{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
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{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "B 79\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1911natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nAND ADDRESSES\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\n"}
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{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "*^\n\nV\n\nJlc\nNATIONAL\n\"'\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE UNITED\n\nASSOCIATION\nSTATES\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF\n\nFORTY-NINTH\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\nHELD\n\nSAN FRANCISCO,\n\nMEETING\n\nAT\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nJULY 8-14\n1911\n\npubllsbeD bi2 tbe -ass^ ociation\nSECRETARY'S\n\n1911\n\nOFFICE, WINONA,\n\nMINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\n/3\n\n13\n\nComposed and Piinted By\nThe University of Chicago Press\nChicago, lU.. U.S.A.\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "23\n\nCONTENTS\nAct of Incorporation\nBy-Laws\n....\nCertificate of Incorporation\nCalendar of Meetings\n\n27\n\nI\n\n5\n109\n\n.\n\n12\n16\n20\n\nOfiicers for 1910-11\nOfficers for 1911-12\nReport of Treasurer\nReport of Board of Trustees .\nAnnual Meeting of Active Members\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1910-11\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1911-12\nMinutes of Meetings of Board of Trustees\nSecretary's Minutes of General Sessions\nAddresses of Welcome:\nI. Johnson.\n11. McCarthy\nIII. Wheeler\nIV. Hale\n.\n\n37\n59\n6i\n54\n\n.\n\nGENERAL\n\n67\n67 69\n\n83\n87\n\nSESSIONS\n\n....\n....\n\nResponse to Addresses of Welcome — Aley\nIntroduction of President Young — Pickard\nTemperance and Society — Jordan\n.\nThe Cause of Education — Mrs. Wixson\n.\nHypothesis in Education — Mrs. Young .\nAn Appreciation — Roncovieri .\nReorganization of American Education — Baker ....\nThe Opportunity of the Teacher — Mrs. Blaine ....\nThe Development of Personality thru Education — Miss Schallenberger\nThe Compensation of Teachers — Scott\nThe Life of the Teacher — Zueblin\n.......\nCan We Shorten the Term of Years without Decreasing Efficiency of Educat:\nAmerican Schools ?— Avery ....\nPresent Problems in English Education — Miss Stevens\nPeace in the Schools — Miss Blake ....\nProgress in Public Education — Blair\nBicknell\nnd Wilson —\n— James Ormo\nam\nri\nmo\nMe\nIn\nI\nDENCE\nDEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTEN\n(Mobile Meeting, 191 1)\n...\n.\n..\nSecretary's Minutes — Call\n...\nTopic: A Message of Achievement from the Southland\nA. The Progress of Its Schools — Willingham\n.•\n.\n.\n.\nThe Glory of Its Children — Evans\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n75\n\n103\n\n74 123\n\n94\n116\n121\n\n15s\n\n72 7\n\n126\n132\n140\n146\n169\n161\n166\n\n.175\n\n91\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "vi\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIn Memoriam\nA. Warren Easton — A swell\nB. William Wallace Stetson— 5wi//^\nTopic: The Present Status of Education in America\n\n■\n\nA. In the Elementary Schools— If r^. Young\nB. In the Secondary Schools — Graf\nC. In the Colleges and Universities — Benton .\n.\n.\n.\nThe Standards of Professional Life as Applied to Teaching — Suzzallo .\nTopic: Our Educational Advance and Improvement over the Past\n\n.179\n180\n183\n186\n.191\n199\n\nA. In the City — Chadsey\n.........\n203\nB. In the State — Cary\n210\n247\nC. In the Nation — Brown\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.215\nPreliminary Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education — Suzzallo\n222 255\nAn Educational Epoch in New America — MacLean\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.226\nTopic: The Coming of the Humane Element in Education\nA. The Open-Air School — Kingsley\nB. The Training of the Mentally and Physically Unfortimate — Ayres.\nC. The Peace Movement and the PubUc Schools — Mrs. Andrews\nD. Education of the American Indian — Peairs ....\nReport of the Committee on the Mexican Centennial — Cummings\nTopic: The Progress and the True Meaning of the Practical in Education\nA. In Vocational Training — Gibson .......\nB. In the Balanced Course of Study and the All-year-round Schools — Lmkey\nPreliminary Report of the Committee on Uniform Records and Reports\n.\n.\n\n236\n242\n252\n\n260\n267\n271\n\nround tables\nRound Table of State and County Superintendents:\nTopic: A Story of Achievement and Endeavor in Co-operation\nThe County Superintendent and the Rural Communities — Miss Lathrop 303\nThe State Superintendent, the County Superintendent, and the State Normal— Marsh\n..........\nThe State Superintendent and the General and Southern Education Boards\n304\n—Cook\n305\nRound Table of Superintendents of Smaller Cities:\nTopic: Unity of Ideals and Purposes in Teachers\nA. As Gained from Professional Training — Thompson\n.\n.309\nB. As Gained from School Supervision — Warriner\n-311\nC. As Gained from School Administration — Mrs. Eyre .\n319\nFinal Report of the Committee of the Department of Superintendence on a Universal System of Key Notation\n323\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nConstitution.\n......\nOfficers and Members\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nOF EDUCATION\n333\n\nIntroductory\nStatement by the President of the Council— irey«5 \"\nTentative Report\nof the Committee on a System of Teaching Morals in the .Public'.\nSchools\n.....\n343\nIntroduction and Recommendations\n331\nMoral Education: The Problem Stated— Brumbaugh .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n347\n\n336\n340\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "vu\n\nCONTENTS\n\ni\n\nI\n\nSchools — Carr\ntion thru the Agency of the Public\nMoral I. Educa\nMoral Instruction in the Public Schools — A Tentative Course by\nGrades\nij_\nH\nII. Means of Moral Training Afforded by the Public Schools\n^ The Home and School Life — Greenwood\n......\nRelation of Moral and Religious Training — Barnes\n....\nStatus of Moral Training in the Public Schools — Barnes\nVirtue and the Virtues: A Study of Method in the Teaching of Morals — Coe\nMoral Training of College Students — Jordan\n......\nSome Instinctive Roots upon Which the Teachmg of Morals in the Public Schools\n\ned—Rugh\nent of it\nTeachers in Service in City Schools — Updegraf l\nThe Impr\ny emBe Gra,\nMaov\nn\nl\nchoo\noo\nTrainPreparatio of Candidates for Normal-S\nTopic: High-Sch\ning\nI. Felmley\n.\nII. Kirk\ns\nTopic: Needed Adjustment between Secondary Schools and Colleges\nI. Aley\n.\n.\n.....\n\\\n...\nII. Lackey .\nIII. Caldwell\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\n433\n400\n\n445\n426\n\n450\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n........\nMusic in the Kindergarten — Miss Hofer\nThe Development of the Color Sense — Miss Ball\nIn Memoriam — Milton Bradley — Webber ....\nThe Kindergarten: Its Influences upon Higher Education — Boone\nMoral Instruction of the Child — Rugh\nThe Kindergarten as an Ethical Laboratory — Miss Pluss .\nThe Kindergarten as a Factor in Education for Efficiency — Miss McConkey\nThe Kindergarten of the Future — Parlin\nDEPARTMENT\n\n367\n397\n377\n51\n419 3\n425\n351\n\n477\n479 461\n\n466\n484\n471\n497\n503\n507\n488\n490\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.517\nThe Need of a New Standard of Measurement for the Various Subjects of the\nCurriculum — Snyder\n.\n.\n.518\nIndustrial Education in London — Miss Stevens\n.\n523 511\nReport on the Motivation of the Children's Work in the Elementary Schools —\nWilson\n528\nThe Health of School Children — Aley\n........\n544\nPlaygrounds and Health — Weir\n.........\n549\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nReport of the Committee of Nine on the Articulation of High School and College —\nKingsley\nThe New Harvard Plan for College Admission — Davis\n.\n.\n.\nThe New University of Chicago Plan for College Admiteion — Caldwell\nThe High-School Teacher Himself — Barrett\nExtra-Classroom Activities in High School: Their Place and Their Importance —\nBeniley\n\nI\n\n555\n559\n567\n572\n576\n581\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "viii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSocial Functions — Hanna\n.\n.\n.\n.\n...\n,\n.\n.\nSchool Publications, Literary and Musical Organizations, Dramatics — Brink\n.\nReport of the Committee on Cosmopolitan High-School Curriculum — Smith\nROUND-TABLE\n\n586\n588\n591\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nA. English —\nThe Questions at Issue — Hosic\n.\n.\n.592\nOrganization of the Course in Literature in Secondary Schools, Particularly\nWith a Regard to History — Mrs. Hulst ......\n598\nB. Mathematics —\nProvisional Report of the National Committee of Fifteen on Geometry\nSyllabus\n...........\n607\nC. Classical —\nLatin in the Lower Grades (below the High School) — Nutting .\n.\n.\n635\nMaking Latin Composition of Greater Value — Graves\n.\n.\n637\nD. Modem Foreign Languages —\nThe Final Aim of Modern Foreign Language Study iii Secondary Education\n— Senger\n,\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n639\nLiterary Appreciation in the Study of Foreign Languages: Its Opportunities\nand Limitations; with Special Reference to the Study of French —\nGuerard\n...\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n641 659\nSimplified Spelling From the Scholarly Standpoint and with Reference to the\nMasses: The Argument for Simplified Spelling — Gideon\n.\n645\nSimplified Spelling with Reference to the Masses — Seerley\n-651\n664\nDEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Separation and Development of the Junior College as Distinct From the Uni\nversity — Duniway\n.........\nThe Relation of the College of Liberal Arts to the Professional and Practical Schools\n— Kane\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nThe Building up of Professional Education on a Collegiate Foundation from the\nViewpoint of the Professional Schools — Jordan\n....\nSome Phases of University Efficiency — Lange ......\nThe Supply of and Demand for Engineering Graduates in the United States\nLittle ............\nThe Future of Intercollegiate Athletics in the Western States — Campbell\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\n.\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n670\n672\n6681\n97\n688\n\n695\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..........\nThe Relation of Academic and Professional Work in a Normal School — Seerley\nThe Normal School and the Training School — Felmley\n....\nReport of the Committee on Simplified Spelling\n.....\nReport of the National Committee on Agricultiural Education\nDEPARTMENT\n\n660\n\nAND\n\nART\n\n704\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nTo What Extent Does Manual Training Aid in Adjustment to Environment ?—\nConnelley\n............\nDynamic Value of Manual Arts in the Public-School System of Education —\nSensor\n............\nThe Requisites of the Efficient Teacher in Industrial Schools — Gerwig\n\n700\n709\n\n711\n706\n\n719\n722\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "IX\n\nCONTENTS\nReport of the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements\n....\nThe New Standard of the Present-Day Industrial Education in Europe — Kreuzpointner\n............\nThe Requisites for the Effective Teaching of the Manual and Household Arts —\nMiss Johnson\n...........\nSome Present Problems in the Literature of the Manual Arts and Vocational\nEducation — Guillou\n..........\nThe Public-School Domestic-Science Department as an Influence in the Community\nfor Enforcing Pure- Food Laws and Civic Cleanliness — Miss Clark\n.\nSome Actual Needs for Intelligent Purchasing of Household Commodities and\nPractical Methods of Keeping Household Accounts — Miss Flagg\nArt Education in Public Schools a Necessity of Civic Perfection — Clark\nArt's Service as a Basis for Classified Knowledge (Scientific Development) — Boone\nWhat Has Art in the Schools Done to Preserve and Cultivate the Imagination ?—\nMiss Gearhart\n...........\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\n729\n\n747\n\n740\n\n76s\n769\n756\n\n783 60\n7\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n787 778\nPublic-School Music in Relation to the Music of the Community — Miss Shawe 790\nSome Mistakes of the Music Teacher Which the Viewpoint of the Child Would\nCorrect — Miss Crane ..........\n794\nReport of the Committee on Terminology\n802\nMusic in the College — Foote ..........\n803\nThe Relation of Music to School Activities — Miss Fisher\n808\nPublic-School Music and Our National Speech — Mrs. Clark ....\n813\nThe Opportunity and the Responsibility of Normal Schools in Public-School Music —\nFullerton\n* .\n.\n.822\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nBookkeeping Fundamentals — McKinney ........\nTeaching Typewriting for the Best Results — Ctirry\nBusiness English — What ? Why ? How ?— Cody\n......\nCommercial-Economic Geography — Childs\n.\n.\n.\n.\nShorthand — Its Educational and Practical Value — Clark .....\nCurricula for High Schools of Commerce in the United States — Murphy\nTo What Extent Are Teachers Responsible for Failures of Students in the Classroom:\nI. Brecheen\nII. Bernhard\n\n827\n829\n834\n839\n842\n845\n852\n\nThe Essentials of the Ideal Commercial Teacher — Fisher\n\n865\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\n.....\n\n857\n861\n\nHYGIENE\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nTwo Thousand Children Tested by the Binet Measuring Scale for Intelligence —\nGoddard\n............\nResults and Impressions of a Preliminary Study of Pedagogical Retardation —\nDavidson\n\n869\n\nHealth and Ventilation — Ayres\n.........\nThe Influence of Open-Air and Low-Temperature Schoolrooms on the Mental\nAlertness and Scholarship of Pupils — Bruner ......\nOpen-Air Schools — Ayres\n..........\n\n885\n\n870\n878\n\n890\n898\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\nDEPARTMENT\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n....\n...\n...\n905\nReport of the School Health Committee of the Department of School Patrons 906\nReport of the Public Health Education Committee of the American Medical Association\n.............\n909\nThe Health of the Child the Joint Concern of Parent and Teacher — Evans\n913\nSex Hygiene — Miss Greene\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.917\nThe Playground Movement in America — Weir\n......\n925\nPhysical Training for Girls of HighiSchool Age — ^The Biological Point of View —\nTyler\n933\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n939\nElementary or General Science From the Standpoint of the Eastern Schoolmaster —\nCowen\n............\n940\nGeneral Science in the High School — Avery\n944\nElementary or General Science for High Schools as It Appears to a Western College\nProfessor — Morgan\n..........\n948\nForest Conservation — Allen\n952\nWater-Powers, Lands, and Minerals — Pardee\n958\nNational Vitality — Snow\n965\nThe Teacher's Part in Conservation — Burk\n.......\n970\nReport of Committee on Efficiency of Janitor Service\n.....\n977\nThe Scientific Basis for Ventilation Standards — Winslow\n-977\nBacteriological Tests of Methods of Cleaning — Frost and Armstrong\n.\n985\nOur Short Course for Janitors — Frost\n.......\n990\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Ideal School Board From the Superintendent's Point of View — Hines .\nThe Relation of the Indiana Accounting Board to PubHc Schools — Myers\n.\nPupil Self-Government as a Training for Citizenship — Welling\n.\n.\nPresent-Day Tendencies of School Architecture — Patton\n.....\nLIBRARY\n\n993\n994\n1002\n1005\n1009\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.1015\nThe Proper Supervision of the Reading of School Children — Miss Blake\n1016\nHigh-School Libraries — Miss Fagge\n........\n1019\nCalifornia County Free Libraries — Miss Eddy .......\n1026\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nThe School Laggard — Pearse ..........\nSeparate Schools with Separate Courses of Training for the Separate Needs of Our\nChildren — Heeter\n..........\nCauses of Backwardness and Mental Deficiency in Children and -How to Prevent\nThem — Goddard ...........\nCan We Eliminate the School Laggard ?— Ltickey\nThe Prevention of Blindness in Children under School Age — Stevenson\n.\nThe Hygiene of Vision — Lewis\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nSchool Activities in Relation to Children's Eyes — Shawan\n....\n\n103 1\n1033\n1034\n1039\n1046\n105 1\n1059\n1063\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nXI\n\nLegal Provisions for Exceptional Children — Groszmann\n.....\nWhat Constitutes a Subnormal Child, and to What Extent Can He Be Trained ?—\nMrs. Hicks ...........\nPhysiology and Pscyhology of the Deaf Child — Lowry\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n1093\n\n1077\n1094\n1084\n1097\n\nOF SCHOOL PATRONS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nReport of the School Revenue Committee of the Department of School Patrons .\nSummary of State Reports of Joint Committees and Afl&liated Organizations\n1910-11\n\n1070\n\n1 103\n\n............\n\nCo-operation between Home and School — Owen\nChild Protection and the Social Evil — Sumner\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF RURAL\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\n1117\nm\no\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n...........\nAgricultural Nature-Study — Palmer ........\nSchool Gardening in Hawaii as Related to Agricultural Education — MacCaughey\nPotentiaHty of the School Garden — Stehhins\n.......\nReport of Committee on Courses of Study in Agriculture — Bishop\nAgriculture and Domestic Science in Normal Schools with Special Reference to\nPreparing Teachers for Community Work — Kirk\nPhysical Education in Elementary Rural Schools — Alderman\n\n....\n\n1118\n1126\n1131\n1 138\n\n1152\n1156\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nOF\n\n1857-1870\n\nThe National Teachers Association\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nPurpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession\nof teachings and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates.\nThe name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August\n15, 1870, to the ''National Educational Association.\"\nI 870-1907\n\nNational Educational Association\nIncorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name, \"National Education Association,\" which was\nchanged to \"National Educational Association,\" by certificate filed November 6,1886.\nNational Education Association of the United States\n1907Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\" The charter was\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAN ACT\n\nTO\n\nINCORPORATE THE\nTION OF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION\nUNITED STATES\n\nASSOCIA-\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled:\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now ofl5cers and directors\nand trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeflfer, Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews,\nof Arizona; John H, Hineman, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, Josiah\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of Californij^ Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of\nDelaware; J. Ormond Wilson, *William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of\n*Decea«ed.\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nColumbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann,\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, * Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A.\nMott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V.\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot,\n*Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White,\nWilliam H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of\nMinnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood,\nWilliam J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of\nNebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M.\nGreen, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\nPitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs,\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas;\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nL. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F, Griffiths,\nof Hawaii; C. H, Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia\nby the name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States, This corporation shall include the National Council of\nEducation and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by\norganization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth,\nof Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth,\nof Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education;\neleventh, of Child-Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science\nInstruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department;\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education\nmay be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any\ncourt of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not\ninconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia,\n♦ Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation;\nprovided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation\nwhich shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational\npurposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually\nfile, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\nin detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\nmembers — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and\na Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of a President, the First Vice-Preside;it, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as\nshall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\nas may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\nex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\none trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\nshall forfeit his membership.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nfunds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the\nprincipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a twothirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been\napproved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed\nexpenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the\nPermanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAssociation and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the\ndonation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and\nSecretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When\npracticable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after\npaying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed\nexpenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\noffice for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal oflice of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, provided, That the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and\nan office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the By-Laws.\nSec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew By-Laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said\nAssociation shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until\nthe expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until\ntheir successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the\nNational Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the\ncharter granted by this Act and adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Education Association of the United States\"; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this Act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of tht corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\nperson having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees\nof the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the\npresiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further. That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted\nby this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day\nof July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be\nextended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District\nof Columbia.\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall ijot in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities,\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nand contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action\nor proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued byreason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested\nor impaired.\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the Constitution of the National Education Association of\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual\nsession at Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Adopted at meeting of active members held in Los Angeles, Cal., July 10, 1907.)\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSection i. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\neducational institutions, including libraries and educational publications, may become\nactive members.\nSec. 2. Any eligible person may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual\ndues for the current year.\nSec. 3. Active members only shall have the right to vote and to hold oflSce in the\nAssociation, in the National Council of Education, or in the several departments.\nSec. 4. All active members shall pay annual dues of two dollars, and shall be entitled\nto the volume of Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions.\nSec. 5. The annual membership fee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, orby remittance to the Secretary before September first of each year.\nSec. 6. Any active member may discontinue membership by giving written notice to\nthe Secretary before September first in any year, and may restore the same only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. A\nwritten application for active membership shall constitute an agreement to continue such\nmembership and pay annual dues, unless written notice of discontinuance is sent to the\nSecretary before September first of the fiscal year for which such discontinuance shall apply.\nCORRESPONDING\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 7. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of\nDirectors to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall\nat no time exceed fifty.\nSec. 8. Corresponding members shall be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without\nthe payment of fees or other conditions.\nASSOCIATE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. 9. Any person on paying an annual membership fee of two dollars may become\nan associate member.\nSec. 10. Associate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance\nwith the usual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nSec. II. All life members and life directors Ihall be denominated active members and\nshall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual\ndues.\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nROLL\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMEMBERS\n\n.\n\nSec. 12. The names of active, life, and corresponding members only shall be printed\nin the annual Yearbook, with their respective educational titles, ofl&ces, and addresses,\nand the list shall be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nII— OFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Directors, and Treasurer shall be chosen\nby the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third\nday of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. They\nshall continue in ofl&ce until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election and\nuntil their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided.\ncommittee on resolutions\nSec. 2. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions,\ncommittee on nominations\nSec. 3. At the third session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be\nappointed by the President a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one member from\neach state and territory represented. Such a committee shall be appointed by the President\non the nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present\nat the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination; provided, however,\nThat such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when the\nactive members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination.\nSec. 4. The meetings of the active members of the several states to nominate members\nof the nominating committee shall be held at 5:30 p.m. on the first day of the annual\nmeeting of the Association, at such places as shall be announced in the general program.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— DUTIES\nTHE\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSection t. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding ofl&cer.\nIn his absence the first Vice-President in order, who is present, shall preside; and in the\nabsence of all the Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nthe secretary\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the\ngeneral meetings of the Association and of all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall\nconduct such correspondence and transact such other business of the Association as the\ndirectors or Executive Committee may assign, and shall have his records present at all\nmeetings of the Association and the Board of Directors.\nTHE\n\nTREASURER\n\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\nhold in safekeeping, the current income of the Association; shall expend the same only\nupon order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures,\nwith vouchers for the latter; which accounts, ending the first day of July in each year, he\nshall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall report\nto the Board of Directors, The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge\nof his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in oflice\nuntil the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the\nAssociation next succeeding thai at which he is elected, and until his successor has been\nelected and has qualified.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nAUDITOR\n\nOF\n\nACCOUNTS\n\nSec. 4. It shall be tjie duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the\nsaid fund, shall be attached to the annual report of the Board of Trustees.\nCERTIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nBILLS\n\nSec. 5. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nSection i. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular annual meeting at the place\nof the annual convention, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or\nthe President shall determine.\nSec. 3. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nobjects\n\nDUTIES\n\nAND\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of public and professional interest;\nthe proposal to the Board of Directors, from time to time, of suitable subjects for investigation and research, and the recommendation of the amount of appropriations that should\nbe made for such purposes; the appointment and general supervision of such special committees ofinvestigation and research as may be provided for and authorized by the Board\nof Directors of the Association; the consideration, discussion, and recommendation to the\nBoard of Directors for disposition of all reports by such special committees of research as\nmay have been appointed on its recommendation or by its authority; the annual preparation and presentation to the Association at its annual convention of a report on \" Educational\nProgress during the Past Year\"; and in other ways shall use its best efforts to further\nthe objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general.\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nSec. 2.* The Council shall consist of one hundred and twenty members, selected from\nthe membership of the Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council.\nSec. 3.* The Board of Directors shall annually elect ten members, and the Council\nshall elect ten members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected.\nAt the meeting of 1908 enough additional members shall be elected in the same manner to\nmake the total number of members one hundred and twenty, ^he terms of the members\nso elected shall expire as follows: one-sixth in one year, one-sixth in two years, one-sixth\nin three years, one-sixth in four years, one-sixth in five years, one-sixth in six years.\nSec. 4. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection\nwith the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\nSec. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the\nCouncil shall be considered equivalent to resignatJbn of membership, and the Council shall\nfill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\n* As amended at meeting of active members held at Cleveland, Ohio, July i, 1908.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired terra. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, becpme honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nBY-LAWS\n\nor THE COUNCIL\n\nSec. 6. The Council may establish by-laws for its government not inconsistent with\nthe Act of Incorporation or with the By-Laws of the Association, provided such by-laws shall\nbe submitted to, and approved by, the Board pf Directors of the Association before they\nshall become operative.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. A department shall consist of those members of the Association who are\nespecially interested in the consideration of a particular group of educational problems.\nEach department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and such\nother ofi&cers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs.\nSec. 2. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time of the annual convention of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold\nits annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined\nby the officers of said department.\nSec. 3. The objects of the annual department meetings shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of\nthese meetings shall be organized and conducted by the respective presidents, in conference\nwith, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, at the time of the annual convention, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference may be\nheld at the discretion of the department officers.\nSec. 4. Upon the written request of twenty active members of the Association for\npermission to establish a new department, the Board of Directors may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the departments named in the Act of Incorporation.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five directors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of\nits departments, in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume oi^Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon the\napproval of the Executive Committee.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— AMENDMENTS\n\nSection i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by the\nunanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present,\nprovided, That the substance of the alteration or amendment has been proposed in writing\nat a previous annual meeting.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNOW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nKNOWN\n\nAS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nTHE\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June\n30, 1906.\n\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard,\nthe secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an Act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate\nthe National Education Association of the United States,\"\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\nand accepted the Charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected\nofficers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said Charter granted by said Act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is\nthe lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nverification\nresolutions adopted by the active members, july lo, i907\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the Charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the Charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said\nmeeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \"1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize\nunder the Charter granted by the Act of Congress.\nFiled in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4,\n1907.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nTEACHERS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\n1864— OGDENSBURG, N.Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\n186s— HARRISBURG. PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1859— WASHINGTON, D.C.\nA. J. RicKOFF, President.\nJ. W. Bui.KLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\n1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. Wickersham, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\ni860— BUFFALO, N.Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1867 — No session.\n1868— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n\n1861, 1862 — No session.\n\n1869— TRENTON, N.J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1871— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. PiCKARD, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. •\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1878 — No session.\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\n1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1873— ELMIRA, N.Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer.\n1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1874— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1881— ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell. Treasurer.\n\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nvy. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n10\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "II\n\nCALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\n1884— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbei.l, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n189s— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray Buti-ER, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n.885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nF. I.OUIS SoLDAN, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A, Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1896— BUFFALO. N.Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary,\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1886— TOPEKA, KANS.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\n- Irwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1887— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ, H, Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1898— WASHINGTON, D.C.\nJ. M, Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNehx, Treasurer.\n\n1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1889— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1900— CHARLESTON, S.C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\n1890— ST. PAUL. MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nVV. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1901— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1 801— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1902 -MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilliam M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n\n1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1903— BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President.\niRwm Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n\n1893— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education)\nAlbert G. Lane. President\nIrwin Shepard. Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1904— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\n\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nL. C. Greeni.ek, Treasurer.\n\n1804— ASBURY PARK, N.J.\nAlbert G. Lane, Pre.sident.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n190S— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N. J\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n\n1906 — No session.\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, President.