corresponding\nto the commercial courses. But not one school has ever undertaken\nthe work!\nAgriculture has not been taught chiefly because the people at large\nhave not wanted it taught! It will be taught when people want it taught!\nThe people can always have any good thing that they want! The awakening of right educational desires is the first necessity in solving the problem\nof agricultural education!\nWith the introduction of nature-study into our schools in 1904, the\nbeginning of a new movement was made. This subject has gradually won\na place for itself in our schools and naturally has opened a way for the\nintroduction of agriculture in an acceptable form. We are now at the place\nwhere we know that the work can be done and also how we can do it. We\nare approaching the place where the people, knowing this, will want the\nwork done, the consummation devoutly to be wished.\nAssociated with the nature-study there has always been a special effort\nto have the work carried on in school gardens. And progress has been\nmade. Where in 1910 there were fifteen schools taking up the work in\nschool gardening, last year there were thirty-three schools, and this year\nthere will be more than a hundred. From now on rapid progress should\nbe made.\nThese are some of the means operating at the present time to promote\n'\nthe work :\n\n"}
{"page": 1397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nGARDEN\n\nAND\n\nEXPERIMENTAL\n\nPLOTS\n\n1381\n\n1. Teachers are trained for the work at the Ontario Agricultural College.\nIn some cases scholarships are provided to enable teachers to take this\ntraining.\n2. Graduates of the Agricultural College have within the past five\nyears been located in thirty-two centers as county agricultural representatives. These young men are assisting the county schools to take up the\nwork as well as teaching the subject in the high schools.\n3. Trustee boards receive special grants when they have the subject\ntaught in their schools.\n4. Teachers also receive special grants for teaching the subject thru\npractical work in gardening.\n5. A Director of Elementary Agricultural Education directs the work\nthru the province at large, sends out seeds and planting material, attends\nteachers' associations, and carries on a propaganda on behalf of the subject.\n6. The Department of Education issues special bulletins, instruction\nsheets, and charts on agriculture.\nThese are sent to every school.\n\nTHE HOME\nELLIOT\n\nR.\n\nGARDEN\n\nDOWNING,\nOF\n\nAND\n\nEXPERIMENTAL\n\nTHE SCHOOL\nOF EDUCATION,\nCHICAGO,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nTHE\n\nPLOTS\nUNIVERSITY\n\nHome was first established in a garden and the garden still makes\nnormally the proper setting for every domestic Eden. Humanity and the\nsoil have been so inseparable that even the words themselves are products of\nthe same root, human and humus springing from a common stem. The\nhome, humanity's stronghold, is so firmly rooted in the ground that those\ncity dwellings that stand propped up in mid-air, human pigeonholes, are\nas anomalous as the proverbial fish out of water. Degeneration and decay\nspeedily follow most attempts to force the home to strike air roots. The\nmain problem of the city is, therefore, the problem of rapid and cheap\ntransportation and of low suburban rents that the condensation of population demanded by modern economic conditions may be a concentration\nof workers only, not a massing of homes to the point of obliteration. Other\nmeans of alleviating the evils incident to our modern city life are palliative.\nThe re-establishment of homes upon the soil is remedial. Belgium has\nprogressed most rapidly in this attempt to provide cheap urban homes with\nland about them. The English garden cities are successful ventures along\nthe same line.\n\nTo the city child, banished to a desert of pavements and brick-walled\ncanyons, the school garden is an oasis that gives a glimpse of the providence\nof Mother Earth. The school garden came into existence as an attempt\nto keep the city child in touch with the soil, his natural teacher. And\n\n"}
{"page": 1398, "printed_page": null, "text": "1382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlAgricultural\n\nhumanity does well to return often and much to this same provddent nature\nunder whose tutelage man has spent ages of primitive life in sharpening\nhis wits and making keen his senses. Today the School Garden Association\nand the American Nature Study Society have the larger part of their constituency inthe cities, where the need of the child's contact with \"Nature,\nthe dear old nurse,\" is the most glaringly apparent.\nYet the school garden is at best more or less of a makeshift until the\nhome can re-establish itself upon the soil where it belongs. The home\ngarden is really a natural thing. In primitive society the home is the\nconservator of the social heritage; parents are the child's chief teachers in\nneeded knowledge, the arts and crafts, morals and ideals. The increasing\ncomplexity of society, the resultant specialization with a consequent\ncramped horizon for the worker and a decreased efficiency for the parent as\nan educator, these and other factors have necessitated the school. So\ncompletely, and, I believe, more or less unwisely, does the school tend\nto take over the functions of the parents, standing in loco parentis, that\nwhen any desired social reform is apparent, such as increased knowledge of\nsex hygiene, added respect for the manual arts, or a return to the interest\nallied to the soil, the reformer turns to the school and tries to lay upon the\nteachers the burden of the reformation. It is high time that the teacher\nrefused to become the beast of burden for all the tasks the home finds inconvenient. These and similar improvements must be accomplished in large\nmeasure by assisting the home to resume its normal functions rather than\nby an assumption of the duties of the home by some extraneous agency.\nI know it is an easier task, at the outset, to establish a workable\nschool garden in the average community than to inspire such co-operation\non the part of parents as will insure adequate home gardens and fix them as\na custom — gardens wherein the parents work along with the child, imparting their garden lore as they have learned it from grandfather and grandmother in the dear old-fashioned garden. Be assured right here that the\naverage dweller in most cities and in nearly all towns as well as in the\ncountry can still do a very creditable job of gardening and could, if he\nwould, induct the child in the art quite as well as the average teacher.\nTho the school garden may be an easy and quick means, such shortcuts\nare, in the long run, often unsafe. We have found them lamentably so in\nmethods of juvenile reform. The school method with reform schools and\ninstitutions for dependents has given way to the placing-out method — a\nreturn of the child to the home, its own if possible, a better one if its own\nis irremediably bad.\nThe school garden is the only garden possible in many sections of our\ngreat cities. But in the average city school where vacant lots are available\nand in the schools of town and country the ideal is found in the separate\nchild's home garden for the younger children, or his interest along with the\nrest of the family in the home garden as he grows older. I am assuming now\n\n"}
{"page": 1399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nGARDEN\n\nAND\n\nEXPERIMENTAL\n\nPLOTS\n\n1383\n\nthat the school recognizes in the garden an important means of education\nand deems it worth while to spend its energy in the direction of such work.\nThe school garden would be the natural laboratory for these educative\nprocesses were it not that the home garden offers as good opportunities for\nthem and has these added advantages: It establishes normal relations of\ninstruction between parent and child. It adds to the economic resources of\nthe family. It enables the school to avail itself of the skill and knowledge\nof the entire community in the garden instruction. It makes it possible\nto do valuable educational work without any additional expense for land\nor equipment. The home garden overcomes some of the chief difficulties\nin carrying out a garden project in connection with the school. In the\nabsence of teacher and pupils during the summer the school garden must\nbe neglected, and if it survives at all, by fall it is a discouraging mass of\nweeds or else the care of it devolves upon a janitor or a few of the more\nenthusiastic pupils. The home gardens go on all summer with increasing\ninterest. The crops that may be raised in the school garden are limited\nto such as mature very early before school closes in the spring or those that\nmature late in the fall. Then it is difficult to get many of the older boys,\nespecially, to work with enthusiasm in their school plots if they must also\nhoe the garden at home. If, however, the home garden comes to be a center\nof interest for the entire .school and is to receive visits for inspection by the\nteacher and the rest of the children, an added dignity is given to the project\nand the child's pride is aroused, particularly if some bit of excellence can\nbe discovered in the home plot worthy of commendation.\nThe school plant is being more and more utilized as a central clearinghouse for ideas and activities that pertain to the community. Education\nis life and the currents of life about the school are the best sources from which\nto energize the life within the school. There are probably twenty home\ngardens, at least, represented by every schoolroom, ranging from an unpretentious window garden, a flowerpot or two adorning the kitchen windowsill, to the market garden that yields its generous profit. There are a score\nof gardeners of varying degrees of skill, each probably having some specialty\nin which he or she has acquired proficiency. There is the woman who has\nthe knack of making fuchsias bloom abundantly and everlastingly. Her\nbay window is a delight to herself and the envy of her neighbors. There\nis the man whose strawberry vines never fail or the one whose potatoes\nalways take first prize at the county fair. Let not the teacher assume that\nhe can instruct these experts. Indeed the skillful teacher is coming to\nrealize in garden work as in other lines that his function is less to personally\nimpart information and more to direct and organize the instructional\nopportunities and agencies in the daily life and environment of the public.\nIf John's father is the skilled strawberry culturist, arrange thru John for the\ngarden class to make several visits to this garden so that they can see the\nvarious processes in the successful care of the plants. Probably John\n\n"}
{"page": 1400, "printed_page": null, "text": "1384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultura\n\nwill be glad to go to the gardens of the other boys who are attempting to\ngrow strawberries to show them the tricks of the art. Under the guidance\nof the woman who raises fuchsias so successfully some children will surely\nbe anxious to try their hands at it. Many homes may thus have their pots\nof plants. The slips will be generously given when the good lady has a\nchance to impart her skill and to interest others in her delightful hobby.\nAnother bunch of pupils may start apiaries if one successful bee ciilturist\nlives in the neighborhood. Indeed the teacher will find her own yard and\nhome becoming increasingly beautiful and productive as she gradually\nacquires the skill imparted by this corps of voluntary instructors.\nSuch co-operative instruction must not be left to haphazard efforts.\nThe teacher must make careful inventory of the possibilities of the neighborhood. She must learn who are the skilled specialists. A monthly\nexhibit at the school of garden produce from the home gardens open to\npupils and parents alike is an excellent means to this end. Then the\nwork must be carefully planned, visits to the various home gardens arranged\nat the most opportune times, periods assigned for the discussion and\nwritten reports that properly follow and for the assigned collateral reading.\nIndeed the course of instruction must be laid out with even more care than\nwould be the case in most subjects in which more or less reliance can be\nplaced upon the text for systematizing the work. In the school of more than\none room the work must be planned with teachers and principal in consultation, so that one room will not duplicate what another one has already\ndone, and so that the work may be appropriately graded.\nTo initiate the home garden movement, then, I should advise early\nin the fall an exhibit at the school of the garden produce, flowers, vegetables,\nfruits, both fresh and preserved, that have been grown by the children alone\nor which they have helped to produce or prepare. Ask some of the older\npeople of the community to come in and tell the children about the varieties\nshown, how to know them, their advantages and peculiarities. Let the\nteacher make note of the homes from which especially good things come.\nLet excursions follow, after school, to some of the gardens where produce\nis still growing, vegetables ripening, and fruit trees bearing their burdens.\nWith the upper grades study the whole situation, the location of the garden\nwith reference to the compass points, to the hill slope, drainage areas,\ncharacter of the soil, methods of cultivation, prevention of pests, harvesting\nand after-care of the produce. Estimate the cost of production, learn\nthe market prices, and approximate the probable profits.\nStimulated by the enthusiasm aroused in this study of results already\nachieved by the more successful boy or girl gardeners, begin the plans for\nthe gardens of the next spring, and for the window gardens of the winter.\nAnnounce a competitive exhibition of pot-grown plants to be held, say,\nin March. Have it understood that it is to be an exhibit of \"home-grown\"\nplants, emphasizing the home as the working unit. Possibly the seeds\n\n"}
{"page": 1401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nGARDEN\n\nAND\n\nEXPERIMENTAL\n\nPLOTS\n\n1385\n\nor slips may be given out at school but it is better if the stock of these\nbe supplied from some one or more of the homes. Try nasturtiums,\nstock, or petunias from seed; geraniums, roses, or fuchsias from cuttings.\nMeantime let the lower grades be studying seeds and seedlings, the intermediate ones soils and the general physiology of plants until they know by\nactual observation and experiment that plants breathe, how they feed, and\nwhat functions the more important organs have. Let the upper grades\nbe collecting the seeds of the various crops of the neighborhood, the forage\nand pasture plants, and the weed seeds. Let them study them with simple\nlenses so that they may be ready to select wisely the garden seed. This is\nmerely suggestive of the sorts of things that may be done in connection\nwith the home gardens. The aim in it all will be to develop well-organized\nschool exercises on the basis of the opportunities afforded by the garden\nwork of the neighborhood. It must all be intelligently graded to meet the\nincreasing capacity of the pupils.\nWith the approach of spring plans will be begun for the new home\ngardens. It would be well for each pupil to draw in duplicate a map or\nplan of his own home garden. One of these the teacher may keep on file —\nthe other will be the child's working-plan of his plot. These may be simple\nyet accurate sketches in the lower grades. They may be carefully made\nplans drawn to scale in the higher grades. I need not go into details\nregarding the planning, planting, and caring for the garden. The chief\nconcern of the teacher will be so to direct the work that all available skill\nof the neighborhood is placed at the disposal of these boys and girls, that the\ninstructions shall be as far as possible informal, parental, and neighborly,\nyet orderly and sequential.\nThe tact of the teacher will be taxed. She must realize that her pupils\nare now learning as they will learn in life, by observation and imitation\nof neighbors and friends. She must assume no airs of superiority but\nwillingly confess her ignorance and learn, become a pupil without losing her\nprestige. I trust she will be sensible enough to undertake the cultivation\nof a small plot herself, wherein she will find much food for reflection even\nif it does not provide much for mastication. And her garden will serve\nto refresh her spirit. She must direct the visits to the various gardens for\nobservation, direct the discussions that follow, direct her pupils toward\ncorrect conclusions, and yet she must not even seem to desire to boss the\nvarious garden projects of the neighborhood.\nSuch a plan as this— and I am suggesting nothing new, merely what is\nalready more or less successfully operating in many communities — such a\nplan necessitates almost immediately two things:\nFirst: It makes imperative a reference library on the various phases of\ngardening. This may be put into a special room of the public library. The\nlibrary is always willing and glad to co-operate. Or it may be placed in\nsome room at the school to which the community may have access evenings\n\n"}
{"page": 1402, "printed_page": null, "text": "1386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agiicultuial\n\nand Sundays as well as during the day. A hundred dollars, or even ten,\nput into books that are recent on practical gardening, the soil, horticulture,\nfloriculture, the physiology of the plant, insect enemies and other pests,\ntogether with the government and state publications that may be had for\nthe asking, will make a nucleus wonderfully attractive to the general\npublic, useful to teacher and pupils alike. Such a little library may well be\na common meeting-ground of school and community, a commercial mission\nstation, the propaganda from which may convert the neighborhood into a\nmuch more prosperous community in these days of rapidly progressing\nmethods in agriculture.\nSecond: There will also inevitably follow an experimental garden. So\nmany new methods will demand demonstration, so many mooted points\nwill need settlement, so many new principles of soil chemics, hybridization,\nselection, etc., will need to be tried out before the community will accept\nthem, that a plot must be set apart for such purposes. Let this come,\nhowever, only when the demand for it is created. In some neighborhoods\nit may be an easy matter to secure a piece of property for the school for\nsuch a purpose immediately ; in others it would be well to wait until in the\nnatural course of events the home gardens have generated so many questions that an experimental plot is a necessity. Possibly nearly every\nhome garden will want its own little corner for experimental purposes.\nEven so it is well to have a plot which the school may direct where some\nof the most skillful of the older gardeners may try the desired experiments\nunder as nearly ideal conditions as can be devised.\n\nFORESTRY\n\nAND\n\nTHE PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nE. R. JACKSON, UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nThe educational theorist who comes before the public to advocate\nany addition to the work of our modern schools is not likely to meet with\na very enthusiastic reception from public-school teachers, no matter how\nplausible and forceful his argument or how worthy his idea in the last\nanalysis. He must be a courageous man who has the temerity to attempt\nto convince the pedagogical world that he has discovered a new task for\nour teachers or a new duty for the school; for the teacher who faithfully\nattempts to perform her whole duty as outlined for her in the course of\nstudy adopted in the average school of today will be fortunate if she\ndoes not break down from the strain, a victim of overwork and mental\nexhaustion.\nThe modern school is a very complex and far-reaching institution compared with those which our grandparents attended. In those days, the\nschoolmaster was expected merely to maintain order and to drill his pupils\ndaily in reading, writing, and arithmetic. He was deemed a good and faith-\n\n"}
{"page": 1403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nFORESTRY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1387\n\nful servant if he succeeded in teaching his young proteges how to spell\nand cipher a little. But today, things are changed. Now, the teacher\nwho meets the requirements laid .down in the superintendent's manual\nmust not only be proficient in the ordinary branches of the curriculum\nbut he must be ready to train the boys and girls in literature, science, the\narts, and even the trades. The school seems to have taken over, willingly\nor unwillingly, most of the responsibilities which formerly fell upon the\nhome, the shop, and even the church. We have had to introduce courses\nin \"manners and morals\" into our schools, because the parents seem to be\ntoo busy to look after the manners of their offspring, while the Sunday\nschool, with its time limited to one hour out of seventy, doesn't get much\nopportunity to wield any influence over the morals of even the comparatively small percentage of children who attend it.\nEven more recently, our schools have been called upon to assume also\nthe vocational and industrial training of the children, and so strongly\nhas this been advocated, and so great was the need, that now every school\nthat claims to be up to date in its equipment has a manual-training shop\nand a domestic science laboratory. Father used to teach the boys how\nto saw a board straight or to drive a nail without smashing a thumb;\nand mother used to teach the girls how to hemstitch a handkerchief, cut\nout a dress, and bake a loaf of bread; but now the poor teacher must do\nall these things in addition to the commonplace task of teaching the three\nR's. It seems that every fanatic with a fad or enthusiast with a propaganda\nwants to try it out on the school. The teachers have been asked to become\nenthused over every proposed movement or reform from temperance to\ntomato-canning, and the end is not yet.\nPerhaps some teachers, reflecting on these things, have begun to feel\nthat theirs is a much-abused and downtrodden profession; but, to my\nmind, all this has another significance. In the first place, the fact that\neveryone wants his pet hobby or whim adopted by the public schools\nis the best possible refutation of the charge so frequently made, that our\nschools are inefficient. And in the second place, these new demands on\nthe school are merely the expression of a great change which is irresistibly\ngoing on in our school system, as well as in our economic life, by which we\nare gradually adopting what has been termed the \"factory\" system ot\nsocial and economic living— the specialization of interests and division\nof labor.\nBut, on the whole, when anyone presents to the teachers of the nation\nan idea such as that suggested by the subject of this paper, it is not at all\nstrange that he should be regarded as were the Greeks who came bearing\ngifts— with suspicion. Therefore, to disarm any such suspicion that may\nhave arisen in the minds of my readers on account of the suggestion contained in the title of this paper, let me state at the outset that it is not the\npurpose of this article to advocate the addition of another subject to the\n\n"}
{"page": 1404, "printed_page": null, "text": "1388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\ncurriculum of the school. I have no new duty to urge upon the teachers\nnor any far-fetched theory to promulgate. True, I am to discuss \" Forestry\nand the Public Schools,\" but I am free to admit that, as such, forestry\nhas no place in the public schools.\nTo secure a technical knowledge of forestry, one must take a course\nwhich is almost equivalent in point of time required to that of other professions, such as law and medicine. The better forest schools, such as\nthose at Harvard, Yale, and Michigan, maintain high standards as to\nentrance requirements, and the courses extend over periods ranging from\ntwo to four years. If, therefore, it should be advocated that forestry\nshould be taught in the public schools, arguments of equal strength might\nbe advanced favoring the introduction of the study of engineering, medicine,\nor law into the common-school courses. Obviously, then, it would be\nunreasonable to contend that forestry, as such, deserves consideration as a\nseparate study in the high school, much less in the common school. Few,\nif any, of the boys who drop out of the public schools before graduation\nfrom the high school ever take up the profession of the forester. The\n\"people's college,\" as the high school has been called, should seek to serve\nthe specific needs of those who come to it for training. There is no justice\nin imposing upon the great majority tasks which will benefit only the few.\nThose students in the common schools and the high schools who desire\nto become professional foresters must do the same as those who expect to\nbecome doctors and lawyers — wait until they can enter the technical school\nfor the necessary training in their chosen professions.\nBut there is another side to this matter which we have thus far overlooked. While nowhere in the curricula provided for our common and\nsecondary schools do we find courses in medicine or law outlined, yet every\nschool teaches physiology, hygiene, and civics, and physics. Here we\nfind the elements of the broader subjects of medicine, law, and engineering.\nEveryone recognizes the fact that these elementary subjects are of such\nvital importance to the ordinary citizen that every man and woman should\nknow the principles which they embody. How far is this true of forestry ?\nHas forestry any place in the public-school course, not as a technical subject to be taught with a view to preparing the student to gain a livelihood,\nbut because of its broad informational and cultural qualities? If so,\nwhere should it appear, and how may it be taught without further adding\nto the burdens and intruding upon the precious time of the busy teacher ?\nThese are the questions I wish to discuss for a few moments.\nIt has been said by Herbert Spencer that \"education is preparation for\ncomplete living.\" I take it that in order to be prepared for a complete\nlife, a student should have knowledge including at least these three elements:\n(i) He should be as familiar as possible with the natural phenomena with\nwhich he is surrounded, that he may, in accordance with the divine command, \"take the earth and subdue it.\" (2) He should also leam]^of th*^\n\n"}
{"page": 1405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deparcmenti\n\nFORESTRY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1389\n\nactivities of his fellow-men, and of the processes by which they secure\ntheir existence and their enjoyments, and of the difficulties and problems\nthat confront them. (3) Finally, he should be equipped, by special training\nin some trade or profession, to support himself, and thus to become a useful\nmember of society and a contributor to the general welfare. Let us see,\nthen, how far forestry may contribute to the training required for the\nfull life every well-informed citizen should lead.\nThe tree has long been a favorite subject for study and a prolific contributor of illustrative material for nature-study classes. But too frequently these studies have taken the form of mere botanical classifications\nof leaves according to shape, veining, and margin ; or of fruits, as to structure. Such studies, to my mind, tend to deaden the interest of young\nstudents rather than to stimulate it, if it were not that in many instances\nthe monotonous features of the work are offset by the opportunity given\nthe collector's instinct so characteristic in all children at certain ages, and\nby the mere pleasure of handling things so evident in young children.\nThe forest undoubtedly is one of the earth's natural features which,\nin one form or another, forms a part of the environment of most school\nchildren. The trees are the largest specimens of the plant kingdom, and\nperhaps wider in their distribution than most other kinds of plants. For\nthis reason the forest is almost universally available for study. It is\nseldom, however, that the real value of studies of the forest is appreciated\nand developed purposefully by the teacher. The tree, alone, is undoubtedly\na splendid subject, but sometimes we see so many trees that we lose sight\nof the forest. We look at individuals and fail to get the broader conception of the community. If a newspaper correspondent were sent to write\nup a village famous for the community life of its people and should confine\nhis report to a series of statements as to the height, weight, complexion,\nand dress of certain individuals in the community, he would not be making\na more obvious mistake than does the teacher who asks her pupils in primary\ngrades to remember that the horse-chestnut has leaves with \" seven obovate,\nabruptly pointed, serrated leaflets.\" Such descriptions are necessary,\npossibly, for scientific exactness, but scientific exactness is not to be required\nof clildren in the grades. You will have accomplished more for the practical\neducation of the child if you teach him to sort over a pile of leaves and to\nsay instantly upon seeing them, \"This is a horse-chestnut leaf,\" or, \"This\nis a maple leaf,\" even if he cannot tell you at first just how he is able to\nidentify each one.\nBut to get back to the real question at hand. There is a greater reason\nwhy pupils, even in the grades, should study the forest. There are certain\ngreat problems constantly before the people of any nation with which every\nwell-informed citizen should be familiar, such, for example, as the great\nquestions of government, of politics, of economics, and of religion, which\nProminent among\nconcern each individual member in any social system.\n\n"}
{"page": 1406, "printed_page": null, "text": "I390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nthe great problems with which the people of the United States have had\nto deal in recent years is the question of how to conserve the natural wealth\nof the nation. Among the resources from which this wealth is drawn,\nthe forest occupies a prominent place, not only because of the great value\nof its commercial products but also because the standing forests themselves exert a great influence upon the soil, the water supply, and even\nthe atmosphere of the continent. In this respect, the forest occupies a\nplace unique in Nature. The effects of the forest in checking the nm-off\nsurface waters; in assisting the percolation of this water thru the strata\nof the soil; and consequently in regulating the flow of streams, are facts\nwith which every public-school pupil should be familiar. Again, every\nstudent should know the important facts concerning the influence of the\nforests upon soils; how the roots of the trees penetrate the lower subsoils,\nabsorb the disintegrated mineral substances, and send them up to be\nbuilt into the leaves as organic matter; then, when the leaves fall, we find\na rich coat of himius deposited on the surface of the ground to add to the\nfertility and value of the soil. As if this were not enough, the trees go\nstill farther in this great improvement work, and on steep hillsides their\nclinging roots are instrumental in preventing the removal of this soil by\nerosion.\nSpace will not permit, here, a discussion of all the things the trees do\nfor us, such as beautifying our homes and protecting them from winds,\ncooling the air with their shade, and purifying it by the removal of the\ncarbonic acid gas. I wish, however, before leaving this point, to call\nattention to the tremendous extent to which commerce and industry are\ndependent upon the forest. I have mentioned the importance of the forest\nin regulating stream flow. Of course, dependent upon steady stream flow\nare almost unlimited possibilities of water-power development and of\nutilization of streams for transportation — possibilities as yet, to a large\nextent, scarcely realized. How essential it is that the future citizen know\nof these things if he is to make the most of the opportunities for financial\nsuccess that are before him! Then consider the commercial product\nderived directly from the forest — the vast quantities of logs sawn each\nyear for lumber; whole acres of spruce forest ground up for woodpulp\nfor paper manufacture; thousands of barrels of pitch, turpentine, and\nrosin, drawn from the southern pineries ; maple sugar and syrup, produced\nin the \"sugar bushes\" of the Northeast; together with a thousand minor\nproducts which daily crowd the markets of trade — all, with the activities\nthey represent, are features which no student of geography, of arithmetic,\nof economics can overlook, even if he does not realize their connection\nwith forestry.\nThere is still another reason why forestry forms an essential part of the\nwork which should be given in our public schools. Of recent years, farseeing statesmen and educators have been impressed with the necessity\n\n"}
{"page": 1407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n1391\n\nof encouraging the young people of our rural communities to stay on the\nfarm instead of abandoning it for the city office or store. The foundation of our nation's prosperity is the farm. Our land is adapted especially\nto the pursuit of agriculture. Our educational system has begun to recognize this fact, and thruout the land we have begun to find agricultural\nhigh schools established, the avowed aim of tlese schools being to train\nthe boys and girls for life on the farm. To me, it is strange that so few\nof these schools devote any attention to the farm wood lot in their courses.\nThru the East and South we hear of abandoned farms — abandoned because\nthe soil had become so poor that nothing would grow in it. Yet on most\nof these abandoned farms something will grow and, in fact, on many of\nthem, something is growing. The forest is reclaiming them, seeking to\nmake profitable again what man has rendered unprofitable. Certainly\nno one would be so visionary as to advocate planting all the abandoned\nfarms in the country to trees, for most of these farms might still, with\nproper management, be made to yield annual crops profitably, but it is\nnone the less a fact that on every farm, no matter if the soil is good or\npoor, there is room for a wood lot. Every farmer, therefore, should be\nfamiliar with the principles of wood-lot management, that he may be the\nbetter able to secure a livelihood to the best advantage. And for this\nreason, forestry has an important place in our high schools, at least those\nwhere agriculture is taught. Most of the writers of textbooks on agriculture\nfor secondary schools recognize this, and we shall find in many of these\ntexts, chapters on forestry. Most of these chapters, however, miss the\npoint somewhat, for they deal with the subject in its broader aspect, while\nthe way in which it should be treated, in order to give the best results,\nwould be to consider the trees of the wood lot as a farm crop, to be managed,\nharvested, and marketed just as is done with the other crops of the farm.\nI have endeavored in this discussion to point out the way in which\nforestry can be and should be taught in the public schools— not to supplant\nany subject, but to supplement many. The spirit of forestry is service,\nand the subject is willing to efface itself and, if need be, completely lose\nits own identity in order to render the other branches of the curriculum\nmore interesting and helpful.\n.>,\n\nREPORT\nE.\n\nC.\n\nOF\n\nBISHOP,\n\nTHE\nSCHOOLS\n\nCOMMITTEE ON COURSES\nAGRICULTURE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nDEPARTMENT,\nEXTENSION\nSECTION,\nCOLLEGE,\nAMES, IOWA\n\nIOWA\n\nIN\nSTATE\n\nLack of funds to properly prosecute the work of the committee has\nlimited action to a considerable extent. Of the committee membership\nof six, only three have been able to meet at any one time. Reports from all\nmembers have been received. These reports either have been incorporated\n\n"}
{"page": 1408, "printed_page": null, "text": "1392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nin the general recommendations, have enabled the chairman to compile a\nconsensus of opinion on some points, or are here appended as subcommittee\nreports on which the committee, as a whole, has not had opportunity to take\ndefinite and specific action other than the inclusion of such as a part of the\ngeneral report with some references thereto. Some points of disagreement\nremain. The report is presented in its present form to show progress and\nopen the way to discussion at the annual meeting of the department.\nIn the report of the committee at the San Francisco meeting of this\ndepartment, statement was made to the effect that the establishment of\nright courses of study in agriculture was delayed and obstructed by the\nfollowing conditions:\n1. We need a readjustment of elementary science teaching and courses of study in\nscience.\n2. We need an organized correlation of agricultural topics with other branches of\nstudy.\n3. The other public-school sciences cannot give complete treatment of agriculture;\nwe need a separate place in the course of study for such overflow collateral work as does\nnot find satisfactory treatment with other subjects in the program of studies.\n4. Pedagogy needs to recognize some new values which are concerned especially in\nthe teaching of agriculture. Such recognition will be worth as much to pedagogy and to\nthe teaching of some of the traditional subjects as it is to agriculture.\n\nThe committee again afl&rms these statements, and to some general\ninquiries we submitted at that time for the suggestions they might carry,\nanswer is now made as follows:\n1. Use the topic development method, giving proper attention to pertinent relative\nmatter.\n2. The text in the hands of the pupil should be for reference only, and should be used\nwhen necessary as a means of supplying desired reading-matter which cannot otherwise be\nsupplied to advantage.\nIf only one or two semesters of simple work are offered and especially where the\nteacher has not been well trained, a good general text in the hands of pupils may sometimes\nbe used to advantage as a guide with these cautions:\na) Remember that books are merely aids and that the study of agriculture is primarily\na study of things, not of printed matter.\nb) Omit such portions of the text as are not pertinent to local agriculture or to necessary general knowledge of the subject.\nc) In those topics which are pertinent to local agriculture amplify beyond the contents of the text by the use of other materials and references. .\n3. Follow leading topics in order and to the extent local importance justifies. Relate\nother topics to these.\n4. Make topics seasonal and sequential whenever possible; correlate at all points\nwhere it will add materially to the interest, knowledge, and practice factors in agriculture\nand where it will vitalize the subjects with which correlated.\n5. Geographic control and local interest should receive first consideration in the selection of units of study.\n6. The order of phase-development should generally be:\na) Local interest and importance.\nb) Economic value.\nc) Cultural development.\n\n"}
{"page": 1409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n1393\n\n7. Agricultural topics included in other subjects taught should receive local application whenever considered. Where such topics are largely agricultural in application, they\nshould, whenever possible, be taught under agriculture as a separate subject.\n8. In an agricultural community, agriculture should form the basic subject around\nwhich the course of study should be organized.\n0. Agriculture, as a basic, introductory, elementary science, should consider especially the application of the phases of the other sciences, as applied to local application of\nthe simple scientific principles involved.\n\nFollowing are the subcommittee reports with appended discussion relative thereto; and some general suggestions relating to courses of study in\nagriculture.\nSUBCOMMITTEE REPORTS\n.\n\nA.\n\nTHE HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nJOSIAH MAIN, PROFESSOR\n\nOF AGRICULTURE,\n\nCOURSE IN AGRICULTURE\nWESTERN\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nHAYS, KANS.\n\nMotive of agriculture in the high school. — 'Vocational interests are born early in adolescence. In the former non-vocational high schools they were permitted to starve for lack\nof nourishment so that the relatively few pupils who were able to survive a four-year course,\nnot being average normal individuals at the beginning of the course, were less so at its\nclose, the instincts upon which vocations are based having perished for lack of exercise.\nIt should be the business of the secondary school to seize upon and feed these nascent\ninstincts by properly prescribed school work. This is becoming increasingly necessary\nto the economic good of the individual and of the state. And inasmuch as the manual\nvocations of earlier generations furnish the physical and mental activities which shape\nmuscle and mind of the world's leaders for later, it is of the highest importance in the\ninterest of racial virtue that this source of civic strength be idealized and that its hardships\nbe ameliorated by practical application of the sciences to the vocations. These motives\nare eminently moral and justify the inclusion in the curriculum of every high school of\nthat most permanent and fundamental of the vocations — agriculture.\nCorrelation with the sciences. — -\"It is the business of secondary education to raise all\nsubjects which it touches to the plane of science.\" To be made scientific, agriculture must\nutilize and be closely correlated with the physical and biological sciences, especially botany\nand chemistry. At the same time these sciences have their own particular ends to achieve.\nThese courses in science and agriculture are formulated in the conviction that, to a large\ndegree, the interests of both agriculture and the sciences are best subserved by a correlation whereby agricultural materials and problems are made the means of teaching science\nfor science's sake as well as for the needs of agriculture. This necessity diminishes with\nadvancing years, permitting a gradual divergence of the scientific and the vocational\ncourses.\nMotive of high-school science. — Unlike the humanities, scientific knowledge has little\nconventional value. It is very important from the standpoint of the high-school student\nthat his science instruction have a definite purpose that he can appreciate and that it\ndeal as much as possible with familiar materials. Experience has proven that biological\nsciences are best introduced thru an economic appeal. This means its correlation with\nagriculture and domestic science. This introduction happily achieved, many may elect\nto continue the science in its more systematic form, while those not interested in its organization may have acquired the information needful to their practical or vocational purposes. Utilizing vocational subjects has the advantage of making the student of science\nan active factor in the outcome of the situation under investigation, where, by former\nmethods, he is only a passive observer. Such experiences in control disseminate the science\nof the school into the community and lead to a social efficiency in human affairs that alone\n\n"}