\n\n1907-\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCHANGED\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\nTO\n\nOF THE UNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nEdwin G. Cooley, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\niQio— BOSTON, MASS.\nJames Y. Joyner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\n1909— DENVER, COLO.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\nion— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nElla Flaog Young, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nDurand W. Springer, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nTHE UNITED\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nElla Flagg Young, . .\nIrwin Shepard\nDuRAND W. Springer.\n\nASSOCIATION\nSTATES\n1910-11\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nChicago, III.\nWinona, Minn.\nDetroit, Mich.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nJames Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nJulia Richman, District Superintendent of City Schools\nFayette L. Cook, President, South Dakota State Normal School\nGeorge A. McFarland, Principal, State Normal School\nThomas C. Miller, Principal of Shepherd College\nCharles S. Foos, Superintendent of Schools\nHomer H. Seerley, President, Iowa State Teachers College\nFranklin O. Hays, Superintendent of Schools\nEdward T. Fairchild, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSamuel Avery, Chancellor, University of Nebraska\nC. A. DoNiWAY, President, University of Montana\nBOARD\n\nEXECUTIVE\n\nIrwin Shefaro .\n\nRaleigh, N.C.\nNew York, N.Y.\nSpearfish, S.Dak.\nValley City, N.Dak.\nShepherdstown, W.Va.\nReading, Pa.\nCedar Falls, Iowa\nAlva, Okla.\nTopeka, Kans.\nLincoln, Nebr.\nMissoula, Mont.\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nHenry B. Brown\nValparaiso, Ind\nCarroll G. Pearse\nMilwaukee, Wis\nJames M. Greenwood, Secretary\nKansas City, Mo\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman. . . New York, N.Y\nElla Flagg Young\nChicago, III\nElla Flagg Young\nJames Y. Joyner\nDuRAND W. Springer\nNicholas Murray Butler\nJohn H. Phillips\n\nTerm expires igii\nTerm expires 1912\nTerm expires 1913\nTerm expires igi4\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\n\nChicago, 111.\nRaleigh, N.C.\nDetroit, Mich.\nNew York, N.Y.\nBirmingham, Ala.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS\nDirectors ex officio\nElla Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\n\nOF\n\nDurand W. Springer, Detroit, Mich.\nNicholas Murray Bxttler, New York, N.Y.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nLife Directors\n\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R.I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville. Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, Washington, D.C.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, 111.\nCooLEY, Edwin G., LaGrange, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio.\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\n\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N.J.\nGreenwood, James M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\nJoyner, James Y., Raleigh, N.C.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Milb, W.Va.\nMaxwell. William H., New York, N.Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nPiCKARD, JosiAH L., Cupertino, Cal.\n12\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPiKK, JosHDA, Jerseyville, 111.\n•\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, HI.\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa.\nTeachers Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nSkinner, Charles R., New York, N.Y.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nState Teachers Association of Illinois\n'Wilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D.C.\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nJohn W. Abercrombie, President, University of Alabama\nUniversity\nArizona\nA. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School\nTempe\nArkansas\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nLittle Rock\nCalifornia\nDuncan MacKinnon, Superintendent of Schools\nSan Diego\nColorado\nCharles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nDenver\nConnecticut\nFrederick A. Verplanck, Superintendent of Schools\nSo. Manchester\nDelaware\nGeor(5e W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools\nWilmington\nDist. of Col\nP.M. Hughes, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools\nWashington\nFlorida\nMiss Clem Hampton, State Department of Education\nTallahassee\nGeorgia\nMrs. F. S. Whiteside, 46 Columbia Avenue\nAtlanta\nIdaho\nCharles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools\nBoise\nIllinois\nJ. Stanley Brown, Principal of High School\nJoliet\nIndiana\nThomas A. Morr, Superintendent of Schools\nRichmond\nIowa\nO. P. BosTWiCK, Superintendent of Schools\nClinton\nKansas\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\nTopeka\nKentucky\nW. H. Bartholomew, Principal, Girls' High School\nLouisville\nLouisiana\nMiss Mary Stevens, Teacher of English, Ouachita Parish H.S.. . Stevensdale\nMaine\nPayson Smith, State Superintendent of Public Schools\nAugusta\nMaryland\nA. C. Willison, County Superintendent of Schools\nCumberland\nMassachusetts .... Irving O. Palmer, High School\nNewtonviUe\nMichigan\nE. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools\nIshpeming\nMinnesota\nS. L. Heeter, Superintendent of Schools\nSt. Paul\nMississippi\nE. E. Bass, Sup)erintendent of Schools\nGreenville\nMissouri\nHoward A. Gass, Editor, Missouri School Journal\nJefferson City\nMontana\nJames M. Hamilton, President, Montana Agricultural College . . . Bozeman\nNebraska\nA. A. Reed, Professor of Sec. Education, Univ. of Nebraska\nLincoln\nNevada\nMrs. L. C. Booth, 421 Sierra Street\nReno\nNew Hampshire. . . Henry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Concord\nNew Jersey\nM. H. Kinsley, Superintendent of County Schools\nHoboken\nNew Mexico\nJames E. Clark, Territorial Superintendent of Public Instruction. Santa Fe\nNew York\nAugustus S. Downing, First Assistant Commissioner of Education Albany\nNorth Carolina\nW. S. Snipes, Superintendent of Schools\nFayetteville\nNorth Dakota\nNelson Sauvain, Superintendent of Schools\nCasselton\nOhio\nJohn W. Zeller, State Commissioner of Common Schools\nColumbus\nOklahoma\nW. C. Canterbury, Superintendent of Schools\nMarietta\nOregon\nEdwin D. Ressler, Professor, Oregon Agri. College\nCorvallis\nPennsylvania\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction. Harrisburg\nRhode Island\nGeorge F. Weston, Principal of High School\nProvidence\nSouth Carolina\nD. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Nor. and Indust. College\nRock Hill\nSouth Dakota\nFreeman H. Hoff, Superintendent of Schools\nMitchell\nTennessee\nJ. J. Keyes, Superintendent of Schools\nNashville\nTexas\nGeorge H. Carpenter, Superintendent of Schools\nBrownwood\nUtah\nG. N. Child, Supervisor of Schools\nSalt Lake City\nVermont\nMason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education\nMontpelier\nVirginia\nJoseph D. Eggleston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Richmond\nWashington\nHenry B. Dewey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . . . Olympia\nWest Virginia\nMorris P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools\nCharleston\nWisconsin\nCarroll G. Pearse, Superintendent of Schools\nMilwaukee\nWyoming\nA. D. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nCheyenne\nHawaii\nPerley L. Horne, President, Kamehameha Schools\nHonolulu\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nPresident\nCharles H. Keyes, Ex. Sec. Com. on Safety of City of New York . . New York, N.Y.\nVice-President\nW. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Instruction, Public Schools. . Omaha, Nebr.\nSecretary\nJohn W. Carr, Superintendent of Schools\nBayonne, N.J.\nExecutive Committee Joseph Swain, President of Swarthmo^e College\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nExecutive Committee James M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools\nKansas City, Mo.\nExecutive Committee Elmer Ellsworth Brown. U.S. Com'r of Education\nWashington, D.C.\n•Died April 2, igii.\n\n13\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\nKindergarten *\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMiss Jane L. Hoxie, Supervisor of Kindergartens\nBerkeley, Cal.\nMiss Mary E. Gamble, Garfield School Kindergarten\nEast Oakland, Cal.\nMiss Harriet E. Huggins, Director Kindergarten Training Class Oakland, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMiss Adelaide Steele Baylor, Superintendent of Schools\nH. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools\nMiss Nellie O'Keefe, Principal, McClellan School\nSecondary\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nH. M. Barrett, Principal of High School\n.^\nPueblo, Colo.\nWalter F. Lewis, Superintendent of Schools\nPort Huron, Mich.\nThomas J. McCormack, Principal, LaSalle-Peru T'w'p High School LaSalle, 111.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHigher\nJabces H. Baker, President, University of Colorado\nJ. A. McLean, President, University of Idaho\nFrederick P. Keppel, Dean, Columbia College\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDavid B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Nor. and Indust. College , Rock Hill, S.C.\nWilliam J. Hawkins, President, State Normal School\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nGuy E. Maxwell, President, State Normal School\nWinona, Minn.\n\nElementary\nWabash, Ind.\nDecatur, 111.\nSt. Paul, Minn.\n\nBoulder, Colo.\nMoscow, Idaho\nNew York, N.Y.\n\nNormal\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nW. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Instruction\nFirst Vice-Pres\nJ. A. Shawan, Superintendent of Schools\nSecond Vice-Pres. . C. G. Schulz, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSecretary\nArthur D. Call, Supervising Principal of Schools\n\nOmaha, Nebr.\nColumbus, Ohio\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nHartford, Conn.\n\nManual Training and Art\nPresident\nClifford B. Connelley, Dean, Carnegie Technical Schools\nVice-President . . . 'Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of Tech\nSecretary\nMiss May Gearhart, Supervisor of Drawing\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nBoston, Mass.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nMusic\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMiss Elsie M. Shawz, Supervisor of Music\nC. A. Fullerton, Professor of Music, State Normal School\nMiss Estelle Carpenter, Supervisor of Music\n\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nCedar Falls, la.\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nFrank E. Lakey, English High School\nW. S. McKinney, Englewood High School\nSherwin W. Cody, Author of Educational Textbooks\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWnx Grant Chambers, Dean, Sch. of Educ, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh, Pa.\nLouis M. Terman, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Palo Alto, Cal.\nC. B. Robertson, Superintendent of Training School\nCortland, N.Y.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nPhysical\nClark W. Hetherington, Joseph Fels Fellowship, Unit, of Chicago Chicago, III.\nMiss Amy Morris Romans, Dept. of Phys. Educ.Wellesley College Wellesley, Mass.\nMiss Clara G. Baer, Dept. of Phys. Educ, Sophie Newcomb Coll. New Orleans, La.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nGeorge A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School\nW. J. V. Osterhaut, Professor, Harvard University\nHarry T. Clifton, Throop Polytechnic Institute\n\nBusiness\nBoston, Mass.\nChicago, 111.\nChicago, HI.\n\nChild-Study\n\nScience\n\n•\nSchool Administration\nPresident\nLinnaeus N. Hines, Superintendent of Schools\nVice-President\nWillard S. Small, Principal, Eastern High School\nSecretary\nWilliam G. Bruce, Editor, American School Board Journal\n♦Died March 30, iqii.\n\nBoston, Mass.\nCambridge, Mass.\nPasadena, Cal.\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\nWashington, D.C.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nIS\n\nLibrary\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nEdwin White Gaillard, Supvr. of Work with Schools, Pub. Lib. . . New York, N.Y.\nJames Louis Gillis, Librarian, California State Library\nSacramento, CaL\nGilbert O. Ward, Librarian, Technical High School\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSpecial\nFrank G. Bruner, Department of Child Study, Public Schools. . . Chicago, 111.\nElizabeth E. Farrell. Insp'r of Ungraded Classes, Pub. Schools. . New York, N.Y.\nEdward Allen Fay. Vice-President, Gallaudet College\nWashington, D.C\nSchool Patrons\nMrs. O. Shepard Barnxjm, Principal Academic Dept., Cumnock Sch. Los Angeles, Cal.\nMrs. Hugo Rosenberg, President of Council of Jewish Women . . Pittsburgh, Pa.\nMrs. Orville T. Bright, President of Illinois Congress of Mothers . Chicago, HI.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nRural and Agricultural\nJames A. Barr, Superintendent of Schools\nStockton. Cal.\nB. M. Davis. Professor of Agricultural Educ, Miami University. . Oxford, Ohio\nErnest E. Balcomb, State Normal School\nProvidence, R.I.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nOFFICERS\nGENERAL\n\nCarroll G. Pearse. .\nIrwin Shepard\n,\nKatherine D. Blake.\n\nFOR\n\n1911-12\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nWinona, Minn.\nNew York, N.Y.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nElla Flagg Young, Superintendent of Schools\nGeorge H. Carpenter, Superintendent of Schools\nCharles F. Philbrook, Superintendent of Schools\nHelen Marsh Wixson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nSamuel Andrews, Superintendent of Schools\nR. H. Wilson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nS. S. Stockwell, Superintendent of Schools\nEdwin D. Ressler, State Agricidtural College\nEdward Hyatt, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nVaughan MacCaughey, Territorial Normal School\nJames Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nBOARD\nJames Y. Joyner\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nJ. Stanley Brown\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nCarroll G. Pearse\nCarroll G. Pearse\nElla Flagg Young\nKatherine D. Blake\nJames M. Greenwood\nJohn H. Phillips\nIrwin Shepard\n\nOF\n\nChicago, HI.\nBrownwood, Tex.\nBisbee, Ariz.\nDenver, Colo.\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nOklahoma City, Okla.\nCheyenne, Wyo.\nCorvallis, Ore.\nSacramento, Cal.\nHonolulu, H.L\nRaleigh, N.C.\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nRaleigh, N.C\nKansas City, Mo\nJoliet, HI\nOrono, Me\nMilwaukee, Wis\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer.\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\nSecretary.\n\nTerm expires 1912\nTerm expires 1913\nTerm expires 1914\nTerm expires 1915\nEx officio\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nChicago, 111.\nNew York, N.Y.\nKansas City, Mo.\nBirmingham, Ala.\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS\nDirectors ex officio\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\nKatherine D. Blake, New York, N.Y.\nElla Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\niRwm Shepard, Winona. Minn.\nLife Directors\nBicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R.I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth, New York, N.Y.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y.\nClaxton, p. p., Washington, D.C.\nCook, John W., DeKalb, lU.\nCooLEY, Edwin G., Chicago, HI.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\n\nGreen, James M., Trenton, N.J.\nGreenwood, James M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\nJoyner, James Y., Raleigh, N.C.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W.Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N.Y.\nParker, Charles I., Chicago, HI.\nPiCKABU), Josiah L., Cupertino, Cal.\n16 Pike, Joshua, Jerseyville, HI.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C., Harrisburg, Pa.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, El.\nSkinner, Charles R., New York, N.Y.\nTeachers Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nState Teachers Association of Illinois\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nYoung, Ella Flagg, Chicago, 111.\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nJohn H. Phillips, Superintendent of Schools\nBirmingham\nArizona\nA. J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School\nTempe\nArkansas\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Little Rock\nCalifornia\nMark Keppel, County Superintendent of Schools\nLos Angeles\nColorado\nJames B. Ragan, Principal of High School\nSterling\nConnecticut\nFrederick A. Verplanck, Superintendent of Schools\nSo. Manchester\nDelaware\nGeorge W. Twitmyer, Superintendent of Schools\nWilmington\nDist. of Col\nWilliam M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools\nWashington\nFlorida\nMiss Clem Hampton, State Department of Education\nTallahassee\nGeorgia\nMrs. F. S. Whiteside, 46 Columbia Avenue\nAtlanta\nIdaho\nGrace M. Shepherd, State Supt. of Public Instruction\nBoise\nIllinois\nWilliam H. Campbell, Principal, Wentworth School\nChicago\nIndiana\nThomas A. Mott, Superintendent of Schools\nRichmond\nIowa\nO. P. BosTwicK, Superintendent of Schools\nClinton\nKansas\nJohn MacDonald, Editor, Western School Journal\nTopeka\nKentucky\nW. P. King, Superintendent of Schools\nBellevue\nLouisiana\nThomas D. Boyd, President, State University\nBaton Rouge\nMaine\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono\nMaryland\nA. C. Willison, County Supermtendent of Schoob\nCumberland\nMassachusetts\nRobert J. Fuller, Superintendent of Schools\nNorth Attleboro\nMichigan\nE. E. Scribner, Superintendent of Schools\nIshpeming\nMinnesota\nS. L. Heeter, Superintendent of Schools\nSt. Paul\nMississippi\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools\nGreenville\nMissouri\nJohn R. Kirk, President, State Normal School\nElirksville\nMontana\nC. A. Duniway, President, University of Montana\nMissoula\nNebraska\nGeorge W. A. Luckey, Professor, University of Nebraska . . . Lincoln\nNevada\nMrs. L. C. Booth, Principal, Orvis Ring School\nReno\nNew Hampshire\nHenry C. Morrison, State Supt. of Public Instruction\nConcord\nNew Jersey\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, N. S. S. E. E. C Plainfield\nNew Mexico\nW. E. Garrison, President, New Mexico College\nAgri. College\nNew York\nGrace C. Strachan, District Superintendent of Schools\nBrooklyn\nNorth Carolina\nF. M. Harper, Superintendent of Schools\nRaleigh\nNorth Dakota\nW. E. Hoover, Superintendent of Schools\nFargo\nOhio\nEdward M. Van Cleve, Superintendent, School for the Blind Columbus\nOklahoma\nWilliam F. Ramey, Superintendent of Schools\nChickasha\nOregon\nL. R. Alderman, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Salem\nPennsylvania\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy Supt. of Public Instruction\nHarrisburg\nRhode Island\nGeorge F. Weston, Principal of High School\nProvidence\nSouth Carolina\nDavid B. Johnson, President, Winthrop College\nRock Hill\nSouth Dakota\nM. M. Ramer, Superintendent of Schools\nPierre\nTennessee\nJ. J. Keyes, Superintendent of Schools\nNashville\nTexas\nFelix E. Smith, Superintendent of Schools\nSan Angelo\nUtah\nGeorge N. Child, Supervisor of Schools\nSalt Lake City\nVermont\nMason S. Stone, State Supermtendent of Public Instruction. Montpelier\nVirginia\nMaurice M. Lynch, Superintendent of Schoob\nWinchester\nWashington\nC. E. Beach, Superintendent of Schools\nOlympia\nWest Virginia\nM. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Charleston\nWisconsin\nEmma J. Gardner, Vice-Principal, 12th District School No. 2. Milwaukee\nWyoming\nCO. Merica, President, University of Wyoming\nLaramie\nHawaii\nWillis T. Pope, Superintendent of Public Instruction\nHonolulu\nPhilippine Islands .... G.N. Anderson, Divbion Superintendent\nSamar, Manila\nDEPARTMENT\nOFFICERS\nNational Council\nPresident\nCharles H. Keyes, Ex. Sec, Com. on Safety, City of N.Y. . . New York, N.Y.\nVice-President\nWilliam M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schoob\nWashington, D.C.\nSecretary\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\nExitulive Committee . . Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Chancellor, New York University New York, N.Y.\nExecutive Committee . . Joseph Swain, President, Swarthmore College\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nExecutive Committee . . James M. Greenwood. Superintendent of Schoob\nKansas City, Mo.\n\n17\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nStella L. Wood, Supt. of Kindergarten, Normal School\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nCora English, Superintendent of Public School Kindergarten Kansas City, Mo.\nA. Jessie Davis, Kindergarten Director, City Schools\nSuperior, Wis.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nH. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools\nJulian C. Bryant, Principal, Madison School\nGertrxjde Longenecker, University of Chicago\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJohn Calvin Hanna, Principal of High School\nEdward L. Brown, Principal, North Side High School\nClarence D. Kingsley, Manual Training High School\n\nOak Park, 111.\nDenver, Colo.\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHigher\nSamuel Avery, Chancellor, University of Nebraska\nJohn H. T. Main, President, Iowa College\nFletcher Harper Swift, University of Minnesota\n\nLincoln, Nebr.\nGrinnell, Iowa\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nW.J. HawKiNS, President, State Normal School\nA.J. Matthews, President, Territorial Normal School\nMartha Buck, Southern Illinois State Normal School\n\nKindergarten\n\nElementary\nDecatur, 111.\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nChicago, 111.\n\nSecondary\n\nNormal\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nTempe, Ariz.\nCarbondale, 111.\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nCharles E. Chadsey, Superintendent of Schools\nDenver, Colo.\nFirst Vice-President . . O. J. Kern, County Superintendent of Schools\nRockford, 111.\nSecond Vice-President . H. J. Willingham, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Montgomery, Ala.\nSecretary\nHarlan Updegraff, Bureau of Education\nWashington, D.C.\nManual\n\nand Art\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nClifford B. Connelley, Carnegie Technical Schools\nIsabel Bevier, University of Illinois\nW. A. Dunn, Principal, Polytechnic High School\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nUrbana, 111.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nC. A. Fullerton, Iowa State Teachers College\nJulla E. Crane, Normal Institute of Music\nArthur G. Wahlberg, Supervisor of Music\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWinfield S. McKinney, Commercial Dept., Englewood H.S. Chicago, HI.\nCharles Hart, Business High School\nWashington, D.C.\nThomas L.Brecheen, Commercial Dept.,Fremont High School Oakland, Cal.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWilliam H. Burnham, Professor of Pedagogy, Clark Univ . . . Worcester, Mass.\nWilllvm C. Bagley, School of Education, Univ. of Illinois\nUrbana, III.\nTheda Gildemeister, Supervisor of Training, Normal School . Winona, Mirm.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWilber P. Bowen, Prof, of Physical Ed., State Normal School Ypsilanti, M ch.\nGeorge E. Johnson, Prof, of Play, University of Pittsburgh. . Pittsburgh, Pa.\nBlanche Trilling, Asso. Dir. of Phys. Train., Chi. Nor. Sch. Chicago, 111.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDavid Starr Jordan, President, Leland Stanford Junior Univ. Stanford Univ., Cal.\nWilliam Orr, Deputy Commissioner of Education\nBoston, Mass.\nH. L. Terry, State High School Inspector\nMadison, Wis.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWilliam A. Wirt, Superintendent of Schools,\nGary, Ind. *\nHarlan Updegraff, Bureau of Education\nWashington, D.C.\nWilliam George Bruce, Editor, Am. School Board Journal. . . Milwaukee. Wis.\n\nMusic\nCedar Falls, Iowa.\nPotsdam, N.Y.\nFresno, Cal.\n\nBusiness\n\nChild Hygiene\n\nPhysical\n\nScience\n\nSchool Administration\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nLibrary\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nEdwin White Gaillard, New York Public Library\nW. L. Brown, Librarian, Buffalo Public Library\nMiss M. A. Newberry, Public School Library\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nBuffalo, N.Y.\nYpsilanti, Mich.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJohn W. Jones, Supt., Ohio State School for the Deaf\nColumbus, Ohio\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, N. S. S. E. E. C. Plainfield, N.J.\nCarrie B. Levy, Supervisor of Classes for the Blind\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nPresident\n\nMrs. O. Shepard Barnxh^, Principal, Cumnock School\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMrs. Wm. S. Hefferan, Ch'n, Edu. Com., Nat. Cong, of Mothers. . Chicago, 111.\nKatherine E. Dopp, Lecturer, University of Chicago\nChicago, 111.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBenjamin M. Davis, Professor, Miami University\nOxford. Ohio\nCyril A. Stebbins, University of California\nBerkeley, Cal.\nErnest E. Balcomb, State Normal and Industrial College. . . Greensboro, N.C.\n\nSpecial\n\nSchool Patrons\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nRural and Agricultural\n\n'19\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNATIONAL\n\nJuly i, 1910, to June 30, 1911\nDurand\n\nW. Springer, in Account with the National\nEducation Association\nBALANCE ON HAND, JULY I, IQIO\n\nBalance brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ending June\n30, 1910\nRECEIPTS\nFrom Annual Meeting:\nAdvance enrollment —\nFrom W. A. Crawford\n$ 8,806.00\n• 17,032 .00 $25 8.^8.00\nConvention registration\nFrom Memberships, Mobile Meeting of Department of Superintendence\nFrom Secretary's Office duriug the year:\nMembership fees\nEnrolhnent fees\nExchange\nSale of back volumes\nSale of Committee Reports, etc\nExpressage refunded\nConvention literature\n\n894.00\n$9,123.15\n700.00\n6.02\n714-98\n152.44\n12 .32\n41 . 28 $10,750.19\n\nFrom interest on Permanent Fund\nFrom royalty on sale of Reports of Committees of Ten and of Fifteen . .\nFrom interest on deposits in First National Bank of Chicago\n\n6,456.78\n44.1°\n373-96\n\n$44.357-03\n\n$48,909.08\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\nBoard of Trustees:\nFor investment\nFor expenses\n\nl4»SS2-os\n\n$9,900.00\n228.60\n$10,128.60\n\nExecutive Committee expenses:\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman, Board of Trustees\nMember by election\n\n$167 .05\n57-70\n294.77\n5.91\n204.06\n\n;\n\nGeneral Secretary's office:\nSalary of Secretary\nPostage\nTelegrams\nFreight and express\n\n$4,000.00\n2,126.59\n303 .69\n74-73\n\nQerical services\nExchange\nStationery and office supplies\nTraveling\n\n*\n\nRent\n\n'\nCarried forward\n\n$729-49\n\n20\n\n3,002 . 55\n9. 13\n205 .63\n520,01\n600.00\n$10,842 .33 $10,858 .09\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nBrought forward\nMiscellaneous:\nPurchase of volumes\nRefunds of duplicate enrollments\nBonds of Secretary and Treasurer\nRefunds of expressage on volumes\n\n$10,842 .33 $10,858 .eg\n94-25\n61 .00\n50-00\n4- 17\n\nPress clippings\nReimbursement of expense in connection with publication of\nreport\nPrinting:\nVolumes of Proceedings (12,500 copies)\nYearbooks (7,200 copies)\n\n*\n\ni .05\n.85 $11,053.65\n\n$8,350.01\nii472 . 51\n\n$9,822.52\n\nReprints from volume\nSpecial Reports\nExecutive Committee Bulletins\nMiscellaneous Getterheads, blanks, envelopes, etc.)\n\n32-85\n536.03\n1.493-95\n715-87\n$12,601.22\n\nExpress and freight:\nDistribution of volumes and reports\nMiscellaneous\n\n$4,120.29\n168.41\n$4,288.70\n\nSpecial Appropriations:\nCommittee on Place of Industries\nCommittee on Uniform Statistics\n\n$\n\nConventions:\nDepartment of Superintendence:\nClerical service:\nRegistration and typewriting\nBadges\nPrinting:\nPrograms for convention\nMiscellaneous\nMiscellaneous:\nRent of desks\nExpenses of Secretary\nExpanses of President\n\n$189 . 10\n75 -00\n$68 .00\n10.00\n$ 10.00\n29.55\n104.58\n\nBadges\nPrinting:\nPrograms\nMiscellaneous\n\n$144.13\n$271 .64\n525.00\n\n$486.33\n\n$1,285.75\n$1,250.00\n\n$826.54\n378.88\n\n$1,205.42\n\n12 . 26\n43.75\n25 .67\n\n^\n$ 65 . 45\n15 .00\n125.66\n\nUnclassified disbursements:\nAuditing books of Secretary and Treasurer\nLegal advice\nOflSce furniture\nPress clippings\nRefunds of irregular enrollment fees\nPurchase of Reports of \"fen and Fifteen\nExpenses, distribution of volumes in Boston\n\n6.50\n468 . 13\n$474-63\n\nAnnual Convention:\nDepartment expenses\nState Directors and Managers\nClerical services:\nRegistration Bureau\n$968.30\nStenographers and typewriter operators\n317-45\n\nExpress and freight\nStationery\nTelegrams\nMiscellaneous:\nExpenses of speaker\nStereopticon\nSundry expenses\n\n21\n\n^. . . . .\n\n$\n\n206.11\n\n$4,825.60\n$30.00\n50.00\n59.50\n35.48\n32 .00\n16.70\n67 . 15\n\n$290.83\n$44,878.95\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\nSUMMARY\nReceipts\n\nBalance brought forward from the Treasurer's report for year ending June 30, 1910\nReceipts for year July i, 1910, to June 30, 1911\n•\n\n$ 4,SS2.os\n44.3S7.03\n\n$48,909.08\n\n$34,978.95\n9,900.00\n\n$44.878.95\n\nDisbursements\nTotal expenses for the year\nTransferred to the Permanent Fund\nBalance in treasury, June 30, igii\n\n$4.030. 13\nRespectfully submitted,\nD. W. Springer\n\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nAUDIT\n\nCOMPANY\n\nMerchants' Loan and Trust Building\n\nChicago, July i, 191 1\nBoard of Trustees, National Education Association of the United States:\nGentlemen: We have audited the books and accounts of the National Education Association of the\nUnited States, kept by Secretary Irwin Shepard, and Treasurer Durand W. Springer, for the period from\n1st July, 1910, to 30th June, 191 1. and compared them with the relative vouchers and cheques, and find the\nbooks to be correct. We compared the Treasurer's records with those kept by the Secretary and find them\nto be in accord.\nWe annex herewith a statement of the Receipts and Disbursements for the period under review, which\nwe have checked with the books. We certify it to be in accordance therewith.\nYours very truly,\nTHE INTERNATIONAL AUDIT COMPANY,\nBy John McLaren, President\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE\nOF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nFOR THE\n\nYEAR\n\nJULY\n\ni, 1910, TO JUNE\n\nBOARD\n\n30, 1911\n\nSan Francisco, Cal., July 8, 191 1\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education Association:\nThe Board of Trustees of the National Education Association has the honor to submit its report on the Permanent Fund of the Association for the year ending June 30, 191 1.\nThe amounts collected as income from the Permanent Fund and the disposition made\nof the income are shown in the following Income Account. The amount of the net\nincome paid to the Treasurer of the Association is $6,456 . 78.\nDuring the year the sum of $9,900 has been added to the principal of the fund, in\naccordance with the provisions of Article 7 of the Act of Incorporation. The Fund\nnow amounts to $180,000.\nNew investments for the fund, as shown in the Principal Account below, are $7,000\nAtlantic Coast Line R.R. Co. first consolidated mortgage gold 4 per cent bonds, and\n$4,000 Manhattan Railway consolidated mortgage gold 4 per cent bonds.\nThe present state of the investments held for the Permanent Fund is shown below\nin the Statement of Securities Held for the Permanent Fimd, in which each item of the\ninvestments is named in detail.\nStatement A shows the net income of the property at 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago,\n111., title to which, as has been noted in earlier reports, was taken by the Trustees in 1907\nunder proceedings for foreclosure of mortgage. While the expense of carrying this property\nis large, the Trustees have not yet been able to dispose of it at a satisfactory figure.\nThe accounts and statements which follow set out in detail the financial operations\nof the year and the present state of the Permanent Fund:\nINCOME ACCOUNT\nRECEEPTS\n\n$ 7,000\n15,000\n20,000\n10,000\n17,000\n2,500\n\ni.ooo\n1,000\n10,000\n\nI\n\n40,000\n9,000\n10,000\n10,000\n3.000\n10,000\n\nSt. Louis and San Francisco R.R. Co. refunding bonds, igsi, at 4 per cent\n$ 280.00\nTerminal R.R. Association of St. Louis general refunding bonds, igss, at 4 per\ncent\n600 . 00\nPittsburg, Lake Erie and West Virginia System refunding bonds, 1941, at 4\nper cent\n800 . 00\nOregon Short Line R.R. Co. guaranteed refunding bonds, 1929, at 4 per cenrt. 400.00\nCity of New York registered bonds, 1957, at 4J per cent\n765 .00\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111., gold bonds, 1911 I\n,\niS7 •5o\nViUage of Morgan Park, III., gold bonds, 1912 j \" ** ^^^ ^^^^\nLeraont, 111., school bonds, 1912-13, at s per cent\n50.00\nChicago Sanitary District bonds, 1916 I ^\n2,000.00\nChicago Sanitary District bonds, 1917 ^ ^ '^ ^^^ '=^'''\nWest Chicago, 111., park bonds, 1918 I .\n.\n,\n760.00\nWest Chicago, Hi., park bonds, 1919 f ^t 4 per cent\nPennsylvania R.R. Co. convertible bonds, 1915, at 3i per cent\n350.00\nAtlantic Coast Line R.R. first consolidated bonds, 1952, at 4 per cent\n120.00\nChicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co. guaranteed consolidated bonds,\n1956, at 4 per cent\n400.00\nInterest on cash balance in First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago\n76.23\nNet income of property 4762 Lake Avenue, Chicago (see Statement A)\n38.98\nDISBXJRSEMENTS\n\n$6,797-71\n\n23\n\nFee of First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago, 111., for care of principal of Permanent\nFund\nAccrued Interest on $7,000 Atlantic Coast Line Raibroad Co. bonds purchased\nAccrued interest on $i,ooo Manhattan Railway Co. bonds purchased\nBroker's Commission\nCommission of the First Trust and Savings Bank on new Investments\nNet income paid to the Treasurer of the National Education Association\n\n$ 206.88\n73 •\"\n28.44\n5 .00\n27 .50\n6,456 . 78\n\n'\n\n$6,797-71\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n24\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPRINCIPAL ACCOUNT\nRECEIPTS\n\n$1,108 . 75\n9,900. 00 $11,008.75\n\nCash on hand for investment June 30, 1910\nReceived from the Treasurer of the National Education Association\nDISBITSSEICEMTS\n$7,000\n4,000\n\nAtlantic Coast Line R.R. Co. first consolidated 4 per cent bonds at 95 1\nManhattan Railway Co. consolidated 4 per cent bonds at 97§\nCash on hand awaiting investment June 30, 1911\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n$6.7ii • 25\n3,900 .00\n397- 50 $11,008.75\n\nA\n\nRECEIPTS\n\nRents on 4762 Lake Avenue,\nChicago, HI\n\nChicago, received\n\nby First Trust and Savings Bank,\n$300 . 00\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nTaxes for 1910\nSpecial assessment (paving 47th street)\nRepairs\nFee of 5% of First Trust and Savings Bank on $300.00 rents collected\nInsurance premiums\nNet income\n\n$104.42\ni -93\n\"S .67\n15 .00\n24.00\n38 .98\n\n$300.00\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nOF SECURITIES HELD\n\nFOR THE PERMANENT\n\nFUND\n\nJUNE 30, 19 1 1\nMUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL BONDS\nPar Value\n$8,000\n\n9,000\n2,500\n1,000\n\n1,000\n\n10,000\n\n40,000\n\n9,000\n10,000\n\nSecurity\nCity of New York registered\ngold bonds, due November\nI, 1957, Nos. 554 to 561...\nCity of New\nYork\ngold\nbonds, due Nov. i, 1957,\nNos. 26,816 to 26,824\nVillage of Morgan\nPark, \\\nlU., gold\nbonds,\ndue)\n„.?!^°^- I' 19\". Nos. I to 5 f\nVillage of Morgan\nPark,)\nlU., gold bonds,\ndue (\nJuly 1, 1913, Nos. 4 and 5 1\nSeries 0\nT/\nLemont, HI., school bonds,\nNos. 30 and 32, payable\n$500 Dec. I, 1912, and\nDec. I, 1913\nSanitary District of Chicago\ndrainage\nbonds,\nNos.\n24,516 to 24,525, due Dec.\nI, 1916\nSanitary District of Chicago\ndrainage\nbonds,\nNos.\n24,591 to 24,625, 24,636\nto 24,640, due Dec. i,\n1917\nWest Chicago park bonds,\nNos. 1,101 to 1,109, due\nWest Chicago park bonds.\nNos. 615, 629-31, 1,24348, due April i, 1919\n\nAcquired\n\nFebruary 29, 1908\n189s\nJune 12, 1908\n\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\n4§% May and Nov.\n\n$ 8,510.00\n\n4J% May and Nov.\n9,810.00\n4i% May and Nov.\n\n1897\n\n4i% Jan. and July\n\n5 % June and Dec.\n1905\n4% June and Dec.\n\n2,500.00\n\n1,000.00\n\nz.ooo.oo\n\n10,000.00\n\n1904\n4% June and Dec.\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% April and Oct.\n\nJuly 31, 1906\n\n4% April and Oct.\n\n40,000.00\n\n9.045.00\n10,075.00\n\n$90,500\n$91,940.00\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nRAILROAD\nSecurity\n\nPar Value\n$ 7.000\n\n15.000\n\nSt. Louis and San Francisco\nR.R. Co. refunding gold\nbonds,\nNos.\n47.435.\n47,457,\n47.537,\n49.0I2,\n49.670.\n57.373,\n57,514,\nfiiip Tiilv T inci.\n. .\nTerminal R.R. Association of\nSt. Louis general refunding\nsinking fund gold bonds,\nNos. 16,311-16,325, due\nPittsburg, Lake\nErie and\nWest\nVirginia\nSystem\nrefunding\ngold\nbonds,\nNos.\n13,496-13.500,\n21,236-21,250, due Nov.\n\n10,000\n\nOregon Short Line R.R. Co.\nguaranteed refunding gold\nbonds, Nos. 4,013-4,017,\n4,025-4,027,4,076, 13.810,\n\n10,000\n\nPennsylvania R.R. Co. convertible bonds, Nos.\nB-22,823\nto\nB-22,838\ninclusive,\nB-27,655, B27,671,\nB-27,672\nand\nB-11,258,\ndue\nOct.\nI,\nigie\nChicago,\nIndiana\nand\nSouthern\nRailway\nCo.\nbonds,\nNos.\n11,386\nto\n11,394\ninclusive,\nand\n13,786, due Jan. 1, 1956. .\nAtlantic Coast Line Railroad\nCo. 1st Cons, bonds Nos.\n5,130,\n6,494,\n11,638,\n11,639,\n14.335,\n14,339,\n17,579,\n24,601,\n37,565,\nand 50,251 due July 1,\n\n10,000\n\nTQC2\n\n4,000\n\nBONDS\n\nAcquired\n\n30,000\n\n10,000\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n.\n\nManhattan\nRailway\nCo.\nCons.\nmortgage\ngold\nbonds, Nos. 2,843, 6,522,\n16,083, and 16,087, due\nAdfU I. 1000\n\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\n$ 5,775\nJanuary 3, 1907\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\nJanuary 30, 1905\n\n• 4% Jan. and JulJ\n\n15,050\n\nJanuary 13, 1906\n\n4% May and Nov.\n\n8.895 . 50\n19,943\n\n>\n\nFebruary 3, 1908\n4% June and Dec.\n\nJanuary 11, 1909\n\nJanuary 18, igqg\n\n\\ August 3, 1909 /\ni June 5, 191 1\nJ\n\n3i% June and Dec.\n\n4% Jan. and July\n\n9,500\n\n9.500\n4% March and Sept.\n9,600.00\n\nJune 5, 191 1\n\n4% April and October\n\n$86,000\n\n$82,162.50\n3,900.00\n\nREAL ESTATE\nPar Value\n\nSecurity\n\n$5,500\n\n4762 Lake Ave., Chicago,\n.111. (Hord property)\n\nTotal\n$182,000\n\n■\n\nAcquired\n\nCash on hand awaiting investment\nTotal of the Permanent Fxmd\n\nInterest\n\nBook Value\n\n1907\nRent $30 monthly\n\n$397\n.50\n$5,500\n$180,000.00\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nNicholas Murray Butler, Chairman\nJames M. Greenwood\nHenry B. Brown\nCarroll G. Pearse\nTrustees\nTo the Trustees of the National Education Association:\nGentlemen: The above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the National\nEducation Association of the United States as the same appears^n the books of this bank.\nFirst Trust and Savings Bank,\nChicago, 111., June 15, 1911\nBy Lotns Boisot, Trust Officer\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education Association:\nI have this day examined the securities in the foregoing statement made by the Board of Trustees, and\nfind all bonds and securities therein named in the custody of Louis Boisot, Trust Officer of the First Trust\nand Savings Bank, of Chicago, 111.\nJohn McLaren\nPres. International Audit Co.,\nChicago. 111., June is, 1911\nChicago, III.\nThe above report is approved as correct; not approved as to investment of a trust fund in bonds other\nthan school, municipal, county, state, or national.*\nElla Flagg Young,\nSan Francisco, Cal., July 10, 1911\n\nPresident, N. E. A., Trustee Ex Officio\n\nThis statement\nsee •Minutes,\np. 37) . is added on request of Trustee Young and by authority of the Board of Directors\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF ACTIVE MEMBERS\nOF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nFOR THE\n\nYEAR\n\n1910-11\n\nSan Francisco, Cal., Thursday, July 13, 191 1\nThe annual meeting of the active members was called to order by President Ella\nFlagg Young, at the Golden Gate Commandery Hall, Sutter Street, at 12 m., July 13,\n1911.\n\nPresident Young: The first item in the order of business is the reading of the\nminutes of the last meeting.\nSecretary Shepard: The minutes of the last meeting were printed in the last annual\nvolume and Yearbook and have been distributed to all active members. Is it desired that\nthey be read at this time ?\nOn motion it was ordered that the reading of the minutes be dispensed with and that\nthey be approved as printed in the volume and Yearbook for 1910.