{"page": 1410, "printed_page": null, "text": "1394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\njustifies making the expense of education a charge upon the public. Purposeless science\nhas no place in the high school.\nRational hygienic practices are not to be acquired from the mere study of books and\nprecepts. Present-day reforms suggested by such terms as public health, food economy,\nconservation, sex science, and eugenics depend for their future progress less upon theoretical moral motives than upon practical scientific means. Their success is the peculiar\nprovince and inspiration of the science department. The modern science of education is\nwritten in terms of biology and evolution — matters that can be properly appreciated only\nby one who has studied protoplasm first hand in its various forms and activities. The\nscientific method, originating with the natural sciences, has reformed the entire curriculum\nby the enforcement of the laboratory idea on every subject, and the former will always be\nthe appropriate training for that method. The organization of any science tends to\nisolate it from all others. The utilization of science in the industries bridges the gulfs that\nhave grown between the sciences, bringing about a much-to-be-desired \"unity of science,\"\nand promises to be the salvation of the sciences to the high school.\nSequence of sciences and agriculture. — So far as the two are correlated the sequence\nobserved in the presentation of agricultural topics will be the same as that found most\nsuitable for the sciences. And superior to both of these subjects the physical development\nof the child, and the psychological development, of which it is a reliable index, dictate, so\nfar as ascertainable, the character of the appropriate school exercises in these subjects.\nSeasonal sequence. — ^The vocational and scientific character and topical sequence of\nthe work having been provided for, pedagogical and practical needs are best subserved\nby a seasonal presentation such as to make each topic the subject of study in the school\nat or shortly preceding the time when it is at high tide of interest in the farm home.\nBesides its valuable training in vocational punctuality, the anticipation of the season\nis invaluable in this subject that is so dependent upon local support.\nOther correlated subjects. — Other subjects correlated with the agricultural work are\nfreehand drawing and arithmetic. The need for drawing as a means of expression and\nrecord in the making of agricultural notes is a strong incentive which set exercises in\ndrawing may sometimes lack, while the subject, agriculture, greatly profits from the\ncharacter given it by such drawings. Similarly, arithmetic both gives and receives great\nbenefit by being utilized to give exact character to principles that have quantitative\nrelation.\nExtra-program activities. — Owing to its manual character and to its attempt to utilize\nwhat the home and the community afford, agriculture should only to a limited extent be\nmade a formal subject. Much of its exercises must be extra-program. These may be\nclassified as excursions of observation, home projects, and community services. Excursions are undertaken to view herds, machinery, orchards and gardens, and field operations.\nA home project is a student's selected individual undertaking of vocational character\nin which are sought to inculcate the scientific study of the problems connected with the\nproject, which may be a cow, an orchard, a field crop, or a flock of poultry, etc. Besides\nexercise in the application of science to the solution of a practical problem, the taking of\ndata, and the recording of results, the student is expected to keep a complete financial\naccounting and to endeavor to demonstrate the economic possibilities of the project.\nCommunity services have for their purpose the development of social efficiency in the\nstudent. The exercises affording practice consist of pruning, spraying, budding, testing\nseeds, milk, and foods, identification and control of pests, and many others. Much\nattention should be given to these extra-program features of the agricultural work and\nthey should be interpolated at the appropriate time in the various agricultural topics.\nTwo classes of students. — The agricultural work of the high school is for two classes of\nstudents. First are those whose interest is primarily in the vocation of agriculture\nwhich they expect to pursue after completion of the course. These give the dominant\ncharacter to the work necessary to make it a suitable training for the second class, who\n\n"}
{"page": 1411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\npursue its courses for their more general scientific or preparatory value. This second\nclass are not expected to divert it from its former purpose, else they may thereby impair\nthe latter.\nWork ojfered. — The courses offered are: field crops, lo weeks, animal husbandry,\n20 weeks, horticulture, 20 weeks, foods and fertility, 20 weeks, farm mechanics, 26 weeks,\nand a 10 weeks' course in agriculture synthesizing all previous courses into a \"science of\nagriculture.\" Besides these, soil physics is taught in connection with physical geography,\neconomic plant structures in botany, economic insects as a part of zoology, bacteriology,\nand sex science in the study of crypt ogamic botany, and heredity, variation, and selection\nCOURSE IN SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS, ILLUSTRATING CORRELATION AND MOTOR AND SEASONAL SEQUENCE\n2d 10 Weeks\n\n1st 10 Weeks\n\nPhysiography\n\n3d 10 Weeks\nand Elementary\n\n4th 10 Weeks\n\nPhysics\n\nS.A.\nearth structure, weathering, stream action, soils,\nspecific gravity, texture,\ncapillarity, moisture control, tillage.\n\nland\n\nforms,\nphysiographic regions, relief\nmodels,\ntopographic\nmaps, soil survey maps,\nsoils of state.\n\nair,\n\nwater, heat, mechanics of gases and\nliquids,\nclimate,\nweather,\nprinciples of\nmachinery,\nhousehold\n\ni physics.\nAnimal Husbandry\n(see 4th year)\n\nField Crops\n(see 4th year)\nBotany\n\nocean,\n\nearth\n\nrelations,\n\ngeographical\ndistribution and production,\ngeog. influences, soil\ntemperature, control.\nBegin projects\n(see 4th year)\n\nHorticulture\n\nS.A.\nmorphology of root, stem\nand leaf, flowers and\nfruits, recognition of 12\neconomic families, fertilization, control,\n(breeding)\n\nminute\nstructure\nof | graft,\nbud,\nprune,\nj gardening,\nvariety\nroot, stem\nand\nleaf, spray, plant, cutting, t tests, culture methods,\nphysiology of phanerolayering, hotbed, cold I economic\nproduction,\ngams, seed structure and\nframe, seed identifica- ] pests, accounts,\ngermination, osmosis,\ntion, purity, viability, 1\nmetabolism.\nand control.\nnature-study (?)\n\nZoology, Invertebrate\nS.A.\neconomic\ninsects, life\nhistories\nand\ncontrol,\nearthworm,\nother\neconomic forms, parasites.\n\ntype studies, systematic\nzoology,\nprotoplasm,\nnatural selection, parasitism, reproduction.\n\nS.A.\nbacteriology,\ncontagi- 1 cryptogams, life cycles,\nons, and control, hysystematic\ngiene, economic forms,\ntionary, sex and\nscience.evoluyeasts\nand molds, soil 1\nbacteria.\nFoods and Fertility\nA\n\nChemistry\nS.A.\nlaboratory, text, and theory\n\nfeeds and rations, food\ntests and problems,\ncalorimetry, carbon cycle, making rations,\nlocal forage crops.\n\nFarm Mechanics\nA.\n\n-■Vnatomy\n\nand\n\nfertility, lab. and theory,\nnitrogen cycle, role of\nhumus, field and pot control, problems, conservation.\nPhysiology\n\nComparative\n\nblacksmithing, pipe fitting, concrete work, leveling\ntractors, gasoline engines, pumps, implements,\nbuildings, draughting, and problems.\nField Crops\nA.\ncom, wheat, cotton, all\nothers, (take three including corn) variety,\nquality, culture, pests,\ncomposition,\nproducts,\neconomics.\n\nvertebrate type studies, skeletal, muscular, digesreproductive, respiratory, circulatory, nervous,\ntive, tissues, variation, inheritance, eugenics.\nS.\nAgricultitre\nAnimal Husbandry\n\nA.\ndairy, beef, horse, swine, sheep, poultry, (take\nfour including dairy) origin, breed, conformation,\nquality, score card, judging, adaptarion, care,\nproduction.\nPhysics\nS.\n\n*\n\nA.\nsystem,tal, equipment,\ncapibalance, rotation,\neconomy,\nexcursions,\ncommunity\nservices,\nhome projects and\ntheses.\n\n"}
{"page": 1412, "printed_page": null, "text": "1396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nin human physiology. The first three courses are offered without any previously required\nscience work. The others require a study of correlated sciences to precede or accompany\nthem. Field crops and animal husbandry are repeated in the last year of the course so that\nthey may be reviewed in the light of the sciences that have intervened between that and\ntheir presentation in the first year of the course. If to these regular agricultural courses\nbe added the agricultural work incorporated in the science courses, it amounts, exclusive\nof the purely science courses, to one- fourth of the time of the high-school student, in his\nfour-year high-school course.\nNOTES\n\nON THE COURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nSubjects prescribed to science students are indicated by the letter S; to agricultural\nstudents, by the letter A . The two courses are seen to coincide in much of their work in\nthe early part of the course and to gradually diverge toward vocational agriculture and\nmore technical science toward the latter part. The agricultural course is planned for\nstudents whose training is limited to the high school. The science course is suited to\nstudents who elect a general course or a college-preparatory course. It is not the agricultxiral work but the science courses so modified as to correlate with the agricultural\nthat constitute the preparation for the agricultural or other college. In choosing electives\nthe student of either course may well elect so as to make them still further coincide.\nThe course is shown in ten weeks' units so as to indicate the necessary seasonal\nsequence of subjects. Physiology and farm mechanics being independent of this sequence\nare interchangeable in position.\nWhere a science subject is followed by its application in an agricultural subject the\norder of presentation here given should be preserved. Horticulture, field crops, and animal\nhusbandry of the first two years are independent of any such requirement. These subjects are open to short coiurse agriculture students; and since every high school contemplated by this course must prepare to train rural teachers, these may also constitute\ntraining courses for teachers.\nThe work of assembling materials for the courses of field crops and animal husbandry,\nthe fact that the beginner needs these subjects to stimulate his nascent vocational instincts,\nwhile the fourth-year student needs a review of them from his scientific viewpoint, the\nfact that the materials viewed in the fourth year will not be identical with those viewed\nby the same student in his first year, and that too few samples or individuals wiU, at best, be\nseen by the student, make it advisable to present those courses to first- and fourth-year\nstudents simultaneously. There are good reasons why all parties concerned may profit\nfrom a union of classes tho not by an identical requirement for completion of this work.\nIt is understood that a maximum of laboratory work will be undertaken in all of these\nsubjects.\nOne period each week thruout the first year should be given to freehand drawing,\nusing the materials suppUed by the work in agriculture, physiography, and elementary\nphysics. This time may be taken out of that allotted to elementary physics and physiography and special attention given to notebooks in that subject.\nProblems in arithmetic, which alone can make definite the nature of quantitative\nfactors, should be developed wherever practicable. Apphcations of percentage occur\nin humus and moisture determinations, milk and seed testing, composition of feeds and\nfertiUzers; proportion is developed in laws of gases and liquids, specific gravity, laws of\nmachines, chemical equations and calorimetry; angular measurements in earth relations\nand leveling; mensuration in farm mechanics; alligation in prescribing rations and fertilizers; accounts in projects, gardening, and general agriculture; curves and statistical\nmethods in physiography, government reports, and heredity.\nThe home project may be any {igricultural undertaking within the resources of the\nstudent, chosen early in his course and pursued to the last year, where it is formulated in a\ngraduation thesis showing practical and scientific factors involved and how they were\n\n"}
{"page": 1413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n1397\n\ncontrolled, with a complete financial accounting.\nIts aim is to develop ability to apply*\nschool learned knowledge outside the school, to acquire original knowledge in the only\nmethod by which human knowledge may be acquired, and to gain experience in the control of forces which make the individual efl&cient.\nCommunity services belong to the entire field of science and agriculture and are a\ncombination of practical sociology with practical science. Students of the various courses\nshould undertake such services at all appropriate occasions and they cannot be written\ninto the course or program. They consist of tests of weight and quality of any article\nbought or sold in the community; testing seeds, milk, textiles, microscopic and chemical\ntests of foods, fertilizers, and spray compounds; identification and control of pests;\nexcursions for pruning, grafting, spraying, landscape work, and many others of similar\nnature.\nTheir aim is social efficiency.\nAttention is called to the method of introduction to the several sciences thru an\neconomic appeal, followed later by scientific organization.\nThis course is thought suited to any high school in a city of less than 10,000 population. The two- or three-year high school should cover the first two years of this course,\nmaking a straight year's work of the field crops, animal husbandry, and horticulture. It\nis believed that this course is translatable into the credits or units with which school men\nare familiar, and that it is general enough in its application to fit any locality in the United\nStates in which agricultural work in the high school is feasible, with an allowance of not\nmore than 10 or 15 per cent for local dififerences.\n\nThe above subcommittee report is included here as a carefully workedout plan of determining the course in agriculture in accordance with the\nrequirements of seasonal sequence in relation to the high-school sciences,\nkeeping in mind the psychological development of the child thru his progressive motor developments.\nIf \"the child's mind and body, rather than the material, should be the\ncontrolling factors that determine courses of study\"; if \"interest in vocation is born in adolescence\"; if \"the manual vocations normally precede\nthe others\"; and if \"crude, rapid work must come before refined, painstaking, delicate work,\" we must interpret the foregoing outline course to\nindicate that under \"principles of machinery\" and \"household physics\"\nof the first year there will be included such crude, general elementary work\nas will provide the needed training in motor activity and vocational direction at that time and that the fourth-year work in farm mechanics will provide the more refined, painstaking work adapted to the later psychological\ndevelopment.\n\nA question is raised also as to the assignment of \"project work\" to the\nfirst year of the course, for the reason that the average beginning high-school\nchild is not mentally prepared to plan out, or to appreciate when planned\nby others, a methodical plan of secondary investigation work, and that if\nthe planning must all be done at this stage by the teacher, the value of the\nwork does not differ much from that to be had in ordinary school and home\ngarden work which ought to be assigned to grades below the high school.\nIf the project work is begun in the first year, it may well be confined to\ndemonstration work which is within the capabilities of the child but the\nnature of which leads out beyond the simpler work of the garden.\n\n"}
{"page": 1414, "printed_page": null, "text": "1398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agiicultural\n\n• The course of study worked out for New York state by C. L. Howe has\na definite sequence in the arrangement of the courses in animal husbandry.\nIn this, the poultry course is given first place in the last half of the second\nyear, and is followed in the third year by a general course in animal husbandry exclusive of dairying and poultry husbandry. The third year's\nwork is followed by a full year's work in dairying, running thruout the fourth\nyear. Poultry husbandry, the simplest of the studies in animal husbandry,\nis rapidly gaining ground as a strong introductory topic to the course in\nanimal husbandry. This is true especially in the smaller school where the\nteacher is a woman, or where the facilities for the study of livestock other\nthan poultry are not most favorable.\nThe foregoing subcommittee report and references thereto are submitted\nas a basis for discussion and as an indication of the work the committee has\nunder way for definite recommendation later.\nB. AGRICULTURE\nB. M. DAVIS, PROFESSOR\n\nIN THE\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nSCHOOLS.\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nMIAMI\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nUNR'^RSITY,\n\nOXFORD,\n\nOHIO\n\nSome guiding principles. — A minimum course of study in agriculture for the rural\nschools should take into consideration, at least in part, the following: selection of units\nof instruction; organization (amount of time at disposal for various subjects) of the\naverage rur%l school; use of material within teacher's range of experience or knowledge;\nattitude of patrons of the school toward agriculture as a school subject; the importance\nof concrete experience on part of pupil; possible correlations with other school subjects.\nThe average school is not now ready to cover the whole subject of agriculture, even\nin an elementary way. For this reason, the subject should be broken up into units of\ninstruction, each unit being more or less compact in itself. The selection of these units\nshould be based mainly upon the dominant agricultural interests of the community, but\nmay be determined in part by the teacher's knowledge or interest in the particular topic.\nTime may be provided in several ways: by arranging the units selected into some\nsystem of rotation so that no pupil will go over any phase of the subject more than once\nunless in some new association. In arranging the units of instruction for all the grades,\nthree groups may be recognized :\nGroup I, including grades 1-3\nGroup 2, including grades 4-6\nGroup 3, including grades 7-8\nIn the first two, the nature-study aspect of the subject should predominate and may\ninclude a number of small units. In the last, rather large but definitely agricultural subjects may be selected. Time may also be gained by having various home projects and\nby making agriculture furnish material for other school subjects.\nIn order that agriculture should make its best contribution in the work of the school,\nthe subjects chosen should not only be those in which the community is interested, but\nshould also be possible of actual practical application in improvnng local agricultural\npractice.\nIn this way the school will receive its best support from the community.\nNo unit should be included in a course of study that does not admit of the pupil's\nactual contact with materials, i.e., with animals, plants, soils, and, so far as possible, with\nactual agricultural practices. The various correlations of each unit with other school\nsubjects should be carefully arranged ^or. This will not only be of mutual advantage to\nall subjects concerned, but will help remove some of the difficulties arising from lack of\ntime.\n\n"}
{"page": 1415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON COURSES\nUNITS\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n1399\n\nOF INSTRUCTION\n\nThe course of study may be made up from the following:\nGroup I. — Common birds, trees, weeds, insects, simple garden operations, etc.\nData should be gathered for use in later study.\nGroup 2. — The same units as in Group i, but each unit being presented in form of a\nproblem involving activity on part of pupil, for example, weeds, collecting weed seed, and\ndetermining the ones commonly found in commercial seeds.\nIn addition, certain phases of the units in the suggested list for Group 3, may be used,\nfor example, testing germinating value of seed corn.\nGroup J. — .\\nimal husbandry (certain phases of stock judging, etc.); farm crops;\nsoil studies; gardening (school and home gardens); dairying (especially testing milk);\ninsects; seed testing; horticulture; poultry; forestry; weeds; birds; work of plant\n(how it lives, etc.); fertilizers.\nThe particular plan of these large units should be selected according to principles\nalready suggested, with particular reference to the dominant agricultural interests of the\ncommunity. For example, farm crops may be studied anywhere, but whether corn or\ncotton should be studied must depend upon the geographical location of the school, or on\nlocal agricultural importance of crop.\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nTOPICS AS ACTUALLY\n\nTAUGHT\n\nIN SOME RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIt is intended that this part of the report should be based chiefly on an investigation\nof successful practices now actually in operation in rural schools in various parts of the\ncountry. Thru correspondence with state department^ of education, with departments of\nagricultural education in agricultural colleges, with county superintendents, and with\nothers interested in agricultural education, a list of about eight hundred names of successful teachers of agriculture was obtained. From this list six hundred were chosen,\nrepresenting every section of the country. To each of these was sent the following\nquestionnaire:\nKindly fill out and mail in addressed envelope.\n1. Do you regard it desirable to cover the whole subject of agriculture in an elementary way with pupils below high school ?\n2. Or do you regard the plan of selecting certain units or topics, such as corn, milk,\npoultry, plant enemies, etc., more desirable?\n3. Give list of topics that you have found or regard as most successful.\n4. Is home-made or school-made apparatus used? If so, give examples of some\nused to best advantage.\n5. To what extent has outdoor field work been used successfully ? State nature of\nthe work, subject, and approximately the amount of time spent.\n6. To what extent have farm animals been used in teaching, i.e., actual study of the\nanimals themselves ?\n7. How did you manage this animal study?\n8. How much experimental work on school grounds or in building have you done ?\n9. How was this experimental work managed ?\n10. To what extent have you made use of borrowed apparatus, such as farm machinery, scales, milk-testers, etc. ?\n11. To what extent has the work in agriculture been a practical success judged by\napplication at home, and in approval of patrons ?\n12. In what ways has agriculture been correlated with other school subjects?\n13. Has it helped instruction in these subjects?\n14. Mention some difficulties you have met with in the teaching of agriculture.\n15. What has been your guide in selection of topics or units for instruction, i.e.,\nteacher's manual, textbook, community interests, etc. ?\n16. Will you suggest on back of this sheet some things that should be included in &\ncourse of study that would be most helpful to a teacher ?\nAddress\nName\n\nAbout three hundred have thus far responded with full answers to the questions,\nThe data\nand many have given valuable information not suggested by the questions.\n\n"}
{"page": 1416, "printed_page": null, "text": "I400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nof these answers need further tabulation and study. Only a very brief partial summary\ncan now be presented.\nWhether an attempt should be made to cover the entire subject is, perhaps, a debatable question. Yet it is one that should receive first consideration, for a satisfactory\nanswer will determine latgely the nature of the work undertaken. About one out of five\nteachers reporting favor covering the entire subject, but most of these qualify their statement by saying they would emphasize certain phases and pass rapidly over others. The\ngreat majority of teachers reporting, prefer to select certain units and confine instruction\nto these. There can be no pedagogical objection to this. After all, it is only in actual\nagricultural practice that the various more or less unrelated units are brought together\nin a system of farm practice, and these differ according to the degree of specialization.\nAt present it would seem enough to expect that instruction be given in certain units only,\nbut chosen with special reference to the interests of the community. The subject is then\nmore likely to be well taught and to find favor with the patrons. It must be remembered\nthat agriculture is not to be taught merely as an additional school subject, but that it\nshould help raise the value of the school in the eyes of the community. The latter point\nis very important in view of the indifference of much of the rural population to education.\nIf by testing milk for the farmers of a neighborhood, the school can show the advantage of better breeds of dairy cattle and thus increase the value of dairy products of the\ncommunity, there is, besides the educational gain to the pupils in working out this problem, a closer bond established between the school and its patrons. This added interest\nmay develop into better supp)ort and greater educational facilities. It is in some such\nway as this that agriculture as a school subject has its greatest opportunity.\nAlmost all phases of agriculture have been successfully introduced in an elementary\nway into the rural schools. A partial examination of the answers to the questionnaire\nshows the following list of subjects to have been taught successfully. The subjects appear\nin order of frequency of mention in answers.\nAnimal husbandry (certain phases of stock judging, etc.)\nFarm crops\nSoil studies\nGardening (school and home gardens)\nDairying (especially testing milk)\nInsects\nSeed testing\nHorticulture\nPoultry\nForestry\nWeeds\nBirds\nWork of plant (how it lives, etc.)\nFertilizers\nCrop rotation\nDrainage\n*\nForage crops\n'\nFarm roads\nFarm management (especially accounts)\nUseful wild animals (e.g., toad)\nWeather\nRope splicing\nPlant diseases\nPlant propagation\n,\nDry farming\nOf these the first twelve seem to be in most favor. The list indicates that the basis\nof choice is largely community interest.\nIndeed this is so stated by many of the teachers.\nThe committee presents this simply to indicate the nature of the investigation now\nin progress and as preliminary to a full report to be submitted later. The final report will\npresent the results of the material now collected, together with a consideration of various\n\n"}
{"page": 1417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON COURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n1401\n\nfactors which should be taken into consideration in determining a course of study, and\nwill also include a suggestive outline with helps to teachers for work in agriculture adapted\nto the needs of the average rural school.\nC.\n\nON A MINIMUM COURSE OF STUDY IN AGRICULTURE FOR RURAL\nELEMENTARY ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS LOCATED IN\nAGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES\n\nRILEY\n\nO. JOHNSON,\n\nDEPARTMENT\nTHE\n\nOF BIOLOGY AND\nCHICO, CAL.\nNEED\n\nFOR\n\nAGRICULTURE,\n\nA MINIMUM\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCOURSE\n\nThe necessity for a minimum course of study in agriculture lies in the following facts:\n1. Any complete course of study in this subject, because of the multiplicity of topics\nwhich it would contain, would tend strongly to discourage the great majority of teachers\nwho are yet not thoroly acquainted with the materials of the subject nor with the literature bearing upon these materials. Such a course would of necessity contain a great\nmany topics of which most teachers are either entirely ignorant, or with which they are\nat best only more or less remotely acquainted. Moreover, the literature bearing upon\nthese topics is so scattered that it can be brought together only with considerable difficulty and expense of time and effort, and even when once collected, is verj'^ difficult of\norganization, either because of its fragmentary or technical character, or both.\n2. The somewhat intensive study of a few topics will result on the part of the pupils\nin a deeper and a more sustained interest and in the acquirement of greater strength than\nthe necessarily more superficial study of a considerable number of topics.\n3. Such a course can more easily be adapted by teachers unskilled in the teaching\nof agriculture to the needs of their particular localities.\n4. In following such a course, the likelihood of the teacher's spending unnecessary\ntime on relatively unimportant topics is reduced to the lowest minimum.\n5. A minimum course is sufficient to utilize all of the time which can possibly be\nfound for agriculture at present in the already overcrowded curriculum of the rural\nschool. Thus a good beginning of the work will be assured and the course can be expanded\nin response to the demand for more time for this subject.\nWHAT\n\nA\n\nMINIMUM\n\nCOURSE\n\nSHOULD\n\nINCLUDE\n\nThis minimum course in agriculture should provide, first of all, for actual contact\nwith the materials of the subject, i.e., with animals and plants and soils, and with, so far\nas possible, actual agricultural operations, especially so far as the latter may enter into\nthe work carried on in the school garden. It should also provide for formal class instruction concerning these materials. In other words, the work in agriculture should embrace,\nso far as possible, actual experience with animals (at home) and plants (at school and\nhome) and the formal lesson in classroom and field. In order to make it serviceable in\npractically any locality where agriculture could profitably be taught, such a minimum\ncourse should include animals and plants common to large areas, such as the domestic\nanimals, beneficial and injurious insects, and other animals of economic importance and\nof wide distribution, the more common field-crop plants, and subjects of general interest\nin every locality, such as forestry and the weather.\nOne of the practical difficulties encountered in making a course of study in agriculture for rural schools, overcrowded as the curriculum now seems to be, is so to construct ithat, while serving the entire school, it will call for a minimum number of classes;\nand further, so to arrange for its practical administration that no pupil passing regularly from grade to grade shall be required to unnecessarily repeat any part of the work.\nAnother difficulty in constructing such a course is its adaptation to schools of any number\nof grades from the entire eight down to one. Since the rural schools quite generally have\n\n"}
{"page": 1418, "printed_page": null, "text": "I402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nat some time all the eight grades, it is well that the course be constructed mainly with\nreference to its use in such schools; and then, if possible, to devise some plan according\nto which it may easily be so modified as to fit it to schools of any number of grades less\nthan eight.\nIn order to meet the above-mentioned difficulties, and to bring it within range of the\nteacher's ability properly to prepare for the regular recitation in this new subject, it is\nsuggested that the school be divided into two groups for class instruction, tho the number of groups may easily be increased to three or more, if desirable. If it be deemed\nbest or necessary to divide the school into two groups, the dividing Une may be drawn\nbetween any two grades, to suit the convenience of the teacher and the needs of the\nschool. The course of study (suggested below) is then divided into two sections corresponding to these two groups, and the section for each group is then divided up into as\nmany parts as there are grades in that group. The parts are then given in rotation, one\npart being given each year, until every part in that section has been given in its turn.\nEach section is then repeated, in the same order, beginning at part \"one\" of the same\nsection again. Such a course may very appropriately be termed a \"rotation\" course\nin agriculture.\nWEAKNESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n\"ROTATION\"\n\nCOURSE\n\nIn a course so arranged and administered, it would hardly be expected that any\nstrictly logical connection should exist between the parts into which the course is divided,\ntho it might exist between the units constituting a part; but the committee feel that the\ncourse would not be any the less valuable on that account. A further weakness of a\ncourse so arranged is that all the parts of the course in each section would have to be\nabout equally adapted to all the grades in the group for which it was intended.\nThere are, however, among the topics suggested in the course below, few, if any,\nwhich may not be made to appeal strongly to any pupil of any grade in the elementary\nschool, and in which his inteT-est cannot be maintained while teaching the topic to others\nof widely varying ages; especially is this true if the more simple questions are directed\nfirst to the younger pupils and then referred to those successively older imtil answered.\nAlso work correlated with the lesson and carefully prepared by the teacher beforehand,\nsuch as drawing, or modeling, may be given the younger members of the class if they\nshould tire before the end of the recitation period. So long, however, as they do not\ntire, they should be allowed to attend to, and, so far as possible, take active part in the\nrecitation.\nADAPTATION\n\nOF\n\nTOPICS\n\nTO\n\nGRADES\n\nSince the younger pupils are usually more interested in things which are alive and\nmoving, it would be well to give in the lower group a large part of the instruction pertaining to animals and animal life, and such work on plants as does not require or involve\nany but the very simplest discussion of physical and chemical facts, other relations being\nreserved, so far as it is advisable, for group two. For similar reasons, it would be well\nto emphasize more strongly the garden and other field work, especially the excursion work,\nwith group one. Such excursion work should consist in a study, by direct observation\nout of doors, of all the main factors which influence directly the life of the plant and of\nthe animal; such as the weather, birds, insects, insect injuries, insect enemies, weeds,\nplant diseases, soils, soil-making, transportation of soils, homes of animals, migration of\nanimals, and so on. The gardening should include window gardening in boxes, pots, and\ncans, \"eggshell farming,\" ornamental plantings on school grounds and at home.\nThe pupils of the higher group will, on the other hand, take a keener interest in such\nthings as Ufe-processes of animals and plants, and the chemical, physical, and biological\nactivities going on in the soil and making plant life possible. For this reason, a series of\nexperiments designed to be carried on both indoors and outdoors, at school and at home,\nand so arranged as to set before the pupil clearly and in logical order the life-processes of\n\n"}
{"page": 1419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON COURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n1403\n\nthe plant and the relation of the plant to the various factors of its environment, is recommended for this group. These experiments, together with their intelligent discussion, arc\nintended to give the pupil a fair knowledge of the principles underlying all the common\nagricultural operations utilized in the raising of field crops, and a fair working knowledge\nof such topics as soil moisture and its control, soil biology in its relation to soil fertility,\nlegumes and their relation to the nitrogen content of soils, fertilizers, crop rotation, irrigation, dry farming, and so on; and to interest them in, and enable them to read much\nof, the experiment station Hterature with profit.\nIn their field work at school, and so far as possible in their work at home, the pupils\nshould be required and encouraged to put to a practical test the facts gained from the\nexperiments and discussions and from their reading.\nADAPTATION\n\nOF THE\n\nCOtTRSE\n\nTO\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWITH\n\nVARYING\n\nNUMBER\n\nOF GRADES\n\nThe \"rotation\" course herewith submitted will be found applicable, as has been\nsuggested above, to schools of eight grades, or any number of grades less than eight.\nWhere each grade occupies a room to itself, the parts of the course may be assigned one\nto each room, and this part will then of course be repeated each year. Where more than\none grade is present in a room, as many parts of the course may be assigned to such room\nas there are grades in the room, one part being given each year until all parts thus assigned\nhave been given and then beginning again with the one presented first. Where the\ncourse is to be thus apportioned among two or more rooms, especially when the first six\nparts are to be so apportioned, topics may be shifted, at the judgment of the supervisor\nor principal, from one part to another, before the course is put into operation, so as better\nto adapt it to the different grades. The course may also be more closely adapted to the\nneeds of different communities, by substituting for the things which are less common\nothers which are of greater importance locally. But in any case where a shift or substitution ismade, it would better be done, for obvious reasons, before the course is put into\noperation. It is advised that in teaching, the number of topics assigned to each part\nbe diminished rather than increased.\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nFOR\n\nA MINIMUM\n\nCOURSE\n\nSection I\nPART\n\nI\n\n1. Cattle, with special reference to the dairy cow\n2. Wheat, or corn, or cereal raised in greatest abundance in locality\n3. The honey-bee and bee-keeping to supply the family table\n4. Fish and their relation to mosquitoes and other insects\n5. Clothes moth and other household insects\nPART\n\nII\n\n1. Feeds, feeding, and care of domestic animals (include all not studied separately)\n2. Alfalfa, or most important forage plant of locality\n3. Crow, or most troublesome bird of locality\n4. Mosquitoes and their relation to diseases of different kinds\n5. Toad as an insect-destroyer\nPART\n\nIII\n\n1. Chicken-raising with special reference to the laying hen\n2. Tree study, and tree planting for shade and ornament\n3. Seed and plant dissemination, especially as applying to weeds\n4. The snake and needless fear concerning it\n5. Insect pests other than those studied in connection with other topics\nPART\n\nIV\n\n1. The horse and how to take care of it\n2. The home garden and its care and management\n3. The ant and its relation to destructive insects\n4. Forms of water and their work, with special reference to soils\n5. Life in ponds and streams\n\n"}