\nPresident Young: The next item in the order of business is the report of the\nBoard of Trustees.\nJames M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., vice-chairman of the Board of Trustees,\npresented the report of the Board of Trustees and explained in detail certain features of\nthe report, showing the care taken in the annual report to give in detail all securities\nbelonging to the permanent fund, with the revenue derived from each security. Special\nattention was called to the fact that $9,900 had been transferred from the surplus of current funds in the Treasurer's hands to the permanent fund, and that the same had been\nduly invested in approved securities. This raised the permanent fund to $180,000. The\nreport, which was in printed form, had been previously distributed to all members present.\nThis report showed, in addition to the signatures of four members of the Board of Trustees, the certificate of Mr. Louis Boisot, Trust Ofl&cer of the First Trust and Savings Bank\nof Chicago, as the oflBcial custodian of the fund, and of John McLaren, President of the\nInternational Audit Company, who had been oflficially appointed, in accordance with the\nBy-Laws, to examine the funds and securities and to certify as to their integrity.\nPresident Young: Attention is called to the fact that the signature of the President as ex-officio member of the Board of Trustees does not appear with the signatures\nof the other members. This signature was withheld, not because of any objection to the\nfacts of the report, but because the President thought that the funds should be invested\nin a different kind of security. To make my point clear, I think that every trust fund\nshould be invested in school, municipal, county, state, or national bonds, altho the interest revenue may be greater from industrial bonds. I indorse the report in all respects\nexcepting as to the investment of the amount added to the permanent fund in industrial\nbondsChairman Greenwood: As a member of the Board of Trustees, I wish to say that\nthe only money, either in principal or interest, that has ever been lost from the permanent\nfund is that which was invested in school and municipal bonds.\nPresident Young: That was long ago, before\n27 school affairs were so well organized\nas now.\nOn motion, duly seconded, it was ordered that the report of the Board of Trustees,\nwith the addition of the statement of the President wfcich had been adopted by the Board\nof Directors at its meeting on July 10 (see p. 38), be accepted and adopted and printed in\nthe volume of proceedings and Yearbook for the current year.\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\nPresident Young: The report of the Treasurer is next in order.\nSecretary Shepard: The members will find distributed in every seat in the hal'\ncopies of both the report of the Treasurer and the report of the Board of Trustees.\nDuRAND W. Springer, of Detroit, Mich., Treasurer: Since the members have\nprinted copies of the report in hand, it seems hardly necessary to read the report in\ndetail, unless there are some questions to be asked. The members will note that the\nreport bears the certificate of the President of the International Audit Company.\nOn motion the report of the Treasurer was accepted and adopted and ordered printed.\nPresident Young: The next in order is the report of the Committee on Nominations, byex-President James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina, chairman.\nChairman Joyner:\nMadam President and Active Members of the National Education Association:\nYour committee begs leave to submit the following report of nominations for officers of this Association for the ensuing year, as agreed upon by said Committee on Nominations atits regular session held at nine o'clock this morning at the St. Francis Hotel:\nFor President\nCarroll G. Pearse\nWisconsin\nFor Treasurer\nDurand W. Springer\nMichigan\nFor Vice-Presidents\nElla Flagg Young\nIllinois\nGeorge H. Carpenter\nTexas\nC. F. Philbrook\nArizona\nHelen Marsh Wixson\nColorado\nSamuel Andrews\nPennsylvania\nR. H. Wilson\nOklahoma\nS. S. Stockwell\nWyoming\nE. D. Ressler\nOregon\nWoodland C. Phillips\nMaryland\nEdward Hyatt\nCalifornia\nVaughan MacCaughey\nHawaii\nAnd for directors for the states and territories the following:\nstate directors\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nK^ansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\n\n*\n\nJohn H. Phillips\nA. J. Matthews\nGeorge B. Cook\nMark Keppel\nJames B, Ragan\n(No nomination)\n(No nomination)\nWilliam M. Davidson\nMiss Clem Hampton\n(No nomination)\nGrace M. Shepherd\nWilliam H. Campbell\nThomas A. Mott\nO. P. Bostwick\nJohn MacDonald\nW. P. King\nThomas D. Boyd\n: .Robert J. Aley\nA. C. Willison\nRobert J. Fuller\nE. E. Scribner\nS. L. Heeter\nE. E. Bass\nJohn R. Kirk\nC. A. Duniway\nGeorge W. A. Luckey\nMrs. L. C. Booth\nHenry C. Morrison\nM. P. E. Groszmann\nW. E. Garrison\nGrace C. Strachan\n\nBirmingham\nTempe\nLittle Rock\nLos Angeles\nSterling\n\nWashington\nTallahassee\n\nBoise\nChicago\nRichmond\nClinton\nTopeka\nBellevue\nBaton Rouge\nOrono\nCumberland\nNorth Attleboro\nIshpeming\nSt. Paul\nGreenville\nKirksviUe\nMissoula\nLincoln\nReno\nConcord\nPlainfield\nAgri. CoUege\nBrooklyn\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota.\nTennessee\nTexas\n\nF. M. Harper\n(No nomination)\nE. M. Van Cleve\nWilliam F. Ramey\nL. R. Alderman\nReed B. Teitrick\nGeorge F. Weston\nD. B. Johnson\nM. M. Ramer\nJ. J. Keyes\nGeorge H. Carpenter\n\nRaleigh\n\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\n\nGeorge N. Child\nMason S. Stone\nMaurice M. Lynch\nC. E. Beach\nM. P. Shawkey\n\nSalt Lake CityMontpeUer\nWinchester\nOlympia\nCharleston\n\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\nPorto Rico\n\nEmma J. O.\nGardner\n'.\nMilwaukee\nCharles\nMerica\nLaramie\nWillis T. Pope\nHonolulu\nG. N. Anderson\nManila\n(No nomination)\nRespectfully submitted,\nJames Y. Joyner, Chairman\n\nColumbus\nChickasha\nSalem\nHarrisburg\nProvidence\nRock Hill\nPierre\nNashville\nBrownwood\n\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Secretary.\nAt the close of the reading of the report, Chairman Joyner called attention to the\nfact that, thru an oversight, no one had been nominated as twelfth Vice-President.\nPresident Young: I think that should have been James Y. Jo3nier, of North CaroUna.\nChairman Joyner: I appreciate greatly the honor, but having heretofore been\nhonored with the highest gift of the Association, I trust you will let this pass to others\nwho have not enjoyed the honors. As a private in the ranks my services will always\nbe given to the Association.\nAt this point a motion was made, seconded, and carried, to the effect that the report\nbe amended by inserting the name of James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina, as twelfth\nVice-President.\nE. E. ScRiBNER, of Michigan: I move that the report of the Committee on Nominations be received, and that the Secretary of the Association be instructed to cast the\nballot of the active members present in favor of the nominees therein named as oflficers for\nthe ensuing year.\nThis motion was duly seconded.\nHenry B. Dewey, of Washington: I move as an amendment to the motion just\noffered adopting the report of the Committee on Nominations that the name of Miss\nKatherine D. Blake, of New York City, be substituted for that of Durand W. Springer, of\nMichigan, as Treasurer.\nThe motion to amend was duly seconded.\nChairman Joyner: I did not know that this amendment was going to be offered.\nI heard some talk of it after coming into this hall. I appreciate fully the fact that the\nwomen feel that in the report of the nominating committee no recognition has been\ngiven them. The matter was threshed out in the committee. I know that you will all\nagree and understand that coming from the section of the country in which chivalric\nregard for womanhood beats in the blood of men, I would be too chivahrous not to stand\nup for the recognition of the women anywhere. I am exceedingly desirous that we should\nremain in harmony. I stand now and have stood all the while for a fau: expression of\nchoice in this and all other matters. This is democmcy. I think, however, that, unless\nthere are the very best of reasons, the report of the committee should be adopted. The\nstates and distant localities thru their representatives on the committee should be given\nconsideration and should have some voice in the selection of officers of a national\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\norganization. It should not be made possible, by disregarding the recommendations of\nsuch a representative committee, for the particular sections and cities by their larger\nattendance, on account of their proximity to the meeting-place of the Association, to control the election of its officers. Such a precedent, if established, might finally place the\nselection of officers of our national organization under the control of any large city and\nstate in which it happened to meet, thereby localizing its officers and its work.\nI want to make this suggestion, from myself alone. I have conferred with nobody\nabout it. I want you to know that in the nominating committee I voted for this splendid\nwoman from New York, not because I did not have confidence in Mr. Springer as treasurer;\nI esteem Mr. Springer very highly, and he has made a most efficient treasurer; but the tie\nis very strong that binds me to Miss Blake, as she comes from a very distinguished family\nof North Carolina. I felt furthermore that just recognition of the women in her nomination for treasurer would make for harmony. Now that you understand my personal\nfeelings, and will not misunderstand my motives, I wish to make a suggestion in the\ninterest of harmony. I believe that it would be to the future interest of the Association ,\nand I want to urge that we act in harmony in this matter. The papers have designated\nus as the \"Old Guard\" and the \"Insurgents.\" I do not think we should have these\nnames. I do not think there is any disposition to withhold recognition from the women .\nAll must realize that they represent the majority, the rank and file, of the teachers of the\nUnited States, and I would suggest that we give them recognition by electing Miss Blake\nimanimously a member of the Board of Trustees. I hope that this will be done. I\nam in thoro sympathy with the women. The trusteeship is one of the most important\noffices in the organization. I think we should have a woman on that board, and I now\ndeclare that I will do all in my power for her election. I believe that the Board of Directors will recognize the wisdom and the justice of it and elect her unanimously, and I feel\nsure that this course will contribute to harmony and help the National Education Association, whose highest interest it is our first duty as loyal members to serve and protect.\nThe wisest democracy recognizes the rights of the minority as well as those of the\nmajority.\nThe motion on the amendment by Mr. Dewey was then presented, and as the Chair\nwas unable to decide the vote, tellers were appointed to count the vote as follows: For\nthose voting in favor of the amendment, Messrs. Baldwin, Crab tree, Gardner, Dewey,\nMiss Moody, and Mrs. Moriarty; for those voting against the amendment, Messrs.\nScribner, Greenwood, Keyes, Heaton, Brown, and Miss Hampton.\nMr. Springer: Madam President, permit me to offer a statement. During the\npast year that I have been Treasurer of this Association I have had an eye single to the\ngood of this organization. I now believe, as I have always believed, that the National\nEducation Association is larger than any individual. I do not believe that it is wise to\nintroduce a contest in the election of a person to fill that office. I therefore, in the interest\nof harmony, respectfully request the privilege of withdrawing my name as a candidate\nfor the office of Treasurer for the ensuing year, and request those who voted against the\nmotion to amend to join now in the amendment, substituting the name of Miss Katherine\nD. Blake, of New York, for my own.\nJohn R. Kirk, of Missouri: I move that the motion be decided by a standing vote.\nThe motion to amend as made by Mr. Dewey was presented to the house for a second\ntime and was declared carried.\nMr. Kirk: I now move that the report of the Committee on Nominations as amended,\nsubstituting the name of Miss Katherine D. Blake, of New York, for that of Mr. Durand\nW. Springer, of Michigan, be adopted, and that the Secretary be instructed to cast the\nballot for the report of the Committee on Nominations as amended.\nMiss Elizabeth Shirley, of California: Madam President, I wish to offer a motion\nto further amend the report of the Committee on Nominations by substituting the naftie\nof Mr. A. E. Winship, of Massachusetts, for that of Carroll G. Pearse, of .Visconsin.\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nA. E. WiNSHiP, of Massachusetts: Madam President, I desire to say that the amendment which has just been offered has not been made with my knowledge or consent and I\nbeg leave to request that it be given no consideration.\nThe motion as made by Miss Shirley receiving no second, the motion of Mr. Kirk\nwas then presented and adopted.\nSecretary Shepard : The ballot has been cast in accordance with the instructions\nof the motion just passed.\nPresident Young: The next in order is the report of the Committee on Resolutions,\nwhich will be presented by Carroll G. Pearse, President-elect of the National Education\nAssociation, Chairman of the Committee on Resolutions.\nChairman Pearse: Madam President, in behalf of the Committee on Resolutions\nI beg leave to offer the following report:\nDECLARATION\nThe members of the National Education Association, assembled in its Forty-ninth\nConvention, present the following declaration:\n1. The members of this Association renew the aflirmation of their belief in the\nfundamental importance of a system of free public education, thru which all the children\nof the state may be trained for good citizenship and for usefulness.\nThey view with special satisfaction the policy of the national government to extend\nto the newly acquired possessions of the Nation the same system of universal public\neducation which is practiced elsewhere thruout the home territory of the United States.\n2. The increased cost of Uving, and the steadily increasing number and scope of\npublic educational activities, have rendered it necessary that larger expenditures be\nmade for schools than in the past; it therefore becomes imperative that all ommunities in the Nation recognize, as many have already done, that more money must be\ncontributed and expended for schools, both locally and by the state, if our young people\nare to have that kind and quality of education demanded by the times.\n3. The Federal Bureau of Education is the only educational agency belonging to\nall the people, supported by all the people, and from which all the people have the right\nto demand service. This Association, therefore, requests the Congress of the United\nStates to grant the Bureau such increased support as will enable it to serve all the people,\nby conducting educational research and disseminating educational information thruout\nthe country. We urge that the national appropriations for studying problems involving\nthe welfare of the Nation's school children be made comparable in amount with those\nannually made for studying problems involving the welfare and conservation of the\nmaterial resources of the Nation.\nWe ask that Congress increase the salary of the Commissioner of Education of the\nUnited States so that it may equal the salaries paid by the states, municipalities, and\nprivate institutions to men and women occupying educational positions of the first\nmagnitude.\n4. The increasing complexity of life-problems in modem society makes it imperative that our young men atid women shall be well-grounded in the principles of right\nliving, so that the dignity and prosperity of the Nation, as well as the integrity and\nsuccess of the individual, may be properly safeguarded. It is therefore right that suitable ethical instruction should be introduced into the programs of even the elementary\nschools, to supplement the moral training given in the home.\nIn devising courses and methods for such instruction, it will be necessary to adjust\nthe material and aims to the changing needs of the growing child in his passage thru\nsuccessive developmental stages, with their varying instincts and tendencies, on ascending levels. What can be merely habituation and imitation, in the primary grades, must\nbecome rational, ethical conception in the adolescent age. The noble example of great\nlives will inspire our youth with the enthusiasm for self -improvement. To develop in\nour children strong moral character, without the taint of self-consciousness or Pharisaical\nself-satisfaction, must ever remain a prime duty of the educator.\n5. It is coming more and more to be recognized that the proper spiritual welfare and\ndevelopment of our children depends in a large measure upon their healthful physical\ngrowth. This Association, therefore, favors all measures which will tend to secure the\nhealth of the growing child. Among these must be feckoned proper attention to school\nhygiene in all of its applications; proper medical inspection, and the co-operation of\nboards of health in matters of sanitation and contagious disease; the extension of the\nuse of school grounds, and, in large cities, of school roofs, as playgrounds, open-air\ngymnasia, and school gardens; the establishment of open-air schools, and of forest and\n\n31\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfarm schools; and the furtherance of physical exercises in formal arrangement and in\nsports and games, commensurate with the powers and needs of the growing body in its\nsuccessive stages.\n,\n,\nr\n6. An hnportant step in providing the best school advantages will be such study of\nthe hygienic and other requirements of school buildings and grounds as shall make publicschool authorities everywhere familiar with the necessities of schoolhouses as to size\nof rooms, window space, corridors, stairways, and exit necessities, ventilation, heating,\nplaygrounds, and indoor and outdoor equipment, thus rendering possible the standardizing of school houses, rooms, and appliances; also rendering possible a general understanding of the proper cost of schoolhouses and appurtenances, thus giving to school\nauthorities such knowledge as shall enable them, on the one hand, to avoid meanness and\ninadequacy, and, on the other hand, to provide beautiful, wholesome, and convenient\nschool facilities without wasteful expenditure.\n7. The school buildings of our land and the ground surrounding them should be\nopen to the pupils and to their parents and families as recreation centers outside of the\nregular school hours. They should become the radiating centers of social and cultural\nactivity in the neighborhood, in a spirit of civic unity and co-operation, omitting, however, all activities and exercises tending to promote division or discord. They should\ngive opportunity for continuation schools, vacation schools, and for industrial, horticultural, and agricultural training, as well as for the education of adults thru lectures and\nthru school and college extension classes.\nTo safeguard, however, the integrity, privacy, and hygienic security of our schools\n(which are, in reaUty, the homes of our children during a large part of their waking hours),\nso that the more subtle elements residing in the educational atmosphere of a well-regulated school may be preserved, and the children guarded against the unsanitary conditions eventually following in the wake of promiscuous gatherings, this wider use of the\nschool plant should be controlled exclusively by the school authorities; the buildings during such use, and the persons thus using them should be subject to medical inspection\nwhenever, and in whatever manner required.\n8. ReaUzing the fact that a large percentage of children, whose physical and mental\npecuharities require special methods of education, are still to a great extent outside the\nscope of the compulsory-education laws, and that the presence of the exceptional child\nin our modern civilization constitutes a problem of the greatest import, it is the sense of\nthis Association that the compulsory-education laws of states and commum'ties should\nbe so amended, developed, and extended that they shall apply to all children of school\nage, without exception, and provide for their training; further, that the laws should recognize the difference between the chronological age of a child and his maturity, and that\nthe school-age limit of each individual child should be determined by requiring the child\nto meet physical and mental tests, even tho the child be in years above the age standard;\nin other words, a child's actual age should be determined by physio-psychological data\ncorresponding to the normal standard for the age limit required by law. All children or\npersons faihng to meet such maturity test at the extreme school-age limit, should remain\nunder pubUc supervision and control, either until they reach maturity, or permanently.\nThe same principle should be the guide in determining whether a child is fit to be\nemployed in any occupation. Not when a child is fourteen or sixteen years of age, but\nwhen he possesses the maturity of body and mind proper to a normal child of that age,\nshould he be released from the guardianship of the state or tfie community. Child-labor\nlaws should be so modified as to meet this requirement.\n9. The increasing complexity of our social and economic conditions makes it constantly\nmore difficult for young people to decide upon the vocations which are best for them to\nfollow, and to search out the opportunities to prepare themselves for and to enter upon\nsuch vocations. Our pubhc educational system should, therefore, make provision for\ninstructing our youth concerning the various occupations, and the advantages which the\nseveral employments offer; and, in addition, boys and girls and their parents should,\nwhen they desire it, be able to receive such intelligent counsel as will enable the young\npeople entering upon life's work to judge for what vocation the abilities and tastes of\neach best fit him, as well as to find the place and the opportunity to begin the work thus\nchosen.\n10. Children are recognized as the most precious natural resource of the Nation.\nThe conservation and development of this great social resource is engaging the earnest\nattention of all classes of thinking people. The recent Child-Welfare Exhibits in New\nYork and Chicago drew thousands of visitors from all walks of life, both people who\ncame to receive help, and people who came to offer the assistance which religion, science,\nand money can contribute.\nThe National Education Association earnestly requests that the Panama-Pacific\nExposition provide for a complete Child-Welfare Exhibit, to the end that the benefits\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n33\n\nheretofore enjoyed by a few favored localities may be extended to every place sufficiently\nfortunate to have representatives in attendance at the Exposition thru which California\nis planning to instruct the world.\n11. The success of women in all fields of education during the past generation has\ndemonstrated their intellectual equality and power. The opportunities for higher technical training, however, have not been generally offered to girls and women. It is the\nsense of this Association that modern, progressive principles should be applied to the\neducation of girls in the schools and women in the colleges, with complete and varied\nequipment and with as adequate opportunities to prepare themselves for the occupations\nin which they have a special interest, as are already provided for boys and men.\n12. The very material advance made in the cause of world peace during the past\nyear encourages the National Education Association to urge a more widespread dissemination ofknowledge upon this vital subject. We commend the American School\nPeace League as a channel thru which teachers may procure such knowledge, together\nwith suggestions for its presentation. The League has done excellent work in collecting\nand organizing material which appeals both to children and to adults; the accuracy of\nits statements are not questioned; its arguments are sound. The proposal to establish\na world tribunal to fill the place of an international court for civilized nations is worthy\nof commendation, and should have the earnest support of all teachers.\n13. A very general impression prevails to the effect that the teacher's remuneration\nis a generous reward for services rendered. The increased demands upon teachers, due\nto the lifting of the work of teaching to a higher professional level, adds heavily to the tax\nupon the teacher's time and strength; the increased cost of living affects teachers quite\nas seriously as other citizens. For these reasons, this body considers highly important\nthe initiation of an inquiry into the present conditions affecting the teaching body of the\nNation, to the end that these conditions may be understood and any desirable action\ntaken.\n14. The National Education Association expresses its heartiest recognition of greetings borne to its members by Miss Kate Stevens, Head Mistress of the Montem Street\nCentral Council School, London; from the Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland;\nfrom the National Union of Teachers; from the London Teachers' Association; from\nthe London Head Teachers' Association; and from the Child-Study Society of England.\nThe members of the Association return in kind these cordial professional greetings,\nand join with their fellow-teachers of Great Britain and Ireland in the wishes expressed\nfor tlie promotion of international good-will and the early establishment of agencies for\nthe settlement of international difficulties by arbitration. Further, we do hereby\naccredit Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, of Boston, Mass., secretary of the American School\nPeace League, as the delegate representative of the National Education Association to\nbear our return greetings to the organizations whose greetings Miss Stevens has brought\nto us.\n15. The members of this Association hereby express their hearty appreciation of the\ngreat progress made by the National Bureau of Education under the able leadership\nof Commissioner Elmer Ellsworth Brown, and pledge their enthusiastic support to his\nsuccessor. Commissioner Philander P. Claxton, in his work of increasing and extending\nthe service of the bureau.\n/ Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin, Chairman\nrLommittee\n^«« •»-- \\ Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, of California\nj^^^^ ^ Crabtree, of Nebraska\nv^^nu.fn^^ ) Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, of New Jersey\ni^esotumns y -^^^^ Gertrude E. English, of Illinois\n\\ John H. Phillips, of Alabama\nOn motion, the Declaration of Principles as presented was adopted by the active\nmembers present, without dissent.\nOn motion by Chairman Pearse of the Committee on Resolutions, the following\nresolution was adopted by unanimous vote:\nBe it resolved, That the thanks of the Association are hereby tendered to its honored\nPresident, Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, for the interesting and valuable program presented\nat this meeting, and for her efficient administrative conduct of the affairs of the Association during the past year;\nBe it further resolved, That the Association hereby expresses its appreciation of the\neminently satisfactory arrangements made by the citizens of San Francisco and California\nfor the reception and entertainment of its membe^hip; that its thanks are especially\ntendered to his Excellency, the Governor of California, his Honor, the Mayor of San\nFrancisco, the educational authorities, state and municipal, the chairmen and members\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof- the several local committees, the members of the press, and to the hotel and raikoad\nofl5cials and the citizens, whose uniform courtesies have placed the Association under a\nlasting debt of gratitude, and made this, its Forty-ninth Annual Convention, memorable\nin the annals of the National Education Association.\nMr. Pearse also offered the following resolution, which on motion was adopted:\nResolved, That the President of the National Education Association be authorized\nto appoint a committee consisting of seven active members, to consider and report to the\nAssociation its findings and recommendations concerning the salaries, tenure, and pensions of teachers; the committee to take into consideration among other things the\nincreased cost of living, the increased professional demands upon the time, strength, and\nfunds of teachers, and whether the increase in teachers' wages has kept pace with the\nincrease in the wages of other workers, the increase in the cost of living, and the increased\ndemands upon teachers; and\nResolv&i, That the Board of Directors of this Association be, and hereby is, instructed\nto set aside an appropriation from the current funds of the Association the sum of Three\nThousand Dollars ($3,000), the same to be used, or so much thereof as may be necessary,\nfor the purposes of the investigation and report as directed herein.\nPresident Young: Next in the order of business is the report of the Committee on\nthe Revision of the By-Laws, as submitted at the business meeting in Boston.\nSecretary Shepard: The members will find in their seats copies of the proposed\namendments to the By-Laws as presented by the Committee on Revision. You will\nsee that the copies distributed contain the proposed amendments in parallel columns\nwith the By-Laws as they now read. These copies are identical with copies of the proposed revisions which were distributed to all active members with the Program-Bulletins\nin advance of the convention, and are doubtless familiar to all.\nJames W. Crabtree, of Nebraska: Madam President, the proposed amendments\nare in the hands of the active members present and do not need any explanation. The\nmembers have doubtless considered these By-Laws which were distributed to all active\nmembers some weeks ago. I therefore move that the report of the Committee on Revision of By-Laws be adopted as presented.\nThis motion was duly seconded.\nMiss Carrie C. Calkins, of New York: I move that the report and the motion to\nadopt it be laid on the table for one year.\nThis motion was duly seconded, presented, and carried.\nMr. Crabtree: Another resolution was presented to the committee for consideration, too late to get all the members of the committee together, and being a member of\nthat committee I take pleasure in presenting the resolution now. It is a matter that\nmay not interest all the states in the Union, but it is of importance to two of our territories. We have a petition here signed by thousands of children and teachers asking us\nto take some interest in the admission of this territory to statehood:\nResolved, That it is the sense of the National Education Association that the admission of Arizona and New Mexico to statehood would greatly enhance educational conditions in those territories.\n\nC. A. Duniway, of Montana: As a member of the Association, I desire to state that\nthis is a political matter, and that we should take no action on it.\nMr. Pearse: This may be a Uttle out of the usual custom of this Association, but\nthe educational conditions in these territories are deplorable in some respects on accotmt\nof lack of action, and it seems to me that we might be a little generous.\nMr. Duniway: I will sign the petition personally and try to get the bills passed,\nbut as a member of this Association I think it is none of our business. I believe we should\nkeep out of all political questions.\nMr. Greenwood: I Uve close to Oklahoma and I went into that territory when\nthey had hundreds of thousands of children in that territory, and they wanted to be\nadmitted to statehood on an equal footing with the other states that were already in\nthe Union.\nI know the conditions in New Mexico, and what they have been doing for\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF MEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n35\n\nthe pait twenty-five or thirty years. I am somewhat familiar with the conditions in\nArizona, and I do not believe it is political when we work for the interest of education.\nWe are in favor of educating the children in all parts of the country that they may become\ngood and useful citizens. I don't care whether they make political capital of it or not.\nThe men at Washington are our servants, and we can petition them in the interests of\nthese territories that are striving to come into statehood. I am in favor of the resolution\nand hope it will be passed.\nOn motion the resolution was adopted.\nMrs. a. B. Moriarty, of New York: I desire to present a notice of an amendment\nto Article I of the By-Laws, to be known as Section 2, and to be acted upon by the Annual\nConvention one year hence:\nARTICLE I\nSec. 2. Educational institutions shall include schools, school boards, library boards,\neducational publishers, and such clubs as are distinctly educational or have educational\ndepartments properly organized, with a definite membership and a vote.\nOn motion, this notice was accepted to be acted upon at the next annual meeting.\nThe following resolution was presented by Helen C. Putnam, of Providence, R.I.:\nResolved, That a special committee of seven representatives, one from each of the\nseven states having largest population, shall be appointed by the President before the\nend of this convention, to report in writing next year on the wisdom and practicability\nof publishing the material now issued in a single volume of Proceedings, together with\nother desirable educational matter, in a monthly, bi-weekly, or weekly periodical; for\nthe purpose of increasing the usefulness of the material among members, of increasing\nmembership, general public intelligence in educational matters, and the influence of the\nNational Education Association; said Committee to consult with the Publication Committee provided for by Article VIII of the By-Laws (on Proceedings), with the Committee\non Revision of By-Laws, and to learn so far as possible the wishes of teachers thruout\nUje country.\nm^ This motion was duly seconded and the vote taken, but before the President had\nannounced the result of the vote a motion was offered by H. J. Baldwin of California that\nthe Executive Committee of the Association be substituted for the committee proposed\nin the resolution. This motion was entertained by the Chair and was duly seconded\nand carried.\nPresident Young: The next item in the order of business is a commimication from\nthe Department of Superintendence.\nJ. A. Shawan, of Ohio:\nTo the President and Active Members of the National Education Association:\nAt the meeting of the Department of Superintendence recently held at Mobile, Ala.,\na resolution was passed approving the Phonetic Key Alphabet and authorizing the President of that Department to appoint a committee of five to bring the matter before this\nAssociation and to urge the adoption of a resolution approving the same.\nIn accordance with that action the President of the Department has appointed the\nfollowing committee:\nJ. A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio, Chairman.\nVernon L. Davey, superintendent of schools. East Orange, N. J.\nJ. F. Millspaugh, president, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nL. H. Jones, president, State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nMiss Katherine D. Blake, principal of Public School No. 6, New York, N.Y.\nOn behalf of this committee and in the name of the Department of Superintendence,\nthe following resolution is submitted:\nResolved, That we concur in the opinion long held by prominent philologists and other\nscholars that a simple and uniform system of indicating pronunciation in our dictionaries,\nencyclopedias, gazetteers, and textbooks is demanded by the labor-saving and timesaving exigencies of our day. We believe such simplicity and uniformity embodied in\na one-sign, one-sound alphabet would be an econoiftic and educational advantage of great\nvalue, not only to the pupils and teachers in our schools, but to the reading and scholarly\npublic in general. Therefore, we hereby give our indorsement as requested by the Department of Superintendence to the key alphabet adopted by the department at its late meet-\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\ning at Mobile, and we urge the adoption of this alphabet by our publishers as the uniform\nand standard key of pronunciation in all our books.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. A. Shawan, Chairman\nThere are so many things being brought into our schools, so many demands being\nmade upon the teacher's time, that it is absolutely necessary that we eliminate anything\nwe can and simplify as much as possible. There is no reason for fourteen vowels having\neighty-eight sounds; there is no reason for forty-four sounds represented by sixty-five\ncharacters. So that it is in the direction of simplicity, and seems to us that the adoption\nof this resolution would mean a great deal to the children. I move the adoption of the\nresolution.\nJ. Carleton Bell, of New York: I wish to offer an amendment to the resolution\nwhich has just been presented, as follows:\nResolved, That the proposed phonetic key be referred for investigation to a committee\nof three, appointed by the Chair, and that this committee be instructed to invite the Departments of Education of the leading universities, such as Columbia, Chicago, California,\nand Leland Stanford, as well as superintendents generally, to test the proposed key\nexperimentally, imder school conditions, along the Hues indicated by Professor Whipple's\npioneer research, and to report the results of such investigations to this Association.\nM. P. E. Groszmann, of New Jersey: I am in favor of the amendment. This is\nthe time for experiment, I was in favor of the resolution, but am in favor of further\ninvestigation.\nI wish to indorse the amendment.\nFrancis G. Blair, of Illinois: I move that the amendment and resolution be laid\non the table for one year.\nWilliam M. Roberts, of Illinois: Does this mean that we shall have no chance to\ndiscuss this question; that members who have come here from all parts of the country\nto discuss this matter will have to wait for another year ? We have been waiting nine ..,\nyears now.\nwL.\nCalls for question. The motion to lay the matter on the table was presented ai3l^\ncarried.\nAs there was no further business, the Chair declared the meeting adjourned.\n*\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nElla Flagg Young, President\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF MEETING OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS\nOF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n1910-11\n\nSan Francisco, Cal., Monday, July 10, 191 1\nThe annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order by President\nElla Flagg Young at the St. Francis Hotel at ii a.m., July ,io, igii. The following\nmembers responded to roll-call:\nElla Flagg Young, IlUnois; James Y, Joyner, North Carolina; Durand W. Springer,\nMichigan; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; J. J. Keyes, representing the Board of Education of Nashville, Tennessee; James M. Greenwood, Missouri; Eliphalet O. Lyte, PennA. J. Matthews,\nDuncan A.\nMacKinnon,\nCaliform'a;\nClem Hampton,\nFlorida; J.sylvania;Stanley\nBrown, Arizona;\nIllinois; Thomas\nMott, Indiana;\nO. P. Bostwick,\nIowa;\nJohn MacDonald, Kansas; E. E. Scribner, Michigan; S. L. Heeter, Minnesota; E.\nE. Bass, Mississippi; James M. Hamilton, Montana; Irs. L. C. Booth, Nevada; Edwin\nD. Ressler, Oregon; Reed B. Teitrick, Pennsylvania; George F. Weston, Rhode Island;\nJ. J. Keyes, Tennessee; George H. Carpenter, Texas; Henry B. Dewey, Washington;\nCarroU G. Pearse, Wisconsin.\nDirectors answering to roll-call, twenty-six.\nThe Secretary reported that a number of the directors who were unable to attend\nthe meeting had tendered their resignations, asking that other active members from\ntheir respective states be appointed to fill the vacancies.\nOn motion, duly seconded, the following appointments to fill vacancies were made:\nJohn H. Phillips, of Alabama, to succeed Director John W. Abercrombie, resigned.\nErnest Berry, of Arkansas, to succeed Director George B. Cook, resigned.\nW. W. Remington, of Colorado, to succeed Director Charles E. Chadsey, resigned.\nHarlan Updegraff, of the District of Columbia, to succeed Director P. M. Hughes,\nresigned.\nWalter R. Siders, of Idaho, to succeed Director Charles S. Meek, resigned.\nM. A. Cassidy, of Kentucky, to succeed Director W. H. Bartholomew, resigned.\nM. Bates Stephens, of Maryland, to succeed Director A. C. Willison, resigned.\nA. E. Winship, of Massachusetts, to succeed Director Irving O. Palmer, resigned.\nJohn R. Kirk, of Missouri, to succeed Director Howard A. Gass, absent.\nJames W. Crabtree, of Nebraska, to succeed Director A. A. Reed, resigned.\nRobert F. Asplund, of New Mexico, to succeed Director James E. Clark, resigned.\nEdwin S. Monroe, of Oklahoma, to succeed Director W. C. Canterbury, resigned.\nC. G. Lawrence, of South Dakota, to succeed Director Freeman H. Hoff, resigned.\nD. H. Christensen, of Utah, to succeed Director G. N. Child, resigned.\nWilson M. Foulk, of West Virginia, to succeed Director Morris P. Shawkey, resigned.\nCharles O. Merica, of Wyoming, to succeed Director A. D. Cook, resigned.\nAll of the newly elected directors above named were present and responded to call\nof the roll.\nThe total number of directors present was forty-two.\nThe President: The next order of business is the reading of the minutes. They\nwere published in the Boston volume of Proceedings and in the last Yearbook, Will\nyou have them read ?\nDirector E. E. Scribner, of Michigan: I move that we dispense with the reading of the minutes, and that they be approved as printed in the last volume and Yearbook.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried.\nThe President:\nThe next in order is the report of the Board of Trustees.\nDirector James M. Greenwood, Vice- Chairman of the Board of Trustees : Madam\nChairman, in the absence of the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, Dr. Nicholas Murray\nButler, it devolves upon me to present the Annual Report of the Board of Trustees.\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe report has been published and distributed to the members present. It is a clear\nand explicit statement and explains itself. Has any member present any question to\nask concerning it ?\nPresident Young: If the Board will permit a word ol explanation from the Chair:\nI believe the signature of the President is not attached to that report; is it, Mr.\nGreenwood ?\nDirector Greenwood:\nIt is not attached to the report.\nPresident Young: The signature of the President as ex-officio member of the\nBoard of Trustees was withheld, not because of any objection to the facts of the report,\nbut to the character of the securities in which the $9,900 added to the permanent fund\nhas been invested. The President holds very positive views that a trust fund should\nbe invested in school, municipal, county,, state, or national bonds; but the recent addition to the permanent fimd was invested in industrial bonds. The objection is no reflection\nat all upon the railroad or companies in which the investments were made; but\nit happens to be the view of the President that the risks are too great in the case of\nindustrial bonds — we all know the history of the Johns Hopkins University — while\nthere are no such risks in governmental bonds. That is why the signature is withheld.\nI wish to repeat that I have no knowledge that the bonds that were bought are not perfectly good, but they belong to the list of industrial bonds.\nDirector Scribner: May I ask Madam President to name the specific bonds\nto which she refers ?\nPresident Young: I refer to the bonds in which the addition to the permanent\nfund, $9,900, was invested.\nDirector Scribner: What investment?\nPresident Young: One, I think, was in bonds of the Manhattan Railway Company. Mr. Greenwood, I think, knows.\nDirector Scribner:\nAre they considered as industrial ?\nPresident Young: I consider railroading an industry.\nDirector J. Stanley Brown, of Illinois: I move that this report be received and\nprinted as read by the Vice-Chairman of the Board of Trustees.\nDirector Springer, of Michigan: I wish to amend the motion to the effect that,\nif the President desires to add such a statement as she made to the report as printed\nin the Proceedings, it would be perfectly proper for her to do so.\nDirector Brown: I accept the amendment.\nThe motion as amended was then duly seconded.\nPresident Young: It has been moved and seconded that the report of the Board\nof Trustees be printed in the Proceedings, and that to it be added the statement of the\nChair as to why the President's name does not appear among those signing\nreport.\nI appreciate the motion, because I have no reflection to make on the factsthestated\nin\nthe report as to the bonds in which the Trustees have invested the permanent fund.\nThe motion was then formally carried.\nPresident Young: Next in order is the report of the Treasurer.\nDirector Springer, Treasurer of the National Education Association: You all\nhave printed copies of the Treasurer's Report, which have been distributed. If there\nare any questions which the directors desire to ask, I shall be pleased to answer them.\nPresident Young: In the report under the expenses of the Department of Superintendence, on the third page, we find the item \"Expenses of the President.\" These\nare expenses 6i the President of the Department of Superintendence, and not of the\nNational Education Association, are they not, Mr. Treasurer ?\nTreasurer Springer: Yes.\nPresident Young: I simply wanted to make sure.\nDirector Kirk, of Missouri: I move that the report of the Treasurer be received,\napproved, and printed in the Proceedings.\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n39\n\nThe motion was duly seconded, formally presented, and carried.\nPresident Young: The next in order is a report by the Secretary on directions\nby the Board at the last meeting.\nThe Secretary read as follows:\nTo Members of the Board of Directors:\nAt the meeting of this Board of Directors held in Boston, July 7, 1910, a motion\nprevailed that $500, or as much thereof as might be necessary, be appropriated for the\nexpenses of the Committee on Uniform Educational Statistics, such appropriation being\nsubject to the approval of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of theNational Council, which was received. The Treasurer's report will show that $468.13\nwas paid 'during the year for the expenses of this committee, not including the printing\nof a tentative report of this committee made at Mobile and included in the Report of\nthe Department of Superintendence at Mobile, recently issued.\nAt the same meeting a motion prevailed directing the Secretary to print and distribute to the active members a report of progress by the Committee on a Uniform System of Key Notation. This report was so printed and distributed to all active members.\nThe committee made a final report at the Mobile meeting of the Department of Superintendence, and the same was included in printed Proceedings of that meeting recently\npublished. The committee was then formally discharged by the Department of Superintendence which created it.\nRespectfully submitted,\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nPresident Young:\n\nThe next in order is communications to the Board. I have\n\na communication from Commissioner Elmer Ellsworth Brown, of the Bureau of Education, which the Secretary will read.\nThe Secretary: (Reads:)\nDEPARTMENT\nBUREAU\n\nOF THE\n\nINTERIOR\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nWashington, June 28, 191 1\nMrs. Ella Flagg Youngs President of the National Editcation Association, Chicago, Illinois.\nMy dear Mrs. Young: At the meeting of the National Education Association held\nat Boston in July, 1910, the following resolution was adopted:\n\" In the judgment of the National Education Association, the time has arrived for the\nformation of an International Council of Education, to be composed of leading educators\nfrom all the principal nations of the globe; the first meeting of the council to be held\nin Washington, D.C., at some time during the year 1911. The Association hereby\nappoints the United States Commissioner of Education, the President and all L'ving exPresidents of the National Education Association, and seven others, to be chosen by the\nabove designated persons, as a committee to formulate plans for such an International\nCouncil and to attend to their execution.\"\nIn accordance with this resolution, correspondence has been had with the President\nand former Presidents of the National Education Association, and the American committee\nfor the proposed International Coimdl of Education has been constituted as follows:\nMEMBERS\n\nEX\n\nOFFICIO\n\nThe Commissioner of Education of the United States\nMrs. Ella Flagg Young, President of the National Education Association\nMr. Josiah L. Pickard, President 1871\nMr. Thomas W. Bicknell,\nPresident 1884\nMr. Aaron Gove,\nPresident 1888\nMr. Nicholas Murray Butler, President 1895\nMr. Charles R. Skinner, President 1897\nMr. James M. Greenwood,\nPresident 1898\nMr. E. Oram Lyte,\nPresident 1899\nMr. Oscar T. Corson,\nPresident 1900\nMr. James M. Green,\nPresident i9o»\nMr. Charles M. EUot,\nPresident 1903\nMr. John W. Cook,\nPresident 1904\nMr. William H. Maxwell,\nPresident 1905\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMr. Nathan C. Schaefifer, President 1907\nMr. Edwin G. Cooley, President 1908\nMr. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President 1909\nMr. James Y. Joyner,\nPresident 19 10\nELECTED\n\nMEMBERS\n\nMr. Martin G. Brumbaugh; superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nMr. P. P. Claxton, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.\nMr. Andrew S. Draper, state commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y.\n♦\nMr. G. Stanley Hall, president, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nMr. Abbott Lawrence Lowell, president, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nMr. Henry S. Pritchett, president, Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching, New York City\nMr. Benjamin Ide Wheeler, president, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nIt has been found impossible to arrange for tJie organization of an International\nCouncil of Education in time to meet within the year 191 1. The committee as constituted above is now in a position to enter upon the necessary correspondence looking to\nsuch organization.\nThe committee regards the proposed Council as one to which matters of great weight\nand importance may from time to time be submitted. It should be able to exercise a\nmighty influence in the determining of world standards in education of different types and\ngrades. It should become the most competent advisory body in all matters relating to\ninternational congresses and exhibitions of an educational or scientific character. And\ninternational exchanges of teachers and students as well as the international diffusion of\neducational information should be greatly fiurthered through its actiyities.\nRespectfully submitted for the committee,\nElmer Ellsworth Brown,\nCommissioner of Education President Young: Is there any action necessary by this Board to confirm the\nappointments ?\nDirector Scribner: I move that the report be accepted, placed on file, and receive\nthe commendation of this body.\nDirector Phillips: I second the motion.\nPresident Young: All those in favor signify by saying. Aye. Opposed, No. The\nmotion is carried. Are there any other communications ?\nThe Secretary: I have a communication from Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, dated July 1, 191 1.\n(Reads:)\n\nColumbia University,\nNew York, July i, 191 1\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Education Association:\nThe generous and most complimentary action of the Directors in re-electing me,\non July 7, 19 10, as a member of the Board of Trustees by unanimous vote, despite the\nstrong expression of my wish and desire to retire from the Board which was conveyed\nto the Directors at my request by the Director from New York, was formally communicated to me by the Secretary on my return from a long absence in Europe on October\n25, 1910. My first purpose was to decline the re-election so kindly tendered, as I had\nneither time nor inclination to continue to serve as a member of the Board of Trustees.\nAt once, however, I was so overwhelmed with telegrams and letters from individual\nDirectors, from almost every livmg former President of the Association, and from scores\nof representative active members, that my determination was shaken, and, against my\nbetter jud^ent, I yielded to the soUcitation of these friends and accepted the post\nthat the Directors had so kindly tendered me. For this action of the Directors I beg\nto return my grateful and appreciative thanks. It is the concluding act in a long series\nof friendly actions that I cherish most highly. I accepted this re-election, however,\nonly because I was convinced that any other course would have embarrassed the business\nof the Association and jeopardized its interests. I accepted it, furthermore, with the\nmialterable determination to retire as a Trustee at the next meeting of the Directors.\nBecause of my absence in Europe, I was necessarily prevented from attending the\nannual meeting of the Trustees held at Boston on July 2, 19 10. Because of serious\nillness in my immediate family, I shall be prevented from attending the annual meeting\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n41\n\nof the Trustees called for July 8, 191 1, at San Francisco, California. I beg to call the\nattention of the Directors to the fact that my ofiSce as Trustee becomes automatically\nvacant on the adjournment of the annual meeting to be held July 8, 191 1, in accordance\nwith the following provision of the Act of Incorporation, Section 6:\n\"The absence of a Trustee from two successive annual meetings of the Board\nshall forfeit his membership.\"\nIn my judgment, this provision of the Act of Incorporation is self-operating and\nmeans precisely what it says. The fact that I was re-elected a Trustee on July 7, 1910\n— that is, after the annual meeting of 19 10 had been held and before the annual meeting\nof 191 1 — has, I believe, no bearing whatever upon the provision of the Act of Incorporation. The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association is, like the\nSenate of the United States, a continuing body, and I cannot beUeve that the date of\na re-election as Trustee can have any effect in halting the operation of so definite and\nprecise a statement as that which has been quoted. In order, however, that the matter\nmay be placed beyond doubt, I beg herewith to tender my resignation as a Trustee of\nthe National Education Association, the same to take effect immediately, and I ask\nthat this resignation be accepted. During my service as Trustee, I have had the satisfaction ofseeing the Permanent Fund grow from $45,000 to $180,000 and safely invested\nin sound securities. If this fund shall be preserved for the purpose for which it has\nbeen accumulated, it will serve as a protection to the Association in years of deficient\nrevenue. To protect this fund and to preserve it from dissipation has been the policy\nof the Trustees for a quarter of a century, and I sincerely hope that it will never be\ndeparted from.\nWith renewed thanks to the Board of Directors for their many acts of confidence\nand kindness during a long series of years, I am\nFaithfully yours,\nNicholas Murray Butler\nDirector Pearse, of Wisconsin: Madam President, I do not think anyone has\nany disposition to be critical or technical in this matter; I think Dr. Butler is entitled\nto courtesy at the hands of this body. I therefore move that his resignation be\naccepted.\nThe motion was duly seconded.\nDirector Greenwood, of Missouri: I would like to make a few remarks. The\nmen who inaugurated the plan for the establishment of a permanent fund were Albert G.\nLane, of Chicago, and Dr. N. A. Calkins, of New York. I happened to be connected with\nthe Association at that time, and when it passed out from under debt in 1884 we had\nin mind, three of us in a consultation in Chicago, that, if we could establish a permanent fund of $100,000 which could remain intact, that fund would furnish a basis for\ncontinuing the National Education Association and its work. The fund was established\nby setting aside the surplus of the funds from the meetings of 1884 and 1885, $3,400,\nand has been continued until now, as you see by the report of the Board of Trustees,\nit amounts to exactly $180,000. Dr. Calkins was elected in 1886 as Chairman of the\nBoard of Trustees, and served until his death in December, 1895. He was succeeded\ntemporarily in office by Dr. H. S. Tarbell. At the next annual meeting of the\nBoard of Trustees Albert G. Lane was elected Chairman and served continuously\nuntil his death in August, 1906. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler was elected by the\nTrustees as Chairman to succeed Mr. Lane, and has served continuously until\nthe present time. I have been a part of the time intimately connected with those\nwho have been looking after this Permanent Fund. You will find that in 1905\nand since, the following persons, regularly appointed in accordance with the By-Laws,\nhave examined the funds and the securities of the Permanent Fund (physically\nexamined them) which have been in the custody of the officially appointed custodian, Mr. Louis Boisot, Trust Officer of the Trust and Savings Department of the\nFirst National Bank of Chicago: to wit, Mr. Carroll G. Pearse, of Milwaukee, Wis. —\nas you will find printed in the annual volume of Proceedings — examined the securities\nof the Association in 1905 and reported as to their existence and integrity; Mr. Homer\nH. Seerley, of Cedar Falls, Iowa., made the examination in 1906; Mr. Orville T. Bright,\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof Chicago, lU., in 1907; Mr. E. G. Cooley, of Chicago, 111., in 1908; Mr. John W. Cook,\nof DeKalb, 111., in 1909; and Professor Charles H. Judd, Professor in the University of\nChicago, in 19 10. According to the report submitted herewith by the Board of Trustees, Inotice that the annual examination was made June 15 for the year just closed by\nMr. John McLaren, who certifies as follows:\nI have this day examined the securities in the foregoing statement made by the\nBoard of Trustees, and find all bonds and securities therein named in the custody of\nLouis Boisot, Trust Officer of the First Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago.\n(Signed) John McLaren\nPresident, International Audit Company of Chicago\nHis name also appears imder a sunilar certificate as having examined the Treasurer's\nreport for the current year. I make this statement that you may know that the funds\nof the National Education Association have been examined annually, and are kept intact\nand safe, just exactly where the annual reports of the Board of Trustees state they are.\nMoreover, the Trustees' Reports have annually not only given detailed statements as\nto the securities held, but also show each year the amount of interest collected from\nthese securities, and turned over to the current funds of the Association, as shown by\nthe Treasurers' Reports.\nI want to make a personal reference for a moment. Dr. Butler had intended and\nplanned to be with us at this meeting, but his mother is old and is very ill. The duties\nresting upon him are many, but he deems it his first duty, at this time, to be at the bedside of his mother, as a letter to me indicates.\nI have worked with him; I know the man, and I know the great work that he has\ndone, and I feel that the three Chairmen of the Board of Trustees, N. A. Calkins,\nAlbert G. Lane, and Nicholas Murray Butler, have, by their untiring industry and\ndisinterested work, done the noblest and most unselfish work that has been done by\nany members of our Association, excepting perhaps those who helped to form the organization more than fifty years ago.\nI deeply regret that Dr. Butler feels that he must retire from this office in which\nhe has served the Association so long and so faithfully, because we need his counsel\nand his advice.\nPresident Young: Are there any further remarks? You have heard the motion\nthat the resignation be accepted. All those in favor signify by saying. Aye. Opposed,\nNo. It is so ordered.\nWill you permit a word from the Chahr with regard to the examination of the securities?\nThe securities of the Permanent Fund are kept in the custody of the Trust Officer of\nthe Trust and Savings Department of the First National Bank of Chicago, a very sound\ninstitution. The Chair has never consulted a lawyer as to this matter, but it is the\nopinion of the Chair that if a certain number of bonds and securities are deposited with\na company which guarantees the safety of those bonds and securities, that it is absurd\nto go to the bank vaults to count those bonds each year, and that is why the Chair did\nnot go. There might be a point raised if some day some part of those securities should\nbe missing. Then it would lie between the guarantor and the association that deposited\nthe bonds. Now, the Chair has not consulted a lawyer, but her own judgment dictates\nthe opinion that if securities have been placed with a bank guaranteeing the safety of\nthe securities then the firm would be held responsible until those securities are taken\naway, and it is ahnost childlike (yet it is called for in the Constitution and By-Laws)\nto examine those securities from year to year, to see that the guarantor has not taken\nanything out. I trust that explains a very simple situation.\nDirector John R. Kirk, of Missouri : Are nominations in order to fill the vacancy\noccasioned in the Board of Trustees by the resignation of Trustee Butler?\nPresident Young: They are.\nDirector Kirk: Then, Madam President, I wish to place in nomination a man\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n43\n\nwho has long been very active and very happily situated with regard to attending the\nmeetings and participating in the business of the National Education Association. I\nbeg leave to nominate Mr. J. Stanley Brown, of Joliet, 111., to succeed Dr. Nicholas\nMurray Butler as a member of the Board of Trustees.\nDirector Scribner: I second the nomination.\nDirector Dewey, of Washington: I take pleasure in nominating a former president of this Association, James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina.\nThis nomination was seconded.\nDirector MacKinnon, of California: I move that the nominations be closed.\nDirector Scribner: In view of the fact that we are not in executive session, I\nmove that in taking this ballot, when the ballots are deposited, each Director rise and\ngive his name, and that the same be checked by the Secretary.\nPresident Young:\nUnless there is objection it will be so ordered.\nI appoint Director Scribner and Director Dewey as tellers.\nWhile the ballots are being counted, I might announce that the Executive Committee decided yesterday that as the very recent change announced in the ofl5cial program\nby the Secretary in the method of admission to business meetings might result in great\nconfusion, the former method of admitting by active-membership badge would be the\nmethod for this year. The Chair appointed two members of the Executive Committee\nto pass upon all doubtful cases and to oblige them to present their certificates, if necessary; so you will please make known to the active members from your respective states\nthat they are to be admitted to the business meetings as usual, on active-membership\nbadge. The change from admission by^ badge to admission by certificate was not\nannounced in the preliminary program and the final program was issued only two or\nthree days ago.\nDirector MacKinnon: Is not this liable to lead to confusion and possibly to\nabuse from the fact that we announce ofl&cially in the official program that admission\nis to be by certificate, and the active members coming to these business meetings may\nnot have their badges with them and may insist on being admitted by certificates ? If,\nnow, it is decided that we are going to admit by badge there is a possibility that we\nmay have two people in the meetings for one membership, one admitted on the badge\nand one on the certificate.\nPresident Young: That question came up yesterday, but it seemed such a reflection\non the teachers of the United States that the committee did not consider it.\nDirector MacKinnon: I think, just as a safeguard against any charges of duplicate\nadmission — we have had them in the past — the Board of Directors should adopt such\nrules as will prevent the admission to the business meetings of those who are not active\nmembers.\nPresident Young: The Chair is not quite clear about what you have had in the\npast.\n\nDirector MacKinnon: I have reference te the reports with regard to the abuses\nin the use of badges in securing admission to the meetings of active members.\nPresident Young: We should defend the name and honor of the teachers.\nDirector MacKinnon: That is what I had in mind, by safeguarding admission\nin such a way that it will be impossible for such charges to be made. I believe these\ncharges will be made as long as there is an opportunity for securing admission to these\nmeetings by improper means.\nDirector Scribner: Your tellers report 35 votes cast, of which J. Stanley Brown\nreceived 18 and James Y. Joyner, 17.\nPresident Young: You have heard the rej^rt of the tellers. The Chair declares\nMr. J. Stanley Brown elected as a member of the Board of Trustees to fill the Vacancy\noccasioned by the resignation of Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler.\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nA Director: May I ask whether that announcement of the Executive Committee\nwith reference to admission is final? I make the inquiry as a personal privilege, notwithstanding what the Chair has said about the teachers' ability to keep their badges.\nI had in mind that the badges would be of no further use and so I expected to be admitted\nto meetings of active members by my certificate of membership.\nPresident Young: The Chair has appointed two members of the Executive Committee to pass on all cases in which there is any doubt, so there will be a committee\nin attendance at the entrance that will pass on you.\nI see the difficulty; but on the preliminary program, which we all had long ago,\nthe admission was treated the same way it always had been in the history of the Association. Idid not see the final official program until after I reached San Francisco,\nand I suppose it is quite a dreadful thing for me to acknowledge that I did not notice\nthe change until my attention was called to it. I think that if the certificates had been\nmade smaller they would have better fitted the condition of women's pockets nowadays;\non the other hand, the women are so fond of wearing a badge of some sort that I think\nevery woman will have a badge. Now, with regard to safeguarding admission by the\nuse of certificates, I' see your point, only I have more faith in teachers than you have.\nDirector MacKinnon: I am not calling into question the integrity of the active\nmembers of the Association. I had reference solely to the reports that had been in\ncirculation thruout the United States with regard to meetings in the past, that the right\nhas been abused, and that there has been illegal voting. Whether or not these reports\nare true, it reflects upon this great Association, and it is belittling to the Association;\nand if there is some means by which this can be absolutely safeguarded, I am in favor\nof it. I would like to ask you. Madam President, if it is within the province of this\nBoard of Directors to determine this matter, or if it is in the hands of the Executive\nCommittee.\nIf the former, I would like to make a motion in regard to it.\nPresident Young: The Chair would say she does not believe it is in the hands\nof either. It is a mere matter of official detail that is in the hands of the Secretary.\nThe Executive Committee thought it was a great misfortune that the Secretary did\nnot make this change until so late an hour. That is the point; and therefore the Executive Committee thought it well to advise the Secretary not to make that change this\nyear, but next year, if it was so desired — to have a ticket of reasonable size and make\nthe change. Supposing 50 per cent of the active members come there without their\ntickets or because they had not seen the final program, then what are you going to do ?\nIf, on the other hand, 50 per cent come without their badges, what are you going to do ?\nDirector Scribner: To provide for that possible contingency, I would move\nthat those who attend the door be instructed to admit all active members if they prove\nthat they are active members, whether they have badges or certificates, or not. I beUeve\nthe Constitution provides that only active members shall vote. It is not the purpose\nof anybody connected with this Board of Directors to deprive an active member of his\nrights, but as Director MacKinnon has said, it has been the gossip that in many cases\nactive members who could not go or did not care to go to the meetings of active members for the purpose of transacting business, would lend their badges to someone else.\nThat is not fair, and we as teachers and representatives of the greatest educational body\non earth must play fair. We want everybody to know that we are playing fair, and\nI know that there is no one here and no active member thruout the United States connected with the Association who does not stand for fair play. If we have diflferences\nwe must fight fairly, and let the public know that we fight fairly. So I make the motion\nthat all active members who present themselves at the door, if they satisfy the doortenders that they are active members, be admitted and allowed to vote.\nDirector Pearse: It seems to me that there is a little history connected with\nthis action of the Executive Committee which we ought not to forget. It has been\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nMINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n45\n\nthe custom of the Association that persons be admitted to the meetings of the Association,\nand to the business meetings, and authorized to vote, upon showing their active-membership badges. This is the custom of the Association. When the preliminary programs\nor bulletins were sent out this year, no announcement was made and no information\nhad been supplied to the State Directors that a change in this plan would be followed; if\nso, it has not become generally known to the membership. Upon arriving in San\nFrancisco, the Executive Committee ascertained that many teachers were not informed\nof the change; that the notice contained in the official program placed in the hands of\nteachers upon their arrival here, which notice would be seen by some before the meeting\ntoday, the first day, but which a great number would not see, was certain to result in\ngreat confusion and in the loss of privilege to many. The Executive Committee, after\nconsidering that fact, ordered, since the notice had not been given previously and\nsince the change now came with such short notice that many would not and could not\nget it, that the custom which had prevailed heretofore should be continued for this\nconvention. If it should be thought best hereafter to admit upon certificate, there will\nbe time to announce it in advance for another year. If an explanation of the change\nhad been placed in the preliminary notice it might have been done this year; but to\nrequire a teacher who comes to the meeting of active members with merely an activemembership badge, to establish the fact of membership when hundreds of people are\npressing to get into the place of meeting, would be an exceedingly difficult and impracticable scheme, it appears to me. There has been some gossip about irregularities; there\ndoubtless will be gossip about various matters while the world stands. .And it appears\nto me that it would be wiser for us, as Directors, not to interfere with the arrangement\nwhich the Executive Committee has already made for use this year. If at the close\nof this annual meeting it is thought best to change the plan and use the ticket of\nadmission instead of the badge, no one will object; but there is no reason why we should\nnot make this thing definite and provide that the valuable privilege of membership\nshall be exercised by those entitled to it and by those only. It is felt by thousands of\nteachers that the notice has been so short that hardship will follow should certificates\nof membership be required for admission.\nDirector Kirk: If this matter has been examined and felt by thousands of teachers,\nI do not see but that ample notice has already been given. I may have misunderstood\nthe Chair, but I understood that it was the opinion of the Chair that there was really\nno authority or occasion for either the Executive Committee or the Board of Directors to\nact upon it; that it was rather a matter of the judgment and convenience of the Secretary.\nPresident Young: Not necessarily a matter of convenience, but a matter of official\ndetail.\nDirector Kirk: If it is a matter of official detail for the Secretary, I hardly see\non what grounds the Executive Committee can defend their changing it, and I can hardly\nsee on what grounds the Board of Directors could take up the matter and alter an order\nof the Executive Committee. Now, this is a new matter to me, and I have learned\nin poUtics and in education that when ugly rumors get to going, as good a way as any\nis to probe them to the bottom. I wonder what caused the Secretary or any person\nto alter this scheme of admission. He must have had intimations of some sort or otherI should Uke to inquire, if I may, for my own information and others that might be\ninterested — I should Uke to inquire of the Secretary for what reasons he made this new\narrangement. If there was only a slight rumor of irregularities, why, it would not seem\nto me that he had a very good basis for taking such action, but if he has information\nwhich the rest of us do not have, I believe we ought to have that information, even tho\nI am in doubt about the legality or advisability of this Board's or of the Executive\nCommittee's action in the matter. I am perfectly willing to abide by the ruling of\nthe Chair.\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirector Scribner: I wish to state that I would like to hear from the Secretary\nif it is in order.\nDirector Greenwood: I am not a member of the Executive Committee. If they\nhave information that they do not want to become public, we might appoint a committee\nto investigate and see what they have and report to this body. I do know that there\nhave been rumors that matters were not as straight as they ought to be. I agree with\nDirector MacKinnon that we ought to have our business so aboveboard that there\ncould not be any question about it, and that only bona-fide active members should take\npart in the proceedings of the meeting of active members. I am in favor of admitting\nevery bona-fide active member, but I would not be in favor of any person's being admitted\non the certificate or badge of another person.\nDirector Scribner: Only active members have a right to vote, and it seems to\nme the duty of the National Education Association to require the Constitution to be\nlived up to in the matter of voting. I i^\\\\ to see how anybody entitled to vote shall\nbe deprived of the privilege to vote by any provision of this body or any other body.\nPresident Young: The Chair wiU make a ruling, and if tha Board is not satisfied\nit can reverse the ruling. The Chair will make the ruling that the requirement laid\ndown in the final official program shall be Uved up to, and that the Executive Com nittee\nand the Board of Directors have no authority to deal with this question. The Chair\ngoes farther and insists that the committee which was appointed yesterday from the\nExecutive Committee, and a committee of two from this Board, to be appointed by\nthe Chair, shall be present at the door of the hall in which the active members are to\nmeet on Thursday noon to hear all complaints — of those who claim that they did not\nimderstand the situation and of all others — ^and to pass upon the cases so that, as Mr.\nScribner says, no active member shall be cut out from voting.\nDirector MacKinnon: In accordance with your ruUng, I would like to move\nthat the Board of Directors request the press of the city to give this ruling of the Chair\nthe widest possible publicity, in order that the active members may know and may come\nprepared with their certificates to the business meeting on Thursday noon, and also at\nthe meeting by states this afternoon.\nDirector Pearse: The decision of the Executive Committee that members would\nbe admitted to meetings, business and otherwise, upon the showing of the active-membership badge was announced by the Executive Committee yesterday and was made\nknown to a great many teachers. It is too late for this infor lation to be supplied to\nthe newspapers to do any good for the teachers attending the meeting this afternoon.\nIf this ruling is to stand I want to second the suggestion of Mr. MacKinnon in regard\nto publicity, otherwise there will be great difficulty and great hardship.\nDirector Foulk, of West Virginia: May I suggest to the gentleman who last\nspoke that the meetings of active members to be held this afternoon are within the control of the respective State Directors, who will see that no one votes improperly, and\ntherefore there is no difficulty on that score ?\nDirector Scribner: He will have a list of the active members in attendance at\nthis convention.\nPresident Young: Is the ruling of the Chair sustained? Does anyone want to\nmake a motion that the ruling be not sustained? Did you make a motion. Director\nMacKinnon ?\nDirector MacKinnon: I made a motion that the press of the city be requested\nto give the widest publicity to the fact that the admission to the annual meeting of active\nmembers in Golden Gate Conmiandery Hall on next Thursday noon shall be by certificate,\nas announced in the official program and as confirmed by the ruling of the Chair.\nThe motion was duly seconded, presented, and carried.\nPREsroENT Young:\nThe Chair will appoint Director MacKinnon, of California,\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n47\n\nand Director Hampton, of Florida, as the representatives from the Board of Directors\nto act with the committee appointed by the Executive Committee.\nDirector MacKinnon: I would suggest that you enlarge that committee with\nrepresentatives from all sections of the United States.\nDirector James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina: As a member of the Executive\nCommittee, I think we are making a mistake in this. The idea of appointing a committee representing all sections of this country to stand guard over the teachers, to admit\nthem into this meeting of the active members, is a reflection upon our profession. I\nam opposed to that. There may have been abuses in the past. The idea of the Executive Committee as I understand it was simply this: Heretofore the blue badge of active\nmembership has been accepted as prima-facie evidence of active membership. The\nConstitution says that nobody shall be allowed to vote in the meeting of active members\nwho is not an active member. The determination of who active members are before\nthey are admitted is in the hands of the Secretary and is a matter of executive detail.\nWe saw no reason at this late date for changing the prima-facie evidence of membership; in fact, we felt that changing the rule of admission at this time without having\ngiven more notice of it would work a hardship and would be in itself an intimation that\na great many frauds were going to be perpetrated.\nDirector Greenwood: I rise to a point of order.\nDirector Joyner: I am speaking to the motion of appointing representatives from\nall sections of this country to stand guard at the door.\nDirector Greenwood: I do not understand that there is a motion before the\nhouse.\nDirector Joyner: I may have q;iisunderstood it.\nPresident Young: The Chair did not understand that Mr. MacKinnon\n\nmeant\n\nto stand guard. He meant that it should be an easy matter for everybody to be recognized, but I think that would be impossible.\nDirector MacKinnon: It was my idea that we might add one or two more to\nthe committee.\nDirector Joyner: I think it is perfectly proper to have a committee to rule upon\nany matters of doubt, but I still think badges ought to be taken as prima-facie evidence\nof membership, and if there is any question as to membership in any particular case,\njust refer them to this committee.