{"page": 1420, "printed_page": null, "text": "I404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\n1 . The bush fruits and grapes for home use\n2. Birds in their economic relations\n3. The weather as a factor in crop production\n4. The house fly as a coiner of disease; other flies\n5. Gopher, or worst rodent pest of locality\nPART\n\nVI\n\n1. The fruit-orchard, home and commercial\n2. Plant diseases, with special reference to orchards and farm crops\n3. Butterfly, or moth, the species whose larva is most destructive in the locality\n4. The earthworm and its work in the soil\n'\n5. The bat as an insect-destroyer about the home.\nSchool and home gardens every year during gardening season.\nSection n\n(The study of all topics in Parts I and II of Section II,- to be based upon experimentation)\nPART\n\nI\n\nThe Plant and Its Relation to the Various Factors of Its Environment\n\n1. Relation of the plant to water, air, light, warmth, and food, including a general\nview of the processes by means of which these five things are appropriated and\nused\n2. The soil and its store of plant-foods\n3. Conservation of soil fertility by growing legumes, by green manuring, and by crop\nrotation\n4. Fertilizing of soils by means of farm-made fertilizers\nPART\n\nII\n\nThe Plant and Its Relation to the Various Factors of Its Environment\n\n1 . Commerical fertilizers and r6Ie of bacteria in preparing plant-foods generally\n2. How plants feed: acid and alkali soils\n3. Forms in which water exists in the soil\n4. Conservation of soil moisture by cultivation and dry farming methods\nSchool and home gardens each year during gardening season\nTHE\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMINIMUM\n\nCOURSE\n\nFrom what has been said above it will be seen that the aim is not necessarily to teach\nall the topics in any one part in one year. That matter is optional with the teacher. If\nthe teacher is able to spend the time necessary in preparation, it would be better to teach\nbut one topic (especially so in Section I) each year, and that particular one should be the\none which is of greatest importance in the community. Attempting but one topic a year\nwill simplify the matter of preparation for the teacher and will at the same time give\nthe pupils the feeling at the end of the year that they really have a prettj^feood knowledge\nof at least one line of agricultural work. It would be better, perhaps, to omit none of\nthe topics in Section II.\nIn the teaching of any topic, it would be best to arrange the order of presentation\nof subtopics according to the season, at the same time preserving the sequence so far as\npossible.\nGeneral observation work should be encouraged in every way possible all thru the\nyears particularly with respect to birds and the weather. Bird and wild flower calendars\nand weather charts will help to maintain interest in this part of the work in the lower\ngrades; in the upper grades written language work may be so assigned as to involve\nobservation work.\nFor the sake of the younger pupils, in Section I, direct particular attention, in the\nstudy of animals, to the young. Also bring out humane methods of treatment as often\nas possible, as well as the animal's care of its own body.\nTHE\n\nCOLLECTION\n\nOF\n\nINFORMATION\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nTOPICS\n\nThe first step in the collection of information on any agricultural topic is always the\nfirst-hand study of the thing itself. Not until this step has been taken should the\nteacher seek help from others or from the printed page, and even when assistance is\n\n"}
{"page": 1421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nREPORT\n\nON COURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n1405\n\nsought from others, the facts thus gained should always be verified by a fresh observation\nso far as this may be possible. The patrons of the school and the children themselves\nwill be able to give much information of the kind sought and such information should\nalways be utilized. Many of the topics will be found treated in books, some of them\nvery extensively, and some of them occupying an entire book or treatise. Others may\nbe found treated at some length in textbooks on agriculture, especially in the Encyclopedia\nof American Agriculture. Information from these sources may be extensively supplemented from the bulletins, yearbooks, and yearbook reprints of the United States\nDepartment of Agriculture at Washington, and from the bulletins of the various state\nagricultural experiment stations. The pupils may be encouraged to bring in magazine\narticles, newspaper clippings, and items of interest, and the teacher herself will be able\nto find much valuable material in her general reading of newspapers and periodicals.\nEvery new idea so gained should be filed away in systematic form so that it may easily\nbe found when needed. To this file should be added any new bit of information gained,\nfrom whatever source it may come, and in each case the date of utterance and the\nauthority should be carefully noted.\nILLUSTRATION\n\nOF MANNER\n\nIN\n\nWHICH\n\nTOPICS\n\nARE\n\nSUPPOSED\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nWORKED\n\nOUT\n\nSection I\nPART\n\nI\n\nCaUle (especially the dairy cow) :\nI. Needs of cattle (as animals)\n1. Food\na) Kinds and their production\nb) Feeding of different kinds of feed\nc) Precautions in feeding some kinds of feed\nd) Treatment of ailments due to lack of proper caution in feeding\n'\ne) Time of feeding\n/) Amount of feed\ng) Uses made of body as food for man\nh) Digestive mechanism (also circulatory, respiratory, nervous, and excretory\nsystems in relation to digestive system)\n2. Water\na) Good and bad water for cattle\nb) Time of watering\nc) Amount of water consumed\nd) Comparison of amount taken by cow and horse\ne) Use of water by the body and various means of disposal after use\n3. Shelter\na) Necessity — nature's protection of animals against the elements\nb) Relation of shelter to feed\nc) Types of barns, their light, ventilation, cleanhness\nd) Diseases incident to housing; their prevention and remedies\ne) Tuberculosis — its nature, cause, symptoms, dissemination, etc., comparing\nwith the same in man\n4. Protection other than shelter\na) From annoyance by insects, flies of various kinds, ticks, etc.\nb) From various diseases, tuberculosis, anthrox, and other common diseases\nc) From accidents, cuts, abrasions, broken limbs, etc.\n5. Self-protection\na) From larger enemies and from other animals\nb) From flies and gnats\nc) From disease\n,.\n■\nrelated to self -protection: dehommg\nd) Body structures and habits as of\ncattle generally\n6. Humane treatment in the handling\n7. Domestication of cattle afui wild cattle\n. •/•\nr\n8. Types and characteristics of each; beef, dairy, dual purpose, significance of\ncharacteristics (study each type separately)\n9. Breeds (distinct)\na) Number\nb) Kinds or names of each of most common breeds\nc) Characteristics of each breed\nd) Origin, development, and history of each breed\n\n"}
{"page": 1422, "printed_page": null, "text": "i4o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ne) Judging of each type of each breed; terms used in judging each type and\ntheir meaning (weight, form, quality, style, temperament, muzzle, eyes,\nface, forehead, ears, neck, shoulder vein, shoiilder, breast, legs, chest, crops,\nribs, back, loin, flank, hips, rump, pin bones, thighs, twist, udder)\n10. Feeds and feeding in case of each type\na) Rations — their advantage and computation\nh) Silos and their construction\nc) Silage crops\n1 1 . Dairy farming systems\na) In their relation to feeds\nb) In their relation to soil fertility, especially to nitrogen content of soils\nc) Oriental customs of caring for animal wastes\nd) Rotation of crops in dairy farming\ne) Choice of location for dairy farm\n12. Care of the dairy cow\na) Feed\nb) Housing\nc) General treatment\n13. Keeping records of the dairy cow\na) Weighing and testing of milk; the Babcock test and its value\nb) Testing associations\nc) Weeding out of \"boarders\"\nd) Grading up the herd\ne) Relation of feeding and care of records\n/) Record yields\ng) Regularity in milking\n14. Handling of milk\na) Preparation of cow and milker for milking\nb) Types of milk pails\nc) Milking machines; their mechanism and relation to clean milk\nd) The separator and its value and use\ne) The clarifier, its value and use\n15. Preservation of milk\na) Ways in which milk is handled before reaching public\nb) Milk in its relation to the public health, especially infantile death rate\nc) Milk as a food\nd) Special precautions in handling milk\ne) Care of milk cans and bottles\n/) Certified milk\ng) Condensed milk and condensories\nh) Malted milk\ni) Laws relating to clean milk\nj) Cleanliness about the dairy\n16. if ilk products and their manufacture\na) On the farm\nb) In special factories\nc) Storing and marketing milk products\nd) Extent of dairy industry\ne) Use of dairy products as food; preparation for the table\n/) Co-operation in dairying\n17. Fattening, shipping, and marketing beef cattle\n18. Slaughter- and packing-houses\n19. Waste products in butchering and their disposal\n20. Cuts of beef\n21. Use of beef as food (including preparation for the table)\n22. The cattle-raising itidu^try and world's cattle markets\n23. Care of the dairy cow's calf\n24. Swine-raising as a side line to dairying\n25. Cattle in art and in history\n26. Arithmetic of cattle-raising, dairying, and dairy-farming\n27. Essays on the last-named topics\nILLUSTRATIVE\n\nOUTLINES\n\nOutlines of a few topics should be worked out very fully, so as to give as much as\npossible in the way of suggestions. Few teachers will find time to teach all the points in\nany such outlines, but they will nevertheless find it advantageous to prepare on all the\n\n"}
{"page": 1423, "printed_page": null, "text": "1407\n\nDepartment]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\npoints. Other things being equal, the better one knows the topic in question the better\nwill he be able to teach it. The outlines may be rearranged to suit the convenience of\nthe teacher or to conform to the season, but it is desirable to preserve the sequence as far\nas possible. No part of any topic should be dwelt upon until it becomes stale and uninteresting. Incase interest cannot be maintained in the study of any one point in the\noutline the teacher should pass on to the next.\nA\n\nMINIMUM\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nFOR\n\nRUR.\\L\n\nAND\n\nGRADED\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAnother form of the minimum course in agriculture planned for the\nrural and graded schools of Iowa carries out the idea of seasonal sequence\nof topics interspersed with the principal agricultural topic (com) forming\nONE-YEAR COURSE IN AGRICULTURE FOR IOWA\nRURAL AND GRADED SCHOOLS\nNumber of Periods per Month\nTopics\nSept.\n\nBees\nBirds\nCattle\nConveniences — farm and\nhome\nCorn\nFarm management\nFeeds and feeding\nForage crops\nHogs\nHome sanitation\nHorses\nHorticulture\nInsects.\nMachines\nMilk and its products . . .\nOats\nPlant growth\nPotatoes\nPoultry\nSeeds\nSheep.\nSocial life\nSoils\nWeeds\nWheat\n\nOct.\n\nNov.\n\nDec.\n\nJan.\n\nFeb.\n\nMar.\n\nApr.\n\nMay\n\nTotol\n\nIS\n\n3\n3\n5\n4\n3\n2\n\n6\n6\n7\n7\n4\n\n6\n\nIIS\n6\nS\nII6\n\n3\n5\n6\n4\n180\n\nTotals .\n\nthe backbone of the course. This is a part of a correlation scheme making\nseasonal application of all work possible, and including work which may be\npresented about as well one time as another in what would otherwise be\nvacant periods in the seasonal, sequential development of the basic topic\nand other topics which are either seasonal or have sequential relation to\nsuch an extent that they would require a specific placing.\nAccompanying this course of study is a correlation scheme suggesting\nsome particular applications of the work in agriculture which may be used\n\n42\n\n"}
{"page": 1424, "printed_page": null, "text": "i4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nto vitalize the work of the other school subjects and at the same time provide a means of developing necessary phases of the agricultural work which\nlack of time will not permit in the regular class work in agriculture.\nIt will be noted that i8o lessons are outlined, providing for a full\nyear's work with five ^o-minute periods per week for the school year of\nnine months. While only a limited number of the ordinary rural schools\nwill be able to carry the complete course at any one time, the arrangement\nis such that only the basic topic, \" com,\" or any other topic or combination\nof topics, may be followed thruout the year with the lessons arranged in\nseasonal, sequential order.\nWhere shorter periods for the work are necessary or where fewer periods\nper week can be provided, the teacher is directed to select only such work\nas can be adapted under governing conditions. The topics are outlined\nin units which permit the taking-up of such p'articular work as the teacher\nand the school may handle to advantage. Any one of the topics may be\nomitted without a serious weakening of the work in other topics presented.\nThe object is to provide for schools, able to carry it a complete course for\nthe entire year, and for other schools a choice of such a topics as can be\ntaught effectively. The course outlines each of the lessons, enumerating\nunder each topic suggestive supplementary correlation work at advantageous points with the other school subjects.\nThe course is designed to be a minimum course with such unit arrangement that the minimum may include any one of the topics, or all of the\ntwenty-five topics outlined. The grouping of lessons is arranged so that\nany number of topic lessons which should be presented in relative order\nare so arranged. The different groups composed of one or more lessons\nare then arranged so far as possible for seasonal presentation. The outline\ngives directions as to the particular units of the work to be presented in\nthe number of lessons indicated in each group.\nThe following outlines for birds, cattle, com, farm management, home\nsanitation, horticulture, potatoes, poultry, soils, and wheat are illustrations\nselected from the twenty-five topical outlines listed:\nBirds — 3 lessons\n1. Feeding habits\n2. Beneficial and harmful birds\n3. Protection and extermination\nCattle — 5 lessons\n1. Beef and dual purpose types : breeds; characteristics\n2. Dairy type\n3. Feeding and care of cattle\n4. Butchering, cutting, and curing\n5. Beef as a food: cooking\nCorn — 42 lessons\n1. Examination of an ear of corn (roasting ear stage)\n2. Field lesson — counting the stand\n3. Class report on field lesson — counting the stand\n4. Reports on counting the stand in the home field\n5. Desirable characteristics of the com plant\n6. Selecting corn in the field for seed or exhibition\n\n"}
{"page": 1425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n7. Storing seed corn\n\n8. Pupils' reports on home procedure of seed com handling\n9. Field lesson— determining yield according to number of ears\n10. Classroom work based on preceding field lesson\n11. Field lesson — finding out the best stand of com\n12. Classroom work based on preceding field lesson\n13. Corn products\n14. Lesson on the parts of the corn kernel\n15. Corn history — types, varieties\n16. Securing and preparing samples of corn for judging in school\n17. Judging corn; use of score card; \"Will it yield?\"\n18. Judging corn; use of score card; \"Will it ripen?\"\n19. Judging corn; use of score card; \"Will it grow?\"\n20. Judging corn; use of score card; \"Does it show improvement?\"\n21-25. Practice in scoring and judging com\n26. Methods of improving corn\n27. Crop rotations\n28. Place of com in rotation and why\n29. How to make corn germination boxes\n30. Testing seed corn\n31. Reports on tests at home\n32. Study of the young corn plant\n33. Requirements of the young plant\n34. Grading seed corn\n35. Testing the corn planter\n36. Purposes of the seed bed\n37. Preparation of the seed bed\n38. How to plant corn\n39. Cultivation of corn\n40. Animal pests in the cornfield and their destruction\n41. Weeds in the cornfield and their prevention\n42. Insect enemies of corn and their treatment\nFarm management — 6 lessons\n1. Choice of crops and animals to be raised\n2. Division of farm into field, pasture, meadow, etc.\n3. Borrowing and lending implements; trading labor\n4. Buying and selling: the home market; mail orders\n5. Utilization of by-products and waste materials\n6. Rural roads\nHome sanitation — 6 lessons\n1. Disposal of garbage\n2. Flies and mosquitoes\n3. Drainage\n4. Water supply: wells, springs, cisterns\n5. Farm buildings; location, convenience, utility, care of\n6. Back yard: sanitation of barns, feed lots, and poultry houses\nHorticulture — 15 lessons\n1. Caring for the fruit crop\n2. Canning and preserving fruits and vegetables\n3. Care of winter vegetables\n4. Cooking of vegetables\n5. Gathering and storing garden seed\n6. The hotbed and the cold frame\n7. The tomato\n8. The home garden\n9. Buying and transplanting young trees and shrubs\n10. Pruning\n11. Propagation from cuttings\n12. Grafting and budding\n13. Spraying\n14. Beautifying the home grounds\n15. Identification of young plants\nPotatoes — 6 lessons\n1-2. Potato judging — study of the tuber\n3. Care of crop\n\n1409\n\n"}
{"page": 1426, "printed_page": null, "text": "I4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\n4. Selection and preparation of seed; treatment of scab\n5. Preparation of seed bed; cultivation; spraying\n6. Ways of preparing as food\nPoultry — II lessons\n1. Types and breeds of chickens\n2. Feeding and care for winter egg la5ang; poultry pe^s\n3. Egg records; mai-keting eggs\n4. Eggs as food\n5. Feeding for market; marketing, dressed and live\n6. Getting ready for poultry shows\n7. Ducks, geese, and turkeys\n8. Preparing poultry as food\n9. The poultry house and runs\nID. Hatching; care of chicks\nII. Storing and preserving eggs\nSoils — 5 lessons\n1. Composition\n2. Capillarity of soil and retentivity of moisture\n3. Effects of cultivation\n4. Manures : barnyard and green manures\n5. Rotation of crops; effect on fertility; value of clover and alfalfa\nWheat — 4 lessons\n1. Study of wheat plant\n2. Culture\n3. Uses — manufacture of flour\n4. Bread-making\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nHOME\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCREDIT\n\nHome industrial work and activities outside of school which have educational value contribute strong support to the course of study in agriculture,\nhome economics, and manual training offered in the school.\nThe course of study in the school can well be supplemented by a \"home\nactivities\" course. The state of Oregon seems to be leading in the plan\nof giving proper school credit for meritorious home work. In answer to\nthe query: \"How can school credit be given for work done at home?\"\nState Superintendent L. R. Alderman replies:\nThis may be accomplished by printed slips asking the home to take accovmt of the\nwork that the child does at home under the instruction of the home, and explaining that\ncredit will be given this work on the school record. These slips must be prepared for\nchildren according to age so that the child will not be asked to do too much, for it must\nbe clearly recognized that children must have time for real play. \"The required tasks\nmust not be too arduous, yet they must be real tasks. They must not be tasks that will\nput extra work on parents except in the matter of instruction and observation. They may\nwell call for the care of animals, and should include garden work for both boys and girls.\nCredit in school for home industrial work (with the parents' consent) should count as\nmuch as any one study in school.\"\n\"To add interest to the work, exhibitions should be given at stated times so that all\nmay learn from each other and the best be the model for all.\" The school fairs in Yamhill,\nPolk, Benton, Lane, Wasco, and Crook counties, together with the school and home industrial work done at Eugene ,^ have convinced me most thoroly that these plans are practicable, and that school work and home work, school play and home play, and love for parents\nand respect for teachers and fellow-pupils can best be fostered by a more complete\nco-operation between school and home, so that the whole child is taken into account at\nall times.\n\n"}