\nPresident Young: It is left to the discretion of the Chair to increase the size of\nthat conmiittee as the Chair thinks best.\nDirector John H. Phillips, of Alabama: Madam President, I appear before the\nBoard of Directors on behalf of the Executive Committee. You will recall, after the\nmeeting of the Executive Committee which was held in Mobile, the Secretary was\ndirected to secure by correspondence a vote of the Board of Directors upon certain\nresolutions that had been adopted by the Executive Committee with reference to a\ncertain class of membership relative to which there had been no special regulation\nadopted by the Association. A referendum vote was taken by correspondence and the\nvote was, I think, that out of the 76 members of the Board of Directors there were 60\nthat responded, 59 of whom favored the adoption of the resolution; but as the validity\nor legality of that vote has been called in question, the Executive Committee unanimously thought it wise to ask this Board of Directors to ratify here in this meeting\nthe action of the Executive Committee with regard to this matter, until such time as\nthe Association may take such action as they deem necessary with regard to this\nquestion. To facilitate this matter I will just read the resolution.\n(Reads:)\nWhereas, The By-Laws of the National Education Association do not provide\nadequately for the rights and privileges of instiftitional membership;\nand\nWhereas, In the absence of such regulations the Executive Committee has been\ncalled upon to interpret the rights of this class of members to meet emergencies and\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ncomplications which have arisen since the adoption in 1907 of the plan of incorporation\nunder a special act of the United States Congress; the Executive Committee respectfully requests the members of the Board of Directors to ratify by correspondence vote\nthe following resolutions:\n1. Resolved, That institutions may be enrolled as active members of the National\nEducation Association.\n2. Resolved, That institutions may be enrolled as active members by their chief\nadministrative ofl&cer only.\n3. Resolved, That active membership of institutions does not carry with it any\nvoting rights.\n4. Resolved, That a special membership badge bearing the title \"Institutional\nMember\" may be issued to the chief administrative ofl&cer of an institution enrolled\nas an active member or, in the absence of such ofl&cer, may be issued to any person regularly connected with such institution in an educational capacity in whose favor said\nchief administrative officer directs on an official blank which may be secured from the\nSecretary of the Association.\nRespectfully submitted,\n(Signed) /Ella Flagg Young, President\nY. Joyner,\nVice-President\nExecutive Committee \\J James\nNicholas\nMurray First\nButler,\nChairman of Trustees\n/DuRAND W. Springer, Treasurer\n\\JOHN H. Phillips, Member by election\nThese resolutions are signed by all the members of the Executive Committee, and\nwere imanimously adopted, and we request on behalf of the Executive Committee the\nratification of the correspondence vote on these resolutions in order to avoid any question\nregarding their legality.\nDirector Scribner: I move that the resolutions presented by Director Phillips\nand the resulting correspondence vote by the members of the Board of Directors be\nratified and approved.\nThe motion was duly seconded.\nPresident Young: You have heard the motion.\nAre there any remarks ?\nDirector Crabtree, of Nebraska: May I not inquire whether these resolutions\nare not in effect amendments to the By-Laws ?\nDirector Phillips: I beg to explain that in the opinion of the Executive Committee they are merely interpretations of regulations, or rather, statements of detail\nwhere there are no regulations now controlling and directing, as stated in the preamble\nto the resolutions.\nDirector Scribner: They have to be voted on by the full membership.\nDirector Phillips: Provision will be made later to amend the By-Laws.\nDirector Crabtree: There is one resolution that I personally would not want\nto approve of, and that is the one making institutions active members. If these resolutions are to be adopted at all I should want to change the word \"active\" there to\n\"associate.\"\nDirector Scribner: They are institutional members according to the resolution.\nDirector Crabtree: I would like to ask whether I was mistaken on that point,\nas to whether the institutions were to be active members ?\nPresident Young: They were to be active members with an institutional badge,\nwhich would not give them voting rights.\nDirector Crabtree: Personally I would not approve of making institutions active\nmembers.\nDirector Springer: May I simply say that the final action will necessarily take\nplace at the time of the annual meeting? A formal notice will be given on Thursday\nnext for an amendment to the By-Laws, which under the By-Laws will have to lie over\nfor one year before action can be taken thereon.\nDirector Crabtree: Can you not then include that in the resolution, that they\nare to be held over for action ?\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n49\n\nDirector Joyijer: Mr. Springer and I discussed this very thoroly. These resolutions practically amount to a request that a By-Law be adopted in accordance with\nthe Constitution, which requires this to go over for a year.\nPresident Young: I understand the objection to Director Scribner's motion is\nwithdrawn. All in favor will signify it by saying, Aye. Opposed, No. The motion\nis carried.\nDirector Springer: I have a communication of which I wish to read two sentences;\nafter that, whether this communication ever sees any more light will depend upon your\naction. It reads:\nIn view of the widespread notoriety which the newspapers of the country have\ngiven the finances of the National Education Association and the uncertainty as to the\nexact situation which many members of the Association feel because of said newspaper\nreports, I have made a comparison and verification of the reports of the Secretaries\nand Treasurers of the Association and of the Board of Trustees since the year 1884.\nWhile this examination was made to satisfy my own curiosity, I am prompted to offer\nyou the information which I obtained from such an examination.\nPresident Young: Who prepared this ?\nDirector Springer: I did this work myself. I will say that I am a certified public\naccountant, and being such, and happening to be the Treasurer of the Association, I\ntook the time at odd moments since our last meeting a year ago to satisfy my curiosity\nas to the accounts of the Treasurers of the Association in former years. Whether you\npeople want to hear it or not depends upon your choice. I do not want it to appear\nat all, as one of the morning papers said, as an act of impertinence^ There has been\nno request that this paper be prepared.\nIt will take about six minutes.\nAt the request of several members, President Young invited Treasurer Springer\nto read the paper in full. Treasurer Springer read as follows:\nDetroit, Mich., June 26, 1911\nTo the Board of Directors, National Education Association:\nIn view of the widespread notoriety which the newspapers of the country have given\nthe finances of the National Education Association and the imcertainty as to the exact\nsituation which many members of the Association feel because of said newspaper reports,\nI have made a comparison and verification of the reports of the Secretaries and Treasurers\nof the Association and of the Board of Trustees since the year 1884. While this examination was made to satisfy my own curiosity, I am prompted to offer you the information\nwhich I obtained from such an examination. You will bear in mind that this was an examination and not an audit.\nVouchers were not sought, for reasons which will appear later.\nHISTORICAL\n\nThe first report of the Board of Trustees was made at Chicago, July 12, 1887, and was\nsigned by Mr. N. A. Calkins, as Chairman, and Messrs. Richards, Tarbell, and Eaton.\nThe report contains the following resolution which had been adopted by the Board:\n\" Resolved, That the Chairman of the Board of Trustees is hereby declared to be the\nexecutive officer of the Board, and he is duly empowered to act for and in behalf of said\nBoard in the transaction of its ordinary business, essential to be conducted during the intervals between the meetings of the Trustees.\"\nThe report declares that this was done to avoid delay in the payment of bills, and the\nrule was to stand until further action.\nThe report recites the further fact that the Permanent Fund consisted previous to\nthat time of $200, the proceeds from the sale of two life-directorships prior to 1884; $3,000,\nthe surplus from the 1884 meeting; $100 received from a life-directorship in 1885; $400\nreceived from four life-directorships in 1886; and $775, the surplus from the 1886 meeting;\nmaking the total amount of the Permanent Fund at that time $4,475, which had been\ninvested in interest-bearing securities, except the surplus from the last meeting. This\namount has been added to from time to time, untiinow the Permanent Fund has reached\nthe sum of $180,000, when the securities are listed at their cost or book value, or $182,000\nwhen listed at par value.\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nThe report for 1895 was the last one signed by Mr. Calkins as Chairman and it was\nthe first one signed by Mr. A. G. Lane as a member of the Board of Trustees.\n• The report for 1896 shows that Mr. Horace S. Tarbell was Chairman and the name\nof Mr. Nicholas Murray Butler first appears as a Trustee.\nThe report for 1897 was signed by Mr. A. G. Lane as Chairman.\nThe twentieth Annual Report, issued under date of December i, 1906, chronicles\nthe death of Mr. Lane and is signed by Mr. Butler, as Chairman. I quote from it this\ntribute to Mr. Lane:\n\"To him, more than anyone else, is due the credit of the present admirable condition\nof the Permanent Fund of the Association. His unbending integrity, his unselfishness,\nand his generous spirit of service remain an example and an inspiration not only to his\ncolleagues but to the entire membership of the Association, of which he was a distinguished\nornament.\"\nFINANCIAL REPORTS\nThe financial reports of the various officers tally, except for the year 1896, when there\nis a difference of $24.55 between the amounts of interest receipts as given by the Board\nof Trustees and the Treasurer.\nIn the report of 1897, however, there appear four correcting entries, with this footnote:\n\"The corrections in the above report were indicated by Charles C. Hoyt, Accountant,\nwho examined the books and vouchers kept by the Treasurers and by the late N. A.\nCalkins, who, as Chairman of the Board of Trustees, received and disbursed current funds of\nthe Association. Since the Denver meeting (in 1895) the current funds of the Association\nhave been handled by the Treasurer and the Permanent Funds by the Board of Trustees.\"\nThe report of the Board of Trustees for 1901 is the first in which appears a detailed\nstatement of income receipts.\nThe reports for 1908 contain adjusting entries due to the fact that the Board of Trustees decided to carry all securities at cost or book value rather than at par value, as had\nbeen done heretofore.\nSince 1898, the date on which all securities were acquired has been added to the Annual\nReports of the Board of Trustees.\nThe Emergency Fund, established in the early nineties, was the designated fund under\nwhich expenditures were made for educational investigations. The Board of Directors\nvoted the amoimts, which were expended under the direction of the Board of Trustees,\nbut incomplete reports were given as to how it was expended. Beginning with 1896,\nthese expenses are Usted in detail and the Emergency Fund dropped.\nIn the early years a complete separation was not made in the accounts between the\nexpenses of the Trustees and of the Custodians.\nSYSTEM\n\nOF AUDITS\n\nAND\n\nCARE\n\nOF\n\nSECURITIES\n\nEvery Treasurer's report, except that for 1897, bears a certificate to the effect that the\nbooks and vouchers had been examined and found correct. An audit was made by a public\naccountant in that year, but for some reason the certificate was not attached to the report\nin the printed volume of Proceedings. Before 1887, the examination was made by auditing committees and since that time by the Board of Trustees or by public auditors, and in\nmany years by both. Since 1903 the books of both Secretary and Treasurer have been\nannually audited by the International Audit Company of Chicago, the Board of Trustees\nhaving directed the same to be made.\nIn the second report of the Board of Trustees, dated June 30, 1888, it is declared that\nall securities belonging to the Permanent Fund are deposited in the Nassau Safe Deposit\nCompany of New York City. The policy of having a regular depository for the securities\nhas been followed. One year the safe deposit vault in Providence was used, for several\nyears the Merchant's Safety Deposit Vaults of Chicago were used, and since 1905 the First\nTrust and Savings Bank of Chicago has been the custodian of the funds. Each year since\n1906 a statement similar to the one on the present report of the Board of Trustees has been\ngiven by Mr. Louis Boisot, its Trust Officer.\nIn the third report of the Board of Trustees, made in 1889, they recommended that\nthe By-Laws of the Association be amended by adding the following:\n\"Sec.\n5. ^ It annually\nshall be the\nduty of theperson\nPresident,\nSecretary,\nTreasurer\nthe Association to appoint\na competent\nto examine\nthe and\nsecurities\nof theof Permanent\nFund held by the Board of Trustees; and his certificate showing the condition of the\nsaid fund shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees.\"\nThat amendment was carried and every Annual Report of the Board of Trustees since\nthat date, excepting 1896 when the report was examined by Messrs. Lane, Butler, and Wilson, bears a certificate of the examiners so appointed to the effect that the securities indi-\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n51\n\ncated by the reports were actually in the depository named. Whenever any securities\nwere in the process of settlement that fact was indicated in the statement of the examiners,\nwho have been men of sterling integrity in either the teaching or accounting profession.\nSOURCES\n\nOF\n\nPERMANENT\n\nFUND\n\nAn examination of the Secretary's reports, in connection with the financial reports,\nshows that the Permanent Fund has been entirely the result of favorable arrangements\nmade with the railroads under which the Association received an annual membership fee\nfrom a large number of tourists who were attracted by the advantageous rates secured.\nSince 1894, membership fees have been collected from 213,201 persons. During that\ntime, volumes of Proceedings to the number of 132,850 have been printed, of which 12,000\nare still on hand and 5,912 have been sold, leaving 114,938 volumes distributed to members.\nIt is safe to suppose that every teacher who became a member of the Association, either\nactive or associate, desired a copy of the Proceedings, and that those who did not fill out the\nblanks by which they could be secured were transient members. The above figures show\nthat since 1894, 98,263 persons paid membership fees who were not teachers. This produced an income of $196,526 while the additions to the Permanent Fund in that time have\nbeen but $140,000. The percentage of transients has run as high as 53 in a single year, and\nadditions to the Permanent Fund have never been made in any year when the percentage\nwas less than 30, except once.\nLOSS\n\nOF FUNDS\n\nThe report for 1894 contains the first reference to the troublesome investments in\nKansas. That report shows that interest coupons to the amount of $1 1 1 had not been paid\nduring the year. The default in the interest continued for several years, the largest\namount defaulted on in any year being in 1898, when interest was not paid on investments\nof $9,650. At the annual meeting in Washington for that year, as recorded on p. 31 of\nthe Proceedings, Superintendent A. G. Lane, of Illinois, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, spoke as follows:\n\"I was somewhat surprised at the close of the meeting in Milwaukee in 1897 to read\nin some of the public-school journals statements regarding the condition of the funds\nin the custody of the Board of Trustees. I made several full statements to the Board\nof Directors and a complete statement has been published in the printed Proceedings of\nthe last two years and will be printed in the Proceedings of this meeting, giving the fullest\npossible information to the members of this Association. Some question has been raised\nabout some of the funds, notably the deferred payments of interest and principal, but all\nthose were concerning investments made before any of the present members of the Board\nof Trustees had anything to do with the funds. They were investments made in good faith\nat the Topeka meeting of 1886 and the Chicago meeting of 1887. The Trustees are using\ndue diligence to collect these amounts. If there are any members of the Association who\ndesire information in regard to the condition of the funds of which I am custodian, as\nChairman of the Board of Trustees, I want to give it to them now on this floor.\"\nNo request for information offered by Chairman Lane was made.\nIn the report of the Board of Trustees for December i, 1906, the first following the\ndeath of Mr. Lane, a detailed statement of the condition of the fund was presented, which\nstatement had been prepared by Mr. Louis Boisot, Trust Officer of the First Trust and\nSavings Bank of Chicago. This report shows that all the Kansas securities had been disposed of by compromise or settlement, with a loss to the Association of $2,250 on the\nprincipal.\nThe interest loss to the Association is not shown in the report, but I have computed the\nsame to have been $4,794, entu-ely on school and municipal bonds of the state of Kansas.\nAt the time of the 1895 Denver meeting, funds were deposited in the Union National\nBank of that city, which went into the hands of a receiver, and in the settlement, the\nAssociation sustained a loss of $15 . 74.\nBy order of the Board of Directors, July, 1891, an investment of $1,000 was made for\nstock in the Henry Barnard Publishing Co. No further record concerning this investment appears in any of the books. The transactions did not pass thru the hands of the\nBoard of Trustees.\nINVESTMENT\n\nBeginning with the first investment of $3,000 in Providence, R.I., in the form of realestate mortgage, every investment has been traced, showing the source of the money from\nwhich each investment was made and the disposition of the proceeds secured from its\npayment.\n*\nIn the early reports of the Trustees, the investment made in Kansas bonds were\nlumped under one head, but in 1896 a detailed list of the Kansas bonds was given, which\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlist tallies with the totals up to that point, and by which it was possible to work backward\nand secure a complete record. All other securities or investments have been detailed from\nthe beginning.\nThe report for 1908 shows that the Association had taken title to the property at\n4672 Lake Avenue, Chicago, under proceedings for the foreclosure of a mortgage of $5,500.\nWhether this property will pay out for the investment, remains to be seen.\nThe present investments are listed in the annual report of the Board of Trustees for\nthis meeting.\nINCOME\n\nThe tracing of the income from the permanent investments was a more difficult\nproblem, owing to the fact that prior to 1901 a detailed statement of income receipts had\nnot been published with the reports; neither had the dates been given on which securities\nhad been acquired. By means of voucher numbers, a fairly accurate time could be estimated for determining the amounts of interest earned and comparing the same with the\ntotal interest receipts reported for the year. No income was lost except as noted in\nanother paragraph and aU income earned has been accounted for.\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nIf desired, this report can be supplemented by tables showing by years: First,\nauditors of Treasurers' Reports; second, examiners of securities held by the Board of\nTrustees; third, estimated interest earned; fourth, interest collected; fifth, additions to\nPermanent Fund; sixth, losses incurred; seventh, the history of every investment made.\nEvery dollar ever transferred to the Permanent Fund has been accounted for and is\nnow accounted for by the securities in the custody of the First Trust and Savings Bank\nof Chicago, as listed in the report of the Board of Trustees for 19 n, except as previously\nnoted.\nThe income from the investments has been accoimted for except as has been indicated.\nAU of which is respectfully submitted.\n(Signed) Durand W. Springer,\nCertified Public Accountant\nDirector Greenwood: Regarding the $1,000 voted to Mr. Henry Barnard. As I\nremember it now, Mr. Barnard, years before the action referred to, had published those\nremarkable educational volumes of his, entitled American Journal of Education. Years\nago he was at a meeting of the Association, and out of respect to him and to the great\nwork that he had done some forty or fifty years before in the publication of these volumes,\na thousand dollars were appropriated as a gratuity to Henry Barnard who was then more\nthan eighty-five years old. My impression is that the Association secured the plates, and\nthis, I think, will explain the thousand dollars appropriated as the Henry Barnard Publication Fimd.\nDirector Springer: I merely recited the facts, recited every fact concerning whicli\nthere could be any controversy.\nDirector Greenwood: I move that this report which Treasurer Springer has presented, bepublished with the tables in the mmutes of this meeting.\nPresident Young: I think that Mr Springer should have some compensation for\nhis time spent on the preparation of this report. You have heard the motion that the\nreport be printed in the Proceedings, All in favor of the motion will signify it by saying,\nAye.\n\nAll opposed, No. It is so ordered.'\nThe Secretary: There are two more communications: Horace H. Cummings, of\nUtah, who was appointed by the Department of Superintendence at the Chicago meeting,\nwith others, to attend the Centennial at the City of Mexico and the Educational Congresses at that time. Mr. Cummings understood, and was informed by the secretary of\nthe Department at that time, that there would be an appropriation for his expenses.\nHe wrote to me about it and I replied that there was no record of any authorization of\nexpenses of that kind. I have no record that the Department of Superintendence passed\nsuch a motion, and their motion would be of no effect until the Board of Directors of the\nNational Education Association had made the appropriation for expenses, and there was\nno record of such action there.\nHe simply brings in his bill and asks me to present it to\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nMINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n53\nthe Board of Directors at this time.\nI am simply presenting it according to his request,\nstating the facts in regard to it.\nAnother communication is from Mr. Charles I. Rice, of Massachusetts, who was\npresident of the Department of Music at the Boston convention. He referred to a committee of the Department of Music Education, appointed years ago. He has been\nreporting on certain matters concerning music.\nAnother similar application comes from a committee of the Department of Manual\nTraining and Art that has had under consideration the subject of admission to college\nas related to the subjects of Manual Training and Art. They have expended $27.05, for\nwhich they ask to be reimbursed, and they ask also thru the present president of this\nDepartment, Mr. C. B. Connelley, for an appropriation of $60 for further expenses.\nThere has not at any time been any authorization of expenses for this purpose. These\nexpenses have been incurred and these bills are submitted for your consideration.\nDirector Scribner: It is getting rather late. I move that those communications\nbe referred to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National\nCouncil, with instructions to report with recommendations to the new Board of Directors\nthat meets on Thursday afternoon.\nThe motion was formally seconded, presented, and carried.\nPresident Young: As there is no further business to come before this Board, we\nwill stand adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nElla Flagg Young, President\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nMEETING\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nFOR 1911-12\n\nThe meeting of the new Board of Directors was called to order in the Green Room\nof the St. Francis Hotel, San Francisco, at 4:30 p.m., July 13, 191 1, by President-elect\nCarroll G. Pearse, in accordance with Article IV, Section 4, of the By-Laws, requiring\nthat each new Board of Directors shall be organized at the session of its election.\nThe following members responded to the roll-call:\nCarroll G. Pearse, Wisconsin; Ella Flagg Young, Illinois; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; Katherine D. Blake, New York; James M. Greenwood, Missouri; James Y.\nJoyner, North CaroUna; Eliphalet O. Lyte, Pennsylvania; John H. Phillips, Alabama; A. J. Matthews, Arizona; Mark Keppel, CaHfornia; James B. Ragan, Colorado; Clem Hampton, Florida; Grace M. Shepherd, Idaho; WilUam H. Campbell,\nIlHnois; Thomas A. Mott, Indiana; O. P. Bostwick, Iowa; John MacDonald, Kansas;\nW. P. King, Kentucky; Thomas D. Boyd, Louisiana; Robert J. Aley, Maine;\nRobert J. Fuller, Massachusetts; E. E. Scribner, Michigan; S. L. Heeter, Minnesota;\nE. E Bass, Mississippi; John R. Kirk, Missouri; C. A. Duniway, Montana; G. W. A.\nLuckey, Nebraska; Mrs. L. C. Booth, Nevada; M. P. E. Groszmann, New Jersey;\nW. E. Garrison, New Mexico; F. M. Harper, North Carohna; E. M. Van Cleve, Ohio;\nWilliam F. Ramey, Oklahoma; L. R. Alderman, Oregon; Reed B. Tei trick, Pennsylvania;\nM. M. Ramer, South Dakota; J. J. Keyes, Tennessee; George H. Carpenter, Texas;\nC. E. Beach, Washington; Emma J. Gardner, Wisconsin; C. O. Merica, Wyoming;\nWillis T. Pope, Hawaii; G. N. Anderson, Philippine Islands.\nDirectors present, forty-three.\nPresident Pearse: The first item of business for this meeting is the election of\ntwo members of the Board of Trustees, one to succeed Trustee H. B. Brown, of Indiana,\nwhose term expires with this meeting, the other to fill the unexpired term for one year\nof the President-elect of the Association, who becomes ex officio member of the Board\nof Trustees for the term of his office.\nDirector Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana, nominated President Robert J. Aley, of the\nUniversity of Maine, as a member of the Board of Trustees for the period of four years\nto succeed H. B. Brown, of Indiana.\nAt this point several directors, including Director John MacDonald, of Kansas,\nand Directors James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, and Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin,\nwho had served with Trustee Brown on the Board of Trustees during the past four years,\nspoke in high commendation of the services -of Trustee Brown during the term of his\noffice, just closed.\nOn motion, duly seconded and carried, the Secretary was instructed to cast the\nunanimous ballot of the Board of Directors for Robert J. Aley as member of the Board\nof Trustees for four years. The Secretary reported the ballot cast as directed.\nDirector John H. Phillips, of Alabama, presented the name of James Y. Joyner, of\nNorth CaroUna, as member of the Board of Trustees for the unexpired term of one year\nto succeed Trustee Carroll G. Pearse, elected President.\nDirector R. B. Teitrick, of Pennsylvania, moved that the Secretary be directed to\ncast the unanimous ballot of the Board of Directors for the election of James Y. Joyner\nas member of the Board of Trustees for one year. The motion was duly seconded,\npresented, and carried, and the Secretary reported the ballot cast as directed.\nPresident Pearse: The next item of business is the election of a member of the\nExecutive Committee to succeed John H. PhilKps, of Alabama, whose term expires with\nthis meeting.\nDirector James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, presented the name of John H. Phillips\n54\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n55\n\nto succeed himself as member of the Executive Committee, and Director James Y. Joyner,\nof North Carolina, moved that the Secretary be instructed to cast the unanimous ballot\nof the board for Mr. Phillips to succeed himself.\nAt this point Katherine D. Blake, of New York, moved an amendment to the\npreceding motion, that the name of Mr. James Ferguson, of California, be substituted\nfor that of Mr, John H. Phillips. This motion was duly seconded.\nThe Chair ordered that a ballot be taken to determine the choice of the Board of\nDirectors between the two nominees for the office of member of the Executive Committee,\nand appointed as tellers Directors John MacDonald, of Kansas, and E. E. Bass, of Mississippi. The ballot was duly taken, resulting as follows: of 43 votes cast, John H.\nPhiUips, of Alabama, received 26; James Ferguson, of California, received 16; Jame\nY. Joyner, of North Carolina, received i. The President then declared John H. Phillips,\nof Alabama, elected as member of the Executive Committee for the period of one year.\nPresident Pearse : It is the duty of this board to elect ten members of the National\nCouncil to succeed the ten members whose terms of office expire at this meeting. I will\nappoint as a nominating committee for this purpose, Directors James M. Greenwood,\nof Missouri, Robert J. Aley, of Maine, and James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina, and suggest that they withdraw at this time and prepare their report for presentation later at\nthis meeting.\nAt this point a report from the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of\nthe National Council of Education was presented, recommending to the Board of Directors that the following amounts, or so much thereof as might be necessary, be appropriated for the following-named committees of investigation:\nCommittee on Uniform Records and Reports\n$500\nCommittee on Articulation of High School and College\n300\nCommittee on National Geometry Syllabus\n300\nCommittee on Cosmopolitan High School\n300\nCommittee on Conservation of Vision\n500\nCommittee on Rural Schools\n1,000\nCommittee on Economy of Time in Education\n300\nTotal amount recommended\n\n$3,200\n\nThe following additional requests for appropriations were referred back to the Board of\nDirectors without recommendations:\nThe expenses of Mr. Horace H. Cummings, of Salt Lake City, in visiting\nMexico as a delegate to the Mexican Centennial in 1910\n$100.00\nExpenses of the Committee of the Department of Music Education on\nMusical Terminology\n25 .00\nAppropriation for a committee of investigation to be created, on grammatical nomenclature\n250 . 00\nExpenses for a committee of the Department of Manual Training and Art\nEducation, as follows:\nFor expenses already incurred\n27 .05\nFor expenses for the coming year\n60 . 00\nA communication from Mr. James A. Barr, president of the Department of Rural\nand Agricultural Education, for an appropriation of $250 for a committee of investigation was reported by the Committee of the Council as held over for later consideration.\nDirector E. E. Scribner, of Michigan, moved that the recommendations of the report\nof the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council, recommending appropriations to the amount of $3,200 for specific committees of investigation,\nbe received and adopted as read. This motion was duly seconded, presented, and carried\nby unanimous vote.\nAt this point the Secretary presented to the Board of Directors the following resolution, which had been passed at the meeting of active members held at noon of the same\nday, as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nResolved, That the President of the National Education Association be authorized\nto appoint a committee consisting of seven active members, to consider and report to the\nAssociation its findings and recommendations concerning the salaries, tenure, and pensions of teachers; the committee to take into consideration, among other things, increased\ncost of living, the increased professional demands upon the time, strength, and funds of\nteachers, and whether the increase in teachers' wages has kept pace with the increase in\nthe wages of other workers, the increase in the cost of living, and the increased demand\nfor teachers; and\nResolved, That the Board of Directors of this Association be and hereby is instructed\nto set aside an appropriation from the current funds of the Association the sum of $3,000,\nthe same to be used, or as much thereof as may be necessary, for the purposes of the investigation and to enable the committee to report as directed herein.\nDirector John R. Kirk, of Missouri, moved that the sum of $1,000 be set aside for\nexpenses of the proposed committee each year for each of the three following years, to\napply on the investigation proposed. This motion was seconded by Director John\nMacDonald, of Kansas.\nAfter discussion. Director James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina, offered as a substitute motion that the $3,000 recommended by the active members be appropriated at\nthe present time, to be used as needed. The original motion by Director Kirk was then\nwithdrawn, and the substitute motion, being duly seconded and presented, was passed\nwithout dissent.\nOn motion of Director John H. Phillips, the bill of expenses of Mr. Horace\nH. Cummings was, after discussion and explanation, authorized.\nOn motion of Director L. R. Alderman, of Oregon, it was ordered that the request of\nthe Committee on Musical Terminology of the Department of Music Education be not\ngranted at the present time, but that it be re-referred to the Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations of the National Council for further consideration and for report at\nthe next meeting of the Board of Directors.\nOn motion of Director E. E. Scribner, of Michigan, it was ordered that the application for. an appropriation of $250 for the expenses of the Committee on Grammatical\nNomenclature be referred back to the Committee of the National Council on Investigations and Appropriations for investigation and a report at the next meeting of the\nAssociation.\nOn motion of Director Ella Flagg Young, of Illinois, it was ordered that the President\nof the Association appoint a committee of five members of the Association on the subject\nof grammatical nomenclature, to act in conjunction with similar committees from the\nAmerican Philological Society and the Society for the Teaching of Foreign Languages.\nOn motion of Director E. E. Scribner, of Michigan, the request of the Department\nof Manual Training and Art Education for an appropriation for expenses already incurred\nof $27.05 and for expenses to be incurred, was referred back to the Committee of the\nNational Council on Investigations and Appropriations for further consideration.\nOn motion of Director Groszmann, of New Jersey, it was ordered that the application\nof Mr. James A. Barr, president of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education,\nbe referred to the committee which will have the responsibility of the expenditure of\n$1,000 as expenses for investigation of rural and agricultural subjects.\nAt this point the report of the Committee on Nomination of Members to the National\nCoimcil was presented, as follows:\n1917.\n\nWilliam H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky., to succeed himself— term to expire in\n\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass., to succeed himself— term to expire in 191 7.\nWilliam B. Owen, Chicago, III., to succeed- 1. C. McNeill, Harrisburg, Pa.— term\nto expire in 19 17.\nEliphalet O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa., to succeed himself — term to expire in 191 7.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., to succeed himself— term to expire in\n1917.\n\nMrs. Estelle Reel Meyer, Toppenish, Wash., to succeed herself — term to expire\n\nn 1917.\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF NEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n57\n\nA. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz., to succeed himself — term to expire in 19 1 7Julius I. Foust, Greensboro, N.C., to succeed himself — term to expire in 1917.\nW. T. Carrington, Springfield, Mo., to succeed himself — term to expire in 191 7.\nWilliam P. Burris, Cincinnati, Ohio, to succeed himself — term to expire in 19 17.\nThis report was, on motion, accepted and adopted as presented.\nPresident Pearse: The next item in the order of business is the consideration\nof invitations for places of meeting of the convention in 191 2.\nInvitations were then presented as follows: From the city of St. Paul, Minn., by\nS. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools of St. Paul; from the city of Chicago by Very\nRev. Walter T. Sumner, of the Western Theological Seminary, Chicago; from the city\nof Nashville, Tenn., by Director J. J. Keyes, of Nashville. These invitations were\npresented in brief speeches setting forth the advantages of each city as a meeting-place\nfor the next convention. After the presentations had been completed, Director James\nM. Greenwood moved that an informal ballot be taken, which ballot was duly ordered\nand resulted as follows: of 41 votes cast, the city of St. Paul received 31, and the city of\nChicago received 10. On armouncement of this informal ballot. Director Greenwood\nmoved that the expression of preference indicated by the ballot be referred to the Executive Committee of the Association with power to act. This motion was duly seconded\nand carried.\nA communication was received from the Department of Child Study requesting\nthat the name of the department be changed to the Department of Child Hygiene. The\ncommunication was numerously signed by prominent members of the department. After\ndiscussion a motion prevailed authorizing the change of the name as requested in the\ncommunication.\nPresident Winfield S. McKinney, of the Department of Business Education, presented the following resolution, which had been adopted on the previous day by the\nDepartment of Business Education, with an explanation that the Department desired\nthis resolution to be placed in the hands of the Board of Directors with a view to having\nthe matter considered later by the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of\nthe National Council; they were further explained by Sherwin Cody, Secretary of the\nDepartment of Business Education.\nWhereas, The rapid development of commercial education thruout the United States\nand the world gives rise to many important problems as to the relation of the private\nbusiness college to the commercial high school, the courses of study best suited to a broad\ncommercial education, and the ways in which the highest success can be obtained in each\nindividual branch of commercial teaching; and\nWhereas, In the United States there is no governmental central authority to direct\nthe course of education, especially commercial education, and this central work must\nnecessarily devolve upon some national voluntary association such as the National\nEducation Association, which means (as far as commercial education is concerned) the\nDepartment of Business Education of this Association; and\nWhereas, We believe that this Department should enlist the interest of all commercial teachers thruout the United States, and the money they contribute as membership dues should largely be devoted to gathering and printing in authoritative form the\nbest information as to courses and methods; therefore be it\nResolved, That the acting president shall appoint a committee of seven, which shall\nconsist of the president, vice-president, and secretary, to be elected for the ensuing year,\nand four others appointed by the president, and with these shall be associated a committee containing a representative of each state in the Union, this Associate Committee\nto be chosen by the preceding Committee of Seven.\nIt is further\nResolved, That this committee shall be considered permanent until its existence is\nabolished by vote at the regular annual meeting of the Department of Business Education\nof the National Education Association, tho its membersnip may be supplemented or\nchanged at each annual meeting, as may seem best to the Departmbnt, and vacancies may\nbe filled during the year by the president of the Department.\nThis committee is instructed:\nI. To invite every commercial educator thruout the country to become a regular,\npermanent member of this Department;\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n2. To ask the Board of Directors or body of active members of the National Education Association to appropriate a certain sum for investigation, and permit the addition\nto this sum of all fees received in answer to the solicitation for new members;\n3. To collect information as to the courses of study now being pursued in representative schools, both pubUc and private, together with a clear statement of the reasons\nwhich determined each course;\n4. To ascertain in what schools the highest success is being obtained in the teaching\nof each individual commercial subject, and to obtain from the teacher or director a clear\nstatement of the reasons and methods thru which this success has been obtained; and\n5. To report on the importance of having a special director for public-school commercial work, and if this director should be a teacher, or a business expert, or a teacher and\na business expert consulting together, or if it is advisable to have the assistance at all\nof a business expert not experienced in teaching;\nOr to carry out such part of this work as the committee finds itself able to accomplish,\ntaking into consideration both the time of its members and the money that shall be at its\ndisposal.\nDirector George H. Carpenter, of Brownwood, Texas, at this point tendered his\nresignation as a member of the Board, requesting that Felix E. Smith, superintendent\nof schools, San Angelo, Texas, be elected director to succeed him. On motion, the resignation of Director Carpenter was accepted and Felix E. Smith was elected as director\nfor the state of Texas.\nThere being no further business, on motion of Director MacDonald, of Kansas,\nthe meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\nApproved,\nCarroll G. Pearse, President\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF\nTRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nASSOCIATION AT THE FORTY-NINTH ANNUAL\nCONVENTION IN SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nSt. Francis Hotel\nSan Francisco, July 8, 191 1\nPursuant to call, Trustees Young and Pearse met at the desk of the Secretary of the\nNational Education Association, St. Francis Hotel parlor, floor M, at 12 o'clock noon,\nJuly 8, 191 1. They were informed by Secretary Shepard that he had arranged for the\nTrustees to use the \"Green Room,\" floor M, for their meeting, and they repaired to that\nroom. They waited until 12:30, when inquiry from Secretary Shepard at his desk\ndeveloped the fact that no other trustee had appeared to attend the meeting.\nFewer than a quorum being in attendance, the Trustees present adjourned to meet at\nthe desk of the Secretary of the National Education Association as herein, at 9:30 a.m.,\non Friday, July 14, 191 1.\nC. G. Pearse, Secretary pro tempore\nSan Francisco, July 14, 1911\nPursuant to the above order, the Board met at the time and hour indicated. The\nBoard immediately adjourned to meet at 10:45 p-M-> July 14, iQ\"J. M. Greenwood, Secretary\nSt. Francis Hotel\nSan Francisco, July 14, 1911\nThe Board of Trustees of the National Education Association met at 10:45 p.m.,\nJuly 14, 191 1. Present, Trustees Pearse, Greenwood, Joyner, Brown, and Aley.\nThe first matter of business was the organization of the Board. Upon motion of\nTrustee Pearse, James M. Greenwood of Kansas City, Mo., was unanimously elected\nchairman for the current year. Upon motion of Trustee Brown, J. Y. Joyner of Raleigh,\nN.C., was unanimously elected vice-chairman for the current year. Upon motion of\nTrustee Joyner, Robert J. Aley of Orono, Me., was unanimously elected secretary for the\ncurrent year.\nThe following resolution was presented by Trustee Jo)nier:\nWhereas, Some doubt exists as to the legality of the action taken at the called\nmeeting of the Trustees held in New York City on January 23, 191 1,\nResolved, (i) That all actions taken at said meeting be and the same are hereby rescinded\nand repealed.\n(2) That the action of the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, in employing his son, Elmer I.\nShepard, as assistant secretary, without cost to the National Education Association, be\nand the same is hereby approved.\n(3) That the investment of the surplus of the current funds of the Association by\nthe Trustees during the year ending June 30, 191 1, to become a part of the permanent\nfund be and the same is hereby approved.\nUpon vote this resolution was unanimously adopted. It was voted unanimously that\nhereafter the minutes of all meetings of the Board 81 Trustees be printed in the Annual\nProceedings of the National Education Association.\nThe following resolution was unanimously adopted :\n59 .\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nResolved, That all papers and records belonging to the Board of Trustees of the\nNational Education Association, be transferred to the Secretary and by him kept in\ncustody.\nThat Chairman Greenwood be instructed to inform ex-Chairman Nicholas Murray\nButler of this action.\nThere being no further business to come before the Trustees, the meeting adjourned\nat ii:oo P.M.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\nAttest:\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE\n\nFORTY-NINTH\n\nNATIONAL\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETING\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\nSAN FRANCISCO,\n\nOF\n\nCAL., JULY 8-14, 1911\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSUNDAY\n\nIn accordance with a long-established custom of the Association, Sunday, July 9,\nwas observed as Educational Sunday by a number of the churches in San Francisco.\nThe pastors of these churches held special services with sermons and addresses on educational topics, as given following. All services were in the morning unless otherwise\nindicated.\n\"Honey and Enlightenment: A Study of Happiness as a Social Asset\" (morning) —\n\"The Earth and The Woman: In the First Century and the Twentieth\" (evening) —\nRev. Charles S. Aked, First Congregational Church.\n\"The Purpose of an Education\" (morning) — \"Religious Doubt, Its Cause and Cure \"\n(evening) — Rev. Hugh K. Hamilton, California Street M.E. Church.\n\"The Great Teacher\" (morning) — \"How Knoweth This Man Letters\" (evening) —\nRev. W. H. Bagley, West Side Christian Church.\n\"Real Education Leads Godward\" (morning) — \"The Incomparable Teacher\"\n(evening) — Rev. Louis J. Sawyer, Hamilton Square Baptist Church.\n\"The Teacher and Society\" — Rabbi Martin A. Meyer, Temple Emanuel. Services on Saturday, July 8.\n\"Ethical Ideals in Modern Educational Theories\" — Rev. Bernard Kaplan, Congregation Beth Israel.\nServices on Saturday, July 8.\n\"Religion and Education\" — Rev. Charles Lathrop, Church of Advent, Episcopal.\n\"The Teacher's Calling\" (morning) — \"Education for Character \"(evening) — Rev.\nGeorge E. Burlingame, First Baptist Church.\n\"The Bible Supreme as an Educational Force\" (evening) — Rev. George W. Rine,\nSeventh Day Adventist Church.\n\"Education a Factor in National Life\" — Rev. J. Fuendeling, St. Markus Kirche.\n\"The Place and Scope of Education in Religious Life\" (Swedish language used) —\nRev. Alfred E. Lindberg, First Swedish Baptist Church.\n\"Our Master's Model Mind\" — Rev. James McElhinnery, Holly Park Presbyterian\nChurch.\n\"The Place of Knowledge in the Christian System\" — Rev. Robert Irwin, University Mound Presbyterian Church.\n\"Public School: Its Influence on the Republic\" — R|v. Dr. M. S. Levy, Geary Street\nTemple.\nServices on Saturday, July 8.\n\"The Rehgious Elements in Education\" — Rev. William P. Suluvan, St. Mary's\nCathedral, Catholic.\n61\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n\"The Ideal Woman \"—Swami Trigunatita, Hindu Temple, 2963 Webster Street.\n\"Religion and Public Education \"—Rev. E. R. Dille, Central Methodist Episcopal\nChurch.\n\"Present-Day Tendencies in Education \"—Rev. R. Logan, Lebanon Presbyterian\nChurch.\n\n\"Religious Education in the Public Schools \"—Rev. C. S. Tanner, Richmond Presbyterian Church, 31st Avenue and Clement Street.\n\"ReUgion Cannot Be Taught But Must Be Cherished\" (morning)— \" Education\nWithout Religion Dangerous\" (evening)— Rev. W. K. Guthrie, First Presbyterian ,\nChurch.\n\"Personal Education \"—Rev. F. M. Larkin, Ph.D., of Los Angeles, Grace M.E.\nChurch, 2ist and Capp Streets.\n\"What Are We to Do with the Bible?\" (morning)— \" Marriage and Divorce\"\n(evening) — Rev. John Jackson, Hamilton Methodist Church.\n\"The Law of Health and Happiness \"—Christian Science Reformed Church.\n\"The Divine Glory of the Commonplace\" (morning) — \"Education and Revelation\"\n(evening) — Alfred Brown Penniman, preacher; Rev. Robert Wells Rogers, pastor.\n\"The Bible and the Public Schools\" (evening)— Rev. R. M. Davis, Westminster\nPresbyterian Church.\n\"A Proper Education Is one Equally Developed, Physically, Morally, and Spiritually \"\n(morning)— \"The Worth of the Man\" (vesper service, 5 o'clock)— Rev. Dr. Fletcher\nCook (Very Rev. Walter J. Gresham, Dean).\n\"Peace\" — President David Starr Jordan, First Congregational Church, Oakland.\nVisiting teachers were invited to Trinity Episcopal Church by Rev. T. W. Clampett.\nVery Rev. W. T. Sumner, dean of the Cathedral in Chicago, preached in the morning.\nCalvary Presbyterian Church — Rev. William Rader, pastor. Dr. E. C. Ray, of\nPasadena, preached.\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nOpening Session — Monday\n\nAfternoon, July id, 3:30 o'clock\n\nThe Forty-ninth Annual Convention of the National Education Association was\nopened in the Greek Theatre at Berkeley, Cal,, at 3:30 p.m. on July 10. William B.\nPringle, chairman of the California organization for the San Francisco convention of\nthe National Education Association, presided at the opening of this session.\nThe music at this session and all other general sessions was furnished by WilUams'\nConcert Band, under the direction of Mr. Ernest G. Williams. A musical program\npreceded the session, beginning at 2 130 o'clock.\nRev. WilUam Kirk Guthrie of the First Presbyterian Church, San Francisco, led the\naudience in an opening prayer.\nChairman Pringle then introduced the following, who dehvered addresses of welcome:\nHon. Hiram W. Johnson, governor of California; Hon. P. H. McCarthy, mayor of the\ncity and county of San Francisco; President Benjamin Ide Wheeler of the University\nof California; and R. B. Hale, Esq., director of the Panama-Pacific International\nExposition Company.\nFollowing the addresses of welcome Chairman Pringle introduced to the audience\nDr. Josiah Little Pickard, of Cupertino, Cal., who was president of the National Education Association for the year 1871 and was superintendent of schools in Chicago at the\ntime that President Ella Flagg Young began service as a teacher in that city. Chairman\nPringle transferred to Dr. Pickard the privilege of introducing to the audience the President of the National Education Association, Dr. Ella Flagg Young, of Chicago, III.\nThe remarks of Mr. Pickard and the response of President Young will be found in\nthe text of the welcoming speeches and responses.\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nPresident Young then introduced Robert J. Aley, president of the University of\nMaine, to respond to the address of welcome in behalf of the members of the National\nEducation Association.\nAt this point President Young announced the Committee on Resolutions appointed\nto present a Declaration of Principles and other resolutions to the meeting of active\nmembers on Thursday noon, July 13. The members of the committee are as follows:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nCarroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin, Chairman\nJames B. Aswell, of Louisiana\nMrs. O. Shepard Barnum, of California\nJames W. Crabtree, of Nebraska\nMaximiUan P. E. Groszmann. of New Jersey\nJohn H. Phillips, of Alabama\nGertrude E. English, of Illinois\nFollowing this announcement an address was given by President David Starr Jordan\nof Leland Stanford Junior University, on the subject \"Temperance and Society.\"\nThe last speaker of the session was Mrs. Helen Marsh Wixson, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Denver, Colo., who delivered an address on \"The Cause of\nEducation.\"\nBy previous arrangement and announcement the sessions of the active members by\nstates for the election of members of the nominating committee were held immediately\nafter the close of the exercises in the Greek Theatre at designated sections of the theatre.\nThe convention adjourned to Tuesday evening, July 11.\nSECOND\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSecond Session — ^Tuesday Evening, July ii, 8 o'clock\nThe convention was called to order in Pavilion Rink in the city of San Francisco\nby President Young at 8:00 p.m.\nMusic by the Williams Concert Band under the direction of Mr. Ernest G. Williams.\nRev. E. B, Dille, Central Methodist Episcopal Church, San Francisco, opened the\nexercises with prayer.\nThe annual presidential address was delivered by Ella Flagg Young, superintendent\nof schools, Chicago, 111., on the subject, \"Hypothesis in Education.\"\nThis was followed by \"An Appreciation\" by Alfred Roncovieri, superintendent of\nschools, San Francisco.\nAfter music by Williams' Concert Band, James H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., gave an address on \"Reorganization of American\nEducation.\"\nThe convention was then adjourned to Wednesday evening, July 12.\nTHIRD\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nTfflRD session — Wednesday\n\nEvening, July 12, 8 o'clock\n\nThe convention assembled at 8 o'clock p.m. and was called to order by President\nYoung.\nMusic by WilUams' Concert Band.\nThe invocation was given by Rev. Charles M. Lathrop, Church of Advent, San\nFrancisco.\nPresident Young then annoimced the following Committee on Nominations:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nJohn H. Phillips\nC. F. PmLBROOK\nErnest Berry\nHugh J. Baldwin\nAnna L. Force\nL. Angie Stanton\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nJames Y. Joyner, of North Carolina, Chairman\nAlabama\n(No appointment)\nDelaware\nArizona\nHarlan Updegraff\nDist. of Col.\nArkansas\nClem Hampton\nFlorida\nCalifornia (No appointment)\nGeorgia\nColorado\nGrace M. Shepherd . . . .Idaho\nConnecticut William B. Owen\nIllinois\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCharles H. Dodson . . . .Indiana\n(No appointment)\nNorth Dakota\nB. J. HoRCHEM\nIowa\nJohn W. Zeller\nOhio\nE. T. Fairchild\nKansas\nW. A. Brandenburg\nOklahoma\nW. P. King\nKentucky\nE. D. Ressler\nOregon\nT. H. Harris\nLouisiana\nSamuel Andrews\nPennsylvania\nJ. L. McConaughey . . . .Maine\nHelen C. Putnam\nRhode Island\nM. Bates Stephens .... Maryland\nAlice M. Moudy\nSouth Carolina\nSchuyler Herron\nMassachusetts C. G. Lawrence\nSouth Dakota\nL. L. Wright\nMichigan\nW. C. Anderson\nTennessee\nJ. C. Bryant\nMinnesota\nGeorge H. Carpenter. .Texas\nE. L. Bailey\nMississippi D. H. Christensen\nUtah\nF. D. Tharpe\nMissouri\nCarrie White\nVermont\nJ. H. Underwood\nMontana\nL. A. Robinson\nVirginia\nJames W. Crabtree . . . .Nebraska\nHenry B. Dewey\nWashington\nB. D. BiLLiNGHURST\nNevada\nRobert A. Armstrong . .West Virginia\nPerley E. Graff am\nNew Hampshire\nEmma Gardner\nWisconsin\nM. P. E. Groszmann.. . .New Jersey Ira B. Fee\nWyoming\nRupert F. Asplund\nNew Mexico\nIsaac M. Cox\nHawaii\nGeorge M. Forbes\nNew York\nG. N. Anderson\nPhil. Islands\nJames Y. Joyner\nNorth Carolina\nThe first address of this session was \"The Opportunity of the Teacher,\" by Mrs.\nEmmons Blaine, Chicago, 111.\nThis was followed by \"The Development of Personahty Thru Education,\" by\nMargaret E. SchaUenberger, principal of the Training Department, State Normal School,\nSan Jose, Cal.\nAfter music by Williams' Concert Band, Joseph Scott, president of the Board oi\nEducation of Los Angeles, Cal, gave an address on \"The Compensation of the Teacher.\"\nThe program ended with an address by Charles Zueblin, of Boston, Mass., on \"The\nLife of the Teacher.\"\nThe convention then adjourned to Thursday evening, July 13.\nFOURTH\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nFourth Session— Thursday Evening, July 13, 8 o'clock\nThe convention was called to order at 8 o'clock p.m. by President Young. Music\nby Williams' Concert Band.\nThe meeting was opened with an invocation by Rev. George E. Burlingame, First\nBaptist Church, San Francisco.\nThe first paper was by Samuel Avery, chancellor of the University of Nebraska,\nLincoln, Nebr., and was entitled, \" Can We Shorten the Term of Years Without Decreasing the Efficiency of Education in American Schools ?\"\nThis was followed by music by Williams' Concert Band, after which the second\naddress was presented. This was \"Present Problems in English Education,\" by Kate\nStevens, North Islington Central School, ToUington Park, London, England.\nThe session adjourned to Friday evening, July 14.\nFIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nFifth Session— Friday Evening, July 14, 8 o'clock\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 8 o'clock p.m. by President Young. Music by\nWilliams' Concert Band.\nThe invocation was given by Rev. Charles A. Ram, secretary to his Grace, the\nArchbishop Riordan, San Francisco.\nKatherine D. Blake, principal of Public School No. 6, New York, N.Y., read a\npaper on \"Peace in the School,\"\n\"Progress in Public Education\" was the title of an address by Francis G. Blair,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nThis was followed by musi? by Williams' Concert Band.\nPresident Young then introduced the president-elect, Carroll G. Pearse of Milwaukee,\nWis., who replied to the introduction as follows:\nThe call of opportunity is the call of duty. The burden is laid upon us, who for\nthe time are placed in official position, to make this Association, so far as in us lies,\nworthy of its past and of its possibilities; to make its influence felt to the betterment\nof every department and line of endeavor in the schools of America.\nAny president of the National Education Association needs the counsel and cooperation ofevery one of its members; in a multitude of counselors there is wisdom. In the\ndischarge of my duties for the year I desire and shall ask the suggestions and help of\nthe leading educational people of the nation, those whose duties lie without, as well as\nthose who labor within schoolroom walls; of every operative teacher in whatever department of school work employed; of citizens, the fathers and mothers of the young people\nwho fill our schools. United, we can do much.\nI appreciate the honor the members of this association have conferred upon me.\nNothing I can do to advance the interests of the Association shall be left undone.\nPermit me, Madam President, to return to you this symbol of your authority, in\norder that you may close in fitting manner the meetings of this Convention, which you\nhave so efliectively organized, and over which you have so well presided.\nPresident Young then declared the Forty-Ninth Annual Convention of the National\nEducation Association adjourned sine die.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nSESSIONS\nADDRESSES\n\nI.\n\nHIRAM\n\nW.\n\nJOHNSON,\n\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF THE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF CALIFORNIA\n\nMembers of the National Education Association:\nMingled with our love of the state of California and our pride in its\ngrandeur is the desire to share its beauties and advantages. We welcome\nall who come, not only those who come as the representatives of a certain\nprofession but all those whose influence tends to uplift our standard of\ncitizenship. Therefore we extend to you hearty and heartfelt greetings.\nYou are of two classes. The first class is made up of those who follow\nyour calling simply because it is a calling, and the second is made up of\nthose who have entered it with the zeal of the crusader and are working\nfor all that makes for progress intellectually, and that means progress,\nsocially and politically.\nIt is in the payment of the debt we owe you that we extend our welcome to you who come here, and we hope that your stay may be prolonged. May we always look to you for aid and consolation along the\nlines in which you have been a help to us. California welcomes you; may\nyou remain long with us and when you depart come yet again.\nII.\n\np. H. MCCARTHY,\n\nMAYOR\n\nOF THE CITY AND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nOF SAN FRANCISCO\n\nLadies and Gentlemen:\nThe length and breadth of California greets you today. Under these\nsunny skies, surrounded by the famed and historic hills of Berkeley, the\neducational center of which we are so proud, it is my pleasant privilege\nas the mayor of San Francisco to welcome you in behalf of that great\nmetropolis just across the water, and, figuratively, to place in your hands\nthe golden key which unlocks the gates of our city, our most coveted\ntreasures, and our hearts. Thrice welcome to the members of the National\nEducation Association.\nThere is one great theme and problem in which we find all elements\nof citizenship and society interested, and that is the great subject of education. Itis conceded that the march of education is the march of civiliza7\ntion, and those of us who delight in the 6lessons\nof our world's history well\nunderstand the fact that education has carried the world upward and\nforward, conquering the savagery that aros^from universal ignorance, and\nbringing peace, comfort, and happiness to a world that was once devoid\nof such blessings. Even as Christianity has forged ahead in its everlasting\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\ncrusade for right, truth, and justice, making the world better and cleaner\nwherever its teachings have penetrated, so has the cause of education,\npubHc and private, elevated nations, enlightened the masses and classes,\nand bestowed peace and glory where turmoil and suffering once prevailed.\nIt is true that the romance of far California, with her gold-ribbed\nmountains, her fruit-laden valleys, and her splendid forests and magnificent\nwaterways, has attracted you all, in a physical sense, to this section. But\nit is also true that you come here on a mission which in its supreme importance would take you to Cuba, Alaska, the Sandwich Islands, or elsewhere,\neven as it has brought you to the Pacific Coast. For wherever the American\nflag waves today the blessings of a systematic education are to be found\nin a greater or less degree, and by that sign we know that we shall survive\nas a nation that cannot perish from the earth.\nFor ny part, as one who springs from the ranks of the toiler and who,\nas a member of the generation just going ahead, was not so fortunate as\nto enjoy the advantages of a public education now provided for our rising\ngeneration, I am deeply interested in the great cause of a technical and\npractical education which shall parallel the splendid system of learning\nyou now have in vogue. I am a firm believer, and I reflect the sentiment\nof my people, in the value and wisdom of the education furnished a certain\npercentage of our children in our polytechnic schools today. Realizing\nthe merit and efficiency of your average course of study as laid down for\nthe primary, grammar, and high schools today, replete as they are with\ntheir special subjects, I nevertheless believe our future as a nation would\nbe further and better assured had we more of the technical education\nthat is today applied in our schools where manual training and the useful\narts and crafts are taught, and where young men and women combine\nwith the common book learning the advantage of learning a trade or\ncalling, assuring them independence and a means of livelihood and support.\nThe toiling masses fully appreciate what you have done for them, and\nthey respectfully ask that you consider a further indulgence of that practical\nbranch of education which equips yoimg men and women to make their\nown way in the world, and which advances the cause of science and the\npractical arts and crafts.\nAs we are uplifted and sustained by the improvements in our methods\nand means of administering a proper public and private education, we\nnaturally come close together with a better understanding of our needs\nand wants and more emphatic sympathy for each other as well. All of\nthis tends to strengthen the nation and make her people the more invincible. Education teaches peace and progress, and under such circumstances we have no time for strife and unhappiness. The great and mighty\nelement that controls wealth and money power is as susceptible to the\nbenefits of your propaganda for education as the man, who thru his\ntoil and grim endeavors, creates with his hand the productive conditions\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n69\n\nof industrialism and makes wealth possible. The toiler depends upon\neducation for progress and development, and so does every other class\nif, indeed, that class hopes to survive.*\nA nation without battleships, but with an enlightened people, is well\nfortified and need entertain no fear, for the blessings and advantages that\naccrue from a great common education easily take care of such minor\nconsiderations as a means of physical defense. Give us our institutions\nfor practical learning, as we are inevitably welded together, the masters\nof science, philosophy, and the art of government, and we are strong\nbeyond all comprehension.\nAgain I extend to you San Francisco's heartiest welcome. Come\nwithin our gates and there abide. We appreciate your presence and will\nmake it our successful endeavor to demonstrate that fact to you while\nyou are among us.\nI thank you.\nIII.\n\nBENJAMIN\n\nIDE\n\nWHEELER,\n\nPRESIDENT,\nUNIVERSITY\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\nThe American public school confronts today an utterly different task\nfrom that implied in the purposes which first gave it birth. It was called\ninto being to serve the uses of a reasonably homogeneous people — homogeneous inlanguage and traditions — ^under a strong predominance of AngloSaxon blood and spirit. The sources of Anglo-Saxon immigration have\nlong since been choked and the Anglo-Saxon stock in the new world becomes\nless and less productive with the years. It is a dying and vanishing race.\nWithin the last decade the scale has abruptly tipped, in the count of population, from the old inhabitant to the newcomer. In our chief American\ncity scarcely one in ten is old American, and even in old New Haven but\none child in five in the public schools is of native parentage. In Boston\nthe balance has already shifted from the Puritan to the newcomer. The\nold United States as it existed before the Civil War is hurrying off the\nscene, and a new people mixed of many European bloods, most of which had\nlittle or no share in the original occupation, is coming to possess the land,\nand give inevitably a new meaning to the name American — a new meaning\ninevitably, so far as it refers to blood and bone and even to type and temperament, but what of ideas and ideals? Can or cannot the precious\nheritage of social liberty and equal opportunity which long struggle and\nsacrifice have associated with the word Americanism be safely transferred\nalong with the name from the old possessors to the new? The time is\nshort, the inheritors are legion, the possession vanishes from the hand of\nhim who understandeth not, like a tender perfume from the unsealed jar.\nWhether the transfer can be made, that is the new problem which confronts us as a people; and the solution 01 this problem constitutes the\nnew task which the unf oldings of these later years have revealed and assigned\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto the\n70 American public school. The splendid institutions of enlightenment\n— schools, libraries, museums, institutes of art and instruction, which the\nsons of the Boston Puritans created for themselves and their children, have\nalready been assigned — by a power that knew better why they builded\nthan they themselves knew — to the task of assimilating into the American\ncommunity the children of those whom Europe neglected and oppressed.\nSuch too may well be the destiny of that whole system of institutions\nshaped to the betterment of society with which the old Americans as\nforerunners endowed this land. They may be a vanishing race, but if\nan estate which they, beyond the ordinary measure of men, were potent\nto create shall have served for the betterment of mankind in the hands\neven of heirs by adoption, they will have done their work and justified\ntheir existence. This is no new thing in the ways of the world and the\nfates of the races of man. The Myceneans inspired in the later-coming\nGreeks the zeal for building and art, and the Etruscans laid foundations\nupon which the Latins learned to build the Eternal City by which in the\nprocess of the years wave after wave of invading barbarism has been\nabsorbed into civilization.\nThe most potent instrument by which the school operates to mold the\ndiverse elements of population into a people capable of nationality is the\nmaintenance of a common standard of speech. Difference of race loses,\nin the presence of unity of speech, its divisive power. Nationality all over\nthe world tends more and more to shape itself on social intercourse as\ndetermined by language. The power to make oral use of the English\ntongue simply, directly, exactly, is a fundamental equipment for good\ncitizenship and effective living. The establishment of this use thruout the\nnation is a fundamental guaranty of that uniformity of intercourse among\nits citizens which provides a basis for the permanent commonwealth. It\nis the plain and correct use of language that we ask the schools to teach\nand not to neglect it in the pursuit of the artificiaUties of rhetoric and\nthe aesthetics of literature.\nAmerican does not mean Anglo-Saxon, nor is it at all a word of race.\nWe are a nation by virtue of our common speech, and more than that,\nby virtue of certain instincts, faiths, and predilections which we group\nunder the term Americanism, and these are some of them : to judge men as\nindividuals and not as members of a class or by the possession of goods;\nto abhor fixed and wooden standards in the judgment of flesh and blood\nand to try to see things as the other fellow sees them; to shift often the\nperspective lest little things gain bigness by being too near the eye; to\nresent the exaction of the uttermost farthing ; to count on human brotherhood despite the race lines; to be interested in everything human; to be\nhospitable toward innovation and change; to have constant faith in betterment and belief that all which lives improves; to trust many things to\nright themselves; to have more confidence in the law that is within than\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n71\n\nin the exercise of force; to allow a man free opportunity for unfolding his\nlife; and to give all mpn of whatever class or wealth equal standing before\nthe law. We are ludicrous optimists; we tolerate all sorts of laxities; we\nare humbugged and deluded; we suffer from lack of training; we waste\nour materials fearfully: but we are charitable toward the diversities of\nhuman character and equipment, and with all our losses prefer to give men\ntheir freedom rather than make them machines.\nThis is Americanism. It is the religion of a land where all the races\nof Europe are mingling their bloods and tempers to bring into being the\nnew occidental man and set him to face the man of the East. And here\ntoday, where half the world looks out thru its farthermost gate toward\nthe other world-half, that power which has in its hands the fate of the\npeoples has assembled and seated itself in council — the American public\nschool.\nIV.\n\nR. B. HALE, VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE PANAMA-PACIFIC\nEXPOSITION COMPANY\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nMembers of the National Education Association:\nOn behalf of the president and board of directors of the Panama-Pacific\nInternational Exposition Company, and the people of the West, I am\npleased to say a word of welcome to the members of the National Education\nAssociation.\nOur work in promoting an exposition, in a sense, supplements the efforts\nof our educators. While you carry forward a great comprehensive plan on\na national scale, our work is international in scope. We are bringing\nwithin the borders of the United States examples of the world's achievements in art, science, and invention, ancient and modern, that they may\nbe compared side by side and explained in an intelligent manner to all\nseekers after knowledge.\nFrom the time of the first great fair in London, in 1851, down to the\npresent, expositions have advanced along progressive lines until today they\nhave become scientific. Experts have been developed in every branch of\nexposition building. Foreign governments have come to recognize the\nadvantages derived from really great expositions, and are specializing in\ntheir efforts to attract the world's attention. The Far East is also awakening along these lines, as is evidenced by Japan's determination to hold a\nworld's exposition in 191 7.\nThe modern exposition exemplifies the secret of the true scholar. \"Every\nman is my master in some point, and in that I learn of him.\" The people\nof every nation do some one thing better than the people of any other\nnation. Each has its own peculiarities; each excels in something. All\ncoming together, displaying their arts and wares in one city, will afford a\nwonderful opportunity for educational advantages. This in itself will\njustify all the exposition will cost in time and effort. Never in recorded\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhistory has the world made such material progress as during the last few\nyears. Doctor Peabody has well said:\nA world's fair is an epitome of the world's progress; a history and a prophecy. The\nlatest discoveries, the newest inventions, the triumphs in art, in science, in education, in\nthe solution of social and even religious problems, are here arrayed. Here stand the\nmost effective dynamo; the swiftest locomotive; the telescope piercing the remotest\nheavens; the most productive printing press; the most destructive artillery; machines\nthat spin, weave, set type, thresh grain, mine coal, drill rock, fashion railway cars; the\nartist's dream on canvas or in marble, in clustering column or aspiring dome, in woven\nfabric or decorated vase; the flower's effulgence or the fruit's alluring blush; all products\nof the soil, the mine, the sea; whatever testifies to the industry, the skill, the creative\nand almost divine power of human thought when stimulated to its most earnest endeavors.\nThus, at each latest exposition doth Mother Earth make a new inventory of her acquisitions. Thus does she erect at each station in her march toward the stars a monument\ninscribed with a record of her victories.\n\nRESPONSE\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY,\n\nTO ADDRESSES\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF WELCOME\nOF MAINE,\n\nORONO,\n\nME.\n\nMadam President, Governor Johnson, Mayor McCarthy, President Wheeler'\nLadies and Gentlemen:\nI esteem it a very great honor to respond to the welcome so generously\ngiven. The welcome itself has the true and genuine ring of the West. I am\nglad to respond to it, because I believe you mean it.\nPersonally, I represent the most eastern higher institution of learning\nin the United States. Officially, I speak in the name of half a million\nteachers scattered from Eastport to Cape Mendocino and from Portal to\nKey West. I speak, also, in behalf of 18,500,000 school children who daily\ngather for instruction in 262,000 school buildings. I speak in behalf of a\nbody of men and women who receive annually $220,000,000 in salary, an\namount nearly $65,000,000 in excess of that paid for pensions and $14,000,000 short of that required to maintain our army and navy upon a peace basis.\n1 speak, therefore, for a most important constituency.\nNo city or state has ever entertained a convention which will reach in\na direct way so many people. Every teacher in the land is here in spirit.\nEvery one of them will know something of our deliberations. There is not\na child in any school in America but what will be touched in some way by\nthe results of these meetings. Thru the children the influence of this meeting will reach every home in the land. In view of these things, your state\nand city welcome a body of men and women who have the destiny of the\nRepublic in their control.\nI am most proud to receive your words of welcome, because they are\ngiven to a great institution — the school. When the first settlers came to\nAmerica they were not slow to organize a town meeting, build a church,\nand open a school.\nIn the first of these institutions there have been many\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nRESPONSE\n\nTO ADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n73\n\ndisputes and some failures, in the second many schisms and heart-breaking\ncontroversies, but in the third, the school, there has been widespread\ninterest and general agreement. To it the people have been loyal in theory\nand practice. For it they have sacrificed much, and upon it they have\nspent freely their money. The school is a great common institution and is\nessential to the welfare, even to the perpetuity of the Republic. A monarchy may get on with an ignorant citizenship, but in a Repubhc where\nevery man is a king and every woman a queen, all must know.\nThe success of our government in its municipal, state, and federal\nactivities bears high testimony to the intelligence of our citizenship.\nThe school preserves the common knowledge which civilization has\nfound necessary and useful, and passes it on to the succeeding generation.\nThe school utilizes the new additions to human knowledge and prepares\nthem for instruction. The school, by its organization, its system, its\nrequirements in punctuality and order, trains the youth of the land in these\nmost essential virtues. The school is the greatest moral force at work\namong our people.\nSo long as one is dissatisfied with his achievements and present position,\nthere is hope for him. One of the greatest functions of the school is to fill\nyouth with a holy unrest. The school turns back the cover of knowledge\nand causes it to challenge the beholder. It gives a glimpse of the unknown\nand urges exploration. It was unrest and dissatisfaction that brought the\nArgonauts across the desert and around the Horn to this land of golden\nopportunities. The school that performs its duty well makes Argonauts\nof the boys and girls who enjoy its privileges. •\nThe great developments and scientific achievements of recent years\ndepend upon obedience to law. The making of a needle or a battleship\ndepends at every step upon strict obedience to law. If the law of the\nneedle or the battleship is violated in any part of the process, the result is\na poor needle or a worthless battleship. The growing of the prize ear of\ncorn is in obedience to law. If you do not believe this, ask Clore, the corn\nking of America, who has spent twenty-five years in ascertaining corn law.\nThe school is doing great work today in bringing the children of America\nto an appreciation of law as the most fundamental thing in life. Where it\nsucceeds in establishing faith in law and a consuming desire to know law\nand obey it, its product goes out to bless and to serve.\nIn conclusion, let me assure you that the teachers of this Republic, the\nchildren, who are its future hope, and the school itself — the greatest institution we have — accept with pleasure the welcome so generously given.\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF PRESIDENT\n\n[General\n\nYOUNG\n\nJOSIAH L. PICKA.RD, CUPERTINO, CAL.\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nAs I have looked out upon this vast audience, my thoughts have flitted\nback and forth over a period of fifty-three years of my connection with\nthis Association, back to a small room in Cincinnati which sufficed for\nthe few gathered for deliberation upon the education of a nation, at the\nfirst regular Annual Convention of this Association. Not -one do I meet\nhere today.\n\"O for the touch of a vanished hand,\nAnd the sound of a voice that is still !\"\n\nHere, in one of God's first temples, whose inclosing walls are high\nmountains and a vast ocean, and whose roof is the blue vault of heaven,\nare gathered thousands of worshipers.