{"page": 1427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON COURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\n141 1\n\nA group of Iowa teachers after discussion of the home work and school\ncredit plan included the following as suggestive items for a \"course of home\nwork\" to supplant the \"course of school study,\" with the recommendation\nthat a time limit be placed on each item and a minimum total credit during\nthe year be allowed, with the provision that where the work is clearly a\ndefinite part of any work carried in school, credit be applied in such\nsubject. Many such applications can well be made, such as: credit in\nphysiology, for work in personal and community hygiene; in agriculture,\nfor garden and farm work requiring knowledge of principles and skill in\napplication; in manual training and home economics, for respective tasks\nwell performed, and operations mastered; in language and arithmetic, for\n\"write-ups\" and real problems developed and solved; in geography, for\nlocal geography work; in civics, for community betterment work; in\nwriting and drawing, for carefully prepared reports and illustrations worked\nout which relate to home accomplishment or study.\nSUGGESTIVE\n\nITEMS\n\nFOR\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF HOME\n\nWORK\n\nTO RECEIVE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCREDIT\n\n(Submitted by a groupof Iowa teachers)\nRepairing buildings and other property\nDestroying highway weeds; draining stagnant pools\nBread-baking; personal hygiene; bookkeeping — home accounts\nMaking rabbit traps, kites, sleds, wagons, etc.\nDelivering and buying goods\nGoing to church, Sunday school, and lectures\nDefinite garden work; doing chores; hunting eggs\nTesting seed corn; setting hen and caring for brood of chickens\nCleaning teeth; taking bath\nSleeping with wide open window, one month; early to bed\nPreparing meals; helping old or weak person or younger child\nWashing and wiping dishes; preparing school lunch\nTesting garden and flower seeds\nRaising certain vegetables or crops\nFeeding horses, cows, pigs, or chickens\nRunning harvester, mower, or other machine\nDoing ditching or draining work; doing landscape gardenmg work\nCleaning floors; clearing up yards; mowing lawn, raking yard\nRecognizing and knowing trees\nReading certain books or magazines\nCollecting and knowing certain insects, leaves, flowers, grasses, weeds\nTaking pictures of birds and other things\n.\n. •\nCanning fruit, baUng, cooking, sewing, mendmg, sweepmg, dustmg\nChopping wood, carrying water and wood supply\nRaking lawn, trimming trees and shrubs\n_\nBuilding sidewalks, bird cages, dog houses\ns\nPutting up shelves, making screen doors and windovv\nMaking doll's clothes, and wearing-apparel for people\nGrowing acre of corn or other crop ,\n,. ,\ncalves, or chickens\nFeeding and caring for pigs, colts,\nPicking, sorring, and grading fruit\nBoys' and girls' club work; contests\nLearning to play musical instruments\n\nen\n^clt:\ns coops, cupboards,\n:^:'^\nMlS^^\nand flower\nbles Ts%c^\nvegeta\nGardening—\nbirds\nof\nRecognition and knowledge\nMending clothing; mending furniture\nRepairing machinery and harness\ner\nPicking seed corn before freezing weath\n\ngates, boxes, troughs\n\n"}
{"page": 1428, "printed_page": null, "text": "141 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nSelecting large hills of good potatoes for seed\nPlanting shade trees\nReading and reporting topics in farm papers\nMaking an approximate inventory of the farm or home\nMeasuring the farm and figuring the acreage in different fields\nKeeping account of young stock sold\nPlanting a certain amount of garden\nGrowing a patch of seed com and figuring the amount of profit\nGathering a collection of bugs\nLearning to identify a certain number of common weeds\nTaking care of a runt pig and teUing how it was done\nFeeding and describing the feeding of cows\nMilking cows; stacking grain; feeding livestock; cement work\nFixing harness; shoe repairing; cow or hog herding\nBreaking colts; driving four-horse team; shocking grain\nOrcharding; pruning, spraying, grafting\nBerry culture or flower culture\nAthletics (not necessarily school credit ^ but athletic credit)\nSwimming, rowing, skating, tennis\n\nThe following lists were evidently intended to show parallel work for\nboys and girls:\nBOYS\n\nCare of lawn\nCare of horse\nCare of garden\nBringing in wood\nRunning errands\n\n^\n\nGIRLS\n\nlo minutes Washing dishes\nlo minutes Sweeping and dusting\n10 minutes Preparing meals\n5 minutes Mending clothes\n5 minutes Running errands\n(Submitted by a woman)\n\nSchool Credit for Girls' Work\n\nWashing dishes\nMaking bed\nSweeping room\nPreparing meal\nTending flower garden\nCiurent topic reading\nPersonal hygiene\n\n10 minutes\nS minutes\n10 minutes\n15 minutes\n5 minutes\n5 minutes\n10 minutes\n\nlo minutes\n5 minutes\n15 minutes\n.^. . . . 10 minutes\n5 minutes\n\nSchool Credit for Boys' Work\n\nCleaning rugs\nKeeping furnace fire\nMowing lawn\nCaring for horse\nGarden work\nCurrent topic reading\nPersonal hygiene\n\n10 minutes\n10 minutes\n5 minutes\n5 minutes\n5 minutes\n5 minutes\n10 minutes\n\n(Submitted by a woman)\nCHILD\n\nWORK\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nFARM\n\nOTHER\n\nGirl\n\nChurning\nMending clothes\nTaking care of baby\nOutside reading\nChurch\n(Submitted\n\nTHAN\n\nTHAT\n\nALREADY\n\nMENTIONED\n\nBoy\n\nFeeding livestock\nMilking\nHarnessing horses\nGardening\nChurch\nby a man)\n\nThe above items are given as they came from teachers, except some\nduplications which are not included. In many cases, they lack definiteiless,\nand include some work which might be questioned as fitting for school\ncredit, but the ideas represented may easily find expression in definite\nforms and regulations which can be made to bring most desirable results\nin home and school co-operative work and association to the advantage\nof school work and home life. When the child learns that \"work is education\" and that education is living and working the best way, there will be\nfew dull school days and discontented home days.\n\n"}
{"page": 1429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOURSES\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nI413\n\nOur courses of study should recognize and encourage this kind of education, not only in agriculture, but in every other subject worthy of a place\nin the school curriculum.\nRespectfully submitted,\nIE. C. Bishop, Chairman\nSchools Section, Extension Department,\nIowa State College, Ames, Iowa\n\nB. M. Davis\n\nProfessor of Agricultural Education,\nMiami University, Oxford, Ohio\n\nL. Howe\n\nDirector Agricultural Education,\nCofnntittee I\n\nDepartment of Public Instruction, Albany, N.Y.\n\n^Riley 0. Johnson\n\nDepartment of Biology and Agriculture,\nState Normal School, Chico, Gal.\n\n[JosiAH\nMain\nProfessor of Agriculture,\nWestern State Normal School, Hays, Kans.\n\nE. E. Balcomb\nDepartment of Agricultural Education,\nState Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N.C.\n\n"}
{"page": 1430, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1431, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL INDEX\n[Names of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.]\n\nArtplace\nin the\nhigh school of commerce, The\nAbt, I. A. — How far are teachers responsiof, 984\nble for the morbidity and mortality of\nschool children? 1132\nArt in the industrial school, The value\nof, 988\nAccountancy in relation to business organiArticulation of high school and college,\nzation and management (Sex-mour\nWalton), 1069\nReport of the committee on, 667\nAct of Incorporation, i\nAthletics an essential moral factor (George\nW. Ehler), 1 1 50\nActive Members, Minutes of Annual\nMeeting of, 30\nAthletics in high schools and colleges, The\nAdding machine to accountancy in the\ninfluence of faculty supervision on the\nmoral effects of, 1 146\nhigh-school course, A practical demonstration ofthe relation of a modern, 1079\nAttempt to make oral composition effective,\nAn (Mary E. Courtenay), 721\nAddresses of Welcome (Francis G. Blair),\nAttitude of the normal schools toward\n125; (Rhodes E. Cave), 335\neducation (W. J. Hawkins), 810\nAdolescent efficiency, A study in, 11 86\nAgricultural education, The place of the\nAvery,\nSaml^el — How\nto reach\nthe\nnormal school in, 823\nindividual\nin our colleges and\nuniversities,student\n783\nAgricultural education. The work of the\nnational committee on, 1375\nAwakening festival spirit in America — an\nAgricultural education in Ontario, Canada,\neducational\nopportunity\n(Peter\nW.\nDykema), 1023\nProgress of, 1380\nAgriculture, Report of the committee on\nBachtenkircher,\nJ. H. — Essentials of\npractical penmanship, 1075\ncourses of study in, 1391\nAgriculture, The educational value of, 471\nBagley, W. C. — The need of standards\nfor measuring progress and results, 634;\nAgriculture in rural schools. The next step\nin teaching, 474\nThe professional training of high-school\nteachers, 686\nAlderman, L. R. — Rural life conditions\nand rural education : What is being done\nBaker, James H. — A national university\nas related to democracy, 220; Economy\nto meet the problem by the state of\nof time in education, 507\nOregon, 291\nBalcomb,\nErnest E. — The place of the\nAley, Robert J.— Secretary's Minutes,\nnormal school in agricultural education,\nNational Council of Education (St. Louis\nmeeting), 504; (Chicago meeting), 575\n823;\nSecretary's\nMinutes, Department\nof Rural\nand Agricultural\nEducation,\nAllen, William H. — How may a com1365; Discussion, 558\nmunity learn its unmet school needs?\nBarnes,\nEarl 471\n— The educational value of\n384; Outside co-operation with public\nagriculture,\nschools, 1351; Discussion, 1363\nBarnes, V. G. — The high-school course in\nAllyn, Lewis B. — Communal chemistry:\ngeneral science, 738\nHow may the teaching of chemistry\nBarnum, Mrs. O. Shepard — Discussion, 136 2\npromote the well-being of the communBasic philosophy of Froebel (George F.\nity? 1166\nAmerican high school, A (Walter R.\nJames), 621\nSiDERs), 161; B (Adelaide Steele\nBawden, William T. — The relation of the\nBaylor), 168; C (Arthur Deerin\nelementary\nschool\ntrial education,\n907 to subsequent indusCall), 174; D (Milton C. Potter), 181 ;\nE (Kate Upson Clark), 187; F\nBaylor, Adelaide Steele — Mortality in\nthe early years of the high school: some\n(William Hughes Mearns), 193\nadministrative\nAmerican, Sadie — Discussion, 1338\nsion, 556, 590 remedies, 168; DiscusAngell, James R. — A suggestion of a\nBenson, Agnes — Uses of the victor and\nmethod for improving the relations of\ncolleges and secondary schools, 768\nplayer-pianos\nand social\ncenters, 1237 in schools\nAnnual Meeting of Active Members,\nBest next thing for the teaching profession\nMinutes of, 30\n(Albert E. Winship), 313\nApplied botany (George A. Works), 1176\nArithmetic work in school. The scientific 141SBetterment of rural schools thru agriculture: the Ohio plan (F. W. Miller), 1366\nstudy of, 488\n\n"}
{"page": 1432, "printed_page": null, "text": "I4I6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION 11ASSOCIATION\n9\n\nBetterment of rural schools thru boys' and\ngirls' clubs: the Nebraska plan (James\nE. Delzell), 1373\nBeveridge, J. H. — Efficiency in the business department of the high school, 1037\nBevier, Isabel — Dietetic standards for\nthese various households, 974\nBicKNELL, Thomas W. — ^The rebirth of the\nAssociation in 1884, 139\nBishop, E. C. — Report of the committee\non courses of study in agriculture, 1391;\nThe next step in teaching agriculture in\nrural schools, 474\nBlack, Jessie E. — Courses in literature\nfor children, 1281\n125\nBlair,\nFrancis G. — Address of Welcome,\nBlind in public schools. Some features of\nthe education of the, 13 18\nBlindness\nand conservation\nof vision,\nReport of committee on the prevention\nof, 1306\nBloomfield, Leonard — Discussion, 734\nBloomfield, Meyer — Vocational guidance, 431\nBlount, Mary Putnam — Sexual reproduction in animals; the purpose and\nmethods of teaching it, 1324; Discussion, 1338\nBogan, William J.— Discussion, 926\nBoHANNON, Eugene W. — The work of the\nnormal school in the reorganization of\nthe elementary-school curriculum, 817\nBoHLiNGER, George A. — Efficiency in\npractical details, or technique, of the\nhighest importance, 1084\nBook that teacher says is good. The (Mary\nEly), 1253\nBookman in his relation to the textbook\nproblem (Frank A. Fitzpatrick), 449\nBooks in our high schools, Is there need\nfor\n128s a course in the choice and use of,\nBosTwiCK, Arthur E. — The educated\nlibrarian, 1262; The public library, the\npublic school, and the social center\nmovement, 240\nBotany, Applied, 11 76\nBowEN, Wilbur P. — The influence of play\nactivities on racial physique and morals,\n1142\n\nBoyd, W. W. — Discussion, 778\nBradford, Mary Davison — The kinder624\ngarten and its relation to retardation,\nBrecheen, Thomas L. — A practical\ndemonstration of the relation of a\nmodem adding machine to accountancy\nin the high-school course, 1079; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Business\nEducation, 103 1\nBrief historical sketch of the first teachers\nassociation held in Chicago, 111. (Josiah\nLittle Pickard), 137\nBrodhead, John C. — Discussion, 658, 660\nBrown, J. Stanley — Discussion, 537, 587\n\n5\n\nBruce, Frank M. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of School Administration,\nBrumbaugh, Martin G. — A definite propaganda to impress upon the American\nmind the necessity of an expansion of the\nfield of education to provide as ample\nfacilities for education by work and\neducation by play as are now provided\nfor education by study, 487; The relation of an urban community to its\npublic-school system, 381\nBruner, Frank G. — The testing of\nchildren for mental efficiency, mo\nBuck, Martha — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Normal Schools (St. Louis\nmeeting), 809\nBurnham, William H. — The problems of\nchild hygiene, and the contribution of\nhygiene to education, 1096; The selection of physical exercise as determined\nby the laws of growth, 1333\nBusiness, An education for, 1046\nBusiness courses for high schools of smaller\ncities (Ira B. Fee), 1065\nBusiness department of the high school,\nEfficiency in the, 1037\nBy what standards or tests shall the\nefficiency of a school or system of schools\nbe measured? A (George D. Strayer),\n560; B (Edward C. Elliott), 564\nBy-Laws, adopted July 10, 191 2, 5\nByoir,\nCarl— The\nsori material,\n613 presentation of MontesCaldwell, Otis W. — ^The influence of prolonged and carefully directed work, 691\nCalendar of Meetings — 13\nCall, Arthltr Deerin — The specialized\nor\nvocational\nvs. the composite high\nschool,\n174\nCamp fire girls (Gerda Sebbelov), 320\nCamp fire girls and the new relation of\nwomen\nthe world (Luther Halsey\nGulick), to322\nCan the administration department of a\nschool system serve as a laboratory for\nthe industrial training of children? A\n(G. E. Wulfing), 1224; B (Raymond\nRiordan), 1228\n\nCave,\n335 Rhodes E. — Address of Welcome,\nChapin, Charles S. — Discussion, 538\nChatfield,\nGeorge\ntests in education,\n387 H. — Quantitative\nChemistry, communal: how may the\nteaching of chemistry promote the wellbeing of the community? 1166\nChemistry and household science (J. F,\nSnell), 1171\n\nChenoweth,\nArthur725S. — A plan to reduce\nfailures in Latin,\nPhillips),\nChild versus 349\npromotion-machinery (D. E.\nChild welfare. Problems relating to, 401\nChild-labor laws. The duty of superintendents inthe enforcement of, 401\n\n"}
{"page": 1433, "printed_page": null, "text": "1417\nINDEX\nChristensen, D. H. — Some adjustments\nand changes in the course of study and\nschool organization suggested by the\nneeds and the capacities of children that\nvary from the standards set for average\npupils, 355\nCitizenship in industrial education (Clifford B. Connelley), 899\nCity trade school — an important instrumentality for improving the vocational\nneed of the city child (Carroll G.\nPearse), 411\n\nCity training schools and their management, A (Grant B. Grumbine), 885;\nB (J. Monroe Willard), 890\nCivic and social center development\n(Edward J. Ward), 1353\nCmrk, Frances E. — -What school facilities\nshould be provided for instruction by\nmeans of motion-picture machines, stereopticon lanterns, phonographs, playerpianos, etc.? 1234\nClark, Jessie L. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Music Education, looi\nClark, Kate Upson — What the public\nmay expect in dividends: material, civic,\nand social, 187\nClark, Thomas Arkle — -Discussion, 800\nClapp, John M. — Methods of Amelioration, 751\nClaxton, Mrs. P. P. — Discussion, 1272\nCoFFMAN, Lotus D. — The relation between\nsupply and demand for high-school\nteachers, 681; Discussion, 571\nCohen, Hyman — How far are teachers\nresponsible for the morbidity and\nmortality of school children? 1136\nCollege-entrance requirements, Report of\ncommittee on, 915\nCollege-entrance requirements in English,\nReport of the committee on, 707\nColleges and secondary schools, A suggestion of a method for improving the relations of, 768\nComing half-century. The (Ellen C.\nSabin), 157\n.\n. , ,\nCommercial course. The educational value\nof the high-school, 105 1\nal geography (R. H. WhitCommerci\nbeck), 1057\n\nCommittee of eleven on a plan of normalschool statistics. First report of, 880\nCommittee of eleven on a plan of normal84s\nstatistics, Preliminary report of,\nschool\nCommittee on college-entrance requirements, Report of, 915\nCommittee on college-entrance requirements in English, Report of, 707\nCommittee on cosmopolitan high-school\ncurriculum. Report of, 700\nCommittee on courses of study in agnculture. Report of, 1391\nCommittee on high-school libraries, Report\nof. 1273\n.\n.\nCommittee on high-school preparation ot\n\nof, 577\nstudents for normal schools, Final report\nCommittee on normal-school libraries,\nReport of : A syllabus of library instruction in normal schools, 1 258\nCommittee on policy of the Department of\nHigher Education, Report of, 803\nCommittee on research, standardization,\nand correlation, A partial forecast of the\nreport of, 1034\n1339\nCommittee\nop rural-school\nliminary\nreport of, 549 education, PreCommittee on school revenue. Report of,\nCommittee on special high-school preparation of candidates for normal-school\ntraining,Preliminary report of, 526\nCommittee on terminology, Report of, 1021\nCommittee on the articulation of high\nschool and college. Report of, 667\nCommittee on the prevention of blindness\nand conservation of vision. Report of,\n1306\nCommunal\nChemistry:\nHow\nmay the\nteaching of chemistry promote the wellbeing of the community?\n(Lewis B.\nAllyn), 1 1 66\n1203\nConnelley,\nClifford 899\nB. — Citizenship in\nindustrial education,\nContinuation schools (Edwin G. Cooley),\nCook, John W. — Discussion, 589\nCooley, Edwin G. — Continuation schools,\n1203; Discussion, 605, 659, 660, 661\nCORWIN,. R. W. — The school's responsibility for providing healthful environment and program, 545 ; Discussion, 1338\nCosmopohtan high-school curriculum. Report of the committee on, 700\nCoulter,\nJohn G.—\nscience course,\n742 Method in the general\nCoulter,\n\nVincil C— Desirable equipment for English work, 758\nCourses in literature for children (Jessie\nE. Black), 1281\nCourtenay, Mary E. — An attempt to\nmake oral comjwsition effective, 721\nCrabbe, J. G. — Securing and maintaining\nin the teaching force of normal\nefficiency872\nschools,\nFred\nCrawshaw,\nmanual arts,\n932 D. — Needed changes in\nCurriculum, The work of the normal school\nof the elementaryin the reorganization\nschool,\n817\nB. — Some features of the\nCurtis, John the\nblind in public schools,\neducation of\n1318\nCharles William— The municiDabney,\npal university and its work, 773\nDavis, Jesse B.— The use of the library alin\nvocational guidance, 1267; Vocation\nand moral guidance thru English composition inthe high school, 713\nDawson, George E.— A psychological\nclassification of public-school pupils, 11 61\n\n"}
{"page": 1434, "printed_page": null, "text": "I4i8\n\n*\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDeaf mind, The possibilities and limitations\nof the, 131 2\nDearmont, W. S. — ^The function of the\nnormal school in training teachers for\nthe public welfare — civic, social, moral,\nreligious, 866\nDefective classes. The segregation of, 1290\nDefinite propaganda to impress upon the\nAmerican mind the necessity of an\nexpansion of the field of education to\nprovide as ample facilities. for education\nby work and education by play as are\nnow provided for education by study\n(M. G. Brumbaugh), 487\nDeGarmo, Mrs. Frank — The humanity of\nhighways, 301\nDelzell, James E. — The betterment of\nrural schools thru boys' and girls' clubs:\nthe Nebraska plan, 1373\nDepartment of Business Education, 103 1;\nof Child Hygiene, 1095; of Elementary\nEducation, 633; of Higher Education,\n767; of Kindergarten Education, 607;\nLibrary, 1239; of Manual Training and\nArt Education, 897; of Music Education, looi; National Council, 499; of\nNormal Schools, 809; of Physical\nEducation, 1141; of Rural and Agricultural Education, 1365; of School\nAdministration, 1195; of School Patrons,\n1323; of Science Instruction, 1153; of\nSecondar>' Education, 663; of Special\nEducation,\n1289; of Superintendence,\n329\nDepartmental teaching in the elementary\ngrades (W. L. Stephens), 343\nDesirable equipment for English work\n(V^iNciL C. Coulter), 758\nDetermining of school efficiency, A (Calvin\nN. Kendall), 376; B (Martin G.\nBrumbaugh), 381; C (William H.\nAllen), 384; D (George H. Chatfield), 387\nDietetic standards for these various households (Isabel Bevier), 974\nDistribution of income, $500, $1,000, and\n$2,000 per year for family of five (Mary\nS. Snow), 966\nDoOLEY, C. R. — The manufacturers' viewpoint of industrial education, 952\nDopp, Katherine E. — Secretar>-'s Min1323 utes, Department of School Patrons,\nDowning, Elliot R. — Livestock in public\nschools, 631;\nThe home garden and\nexperimental plots, 1381\nDresden Congress (Florence E. Ellis),\nar, letcher .\nB — The duty of the\nF\nDres99s2l\nstate in the medical inspection of schools;\nresults which the public may rightfully\nexpect, 257;\nThe hygiene of rural\nschools, 1103\nDuty of superintendents in the enforcement of child-labor laws (Owen\nR.\nLovejoy), 401\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDuty of the state in the medical inspection\nof schools;\nlar), 257 results which the public may\nrightfully expect (Fletcher B. DressDykema, Peter W. — The awakening\nfestival spirit in America — an educational opportunity, 1023\nEarhart, Will — A presentation of the\nhigh-school course which was adopted\nby the fermusic\nsupervisors'\nconence :what it\nis and how national\nto administer\nit, 1004\nEconomy of time, Organization affecting\nthe course of study and, 335\nEconomy of time in education, A (James\nH. Baker), 507; B (James H. Van\nSickle), 509; C (H. B. Wilson), 510;\nD (Frank\nThompson), 513; E (J.\nH.\nFrancis),E.517\nEdson Andrew W. — ^Types of special\nschools in the larger American cities,\nEducated librarian, The (Arthur E. Bostwick), 1262\nEducation, Quantitative tests in, 387\n1046\nEducation\nfor business (M. E. Pearson),\n480\n425\nEducation\nof girls (Lorenzo D. Harvey),\nEducation of high- and elementary-school\npupils. Relative cost of, 467\nEducational by-products in library work\n(Henry E. Legler), 1241\nEducational commission in determining the\nefficiency\nof 376\na city school system. The\nvalue\nof the,\nEducational\nprogress of the year (J. A.\nShawan), 590\nEducational\nvalue\nBarnes), 471\n\nof agriculture\n\n(Earl\n\nEducational value of the high-school commercial course (William B. Owen), 1051\nEffect on education\nand morals of the\nmoving-picture shows (Joseph R. Fulk) ,\nEfficiency in practical details, or technique,\nof the highest importance (George A.\nBohlinger), 1084\nEfficiency\nin the business department of\n456\nthe high school (J. H. Beveridge), 1037\nEhler, George W. — Athletics an essential\nmoral factor, 11 50\nin the, 343\nElementary grades. Departmental teaching\nElementary school to subsequent industrial\neducation. The relation of the, 907\nElliott, Edward C. — 'By what standards\nof tests shall the efficiency of a school or\nsystem of schools be measured,\n564;\nDiscussion, 558, 781\n\nEllis, Florence\nE. — The Dresden Congress, 992\nElson,\nH. — 335\nWaste and efficiency in\nschool W.\nstudies,\nEly,\nMary\ngood,\n1 253— The book that teacher says is\n\n"}
{"page": 1435, "printed_page": null, "text": "1419\n\nINDEX\nEmerick, E. J.— The segregation of the\ndefective classes, 1290\nEnglish, The significance of recent investigations inthe field of, 747\nEnglish composition, Ways and means of\nincreasing the effectiveness of instruction\nin, 713\nEnglish composition in the high school.\nVocational and moral guidance thru, 713\nEnglish farmer, The school, the college, and\nthe, 307\nEssentials of practical penmanship (J. H.\nBachtenkircher), 1075\nEugenics (William A. McKeever), 1156\nEvans, W. A. — The physical growth of the\nchild and its hygiene, 1327; Discussion,\n1338\nFacilities for industrial education (C. A.\nProsser), 1 196\nFairchild, E. T. — ^Preliminary report of\ncommittee on rural-school education, 549\nFee, Ira B. — Business courses for high\nschools of smaller cities, 1065\nFeeble-minded? How far shall the publicschool system care for the, 408\nFeeble-minded deaf. The training of, based\nupon impressions gained abroad, 1296\nFelmley, David — Final report of committee on high-school preparation of\nstudents for normal schools, 577; Preliminary report of committee on special\nhigh-school preparation of candidates\nfor normal-school training, 526\nFestival spirit in America, The awakening\n— an educational opportunity, 1023\nFifty years. The achievements of: the\nmonuments, 151\nFiLBEY, Emery T.— Discussion, 914\nFitzpatrick, Frank A. — The bookman in\nhis relation to the textbook problem, 449\nForestry and the public schools (E. R.\nJackson), 1386\nFousT, T. R. — Rural life conditions and\nrural education: What is being done to\nmeet the problem by the schools of\nGuilford County, N.C., 286\nFrancis, J. H. — A reorganization of our\nschool system, 368; Economy of time in\neducation, 517\nFrederick, Oliver D. — Intercommunication business practice, 1092\nFroebel, The basic philosophy of, 621\nFuLK, Joseph R. — The effect on education\nand morals of the moving-picture shows,\n456\nFullerton,\nC. a. — The principles of\nscientific management applied to teaching music in the public schools, 1017\nFunction of the kindergarten in the pubhcschool system (Lucy Wheelock), 395\nFunction of the normal school, A (John A.\nH. Keith), 853; B (D. W. Hayes), 856;\nC (Alfred C. Thompson), 862; D (W.\nS. Dearmont), 866\nFunction of the normal school in academic\neducation (John A. H. Keith), 853\n\nFunction of the normal school in relating\ntheory and practice teaching so as to\nsecure teaching efficiency (Alfred C.\nThompson), 862\nFunction of the normal school in the special\ntraining of teachers for rural schools (D.\nW. Hayes), 856\nFunction of the normal school in training\npublic-school supervisors in technical\nsubjects: drawing, manual training,\nhousehold\nGrumbine), arts,\n885 music, etc. (Grant B.\nFunction of the normal school in training\nteachers for the pubUc welfare — civic,\nsocial, moral, religious, W. S. Dearmont\n866\nGeometry course to the manual-training\ncourse in high\nsuggested,\n735 school, The relation of the\n607\nGiles, J. T. — The scientific study of\narithmetic work in school, 488\nGoRHAM, Marie E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education,\nGreen, James M. — Discussion, 525\nGreenwood, James M. — The monuments;\nthe achievements of fifty years, 151\nGriffith, J. Earl — The place of art in the\nhigh school of commerce, 984\nGrumbine, Grant B. — The function of the\nnormal school in training public-school\nsupervisors in technical subjects: drawing, manual training, household arts,\nmusic, etc., 885\nGuLiCK, Luther Halsey — The camp fire\ngirls and the new relation of women to\nthe world, 322; Discussion, 1362\nGustafson, Lewis — Discussion, 960\nHailman, W. N. — Discussion, 618, 630\nHalf-century\nAssociation, mark\n137 — National Education\nHall, Mary E. — Report of the committee\non high-school libraries, 1273\n673\nHanna, age,John\nCalvin — Unrest and wreckHarris,\nThomas127 H. — Response to address\nof welcome,\nHarrison, Ehzabeth — Discussion, 629\nHarvey,\ngirls, 425Lorenzo D. — The education of\nHawkins, W. J.— The attitude of the normal schools toward education, 810\nHay^es, D. W. — The function of the normal\nschool in the special training of teachers\nfor rural schools, 856\nHaynes, Rowland — How a community\nmay\nneeds,find\n230out and plan for its recreation\nHealth\nproblems\nin education (Thomas D.\nWood),\n540\nHealthful environment and program, The\nschool's responsibility for providing,\n545\nHefferan,\nHelen M. — Report of the\ncommittee\non school revenue, 1339;\nDiscussion, 1362\n\n"}
{"page": 1436, "printed_page": null, "text": "I420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nHexderson, Herman Charles — The\ntraining of native impulses, 1301\nHenderson, Wilson H. — Is the introduction oftechnical subjects in the eighth\ngrade advisable? 942\nHicks, C. S. — The influence of faculty\nsupervision on the moral effects of\nathletics in high schools and colleges,\n1 146\nHigh school, Mortality in the early years\nof the: some administrative remedies, 168\nHigh school, Relation of, to the schools\nbelow, 161\nHigh school. Social organization in the, 181\nHigh school. Specialized or vocational vs.\nthe composite, 174\nHigh school — ^What the public may expect\n187dividends: material, civic and social,\nin\n\n193\nHigh school — ^Worship of the \"Standard,\"\nHigh-school course in general science (V. G.\nBarnes), 738\nHigh-school course which was adopted by\nthe music\nconference: whatsupervisors'\nit is and hownational\nto administer\nit. A presentation of the, 1004\nHigh-school libraries. Report of the committee on, 1273\nHigh-school preparation of candidates for\nnormal -school training, Preliminary' report of committee on special, 526\nHigh-school preparation of students for\nnormal schools. Final report of committee\non, 577\nHigh-school teachers. The professional\ntraining of, 686\nHigh-school teachers. The relation between\nsupply and demand for, 681\nHighways, The humanity of, 301\nHiNES, Linnaeus N. — How far are teachers\nresponsible for the morbidity and\nmortahty of school children? 1138;\nDiscussion, 1222\nHolland, E. O. — The relative cost of\neducation of high- and elementary-school\npupils, 467\nHome garden and experimental plots\n(Elliott R. Downing), 1381\nHopkins, Edwin M. — The labor and cost\nof composition teaching: the present\nconditions, 747\nHopkins, Florence M. — Is there need for\na course in the choice and use of books in\nour high schools ? 1 285\nHopkins, Julia A. — The plans and scope\nof the new normal course in library\ntraining, Pratt Institute school of\nlibrary science, 1246\nHosic, James Fleming — Progress in articulating school and college English,\n761 ; Report of the committee on collegeentrance requirements in English, 707\nHow a community may find out and plan\nfor its recreation needs (Rowlant)\nHaynes), 230\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHow far are teachers responsible for the\nmorbidity and mortality of school\nchildren\n? A (I. A. Abt), 113 2; B (Hyman\n1138\nCohen), 1136; C (Linneaus N. Hines),\nHow far shall the public-school system care\nfor Sickle),\nthe feeble-minded?\n(James H.\nVan\n408\nHow may a community learn its unmet\nschool needs? (William H. Allen), 384\nHow our colleges and universities maintain\npersonal relations with the indixddual\nstudents : A report of an investigation\nunder the auspices of the Department of\nHigher Education of the National\nEducation\nMead),\n790 Association (Arthur R.\nHow should the school system contribute to\nan intelligent choice of vocation on the\nKnox),of417the pupil? (George Platt\npart\nHow to reach the individual student in\nour\ncolleges\nAvery),\n783 and universities (Samuel\nHughes, Raymond M. — Discussion, 802\nHumanity\nDeGarmo),of 301highways (Mrs. Frank\nHygiene,\nand its,The\n1327 physical growth of the child\nHygiene of rural schools (Fletcher B.\nDresslar), 1 1 03\nHygiene (personal) in the schools. The\nteaching of, 264\nHygiene to education. The problems of\n1096 hygiene, and the contribution of,\nchild\nIdeals\nof half\nRed way),\n145 a century (Jacques W.\nIncome, $500, $1,000 and $2,000 per year\nfor family of five. Distribution of, 966\nIncorporation, Act of, i; Certificate of, 11\nIndividual student in our colleges and\nuniversities. How to reach the, 783\nIndividual students. How our colleges and\nuniversities maintain personal relations\nwith the: A report of an investigation\nunder the auspices of the Department of\nHigher cation\nEducation\nAssociation, of\n790the National EduIndustrialcance ofarts\nthe, in\n918the schools, The signifiIndustrial education. Citizenship in, 899\nIndustrial education, Facilities for, 1196\nIndustrial education. Some sociological\nphases of the movement for, 921\nIndustrial\nThe manufacturers'\nviewpoint education.\nof, 952\nIndustrial training of children, Can the\nadministration department of a school\nsystem serve as a laboratory for the, 1224\nInfluence of facidty supervision on the\nmoral effects of athletics in high schools\nand colleges (C. S. Hicks), 1146\nInfluence of play activities on racial\nphysique and morals (Wilbur P.\nBowen), 1 142\n\n"}
{"page": 1437, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nInfluence of prolonged and carefully\ndirected work (Otis W. Caldwell), 691\nIntercommunication business practice\n(Oliver D. Frederick), 1092\nIs the introduction of technical subjects in\nthe eighth grade advisable ? (Wilson H.\nHenderson), 942\nIs there need for a course in the choice and\nuse of books in our high schools?\n(Florence M. Hopkins), 1285\nIttner,\n1207 William B.— School architecture,\nIves, W. H.— What school facilities should\nbe provided for instruction by means of\nmotion-picture machines, stereopticon\nlanterns, phonographs, player-pianos,\netc. ? 1230\n\nJackson, E. R.— Forestry and the public\nschools, 1386\nJames, Edmund J.— The national association of state universities and the national\nuniversity, 201\nJames, George F. — The basic philosophy\nof Froebel, 621 ; The relation of the state\nuniversity to other parts of the system\nof public instruction, 780\nJanitor service, The standardization of, 462\nJones, E. E. — Suggestions from cases of\nunusually rapid or irregular progress in\npublic schools, 640\nJordan, David Starr — President's addres , 11 54; The teaching of personal\nhygiene in the schools, 264\nJordan, Edwin O. — School diseases, 1118\nJordan, R. H. — The relation of the suggested geometry course to the manualtraining course in high school, 735\n117\nJournal\nof Proceedings of General Sessions,\nJudd, Charles H. — Discussion, 568\nKeating, J. F. — ^Discussion, 549\nKeith, John A. H. — The function of the\nnormal school in academic education, 853\nKendall, Calvin N. — The value of the\neducational commission in determining\nthe efficiency of a city school system, 376\nKiLPATRiCK, Van Evrie — Rural school\ngardens differentiated from city school\ngardens, 1377\nKindergarten and its relation to retardation\n(Mary Davison Bradford), 624\nKindergarten in the public-school system,\nFunction of the, 395\nKiNGSLEY, Clarence D. — Report of the\ncommittee on the articulation of high\nschool and college, 667; Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Secondary\nEducation, 663\nKlein Smid, R. B. von — Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Higher Education, 767; Discussion, 801\nKnox, George Platt— How should the\nschool system contribute to an intelligent\nchoice of vocation on the part of the\npupil? 417\nKreuzpointner, Paul — Secretary's Min-\n\n1421\nutes, Department of Manual Training\nand Art E^ducation, 897; Discussion, 913\nLabor and cost of composition teaching:\nHopkins),\n747 conditions (Edwin M.\nthe present\nLeavitt, Frank M. — Some sociological\nphases of the movement for industrial\neducation, 921; Discussion, 656, 66r\nLegler, Henry E. — Educational byproducts inlibrary work, 1241\nLenker, J. N. — Discussion, 735\nLevy, Carrie B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Special Education, 1289\nLibrarian, The educated, 1262\nLibrary\n1241 work. Educational by-products in,\nLiterature for children. Courses in, 1281\nIjttle, Luella V. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Child Hygiene, 1095\nLivestocking), 631in public schools (E. R. DownLongenecker, Gertrude — Secretary's\nMinutes, Department\nof Elementary\nEducation,\n633\nLovejoy, Owen R. — The duty of superintendents in the enforcement of childlabor\n1009 laws, 401\nLuTKiN, Peter Christian — Muscial appreciation— how is' it to be developed ?\n1014\n\nMacMillan, Daniel P. — Discussion, 11 24\nMaking of a musician (Eleanor Smith),\nManual arts, Needed changes in, 932\n^lanufacturers'\neducation (C. R.viewpoint\nDooley), of\n952 industrial\nMcCready, S. B. — Progress of agricultural education in Ontario, Canada, 1380\nMcCurdy,\nH. — A study in adolescent\nefficiency, J.1186\nMcDermott, Irene E. — Discussion, 982\nMcKeever, William A. — Eugenics, 11 56\nMcKenny, Charles — Standards of measthe efficiency of normal-school\nstudents,uring 839\nMcKiNNEY, WiNFiELD S. — President's address— A partial forecast of the report of\ncommittee on research, standardization,\nand correlation, 1034\nMcMurry, Charles A. — The significance of the industrial arts in the schools,\n918; Discussion, 660\nMead, Arthur R. — How our colleges and\nuniversities maintain personal relations\nwith the individual students: A report of\nan investigation under the auspices of\nthe Department of Higher Education of\nthe National Education Association, 790\nMearns, Willl\\m Hughes — The worship\nof the \"Standard,\" 193\nMedical inspection of schools, Duty of the\nstate\nin; expect,\nresults which\nthe' public may\nrightfully\n257\nMedical inspection of schools and medical\nfreedom (Charles A. L. Reed), 273\nMeetings, Calendar of, 13\n\n"}
{"page": 1438, "printed_page": null, "text": "1422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n' Mendexhall, Ida M. — Report of the committee on normal-school libraries: A\nsyllabus of library instruction in normal\nschools, 1258\nMental efficiency, The testing of children\nfor, mo\nMethod in the general science course (John\nG. Coulter), 742\nMethods of amelioration (John M. Clapp),\nMethods\nof amelioration (Harry G. Paul),\n751\n755\nMethods of teaching German and the personaUty of the teacher (Amalie Nix),\n728 H. E. — -Discussion, 963\nMiles,\n]\\IiLLER, F. W. — The betterment of rural\nschools thru agriculture: the Ohio plan,\n1366\nMinutes of Adjourned Meeting of Board of\nDirectors, 90\nMinutes\nof Annual Meeting\nof Active\nMembers, 30\nMinutes of fleeting of ^oard of Directors,\n1911-12, 74\n\nMinutes of Meeting of New Board of\nDirectors, 191 2-13, 96\nMinutes of Meetings of Board of Trustees,\n106\nModem apprenticeship training (James A.\nPratt), 955\n13 sori material, The presentation of,\nMon6tes\nE\n(\nm\n^Montes\nsori 609ethod Florence lizabeth\nWard),\nMonuments:\nthe achievements\nof fifty\nyears (James M. Greenwood), 151\nMoran,\nSelby\na. — Specialization with\nexpert instruction requisite in order to\nmeet the needs of the business world,\n1088\nMorse, T. Vernette — Vocational training\nold and new, 994\nMortaUty in the early years of the high\nschool:\nsome administrative remedies\n(Adelaide Steele Baylor), 168\nMotion-picture machines, stereopticon lanterns, phonographs, player-pianos, etc..\nWhat school facilities should be provided\nfor instruction by means of ? 1230\nMoving-picture shows, The effect on education and morals of the, 456\nMunicipal\nuniversity\nand\nits\nwork\n(Charles William Dabney), 773\nMusic in the public schools, The principles\nof scientific management\napplied to\nteaching, 1017\nMusical appreciation — how is it to be\ndeveloped\n? (Peter Christian Lutkin),\n1009\nMusician, The making of a, 1014\nNational Associatio of State Universiti\nes\nn\nand the national imiversity (Edmund J.\nJames), 201\nNational committee on agricultural education, The work of the, 1375\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nNational Council of Education, Constitution, 499; Officers for 1912-13, 501;\nMembers, 502; Secretary's Minutes (St.\nLouisutesmeeting),\n504; Secretary's\nMin(Chicago meeting),\n575\nNational Education Association — the halfcentury mark, A (Josiah Little\nPickard), 137; B (Thomas W. Bicknell), 139; C (jACQLrES W. Redway),\n145; D (James M. Greenwood), 151;\nE (Ellen C. Sabin), 157\nNational University, A (Edmund J. James),\n201; B (Charles Richard Van Hise),\n210; C (James H. Baker), 220; D\n(William O. Thompson), 225\nNational university a national asset: an\ninstrumentality for advanced research\n(Charles Richard Van Hise), 210\nNational university as related to democracy\n(James H.114Baker), 220\nNecrology,\nNeed of standards for measuring progress\nand results (W. C. Bagley), 634\nNeeded\nchanges 932\nin manual arts (Fred D.\nCrawshaw),\nNewberry, M. A. — Secretary's Minutes,\n\" Library Department, 1 239\nNext step in teaching agriculture in rural\nschools (E. C. Bishop), 474\nNix, Amalie — Methods of teaching German and the personality of the teacher,\nNormal course in library training, Pratt\nInstitute school of library science. The\nplans and scope of the new, 1246\nNormal\nin academic education. The\n728 school\nfunction\nof the, 853\nNormal school in relating theory and\npractice teaching so as to secure teaching\nefficiency. The function of the, 862\nNormal school in the special training of\nteachers for the rural schools. The\nfunction of the, 856\nNormal school in training public-school\nsupervisors in technical subjects: drawing, manual training, household arts,\nmusic, etc., The function of the, 885\nNormal school in training teachers for the\npublic welfare — civic, social, moral,\nreligious, The function of the, 866\nNormal-school libraries, Report of the committee on : A syllabus of library instruction in normal schools, 1258\nNormal-school statistics. First report of the\ncommittee of eleven on a plan of, 880\nof, 845\nNormal-school\nstatistics, Preliminary report of the committee of eleven on a plan\nNormal-school students, Standards of\nmeasuring the efficiency of, 839\nNormal schools. Securing and maintaining\nefficiency in the teaching force of, 872\nNormal schools toward education. The\nattitude of the, 810\nNorth, Charles E. — Sanitary education\nin rural conununities, 267\n\n"}