\nThe occasion bids me think of the city which is today honored for the\nfifth time by the call of its superintendent of schools to the presidency\nof this National Association and this time, the first in its history, a woman\n— a woman who at the beginning of her career took for her motto: \"Life\nattains its highest eminence not by sitting idle upon past achievements\nbut by steadily pressing onward and upward.\" Beginning her work as\na teacher in the city where she found salary attached to position and not\nto person, she enters the line for promotion in position opened to all without distinction of sex and to be filled on the basis of merit. She devotes\nher evenings t^ study, that she may be fitted to any position open to her\ndesire. Step by step she advances with both men and women at her side,\nuntil the last step but one is reached — that of superintendent of a district\n— where she is one of ten equally divided as ,to sex. Here in her work\nshe finds a disposition on the part of those in authority to require the\nplacing of a hobble-skirt upon her freedom to do what she feels best for\nthe schools under her charge. So she steps out of the line of promotion\ninto a professorship in the University of Chicago, whose diploma she bears\nand from which she received the honor of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,\nwhich she had earned by her long-continued course of study. Not long\ndoes she remain in this position but is called to the presidency of the city\nNormal Teachers College. Now she returns to the chosen line of promotion and by advice of friends becomes a candidate for the superintendency\nof the Chicago city schools. Winning over a number of men of prominence,\nshe today is the leader of a body of six thousand teachers, many of whom\nhave been under her instruction and nearly all under her influence. Luck\n— do I hear? No, my friends — luck is a headless word and offensive.\nPluck is emblazoned on her banner and with pluck in her heart, ignoring\nprivilege and conquering disability, she has won in her career entirely\nwithin the limits of a single city.\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n.\n\nTEMPERANCE\n\nAND\n\nSOCIETY\n\n75\n\nAnd now it is to me an occasion of peculiar pleasure that I meet one\nwhose work it was my privilege to observe for thirteen years and speak with\nher of the city whose destruction and rebuilding we both witnessed; and\nit is with enhanced pleasure that we meet in a sister city of like experience. Purified by fire, your city has risen into newness of life thru her\nindomitable energy — why waste breath upon long words, when a single\nsyllable suffices — thru the pluck of her men and women.\nMembers of the National Education Association, it is with pardonable\npride that I introduce to you as your president one who has won honor\nin every station she has held.\nDoctor Ella Flagg Young,\nand now, Mr. Chairman, she awaits at your hands the crown of national\nhonor.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nTEMPERANCE\nDAVID\n\nSTARR\n\nJORDAN,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nAND\n\nSOCIETY\n\nPRESIDENT, LELAND\nSTANFORD\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\n\nWe may look at the alcohol question from three different points of view\n— ^its physiological effects on the human body, the effect of its public sale,\ndilute or concentrated, on society, and its effect on the character and purpose of the individual man.\nAlcohol is a substance or drug produced in the disintegration of sugar\nby certain minute plants or ferments. In wines or malt liquors, the\namount of alcohol is relatively small, mostly from 3 to lo per cent. In\ndistilled liquors there may be from 40 to 80 per cent of alcohol. Whether\ndilute or concentrated, alcohol has the same general effects, the degrees\ndependent mainly on the amount of the substance absorbed into the\nsystem.\nThe general action of alcohol is that of a nerve-depressant. It appears\nas a stimulant only because its first effect in lowering nerve-action is to\ndissolve those restraints and reserves which we naturally build up in our\nexperience in life. The formation of the restraints and reserves is known as\ncharacter-building.\nTo throw off restraint gives an appearance of stimulation, because it\nreleases the lower tendencies otherwise held in check. A man under the\ninfluence of liquor may utter his most profound secrets. To do this freely is\nnot an evidence of intellectual strength or of mental activity.\nTo cut off the head of a chicken will 141 the same fashion impel the bird\nto, violent motor activity. But we do not call the process a \"stimulant,\"\nfor the activity thus produced is temporary and to no purpose.\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe effect of alcohol as a depressant is the same in kind, whether the\nquantity taken be large or small. The difference between the glow of a\nglass of claret and the stupor of a whiskey debauch is mainly one of degree.\nAlcohol again has a specific effect on the nervous system as a disturber\nof accuracy. In this lies the joy of wine such as it is. It has a certain power\n\"to drive dull care away,\" to erase ''from the sad calendar unborn tomorrow\nand dead yesterday.\" It has the power of causing the nervous system to\nlie, to make one feel warm when he is cold, to make one feel good when he\nis not good, and by the same whim to bring about \"a difference in the\nmorning,\" a dark-brown taste, a subjective wretchedness which is as unreal\nas the supposed joy which it inevitably follows.\nThe nervous system once taught to He fails afterward to record the truth.\nThis failure affects the three great mental processes ahke — sensation, comparison, and movement: observation, thought, and action. It makes its\nvictim uncertain as to what he sees or feels, hazy as to the meaning of his\nsensations, and shaky when he carries his feeling or thought into action.\nRepeated saturation of the nervous system makes these difficulties chronic,\nand the fact is recorded by the fall of the victim in the respect of others.\nWith this goes the more important loss of his own self-respect. The evil\nin this case is not primarily drunkenness, but nervous deterioration. Drunkenness isa spasm of the nervous system. In a sense, it is an effort of nature\nto throw off the evil. When alcohol ceases to make a man drunk, he is in\na pretty bad way. He has lost his sensitiveness and is as little a normal man\nas if he were insensible to a hot iron or. to contact with an icicle.\nThis is the fallacy inherent in the claim that the wine-drinking countries are the models of temperance. The daily semi-saturation of the\nItaUan laborer may be just as unwholesome as the occasional sprees of the\nScottish farmer. The latter may be more unpleasant when in his cups, but\nhe may likewise be more normal in the longer intervals between ' them.\nThe statistics of Jean de Bloch show a higher percentage of deaths from\nalcohoHsm in France than in England, tho England would doubtless show\na larger visible percentage of drunkenness. Besides, it is the countries of\nmoderate drinking in which there is the greatest consumption of absinthe,\nand other alcohoHc poisons, in which the drug appears in its most virulent\nform.\nThe truth is that while dilute alcohol is less harmful than alcohol not\ndiluted, there is no amount of alcohol that has not its evil effect on the\nnerve-structures of the body and therefore on the veracity of life. It is,\nmoreover, a feature of the alcohol habit that it tends to grow with indulgence. The inebriate begins as a moderate drinker, tho in most cases the\nmoderate drinker does not become an inebriate. But every man who treats\nhis nerves to alcohol suffers from the experience in greater or less degree.\nIt is doubtless true that many alcoholic drinks, notably whiskies, have\nbeen recklessly adulterated or that they may contain fusil oil or other\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n• TEMPERANCE\n\nAND\n\nSOCIETY\n\n77\n\npoisonous volatile oils besides alcohol. But chemists who have analyzed\nthese beverages say that none of these poisons are more virulent than the\nalcohol itself. The great pharmacologist of London, Dr. Cushny, tells\nus that if alcohol were a new discovery, a synthetic drug from some German\nlaboratory, its use in any form would be prohibited by law, as has been the\ncase with the much more valuable drug cocaine. Besides its effect on the\nbrain and nervous system, on the mind, sensation and motion, the functions\nof this system, we have alcohol as a general disturber of the processes of the\nbody.\nMost of these are modified somewhat, always for the worse, but the\nburdens on the kidneys, the liver, and the arteries may be especially noted.\nThe worn-out kidney appears as Bright's disease, the disintegrated liver as\ncirrhosis, and the stiffened arteries as sclerosis, which means premature\nold age. Quite as important is the effect recently emphasized by Dr.\nMetschnikoff on the phagocytes of the blood. The phagocytes, or germdestroying corpuscles, in the blood constitute our chief protection against\ninfectious diseases. The Uttle plants which produce typhoid fever, tuberculosis, pneumonia, blood-poisoning may find their way into the blood, to\nbe devoured by the phagocytes, leaving us no record of their existence.\nBy alcohol these minute creatures are themselves destroyed, and the\ndrinker, even in the most gentlemanly moderation, is more likely to fall\nbefore a bacterial infection than is a total abstainer.\nAnd with all this, the abstainer has the advantage of knowing that\nhis pleasures are real, his joy strengthens his body and spirit and makes\nway for more happiness. For this is the test by which happiness is known.\nFalse pleasures, having their source in drugs, joys which burn, also burn\nout, destroying the future possibility of joy. It was a poet once convivial\nwho gave us the story of the City of Dreadful Night, and of the \"time that\ncrawleth Hke a monstrous snake, wounded and slow and very venomous.\"\nIn an attack on alcohol as a beverage, it is now the physician and the\nphysiologist who take the lead. It is admitted that a small amount of\nalcohol may be decomposed or digested by the gastric juice. To this degree\nand to this degree only, alcohol is a food. But all taken in excess of this\nfood value is of the nature of poison. Whether alcohol is always a poison\ndepends on your definition of poison. Any poison may be taken safely in\nquantities so small that the tissues can resist it. Strychnine, in minute\nquantities, is largely used as \"tonic.\" In fact, most so-called tonics consist\nof atoms of poison used to stimulate motor activity. If strychnine is always\na poison, then alcohol is also. If strychnine tonics are excepted from this\ndefinition, we may except dilute alcohol in small quantities, by the same\nprocess of reasoning.\nIf the use of alcohol were a personal qjatter, its effects beginning and\nending with the individual, the plea of personal Uberty might be effective\nin letting each man decide on his own relation to it.\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBut the sale of alcohol has its public relations. If the operations of an\ninebriate or even those of a moderate drinker are so conducted as to endanger\nothers, the whole matter becomes a concern of the pubUc.\nA drunken man is everywhere a social nuisance. Under most circumstances he is a source of bodily danger to his family and to the pubUc a1;\nlarge.\nIn all lands drinking-places are sources of danger. They lead children\nto drink. They make drunkards. They are the potent direct cause of\nthe spread of poverty, crime, disease, feeblemindedness, and insanity.\nThis is true of such places the world over — the wine-rooms of Italy,\nSpain, and France as well as of the vodka-shops of Russia, the rum-holes\nof London, or the dives of New York. It was true of the state-regulated,\norderly centers of evil under the respectable, Goteborg system of Sweden,\nas well as of the Udless resorts of the region \" somewhere East of Suez, where\nthe best is like the worst.\"\nThus far, nobody has devised a permanently decent method of selling\nalcohol as a beverage. The German Biergarten perhaps comes the nearest\nto this orderly ideal; but the Biergarten is recognized as the source of ruin\nof thousands of young men and the temperance question is becoming as\nacute in some of the universities of Germany as it ought to be in those of\nthe United States.\nThe wine-shops of southern Europe do not improve on acquaintance,\nand the dignified officiahsm of the Swedish system is failing because drink\nmakes drunkards however honestly the process may be carried on.\nThere is plenty of exaggerated statement on both sides, so far as the\ninfluence of the lighter alcohohcs is concerned. I believe that the weight of\ntestimony is against them all, and the man who avoids them certainly does\nnot feel that he has missed anything of value; but many good men — many\nof the best of men — ^take a contrary view, and this is not the primary question at issue.\n\"The fact that a glass of beer heightens the pleasure of eating constitutes a most important point in its favor.\" I do not myself find it so, but I\nfully admit this argument as one of value, and I admit also that its value\nis one each man must settle for himself.\nI repudiate wholly the idea that unless our emotions are artificially\npumped up by alcohol they will be subject to atrophy. In the normal man,\nemotions should depend on adequate objective causes. Subjective emotions wear out the nervous system. In the words of Annie Payson Call,\n\"Sham emotions torture, whether they be of love, reUgion, or hquor.\"\nA sham emotion, or subjective emotion, is one cherished for its own sake,\nwith no purpose that it shall ever be translated into action.\nIt is soberly claimed that the opium traffic is necessary for the welfare\nof China. Without his pipe-dream, the average Chinaman would never\nknow joy. But it is never well for any man to think that he is having a\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEMPERANCE\n\nAND\n\nSOCIETY\n\n79\n\ngood time when he is not. The function of the nervous system is to tell\nthe truth. When it has been taught to lie, its worth as a guide to caution is\npermanently impaired. The joys of alcohol, nicotine, opium, or any\nother nerve-affecting drug belong to the fools' paradise. In the long run,\nsham emotions destroy as well as torture, \"whether of love, religion, or\nliquor.\"\nThe German word, auslosen, to loosen up, is well used by Mr. Heinemann to express the effects of alcohol. It dissolves or loosens up the\nrestraints and reserves, the establishment of which in the individual is the\nmain feature of character-building. Character is the power to say \"no\"\nwhen occasion requires. In conviviality, reserves are broken down, and\nno power or wit is stimulated. The Babel and babble of impulses which\nthe sane man has under control are released. These are not stimulated,\nbut set free. This explains why convivial men so enjoy each other's company, and why any degree of alcoholic enthusiasm is so painful to the man\nof sober mind. Surely the man who abstains totally from alcohohc drinks\nis safer than the moderate drinker. I think it equally certain, that, other\nthings reasonably equal, he has greater joy in life than the man who seeks\npleasure in unrealities which make for future depression.\nBut if the use of alcohol were confined to table use of beer and wines,\nwith an occasional extra bottle in good company for refreshment or conviviality, the temperance movement would never have assumed its present\nmilitant character. The user of alcohol would fight out the question with\nhis doctor or his employer, as is largely the case in southern Europe. But\nit must be remembered that the drunkards of the world — and Latin Europe\nis no exception — are steadily recruited from the ranks of the moderate\ndrinkers. The claim that no one becomes a drunkard who is not predestined\nto become such thru heredity, weakness, or hereditary appetite has no adequate foundation. There are a few such, foredoomed in a world crowded\nwith useless and pernicious temptations, but for one of these there are a\nhundred who fall thru ignorance, goodfellowship, and the weakness of good\nnature. As well say that weaklings, with women and children, are bound\nto fall thru defective sidewalks, as an argument against safe walkways.\nThe other line of attack centers on the saloon and the bar-room. Not\na word would be raised in defense of these monstrous abuses, as they exist\nin Great Britain and America, were it not for the money which is behind\nthem. The saloon exists for the beer and whiskey it can dispose of. The\nwine interests have little part in the bar-room. The more beer and whiskey\ni6 sold, the less wine. The grosser evils attached to wine are mostly those\nof club-room and the \"French Restaurant.\" The beer is the weakest of\nalcohoHc beverages, but it is the most abused, the work of the bar-keeper\nbeing to make it lead up to the stronger diinks. A glass of beer in good\ncompany is nobody's business. To force three quarts of beer on a boy in\none night becomes a social question.\nWhen that is done (and this is no\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nexaggeration of the experience of the vomiting youth who get their first\nexperience of manhood in some saloon of the Brewers' Association) it is no\nwonder that the community arises to extirpate the public nuisance. In the\nprohibition movement of today, the business man is more prominent than the\npreacher, the employer of men more active than the \"temperance crank,\"\nand the movement, based on economic necessities, has come to stay. No\none save the brewers can save the saloon. They can save it only by making it innocuous. If it is made harmless, it will not bring in revenue. To\ndestroy the financial motive in it constitutes a just way of selling alcoholic\nbeverages. This is the motive of the Scandinavian system, which takes\nfrom the dealer all interest in the amount sold. But if official graft be\nbrought into the matter, as seems to have been the case in the dispensaries\nof South Carolina, we have only substituted one evil for another.\nIn the saloon of today, as largely owned and managad by the Brewers'\nAssociations, we have :\n1. A center of drunkenness and dissipation.\n2. Around this cluster other vices, as gambling and lewdness.\n3. The bartenders are not men of average integrity.\n4. The system is worked to the contamination of local politics. In the country,\nsuch saloons fall to the level of the uncontrolled \"road-house.\" In the city there are\nmany degrees, but the lowest and most common is \"the dive.\"\n5. The drinking-place in every land is the open door to the brothel, the center of\nthe red plague — the two most ojffensive and dangerous diseases known to modern society.\n\nIn England the condition is much the same, but rendered worse by the\npresence of the \"barmaid,\" and by the recognition by the government that\nliquor-deaUng in all its phases is a legitimate profession, which is not the\ncase in America. The agitation, reasonable or unreasonable, against the\nliquor business does not in any degree excuse the brewers who own these\nplaces from reforming them. They can clean them up with a word if\nthey wish to. No one else can do it. They can make them law-abiding,\nand, what is better, urge more stringent laws. It is all in their hands.\nThey can, if they choose, maintain establishments which sell beer and wine\nonly, without the more dangerous and wholly poisonous distilled hquors.\nIf there is any reform possible, no one places obstacles in the way of its\nacceptance by the brewery interests; but any reform would mean a reduced\noutput and reduced profits, and no one, so far as I know, is in the beer or\nwhiskey business for his health.\nThe relation of drink to poverty, crime, and venereal disease cannot be\nstated in a single paragraph. In America and Europe, a large part of the\ncrime is instigated or aggravated by strong drink, and, accident excepted,'\nthere is not much poverty associated with temperate living. Excessive\nuse of alcoholics is at once a cause, an effect, and a symptom of personal\ndecay, of the progress of weakening of will with mental and moral\nineffectiveness.\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEMPERANCE\n\nAND\n\nSOCIETY\n\n8l\n\nThe comparison of excessive drinking with gluttony and with the undue\nuse of proteid food has but little pertinence. The use of alcoholic beverages\nis for the sake of the effect of a specific substance contained in them. This\nsubstance is a poison in itself, and poisonous if used in large amounts. It\nalso creates a specific thirst to be assuaged only by the substance which\ncreates the thirst. Gluttony is a result of ignorance or stupidity, and its\nill effects are largely physical, more or less temporary, and vary with the\nsubstances concerned. No one eats an excess of beefsteak for the uric\nacid it may contain, nor for the decajdng residuum which may poison the\ncolon. Nor is there any authority for ascribing any tangible amount of\npoverty and crime to over-eating. In general, a glutton uses an excess of\nalcohol with his other excesses.\nThe claim that prohibition does not prohibit in the dry states has not\nmuch value.\nIn the first place, \"dry\" districts are surrounded by \"wet\" ones, and\nsmugghng, legal or otherwise, is an easy process. Maine, for example,\nis full in summer of saturates and semi-saturates who range its forests and\nthrong the watering places. For their convenience, \"blind pigs\" exist\nin many places. Yet in cities, Uke Eastport, a young generation is growing\nup of boys who have never seen a saloon, and who have never been led along\nthe graded course from weak drinks to strong, which our saloons supply.\nThe \"bUnd pig\" is an evil from the standpoint of law, a gross and monstrous evil. Every unenforced statute breeds evil. But, from the standpoint of society, it is the lesser of the evils of drink. When the generation\nof hard drinkers has passed away, the \"bhnd pig\" follows. In Kansas, for\nexample, there is a rising generation which feels no need of alcohol, and has\nno interest in saloons. No statute is going to prevent the hard drinker from\nfinding his alcohol. The patent medicine serves his purpose, if other\nagencies fail.\nThe corrosion of the saloons is mainly felt in the years from sixteen to\ntwenty-four. If boys under twenty-one were shut out from them, more\nthan half their evils would be abated. Thousands on thousands of boys\nstep from the saloon to the brothel — not a long step — to be poisoned for\nUfe with the most loathsome of diseases, the parasites — animals and plants,\nthe red plague, of which no one was ever certainly cured; and worse, the\ngonorrhoea and syphilis transferred from the guilty to the innocent, the\ninvolving of steriUty, disease, and ultimately utter misery. Not many\nmen or boys thus throw away their future when they are sober. Commonsense, when a man is himself, generally controls both passion and curiosity.\nWe hear sometimes of law-abiding saloons. It is even claimed that these\nare in the great majority. A saloon which is not law-abiding is simply\na thug's nest, called in the city a \"dive,\" in^the country a \"road-house.\"\nBut a \"law-abiding\" saloon is little better. The law itself is saloon-made.\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "8,2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe law recognizes as the first purpose of the saloon that of making money.\nIt allows money to be made, even if it be blood-money, coined from the\nsorrow and distress of women and children, the slaughter of boys, and the\ndecay and disease of men.\nIt is true that wine-drinking Italy, beer-drinking Bavaria, and other\nregions where light alcohoUcs prevail, visible drunkenness is relatively rare.\nIt is certainly true that in a region which offers light alcohoHcs only, and\nwhere these are not pushed hard under a get-rich-quick system, the people\nare more sober than in regions where whiskey, brandy, cognac, and absinthe\nare everywhere accessible. The absence of distilled hquors, not the prevalence of fermented liquors, is the real agency in temperance. In regions\nwhere children grow up without knowledge of alcohol, you will find a still\nbetter record. But there are few regions which have been \"dry\" for a\ngeneration, and commercial interests force alcohol into every community\nand into almost every family, whether they will or not. Abstinence has\nnever had a fair test in this matter. Meanwhile, we may freely admit that\nwine and beer are relatively innocuous, when they do not lead up directly\nto the stronger drinks. When they do, even in Latin America, the results\nare no better than in whiskey-drinking regions. The effects of brandy on\nworkmen in Paris is the motif of Zola's Assommoir. All forms of strong\ndrink constitute a devourer — assommoir — ^whatever the country or race.\nThe actual relation of wine to temperance in southern Europe has never\nbeen adequately studied. The problem is not a simple one, and the mere\nfact that there is less visible drunkenness where dilute alcohol is a daily\nbeverage tells but a small part of the story. The daily partial saturation\ncarries its burden on brain and kidneys and phagocytes (white corpuscles)\nwhile on the other hand the spasms of excess are relatively less common. This\nis a problem of physiology and pharmacology, as well as of social science,\nand the offhand answers usually given to it do not advance us very far. In\ngeneral, we may admit that extreme statements on the side of abstinence\nhave often done much harm to the cause of temperance. We may admit\nthat obedience to \"the rule of not too much\" would take the sting out of\nthe most denunciations of drink, and we may further admit the honesty\nand intelligence of those who differ from us in theory and in practice.\nYet, with all allowances, there is much hard, practical truth in these\nwords, which Robert W. Chambers puts in the mouth of his honest physician. Addressing a yoiing clubman, he says:\nAlcohol is a poison, and it has not and never had in any guise the slightest compensating value for internal use. * It isn't a food. It is a poison. It isn't an aid to digestion.\nIt is a poison. It is not a life-saver. It is a life taker. It is a parasite, forger, thief,\nliar, brutalizer, murderer. There isn't and there never has been one word to say for it,\nor any excuse except morbid pre-disposition or self-inculcated inclination for swallowing\nit. You can take your choice.\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCAUSE\n\nTHE CAUSE\nHELEN\n\nMARSH\n\nWIXSON,\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n83\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSTATE\nSUPERINTENDENT\nDENVER,\nCOLORADO\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nFrom the North, South, East, and West we have gathered here today\nin the mighty cause of Education, and from the West I bring you greeting.\nWe claim many things for the West, but nothing greater than the courage\nof Cahfornia, for great as was her disaster, great as was her loss, neither was\nequal to her spirit of courage. Before the fires of adversity had died down\nher people had taken up their burden, and today a new and beautiful San\nFrancisco greets us. It is the spirit of the West, and in the dauntless West,\nin this place dedicated to higher education, we fearlessly lift our standard.\nCivilization, in traveling from ocean to ocean, passed \"Liberty Enlightening the World,\" and much was made clear, and in that enUghtenment\nwe are taking undisputed our way down the path that leads to greater\nhuman advancement.\nBut the tie that binds us to the past should not be neglected, and there\nare times when it is well for us all to forsake the altars of today and take\nrefuge in retrospect, and if we do so now we may hear the voice of Martin\nLuther singing, for that voice has not died out of human life. The sturdy\nform of Calvin, who gave to the English-speaking world the common school,\nwill rise before us. The seventeenth century will fade with the Latin tongue\nlosing a Httle of its exclusive prominence. The eighteenth will advance\nbeyond the middle age, and the nineteenth will make of education a matter\nof general social interest, and America will take her place and play her part,\nfor we are a people whose forefathers were committed to the public-school\nsystem from the earliest day. Education with them was an exacting\nreligious duty. We have struck on many a pedagogical rock since then,\nbut we realize that the education of today springs from roots sunk deep\ninto the soil of the past, which countless generations tilled and made fertile;\nand that this is an age of progress we owe to the fact that there has been\nprogress from the beginning.\nWith the dawning of the nineteenth century there was an educational\nawakening. The fact that education was our chief industry, without which\nno commonwealth could prosper, became an accepted fact, and the great\nPestalozzi went further and taught the world that education was the chief\nmeans by which the masses could be redeemed from degradation, misery,\nand vice. He also taught that a schoolroom should be a workshop as well\nas a classroom.\nBut the greatest lesson of the nineteenth century was that education\nis a universal right, and it is now not only a duty but a privilege to provide\nit for all.\nThere is no sentiment so dear to the American people as that of the\nDeclaration of Independence, and no function of our government that is\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nso deeply rooted in the hearts of the common people as our public schools.\nThat all men are \"free and equal\" should mean, if it means anything, that\nthe children of the slums are entitled to the same educational advantages\nas the children of the rich. As I look about on this vast audience, here in\nthe name of education, I am sure that equalization of opportunities, which\nmeans equalization of intelligence, is the watchword, and the children of\nour country will know equality in the public schools.\nIn our schools, of which we are so justly proud, the tendency is now an\neconomic one. Practical demands are being made, and in nearly all\nbranches insistence is being laid upon the recognition of the commercial\nside of the subject quite aside from the cultural value. The demand is for\ntangible results, for the culture of things, the culture of accomplishments,\nand for efficiency in the broad sense of social service. We are listening\nto the demands of the everyday world, to the voice of the Commoners,\nand are making it the first purpose of our schools to educate boys and\ngirls to bring out and develop what is in them, to make them mentally,\nphysically, morally, and spiritually healthy young men and women, for it is\nto our schools we must look for normal and patriotic citizens. This being\ntrue, it is the duty of our schools to give to every boy and girl the capacity\nfor self-support, for the first duty of a citizen in any community is not to\nbe a pauper, and the second, to put as much into the treasury of life as he\ntakes out of it.\nI do not mean, neither do I think, that every man and woman is to be\nof necessity a wage-earner. What I do mean is that the first duty of a citizen\nis to be self-supporting; hence the first duty of our public schools is to give\nboys and girls capacity for self-support, for the end and aim of education\nshould be the development of character, and the test of character is capacity\nfor service. Whatever fits a boy or girl for pubUc service in a practical industry\nis industrial education in the highest sense, and the value of all thought is\nfound when we translate it into deeds. If we are to educate for life it must\nbe by means of life and thru contact with life. We must strike off the-fetters\nof our bookish and wordy existence. Is a degree of more account than\nbreadth of education, more precious than a grasp of the problems of life ?\nShakespeare became a student of men without a university degree, and\nLincoln, living in the open, caught inspiration from nature and humanity.\nOur immediate concern should be the character building that will prove\nthe ke3aiote of tomorrow's civilization, for tomorrow's civilization depends\nlargely on the wisdom of today, and in this mighty work we need high ideals.\nModern thought is Hke a crowd hurrying to and fro, and we do not stop to\nseek out ideals for the problems that confront us — ^be they problems of\nreligion, education, or public affairs — ^yet we must cherish high ideals, we\nmust grapple with them daily, we must beHeve in them, and not only\nbelieve in them but act as if we beUeved, which is the most practical use to\nwhich an ideal can be put. We must not, like the boy, dream of building\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\n>\n\nTHE\n\nCAUSE\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n85\n\na beautiful temple with a lofty tower and splendid pillars and then content\nourselves with building a woodshed, for we must look to our schools to\nimprove our citizenship — raise the grade.\nWhat makes a country? Not the broad acres, not the mountains,\nplains, lakes, or rivers. It is the people. Ours is the greatest country in\nthe world. Our mountains are grand, our plains are wide. We want a\npeople on the same grand scale. Yet in establishing public education we\nare called upon to consider the neeas of a country of short history, a people\nnot of one language, not of one inheritance of thought and blood. If our\npublic schools are to fulfill their mission as the chief element in forming our\nnational character, ideals that might have seemed out of place in shaping\nthe school system of even one generation ago must be held today. We hear\nthe criticism that our schools are not meeting the needs of the people of the\nday. Is this not due to the fact that the American people of today are\nnot the American people of yesterday ? In the past our ideal education was\n\nI^P the same cultural training that has been enjoyed by the English-speaking\n^^ people\neducation\nof today\nthat which\nenables foran generations.\nindividual to The\nexpress\nmore freely\nthatcannot\nwhich behealone\nhas already\nby\ninheritance. It must fit millions for a new environment. It must create\nnew thought — create a new type, for we have no national type.\nWhen the United States sprang into being our flag floated over a people\nactuated by a union of purpose, by a common mind. They were Americanized. Today the population of our country grows daily. New people\ncome from the four quarters of the globe, for the great ships come to us\nfrom every port of the world laden with human freight. There is a babel\nof tongues, a mixture of races — a mighty alien mixture; but America is\nGod's crucible and the public school is the great melting-pot where all the\nraces are fused and re-formed. German, French, Irish, English, Jews, and\nRussians — the public school is making them Americans. And why not?\nThe children of the Ghetto are using the same books that we put into\nthe hands of our own children, and the children of the races of the world\nare taught to sing of their \"Sweet land of liberty.\"\n1^^ and repeat together the touching words:\n^K\n\nThey wave tiny flags\n\nFlag of our Republic, inspirer in battle, guardian of our homes, whose stars and stripes\nstand for bravery, purity, truth, and union, we salute thee! We, the natives of distant\nlands who find rest under thy folds, do pledge our hearts, our lives, and sacred honor to\nlove and protect thee, our country, and the liberty of the American people forever.\n\nIH\nThis is their oath of allegiance, and thus the immigrant child is Ameri^r canizing himself, and it remains for our schools to create an American type\nwith readjusted ideals for those whose forebears have long been identified\nwith our country, and create absolutely a type for those who have achieved\nAmericanism, at the same time evolving for both a character that will\ny^m prove equal to the new duties and to the obligations of our RepubUc, and\nfurnish common training and common ideals for all the mixed people who\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nare being fused into one nationality under our flag, and if our great American\nRepublic is ever formed of one people it will be thru education.\nA stranger, gay, beautiful, and light-hearted, has come among us. He\nhas taken his place in our schoolrooms, he has disported himself upon the\nplaygrounds of America, where who can foretell the many battles to be\nwon, the weak made strong, courage kindled, manhood roused, self-mastery\nwon?\nThis stranger came heralded by the twentieth century. His name, do\nyou ask ? It is New Education, and under this name he is proclaiming a\nnew method in which he promises that natural interest, which he holds as\nthe keynote of all education, shall reign; that the schoolroom shall become\na place of joy; that while acquiring the \"three R's\" the \"three H's\" shall\nalso be acquired, and children become perfect in character and in citizenship, for New Education will teach true patriotism. Not the patriotism\nthat leads men to die for their country, but the higher patriotism that\nteaches men and women to live for their country, the patriotism that ranks\npublic honor as high as private honor, that brands the man or woman who\nshirks civic duty as great a coward as the man who flees from battle, and he\nwill proclaim that \"Peace knows victories no less renowned than war.\"\nThis herald of progress would, if he could, trample in the dust many of\nour sacred traditions, but he would create a love and understanding in the\nworld in which we Hve — ^in good deeds, healthy ambition, democracy, and\nbrotherly helpfulness. Let us bid him welcome! For the broader education isa human need and a human right. Thru it we must hold up an ideal\nof a new and higher citizenship. Thru it we must build up an aristocracy\nof thought that will hold its own against the aristocracy qf the dollar,\nand thru it bring true imion to this, our land.\nThe message of the nineteenth century to the twentieth was, as someone\nhas said : \" So mold public opinion that it shall lead the best men and women\nto choose teaching as a vocation.\" This message has been heard, and today\nteaching is no longer merely a means of earning a Hvelihood. It is one of\nthe great professions — dignified and far-reaching in its work; and no institution isof more importance than the public school, for education typifies\nthe American spirit, the spirit of Hberty, the spirit of equality, and insures\nto all aUke soul freedom. Single-handed we cannot realize the dream of\nNew Education, but as one great family. North, East, South, and West,\nworking together in the mighty cause of education, we may become an\nexample to all the nations of the earth.\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nHYPOTHESIS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n87\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\nHYPOTHESIS IN EDUCATION\nELLA FLAGG\n\nYOUNG,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS, CinCAGO,\n\nILL.\n\n[Stenographic Report]\nIn our deliberations in education meetings we almost invariably either\nundervalue the results of our work or extol them with loud praise. There\nis another course which seems more desirable: it is that of looking to other\nlines of work, other lines of investigation which have equaled or surpassed\nour own, and endeavoring to extract from them something of the method\nand spirit which pervade them, giving them power over and above that\nto which we have attained.\nNo modern movement surpasses science in the wonderful advance it\nhas made. Much of this advance is the result of the method of science,\nthe adoption of hypothesis as its chief tool. I purpose speaking this\nevening on hypothesis in science and hypothesis in education. In classic\nand mediaeval times nature was a world of permanent things, the problems\nof science dealt with essences, and even so late as the early part of the\nnineteenth century, heat was supposed to be an imponderable substance,\nand hght to consist of luminous corpuscles. In the world of mind, the\nhuman race was supposed to be a special, final creation, and the problems\nof knowledge dealt with the fixed, the determined, the unchanging. And\nso the problem of education dealt with the acquisition of the formulations,\nthe statements of great minds that had written and spoken. Later on,\nafter the invention of printing, education was supposed to be, and is today\nsometimes assumed to be, the power to master the printed page. Its\nmethod was and is known as formal discipline; its tools were and are\nlargely the forms of the dead languages. With the introduction and dissemination ofthe hypothesis of evolution, there is general appreciation,\nin varying degrees, of the fact that theories of nature and of knowledge,\nthat institutions of state and of social Hfe, that methods in industry and\nin commerce, that ideals of education and of a worthy life are all subject\nto change in a changing world; in brief, that finahty both in the natural\nworld and in the spiritual world is death; that change, adaptation, is\nlife.