{"page": 1439, "printed_page": null, "text": "1423\n\nINDEX\nNOYES,\n\nErnest C— Progress in standardizing the measurement of composi-\n\ntion, 763\n\nOfficers of General Association for 1911-12,\n15; of Departments for 1911-12, 16;\nof General Association for 1912-13, 19;\nof Departments for 191 2-13, 20\nOhrenstein, Eda D. — Discussion, 731\nOral composition effective, An attempt to\nmake, 721\nOral themes (Eleanor Sheldon), 718\nOrganization affecting the course of study\nand economy of time, A (W. H. Elson),\n335; B (W. L. Stephens), 343; C (D.\nE. Phillips), 349; D (D. H. Christensen), 355; E (J. H. Francis), 368\nOrganization and administration of recreation and social center work (Erich C.\nStern), 246\n\nPlans and scope of the new normal course in\nlibrary training, Pratt Institute school of\nlibrary science (Julia A. Hopkins), 1246\nPlay activities on racial physique and\nmorals, The influence of, 1 142\nPossibilities and limitations of the deaf\nmind (Elmer W. Walker), 13 12\nPotter, Milton C. — Social organization\nin the high school, 181\nPractical arts and vocational guidance\n(C. A. Prosser), 645\n.\nPractical demonstration of the relation of a\nmodern adding machine to accountancy\nin\nthe high-school\ncourse (Thomas L.\nBrecheen),\n1079\ntraining, 955\nPratt, James A. — Modem apprenticeship\nPresentation\nByoir), 613of Montessori material (Carl\n\nOutside co-operation with public schools\n(William H. Allen), 1351\nOwen William B. — The educational value\nof the high-school commercial course,\n105 1\n\nPresentation of the high-school course\nwhich was adopted by the music super\"54 visor's national conference: WTiat it is\nand\nhart),how1004to administer it (Will Ear-\n\nParkinson, D. B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Normal Schools (Chicago\nmeeting), 850; Discussion, 539, 837\nPartial forecast of the report of committee\non research, standardization, and correlation (WiNFIELD S. McKiNNEy),\nIO34\nPaul, Harry G. — Methods of amelioration, 755\nPeace and arbitration (Bertha von\nSuttner), 316\n\nPresident's address (David Starr Jordan),\n\nPearse, Carroll G. — President's address,\n130; The city trade school — an important instrumentality for improving the\nvocational need of the city child, 411:\nDiscussion, 566\nPearson, M. E. — An education for business, 1046\nPenmanship, Essentials of practical, 1075\nPerkins, Dwight H. — The relation of\nschoolhouse architecture to the social\ncenter movement, 234\nPerry, Charles F. — Discussion, 958\nPhillips, D. E. — The child versus promotion-machinery, 349\nPhillips, John H. — Discussion, 534, 586\nPhysical exercise as determined by the laws\nof'growth. The selection of, 1333\nPhysical growth of the child and its hygiene\n(W. A. Evans), 1327\nPhysics and the equipment problem (J. A.\nRandall), 1181\nPiCKARD, Josiah Little — Brief historical\nsketch of the first teachers association\nheld in Chicago, 111., 137\nPlace of art in the high school of commerce\n(J. Earl Griffith), 984\nPlace of phonetics in high-school German\n(Eduard Prokosch), 733\nPlace of the normal school in agricultural\neducation (E. E. Balcomb), 823\nPlan to reduce failures in Latin (Arthur\nS. Chenoweth), 725\n\n890\nProblems of child hygiene, and the contribution of hygiene to education\n(William H. Burnham), 1096\n\"7\nProblems\nrelating to child welfare, A\n(Owen R. Lovejoy), 401; B (James H.\nVan Sickle), 408; C (Carroll G.\nPearse), 411; D (George P. Knox),\n417; E (Lorenzo D. Harvey), 425\nProceedings of General Sessions, Journal of,\n\nPresident's address (Carroll G. Pearse),\n130\nPrinciples of scientific management applied\nto teaching music in the public school\n(C. A. Fullerton), 1017\nProblem of relating theory to observation\nand practice in the training of teachers\nfor city schools (J. Monroe Willard),\n\nteach\nof hightraini\nProfe\ns on\ners\nschoo\nalBagley),ng 686\nl\n(W.siC.\nProgress in articulating school and college\nEnglish (James Fleming Hosic), 761\nProgress in standardizing the measurement\nof composition (Ernest C. Noyes), 763\nProgress\nof agricultural\neducation\nin\nOntario,Canada,(S.B.McCREADY),i38o\nProkosch, Eduard — The place of phonetics in high-school German, 733\nProsser, C. A. — I-'acilities for industrial\neducation,\n1196;\nPractical\narts and\nvocational guidance,\n645;\nDiscussion,\n661,928\nPsychological classification of public-school\npupils (George E. Dawson), 1161\nPublic health, Some problems in education\nas related to, 278\nPublic library, the public school, and the\nsocial center\nmovement\n(Arthur\nE.\nBostwick), 240\n\n"}
{"page": 1440, "printed_page": null, "text": "1424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPublic schools, Outside co-operation with,\n1351\nPublic schools and the public health, A.\n(Fletcher B. Dresslar), 257; B\n(David Starr Jordan), 264; C\n(Charles E. North), 267; D (Charles\nA. L. Reed), 273; E (Harvey W.\nWiley), 278\nPutnam, Alice H. — Discussion, 620\nQuantitative tests in education (George\nH. Chatfielei), 387\nQL^CK, Herbert — -The social center and\nthe rural community, 250\nRandall, J. A. — Physics and the equipment problem, 1181\nRebirth of the Association in 1884 (Thomas\nW. Bicknell), 139\nRecreation needs, How a community may\nfind out and plan for its, 230\nRecreational, social, and civic opportunity,\nRelation of the public schools to the\nmovement for, 230\nRedway,\nW. — The ideals of half a\ncentur)%Jacques\n^45\nReed, Charles A. L. — Stoop shoulders\nand flat chest in school children, 11 25;\nThe medical inspection of schools and\nmedical freedom, 273\nRelation between supply and demand for\nhigh-school teachers (Lotus D. Coffman), 681\nRelation of an urban community to its\npublic-school system (Martin G. Brumbaugh), 381\nRelation of schoolhouse architecture to the\nsocial center movement (Dwight H.\nPerkins), 234\nRelation of the elementary school to subsequent industrial education (William\nT. Bawden), 907\nRelation of the high school to the schools\nbelow (Walter R. Siders), 161\nRelation of the public schools to the movement for recreational, social, and civic\nopportunity, A (Rowlant) Haynt:s),\n230; B (Dwight H. Perkins), 234; C\n(Arthur E. BosT^\\^CK), 240; D (Erich\nC. Stern), 246; E (Herbert Quick),\n250\nRelation of the state university to other\nparts of the system of public instruction\n(George F. James), 780\nRelation of the suggested geometry\ncourse to the manual-training course in\nhigh school (R. H. Jordan), 735\nRelative cost of education of high- and\nelementary-school pupils (E. O.\nHolland), 467\nReorganization of our school system (J. H.\nFrancis), 368\nReport of Board of Trustees, Twenty-sixth\nannual, 27\nReport of committee of eleven on a plan of\nnormal-school statistics, First (Homer\nH. Seerley), 880\nReport of committee of eleven on a plan of\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nnormal-school statistics, Preliminary\n(Homer H. Seerley), 845\nReport\nof committee\non college-entrance\nrequirements,\n915\nReport of committee on college-entrance\nHosic), 707\nrequirements\nin English (James F.\nReport of committee on cosmopolitan highschool curriculum (Spencer R. Smith),\nReport of committee on courses of study in\nagriculture (E. C. Bishop), 1391\nReport of committee on high-school\nlibraries (Mary E. Hall), 1273\n700 of committee on high-school\nReport\npreparation of students for normal\nschools. Final (David Felmley), 577\nReport of committee on normal-school\nlibraries: A syllabus of library instruction in normal\nden-hall),\n1258 schools (Ida M. MenReport of committee on policy of the\nDepartment of Higher Education, 803\nReport\nchild), of\n549 committee on rural-school\neducation. Preliminary (E. T. FairReport of committee on school revenue\n. (Helen M. Hefferan), 1339\nReport of committee on special high school\npreparation of candidates for normalschool\ntraining,\nPreliminary, (David\n23 526\nFelmley),\nReport of committee on terminology, 1021\nReport of committee on the articulation of\nhigh school and college (Clarence D\nKingsley), 667\nReport of committee on the prevention of\nblindness and conservation of vision (J.\nA. Shawan), 1306\nReport of Treasurer, Annual, for 1911-12,\nResponse to address of welcome (Thomas\nH. Harris), 127\nRetardation, The kindergarten and its\nrelation to, 624\nReynolds, Azile B. — Discussion, 1363\nRiggs, James G. — Discussion, 496\nRiORDAN, Raymont) — Can the administration department of a school system serve\nas a laboratory for the industrial training\nof children ? 1228\nRound tables: Ancient languages, 725;\nbusiness, 1084; child hygiene, 1132;\nEnglish, 707: higher education, normal\nschools, and secondary education (joint),\n747; library, 1281; mathematics, 735:\nmodem languages, 728; music, 1021;\nschool administration, 1224; science,\n738;\n267 state and county superintendents,\n471: superintendents of larger cities,\n480; superintendents of smaller cities,\nRural communities, Sanitary education in,\nRural community, A social and educational survey of the, 281\n488\n\n"}
{"page": 1441, "printed_page": null, "text": "1425\nINDEX\nRural community, The social center and\n\nteaching\nCrabbe), force\n872 of normal schools (J. G.\n\nRural life conditions and rural education,\nA (Warren H. Wilson), 281; B (T. R.\nFoust), 286, (L. R. Alderman), 291,\n(John H. Worst), 295; C (Mrs. Frank\nDeGarmo), 301 ; D (E. J. Russell), 307\nRural life conditions and rural education:\nWhat is being done to meet the problem\nby the schools of Guilford County, N.C\n(T. R. Foust), 286\nRural life conditions and rural education:\nWhat is being done to meet the problem\nby the state of North Dakota (John H.\nWorst),\n295\nRural life conditions and rural education:\nWhat is being done to meet the problem\nby the state of Oregon (L. R. Alderman), 291\nRural-school education, Preliminary report\nof committee on, 549\nRural school gardens differentiated from\ncity school gardens (Van Evrie Kilpatrick), 1377\nRural schools,- The hygiene of, 1103\nRural schools thru agriculture. The betterment of: the Ohio plan, 1366\nRural schools thru boys' and girls' clubs,\nThe\n1373 betterment of: the Nebraska plan,\n\nSeerley, Homer H. — First report of the\ncommittee of eleven on a plan of normalschool statistics, 880; Preliminary report\nof the committee of eleven on a plan of\nnormal-school statistics, 845; The work\nof the national committee on agricultural education, 1375; Discussion, 535,\n\nthe, 250\n\nRussell, E. J.— The school, the college,\nand the English farmer, 307\n157 Ellen C. — -The coming half-century,\nSabin\n\nSalesm\nTrainin in, 1043\nSanitaanshiepd,ucat\nign rural commun\nry\nities\nn\n(Charles\nE. iNorth),\n267\nSargent, Walter — The value of art in\nthe industrial school, 988\nSchool\n1207 architecture (William B. Ittner),\nSchool children. How\nfar are teachers\nresponsible\nfor the morbidity\nand\nmortality of, 113 2\nSchool children, Stoop shoulders and flat\nchest in, 11 25\nSchool diseases (P^dwin O. Jordan), 1118\nSchool efficiency. The determining of, 376\nSchool gardens, Rural differentiated from\ncity school gardens, 1377\nSchool needs. How may a community learn\nits tuimet ? 384\nSchool revenue. Report of the committee\non, 1339\nSchool studies. Waste and efficiency in, 335\nSchool, The, the college, and the English\nfarmer (E. J. Russell), 307\nSchoolhouse as the civic and social center of\nthe community (Edward J. Ward), 436\nSchool's responsibility for providing healthful environment and program (R. W.\nCorwin), 545\nScientific study of arithmetic work in\nschool (J. T. Giles), 488\nSebbelove, Grda — Camp fire girls, 320\nSecuring and maintaining efficiency in the\n\nSegregation of the defective classes (E. J.\nEmerick), 1290\n\nSelden, Frank H. — Discussion, 962, 965\nSelection\nof physical exercise as determined\n588\nBurnham),\nby\nthe laws1333\nof growth (William H.\nSelvidge, Robert W. — Discussion, 948\nSexual reproduction in animals; the purpose and methods of teaching it (Mary\nPutnam Blount), 1324\nShawan, J. A. — Educational progress of\nthe year, 590; Report of committee on\nthe prevention of blindness and conservation ofvision, 1306; Discussion, 535\nShawkey, M. P. — Discussion, 479\nSheldon, Eleanor — Oral themes, 718\nShorthand and typewtiting, A (George A.\nBohlinger), 1084; B (Selby A.\nMoran), 1088\nSiDERS, Walter R. — Relation of the high\nschool to the schools below, 161\nSignificance of recent investigations in the\nfield of English, A (Edwin M. Hopkins),\n747, (John M. Clapp), 751, (Harry G.\nPaul), 755; B (Vincil C. Coulter),\n758; C (James Fleming Hosic), 761;\nD (Ernest C. Noyes), 763\nSignificance of the industrial arts in the\nschools (Charles A. McMurrv), 918\nSmith, Eleanor\n— The making of a musician, 1014\nSmith, Spencer R. — Report of the committee on700\ncosmopolitan high-school\ncurriculum,\nSnedden, David — Discussion 557\nSnell,\nF. — Chemistry and household\nscience,J. 1171\nSnow, Mary S. — Distribution of income,\n$500, $1,000 and $2,000 per year for\nfamily of five, 966\nSnyder, Z. X. — Discussion, 569\nSocial. and educational survey of the rural\ncommunity (Warren H. Wilson), 281\nSocial center and the rural community\n(Herbert Quick), 250\nSocial center development. Civic and, 1353\nSocial center movement, The public\nlibrary, the public school, and the, 240\nSocial center movement, The relation of\nschoolhouse architecture to the, 234\nSocial center of the community, The\nschoolhouse as the civic and, 436\nSocial center work. The organization and\nadministration of recreation and, 246\nSocial organization in the high school\n(Milton C. Potter), 181\n\n"}
{"page": 1442, "printed_page": null, "text": "1426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSome adjustments and changes in the\ncourse of study and school organization\nsuggested by the needs and the capacities\nof children that vary from the standards\nset ),for average pupils (D. H. Cecristensen\n355\nSome features of the educatioft of the blind\nin public schools (John B. Ctjrtis),\n1318\n\nSome problems in education as related to\nthe public health (Harvey W. Wiley),\n278\nSome sociological phases of the movement\nfor industrial education (Frank M.\nLeavitt), 921\nSpecialization with expert instruction\nrequisite in order to meet the needs of\nthe business world (Selby A. Moran),\n1088\n\nSpecialized or vocational vs. the composite high school (Arthur Deerin\nCall), 174\nStandardization of janitor service (G. M.\nWilson), 462\nStandards for measuring progress and\nresults. The need of, 634\nStandards for measuring the efl&ciency of\nnormal-school students (Charles\nMcKenny), 839\nState reports of joint committees and\naffihated organizations 1911-12, Summary of, 1341\nState university to other parts of the\nsystem of public instruction, The relation of the, 780\nStephens, W. L. — Departmental teaching\nin the elementary grades, 343\nStern, Erich C. — The organization and\nadministration of recreation and social\ncenter work, 246\nStewart, W. M. — Discussion, 832\nStoop shoulders and flat chest in school\nchildren (Charles A. L. Reed), 1125\nStrachan, Grace C. — Discussion, 603\nStrayer, George D. — By what standards\nor tests shall the efficiency of a school or\nsystems of schools be measured, 560\nStudy in adolescent efficiency (J. H.\nMcCurdy), II 86\nSuggestion of a method for improving the\nrelations of colleges and secondary\nschools (James R. Angell), 768\nSuggestions from cases of unusually rapid or\nirregular progress in public schools (E. E.\nJones), 640\nSummary of state reports of joint committees and affihated organizations\n1911-12, 1341\n\nSummers, L. L. — Discussion, 949\nSuTTNER, Bertha von — Peace and arbitration, 316 •\nSwain, Joseph — Discussion, 524\nTeachers association hel^ in Chicago, 111.,\nBrief historical sketch of the first, 137\nTeaching of personal hygiene in the schools\n(David Starr Jordan), 264\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTeaching\nThe best next thing\nfor the, profession,\n313\nTechnical subjects in the eighth grade\nadvisable. Is the introduction of, 942\nTeitrick, Reed B. — Discussion, 477\nTerry, H. L. — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofScience Instruction, 11 53\nTesting of children for mental efficiency\n(Frank G. Bruner), mo\nTextbook\nproblem.\nrelation to\nthe, 449 The bookman in his\nThompson, Alfred C— The function of\nthe normal school in relating theory and\npractice teaching so as to secure teaching\nefficiency, 862\nThompson,\nFrank\nin education,\n513 E. — Economy of time\nThompson,\nWilliam\nthe next steps,\n225 O. — Ways and means:\nTowsLEY,\nship, 1043W. B. — Training in salesmanTrade school (City) — an important instrumentahty for improving the vocational\nneed of the city child, 411\nTraining of native impulses (Herman\nCharles Henderson) , 1301\nTraining of the feeble-minded deaf, based\nupon impressions gained abroad\n(Frances Wettstein), 1296\nley), 1043\nTraining\nin salesmanship (W. B. TowsTreasurer's annual report for 1911-12, 23\nTrilling, Blanche M. — Secretary's Mintion,utes,\n1 141 Department of Physical EducaTrustees, Board of, Twenty-sixth Annual\nReport of, 27; Minutes of meetings of,\n106\n\nTypes of special schools in the larger\nAmerican cities (Ant)rew W. Edson) ,480\nUnrest\nHanna),and673 wreckage (John Calvin\nUpdegraff, Harlan — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Superintendence,\n329; Discussion, 495\nUrban community to its public-school\nsystem, Relation of an, 381\nUse of the library in vocational guidance\n(Jesse B. Davis), 1267\nUses of the victor and player-pianos in\nschools\nBenson), and\n1237 social centers (Agnes\nUtihzation\nA. Wirt), of492the school plant (William\nValue of art in the industrial school\n(Walter Sargent), 988\nValue of the educational commission in\ndetermining the efficiency of a city school\nsystem (Calvin N. Kendall), 376\nVan Hise, Charles Richard — A national\nuniversity a national asset; an instrumentaUty for advanced research, 210\nVan Sickle, James H. — Economy of time\nin education, 509; How far shall the\npubhc-school\nsystem care for the feebleminded 408\n?\n\n"}
{"page": 1443, "printed_page": null, "text": "1427\n\nINDEX\nVocational and moral guidance thru\nEnglish composition in the high school\n(Jesse B. Davis), 713\nVocational guidance (Meyer Bloomfield), 431\n645.\nVocational\nguidance, Practical arts and,\nVocational guidance, The use of the library\nin, 1267\n\nVocational training, old and new (T.\nVernette Morse), 994\nWahlstrom, L. W. — Discussion, 951\nWalker, Elmer W. — The possibilities and\nlimitations of the deaf mind, 131 2\nWalton, Seymour — Accountancy in relation to business organization and\nmanagement, 1069\nWard, Edward J.— Civic and social\ncenter development 1353; The schoolhouse as the civic and social center of\nthe community, 436; Discussion, 1363\nWard, Florence Elizabeth— 'The Montessori method, 609\nWaste\nand efficiency in school studies (W. '\nH. Elson),\n335\nWays and means of increasing the effectiveness of instruction in English composition, A (Jesse B. Davis), 713; B\n(Eleanor Sheldon), 718, (Mary E.\nCourtenay), 721\nWays and means : the next steps (William\nO. Thompson), 225\nWeckel, Ada L. — Discussion, 742\nWettstein, Frances — The training of the\nfeeble-minded deaf, based upon impressions gained abroad, 1 296\nWhat school facilities should be provided\nfor instruction by means of motionpicture machines, stereopticon lanterns,\nphonographs, player-pianos, etc. ? A (W.\nH. Ives), 1230; B (Frances E. Clark),\n1234; C (Agnes Benson), 1237\nWhat the public may expect in dividends:\nmaterial, civic, arid social (Kate Upson\nClark), 187\n\n1057\nWheelock,\nLucy — The function of the\nkindergarten in the public-school system,\n395\nWhitbeck, R. H. — Commercial geography,\n\nWiley, Harvey W. — Some problems in\neducation\nhealth, 278 as related to the public\nWiLLARD, J. Monroe — The problem of\nrelating theory to observation and\npractice in the training of teachers for\ncity schook, 890\nWilson, G. M. — The standardization of\njanitor service, 462\nWilson, tion,H.510 B. — Economy of time in educaWilson, Warren H. — A social and educational survey of the rural community,\n281\n\nWinship, Albert E. — The best next thing\nfor the cussion,\nteaching\n548, 604 profession, 313; DisWirt,\nschool William\nplant, 492 A. — Utilization of the\nWood,\nThomas\neducation,\n540 D. — Health problems in\n1375\nWork of the national committee on agricultural education (Homer H. Seerley),\nWork of the normal school in the reorganization of the elementary-school curriculum (Eugene W. Bohannon), 817\nWorks, George A. — Applied botany, 11 76\nWorship\nthe \"Standard\"\n(William\nHughes ofMearns),\n193\nWorst, John H. — Rural Hfe conditions\nand rural education : What is being done\nto meetDakota,\nthe problem\nby the state of\nNorth\n295\n1224\nWulfing,\nG. E. — Can the administration\nof a school system serve as a laboratory\nfor the industrial training of children ?\n\n"}
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{"page": 1447, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\nNational PJducation Association\n13\nof the United States\nN3A13\nAddresses and pro1912\nceedings...\n\nPLEASE DO NOT\nCARDS\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\n"}
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