\nThe working hypothesis in science always includes two fundamentals.\nThe first is developed by the scientific imagination, which so clearly beholds\nsystems of great forces and their relations that it is able to convey to us an\nidea of the force lying back of that with which we are working. The second\nelement in hypothesis is made up of tentative conditions which admit of\nchange and serve to illumine the con^ruct of the imagination, and to\nbroaden the outlook of the mind which is experimenting with the unknown\nforce. The failure of the scientific imagination to construct comprehen-\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsively, or of the scientific observation to detect and understand unforeseen\nconditions often delays man's control of a force.\nScientists have not always been happy in their hypotheses. The great\nNewton delayed the advance of physical optics many years because of\nhis advocacy of the theory of luminous corpuscles. We all know from\nexperience that scientists have failed to attain to that conception of ventilation which would furnish fresh air in schools. Their conception has been\nKmited to the introduction of warm air into a schoolroom and the eHmination of one objectionable factor, carbon dioxide. Today scientists are\nawaking to a more comprehensive conception of ventilation. Now they\nare endeavoring to give to the human being in the schoolroom fresh air\nlike the pure air of nature outside and to remove all things which vitiate\nthe air within. Erroneous ideas have been active in the hypothesis of\nlighting; as a result, a large percentage of the boys and girls, who complete the school course of twelve years, graduate wearing glasses, because\nthis problem of lighting has not been fully solved by the ocuhsts and\narchitects of our age. One of the departments of this Association has\nentered upon a broad and deep study of the subject of conservation of\nvision. Generous appropriation should be made to foster its investigation.\nLong ago I used to talk about scientific method and the scientific\nimagination in education; but there are many who construe the use of\nthe word scientific to mean an exact method, the one used with the forces\nof nature, and so they object to scientific method in dealing with children.\nI beUeve that, if we would rise above the idea of finality in things\nspiritual, we might have the term, the educational imagination, with a\nsignificance corresponding to that of the scientific imagination. With a\nrecognition of hypothesis in education having for one of its fundamentals\nthe construct of the educational imagination, might we not have a larger\nview of education than has yet been presented? We need, however, not\nonly the larger ideal portrayed by the educational imagination but also\nthe alert and intelligent attitude that discovers unusual conditions and\ntheir meanings which necessitate change. We have had too many limited\ntheories of education which have narrowed our work and made us demand\nchange because of sheer weariness resulting from their cramping influence;\nwe have asked for change for the sake of change. Some years ago we\ncaught the expression \"the whole child must go to school\" and treated it\nas if it were a theory. What was the result ? The whole child must be\ngoing to school was interpreted to mean that everything in the heavens\nabove, in the earth beneath, and in the waters under the earth, must be\ntaught him while in school; and today, from one end of the country to\nthe other, courses of study are overloaded ; the cry all over the land is that\nthe children are being smothered by the over-much forced upon them\nbecause of the narrow interpretation of \"the whole child must go to school.\"\nAnother term has sprung into popular use. From Maine to California,\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nHYPOTHESIS\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n89\n\nfrom the Great Lakes to the Gulf the public school is spoken of as a great\n\"melting-pot.\" Boys and girls in that imagery are seen as lead, as brass,\nas silver, as gold, all fused in one alloy. Carrying out that image, the\npublic school becomes a place in which we are endeavoring to make all\nchildren alike. Eventually Americans would be people lacking individuality; America, a giftless nation. \"Our land must be the promise\nand reHance of the future\"; its public school must not be a melting-pot.\nOur public school is the matrix of a nation teeming with life. All ideas\nunder this imagery tend to recognize and develop hfe, power, and the\neternal in each child. We must hold to the idea that if our public\nschool is the matrix of a great nation, the matrix of a nation of nations,\nit must be great in the opportunities which are offered every boy and\nevery girl entering its doors.\nPlain people like ourselves distinguish so sharply between mind and\nmatter that to acknowledge that the work of teachers rests on hypothesis\nis in the thinking of some of us \"to go down to eternal night\"; to use\nhypothesis with regard to this or that force in nature is to accept modern\nscientific method, but to use hypothesis regarding this or that power of\nthe mind is, some think, to desecrate spirit, to reduce it to the level of\nmatter. But what is the influence of a theory of finality in education;\nof the insistence that a dogma ot the school or a given definition of education is the final statement of all that is involved in mental and spiritual\ntraining? To announce a theory of education as fixed, determined, allcomprehensive, develops uncertainty and unrest in the teaching corps;\nnot the sense of unrest that urges on to the achievement of better things\nbut the feeling of unrest that comes from a consciousness of insecurity in\nthe support upon which one leans. All men and women engaged in teaching see the social and industrial movements of the American people, and\nthey know that the school is endeavoring to catch the spirit and move\nupward with the nation into whose life the children will soon enter as\nactive workers.\nThen again, the acceptance of finality in educational theory minimizes\nresponsibiUty and creates insincerity. If all that can be known about the\nways and means of mind in its immaturity is known, it is unnecessary to\nattempt the interpretation of the unusual that confronts us; if we are\naware that strength is there, and yet we discredit it because we are committed to a blanket theory of education and the mission of the school,\nour course is disingenuous.\nOne may ask why argue for h3rpothesis in education. Rare are the\nmen and women teachers who are not working over their \"problems,\"\nwhose conditions are summed up under dull, wayward, queer, or uninteresting, as applied to a boy or girl in school or a student in college. There\nis not a teacher in this room who if asked^the question, \"Who was your\nproblem last year?\" could not answer instantly. If there is this general\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nattitude of recognition of the problematic in children and youth, then whybring forward the subject of hypothesis in education ? Because too often\nthe theory underlying our procedure is accepted as the final, the unchanging\nconstructive ideal of the development of mind and character, and also\nbecause the unusual, the perplexing, is too often studied as a variation\nfrom the one true type instead of a variation within the type human. Our\nproblem among the normal children and students lies within the type, and\nif we have the scientific, the hypothetical, attitude of mind toward it, our\nimagery, our theory, our knowledge of humanity, our generalizations as\nguides will all be enlarged. In every organization, whether it be the\nschool with the guide and the learners, or an association of teachers, if\nthere is to be a continuing administering to the need, to the intellectual\nand spiritual powers of the members, there must always be the use of\nhypothesis. No type remains unchanged. Evolution is going on, a type\nmay be advancing or it may be retrograding, but it certainly is evolving\nout of its own conditions and implications something different. We must\nkeep uppermost in our minds the two fundamentals in hypothesis — the\nlarge ideals of education with its many complexities, and the tentative conditions for which we watch and thru which we adjust our ideals. In this\nway we shall avoid that fixed, final determination of the ideal of education\nwhich is destructive to hfe.\nSo it is with this great Association which meets here tonight, which\nin the early days was founded on the theory that the leading educators\nin the country should have means of coming together, and later was organized to have financial resources that enabled it to carry on its affairs as\ncomported with the dignity of the teaching body of this coimtry. With\nall its great work, it is evident today that there is another step not yet\nsuccessfully taken. Those who are most closely identified with the organization should ever maintain the scientific attitude toward it, enriching\nand enlarging its underlying hypotheses. If the organization gives honor\nto an infinitesimal part of the membership and then leaves the guidance\nof the activities to that small part, there is missing the alert, interested\nattitude that would hypothesize the seemingly opposed elements and\ndetermine what of merit there is in the small leadership and what in the\nlarge membership. The National Education Association should so influence teachers that thruout the country the democratic principles underlying this government shall be a part of the daily experience in the daily\nhfe of every school. To effect this the Association should bring together\nthe men and women administering college and school affairs and those\nteaching in the schools and colleges and by its method so illumine their\nhypotheses of education and quicken their vision of hfe that they shall\nhave power to discern and reinforce life and the eternal in every boy and\ngirl, youth and maiden coming under their influence.\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAN\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\n91\n\nAN APPRECIATION\nALFRED\n\nRONCOVIERI, SUPERINTENDENT\nSAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nI deem it a flattering compliment to be called upon to speak on this\noccasion and to add my small tribute to the gracious words that have been\nspoken. I assure you that we feel deeply the honor you have conferred on\nus by choosing San Francisco as the place of the Forty-ninth Annual\nConvention of the National Education Association.\nWe rejoice in your coming, the effect of which must be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interest of the profession of teaching and promote the cause of popular education.\nYour presence will inspire us with fresh enthusiasm for our work, and we\nwill carry into our schoolrooms renewed energy. Our fifty thousand school\nchildren will reap the benefit of our contact with you.\nIn 1906 it was to have been our pleasure and honor to welcome and\nentertain the National Education Association, but a conflagration unparalleled in ancient or modern times overwhelmed us and laid our loved city\nin ruins. Our business was wiped out and our people were without food\nand shelter. Homeless, we could not entertain you. Fate had decreed\nthat we should become the recipients of the bounty of the world. We\nexperienced the fact, however, that a calamity has its compensations. No\nsooner had the wires flashed the news of our catastrophe to the world than\nthere followed the greatest outpouring of brotherly love and sympathy\nrecorded in the annals of history. While the embers of the great fire were\nyet alive and still smoldering amid the ruins they had wrought and while\nour citizens had hardly recovered from the appalling catastrophe, by land\nand by sea, there flowed to our city streams of relief. The sympathy of the\nRepublic and of the nations beyond the seas was awakened, and magnificent\nwas the generosity that was bestowed on our people.\nTeachers and school children of the United States were animated by\nthis common spirit of brotherhood. Immediately there came substantial\naid. Carloads of food and clothing were hurried to us from every village\nand hamlet of California and neighboring states. Cheered by the sympathy and the generous charity of the nation, aided and sustained by the\nmillions of dollars which were so magnanimously given to us, we resolved\nthat a new San Francisco should arise; that the beautiful of yesterday should\nbe restored and that the future city should transcend the old in soHdity,\nelegance, and in all things which make a community great and attractive.\nIn a miraculously short time our people were fed, clothed, and housed\nand the new San Francisco was begun. From every direction came contributions from teachers for the relief of teachers. School children heard\nthe cry of distress and sent their offering? to help re-house the homeless\nschool children of San Francisco.\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nAmong the hundreds and thousands of benefactions bestowed upon\nus during the dark days of affiction, and in the midst of the distressing\ntimes, nothing was more touching than the thought of teacher for fellowteacher, of school child for school child, and no help was more gratefully\nreceived than the contributions of the school children of our country for\nthe construction of a school building, and the many gifts of food, clothing,\nand money sent for the special relief of teachers made destitute by the\ngreat fire.\nThe funds for the relief of teachers were distributed by a special committee ofteachers and citizens and the members of the Board of Education\npresided over by the then president of the Board, Hon. Aaron Altmann.\nThese spontaneous offerings relieved much actual distress, and developed\nin its fullest significance the text, \" It is more blessed to give than to receive,\"\nfor many of our teachers had fled from burning buildings with no worldly\ngoods but the scant clothing which they wore.\nWith the contributions of the children a beautiful school building was\nin large part erected. It is located in the northern part of our city, graceful\nin its architecture and characteristic of the early Mission Fathers of California. It was given the Spanish name of \"Yerba Buena,\" to commemorate the first name of the village of '49 that has since grown to be the\nmetropolis of San Francisco. It stands as an eloquent memorial and a\nfitting monument to the generosity and loving thoughts of the school\nchildren of the Republic toward the school children of San Francisco.\nWhen has there been such a teaching of morals ?\nThe rehabilitation of the San Francisco School Department was commenced five days after the calamity of April 18, 1906. An inventory of the\nlosses sustained revealed the fact that thirty-two schools, out of a total of\neighty-three, had been destroyed, involving a loss of nearly $2,000,000.\nThen came a splendid exhibition of hope, pluck, and energy. Our teachers,\nmany of whom were themselves refugees, volunteered their services to\nthose more unfortunate than themselves. They served with the Red Cross\nsociety on committees of relief, health, and order. They did yeoman service\nwherever duty called. For our refugee children schools were opened in\ntents in Golden Gate Park. Altho school rehabiUtation was carried on\nunder most adverse conditions, yet three months after the catastrophe our\nschools reopened for regular work.\nEver alive to the educational needs of the children, our citizens have\nauthorized school bond issues amounting to nearly $9,000,000. Many of\nour new school buildings are now finished. They are substantial and\nmodels of school architecture. They far exceed in their beauty, strength,\nand equipment those that were destroyed. Behold, the Phoenix has arisen\nfrom the ashes I\nWe point with pardonable pride to our achievements. We realize\nthat the compensations of calamity are made apparent after the lapse of\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAN\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\n93\n\ntime. A mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a great loss seems, at the time,\nunpaid and beyond compensation. But the years reveal remedial and\nbeneficent forces.\nLet me say to you that the people of San Francisco feel an honest pride\nin the good men and women engaged in the work of our public schools.\nWithout flinching and without retreating, undaunted in the presence of\nthe greatest conflagration of all time, our teachers bravely stood their\nground shoulder to shoulder, and notwithstanding the difficulties and adverse conditions that have confronted them ever since the dire calamity\nthat befell our beloved city, our department has, thru the zeal and patient\nefforts of our teachers, produced the most satisfactory results in education\nand has earned the grateful consideration of our citizens. Our people\nrecognize in the fullest that teaching is an exalted calling, that the work\nand influence of the teacher abide in the boys and girls, and that when the\nmen and women of a profession are brought together thru sympathy and\nbecome associated on the principle of mutual aid and common labor they\nbecome united by the gentle bond of fraternal love.\nWe acknowledge your gifts and our gratitude is the natural pleasure we\nfeel in our present prosperity.\nWe appreciate the generous impulse which prompted you to help us\nin our hour of need. We abundantly value your kindly thoughts and your\nfriendship, your cordial good-will, and the closer expression of the great\nbrotherhood of the teachers of the United States far more than the material\nthings you sent to us. To withdraw something from oneself and give to\nanother is a point of common humanity. It exemplifies altruism and the\nbrotherhood of man in the highest. To carry with us the consciousness\nof your generous deeds and the thankful remembrance of the love and\nbenevolence of which we have been the object brings joyful pleasure and\neverlasting gratitude to our hearts. Like. brethren, whether you had httle\nor much, you divided with us in time of need. For all this loving thought,\nthe children and the teachers of the old and the new San Francisco extend\nto you and to those whom you represent from every corner of our great\ncountry their sincere thanks and deep appreciation.\nYou shared our sorrows of 1906, and now do we welcome you and bid\nyou share and pass the cup overflowing with the joys of 191 1. We \"open\nour hearts to you wider than our gates,\" and welcome you to our homes and\nfiresides. And now, with devout thanksgiving to the \"Lord of Hosts,\"\nthru whose love, power, and blessings we have been enabled to right ourselves, we pray that your deliberations may be crowned with success, and\nthat you may enjoy your sojourn with us as your labors deserve; and when\nyou have gone hence we shall remember with grateful hearts the welcome\nguests that gave much more than they received.\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nREORGANIZATION\nJAMES H. BAKER, PRESIDENT,\nI.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF AMERICAN\nUNIVERSITY\nECONOMY\n\n[General\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF COLORADO,\n\nBOULDER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nor TIME\n\nSomeone in a vein of satire pronounced the \"Reorganization of Education\" an ambitious subject. Since the majority of educators are engaged\nin studying or experimenting upon some phase or reorganization, an additional essay need not be regarded as a novelty. The problems are many,\nbut three or four are vital and first to be considered in a brief address.\nThese may be stated as follows: efficiency and economy of time in general\neducation; industrialism and humanism; will training.\nIn presenting the first topic I refer incidentally to the Council Committee\non Economy of Time in Education, because I shall draw somewhat upon\ntheir tentative conclusions. It may be of interest to know that they have\ndrafted for their further discussion a provisional report. They have enUsted\nin the study committees representing such organizations as the National\nAssociation of State Universities and the National Department of Superintendence. Moreover, the co-operation of hundreds in examining phases of\nthe subject has been secured by members of the Committee. Perhaps\narousing interest in the discussion is the best work of the Committee at\npresent. Upoii the subject. Economy of Time, I have had the benefit of\nscores of opinions and experiences of active teachers fully and frankly\nstated, else I would not attempt a review of this part of the field. If conclusions reaffirm a value in some principles that are old enough to have a\nhistory, I beg that I may not hear the usual cheap argument of \"not up\nto date.\" A view that does not accord with present ideas may be both\nretrospective and prophetic.\nThese criticisms are prominent: There is much waste in general education, including elementary, secondary, and college. Of the material\nemployed little has permanent value, or indeed any value whatever, and\nless is retained. Of the methods used only a small part gives power or character. Results are not proportionate to the time and expenditure, and the\npubUc are asking for shorter time, greater efficiency, and an adjustment of\neducational aims to real civic needs, both practical and ideal. But reform\nis slow. We are bound by traditions difficult to break. The question is\ncomplicated by all sorts of minor or inconsequent inquiries, when it should\nbe a simple one of looking at the obvious goal and taking the direct road to it.\nThe first remedy is selection and elimination as applied to subjects and\ntopics of study. The maxim of \"faithfulness in smaU things\" does not\nmean indiscriminate emphasis in use of the material of learning. Judgment of relative values is a chief need of the teacher. QuaHty not quantity\nhas a new significance today. Knowledge and power come from the use of\na few typical things by methods that beget thought; inspiration often\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOP AMERICAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n9$\n\nsprings from a word with a flash of insight. For instance, more would be\ngained by thoro understanding of a dozen chief processes in arithmetic\nthan by any number of mechanical solutions of problems; more by using\na dozen leading principles and experiments in physics than by \"completing the textbook.\" In elementary science, method and interest are of\nfirst value. While much reading in history and literature is desirable,\nthought and inspiration come from a wise use of a few selections. I was\nintroduced to Homer and to mythology by hearing an old farmer recite a\npassage from Pope's Iliad^ and read Macaulay's England on hearing a\nquotation from it with appreciative comments. \"Books that have helped\nme \" and favorite poems that have inspired are few. The essence of Stevenson is contained in a letter, an anecdote, and a prayer. Read Stevenson,\nof course, but study these and get them into the soul. If it is objected that\nthis is a condensed-food theory, I reply that it is not necessary to eat the\nhusk and shell to enjoy the milk in the cocoanut. Extent of ground\ncovered as a criterion for promotion or for admission to college is the American standard of quantity applied to our education. Let the teachers, or\nrather the responsible superintendents and principals and leading educators, employ courage equal to their convictions, and proclaim the gospel\nof quaUty. \"Enriching the curriculum\" was a great idea, but it has been\nsubject to endless abuse, and the time has come to apply the philosophy\nof the \" simple Hfe \" to education.\nThe next source of economy is adapting method to the nature of the\nsubject. The doctrine that all subjects have a like value, should be taught\nin the same way, and produce the same results I believe to be utterly false\nand everywhere harmful. It applies the methods of science to such studies\nas history and literature, and sanctions the \"unit-system\" in collegeentrance requirements — a device convenient enough for the colleges, but\ndestructive of any well-balanced organization of high-school courses.\nSubjects of prime importance whose principles have the widest application\nare especially fitted to cultivate accuracy, perseverance, and endurance.\nOthers should be taught by other methods requiring less of the pupil's time\nand energy. Some fields should be covered by reading, talks, and lectures\nwith no view to examination. To repeat — time can be saved in elementary\nand secondary education by varying the method of instruction according\nto the need of the subject.\nI know this involves the question of whether \"general\" education is\ntheoretically possible. If we were dependent upon certain humorously\nartificial and inconsequent laboratory experiments on the subject, we should\nbe in a sad case indeed. Fortunately common-sense generalization from\nhuman experience rejects hasty inferences from inadequate experiments.\nIt would be well, before it is too late, and \"general\" education is reckoned\namong the lost arts, to send a questionnaire*to the old boys and learn how\nmany are stout in the belief that their real education came from drill in\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\narithmetic, English grammar, Latin, and formal logic; that from these\nstudies they gained accuracy, power of thought and expression, the detective and determining skill of the scientific method, and readiness to discover\nfallacies in the field of argument and of business; that their system, accuracy, and scope in practical affairs are largely due to formal training. We\nknow that general power means nothing except as constituted by specific\nelements — certain ideals of method and of attainment, ways and means in\nstudy and investigation — ^but these do \"transfer\" or \"spread\" and cover\nother fields of mental effort. Moreover, general principles thoroly grasped\nhave endless points of contact with concrete instances, and deduction, with\napplications, from formulated knowledge is a chief work of general education, and is the most efficient and economical. Easy ways, infantile inductions, scatter-brained methods have become fetishes — and I am still\nmindful of the just claims and the beneficent features of the ruling educational doctrines.\nWaste occurs in certain culture work of the grades. Too little may be\nleft to soul development thru the influence of natural surroundings. Artificial teaching of what should be spontaneous growth, imparting inspiration by rule, formulating sentiments are unpedagogical. Nature is subject\nto too much paternalism. Place in the time-table is not needed for many\nculture influences; they come, if at all, thru a personality or a suggestion\nand are incidental to the day's work. Many faults may be committed in\nthe name of kindergarten and of nature-study.\nOther ways of economy may be merely mentioned: Avoid excessive\nuse of rules of method; save time from the laboratory for a knowledge of\nthe subject; for interest and motive create a vision of the value of the best\nthings; use illustrations from the life of today, and in every way vitalize the\nwork of instruction. By some means, constructive or destructive, banish\nlazy indifference, which was wisely regarded by the early church as a deadly\nsin.\nThe elementary and secondary periods of instruction should give the\ntools of education, the methods of study, the power of work, some important\nknowledge of selected subjects, and the desire to learn and the ability to\nthink. It should plant a growing sense of appreciation and a healthy\nphilosophy of life. By the methods suggested it is believed that as much\ncan be accompUshed at eighteen as now at twenty, as much at twenty as\nnow at twenty-two; that the whole period of education, general and special,\ncan, without loss, be shortened at least two years.\nHere we reach the college and its problems. I have little patience with\nsome criticisms aimed at culture education and the foUies of college life;\nthey are frequently the carpings of ignorance or prejudice that lead nowhere.\nThere is reason, however, for an intelHgent examination of the whole question as related to economy of time. The serious faults of the college are\ndue to the length of the whole period of general education, and the elements\nof inefficiency and waste.\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n97\n\nThis country should adopt either the English or the German type of\nuniversity, but not both. In foreign countries the student enters the university, nominally at eighteen, directly from the secondary school. We\ninterpose four years of college — largely a waste in time and method. Do\nnot misunderstand at this point; the idea is not to lower the standard\nof American education, but rather to readjust and strengthen it. It is\nproposed to end the college and begin the university at twenty instead\nof twenty-two, thus saving two years. Of course it is humiliating to concede that our preparatory education must be prolonged even two years to\nequal the standard of the English or German secondary school. But, if\nwe may draw safe conclusions from the report of the English Commission\nand from the Oxford experience with American students, we are lacking\nin thought power and perseverance — and because of methods that in part\ncan be remedied. The university — that is, the graduate school — and the last\ntwo years of college should be shaken together and reorganized into one\ndivision of education, namely, a real university, preparation for which\nshould end at twenty. Progressive university colleges have already\nprepared the way by approximating the last two years to the imiversity\ntype. The plan would eliminate the duplication between high schools and\ncolleges, and reduce the time limit of preparatory education. It would\noffer university methods earHer — an immense pedagogical gain. It would\nhave another advantage. The Ph.D. candidate now proceeds, always\nunder careful guidance, thru four years of high school, four years of college,\nand three or four years of graduate work. Any one whose originality and\nefficient power survive the test is indeed a proven man and worthy of\nresponsibility. For the college teacher an earlier university course and\nsubsequent independent study, original production, and long probation\nwould be more than a substitute for this work of supererogation now\noffered. Years ago, on my first visit to Oxford, in conversation with the\nSecretary of the Examination Schools, the length of the B.A. course at\nOxford was discussed, and the fact that further residence was not required\nfor higher degrees. I remarked that in the newest and wildest part of a\nnew and wild country, among Ute Indians and mountain lions, we had a\nuniversity which required four years beyond the secondary school for the\nB.A. degree, an additional year of residence for the Master's degree, and\nthree years more of residence for the Doctorate. The secretary repHed\nindignantly, \"I regard that, sir, as a work of supererogation.\" I then\nthought he was wrong. He was right.\nIn view of such considerations the Committee referred to has agreed\nprovisionally to a time scheme as follows:\nElementary education\nSecondary education\n(2 divisions: 4 years and 2 years).\n%\nCollege\nUniversity (graduate school and professional schools)\n\n6-12\n12-18\n18-20 or 16-20\n20-24\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe tools of education can be acquired at the age of twelve, and there\nare reasons why high-school methods should begin at about that age, when\nso many pupils leave the elementary schools. The division of the secondary\nperiod into four years and two years lends itself to the plan for industrial\neducation as will be seen later. Moreover, smaller high schools can end at\nsixteen; larger high schools at eighteen or twenty. Small colleges can take\npupils from sixteen to twenty, thus maintaining a four-year course. The\nuniversities can retain two years, namely, from eighteen to twenty.\nLet us see what are the essential consequences of this time scheme in\nterms of pedagogy. Many processes of mental training are easier in the\nearlier years. Beginning high-school methods at twelve will meet the need\nof pupils who at that age are restless and are seeking larger and more varied\ninterests. Twenty is a better age to begin genuine university work than\nlater when the mind is less elastic, energetic, and adaptable. Elimination of\nuseless material will stimulate the interest of pupils and result in harder and\nbetter effort — the time would be filled with important work. It lessens the\nperiod of work that to the pupil appears void of purpose. It makes a better\ndivision of time between receptive study and the larger motor activities.\nMoreover, we must consider results in view of the just claims of our\ncivihzation today. Educational aims must be adapted to civic needs.\nThe history of education shows that it has always been closely related to\nthe dominant needs and ideals of the people at any given period. There\nis no doubt about the public attitude today. The schools will be compelled\nso to reorganize as to meet them in the most efficient way. The proposed\ntime scheme makes a better economic division between preparation for\nlife and active life. It enables men to become established in life earlier,\nand to give more of their best years to social service. It will keep a larger\nnumber in school thru the elementary and preparatory period. It will\neliminate waste and foolishness and thus make more serious and efficient\ncitizens. By introducing earlier the methods that produce power, and by\nselection of the fittest, the proposed reorganization of college and university\nwill enhance the intellectual strength of the nation.\nIt is not intended to make the preparation of teachers a distinct part\nof this subject, but it cannot be wholly omitted. For secondary teaching\nscientific knowledge and power are the first requisite. Here a little learning is a dangerous thing. Sound scholarship, such as only the best college\nand university courses can furnish, alone will remedy the weakness which\nforeign critics believe they discover. High schools and colleges agree\nthat study of education must be part of the teacher's preparation. College\ndepartments of education have here a great field. They can bring the student's mind in contact with the masters of educational thought; they can\nuse the pedagogy found in great literature — ^the best source of the wisdom\nand inspiration of teaching; they can encourage independence and originality in the acquisition and use of principles; they can conduct their work\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOP AMERICAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n99\n\non the plane of liberal culture, and in an atmosphere of scholarship and\nresearch. The normal schools, in the field of elementary education, render\na service beyond the need of commendation, altho they too have reason to\npray without ceasing for new light. But the tendency of normal schools\nin some sections of the country to assume also the function of the college\nand college departments of education in fitting teachers for the high schools,\nat present, is met with large opposition. It is an important economic\nquestion, but, comparatively this is of little consequence, and the mere\ndesires and ambitions of the colleges or schools themselves of less. I am\nfirmly convinced that performing the function of the college in an institution which is in no way its natural or congenial home, and where of necessity method receives chief emphasis, will bring much loss and little gain\nto the high schools, and will in every way weaken the scholarship of this\ncountry. While so large a percentage of the grade and rural teachers lack\nprofessional training, expansion upward is not the right direction for the\nenergy of the normal schools.\nII.\n\nINDUSTRIALISM\n\nAND\n\nHUMANISM\n\nThe problem of reorganization includes very distinctly vocational .education, and only a beginning of the solution has been made in this country.\nThe excellent report of the Council Committee last year makes unnecessary\nmore than a summary of the situation and some suggestions on the questions\ninvolved. The material interests of the country must be promoted by the\nextension of commercial, industrial, technical, and trade instruction. The\nrights of the individual and the welfare of society require practical training leading toward useful occupations for a large class of youth whose period\nof education is limited. There are two views of the means of accomplishment. A large number would provide separate schools. The more conservative would relate all such work to the regular schools, select the industries emphasized in each locality, and make the training for them merely\npreparatory. This special work would be elective, and occupy about onefourth of the school time. Preparatory industrial courses are placed at the\nage of twelve to sixteen; trade courses as such, leading to apprenticeships,\nat sixteen to eighteen. It will be seen that the time scheme previously\ndiscussed, making the high-school period twelve to eighteen with two\ndivisions — four years and two years — readily adapts itself to these needs.\nOf course in large cities there are special problems calling for earlier technical preparation for various industries.\nI believe that most progressive men, who represent high schools and\ncolleges, in a general way, take the affirmative of this question. They also\nstand for the professional and technical side of the universities. Many\nuniversity colleges are \" vocationalizing \" J:he last two years, allowing or\nrequiring students to choose studies leading to engineering, medicine, law,\nteaching, business, or at least to select a particular line of culture.\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBut men who take a broad view cannot go the entire way with the\nradicals. To begin industrial training before the foundation of education\nis laid, to teach the principles of science only as growing out of industrial\nneeds or the applications of science without science, to yield children to\nthe merciless demands and economies of trade, to provide vast and expensive special equipments of every kind, when the great problem is to connect\nall vocational training with existing plants and actual industries, to ignore\nall culture and deny the possibility or value of general education — these\nare at least objectionable propositions. The true aim is to maintain a\nbalance between the material and the spiritual side of our civilization and\nbetween skill and foundation principles. If there is a demand for the practical, there is also an insistent claim for the humanistic side and for profound scientific knowledge.\nThere are two kinds of philosophy that largely dominate the life of\nAmerica, that of Bacon and that of Rousseau. We recognize the marvelous\nstimulation to human thought and material civilization of Bacon's influence,\nand the beneficent humanitarian influence of Rousseau. But the misuse\nof the one fosters the evils of the day — worship of power, success at any cost,\nmaterialism; from the other springs the doctrine of the individual temperament with all its evils of pursuit of inclination, unwise election, easy\nmethods, cheap amusements, and anarchy of soul. These two influences\nrule too much our schools and enter too much into our national life. Any\nreorganization of education will fail unless it is pervaded by sound pedagogy and a healthy philosophy.\nI believe we must adapt to present needs the essential principles of\nHumanism. There is not time, nor is it necessary, to go into the history\nof Humanism, point out its virtues and faults, or make a careful definition\nof it. We may assume what it should mean today. It believes in the value\nof organized and transmitted knowledge, in discipline from studies, in\nselection of the best. It accepts and uses the best in tradition, and works\non the plan of keeping civilization alive. It believes in pure ideals, in standards of excellence and character. It appreciates the importance of the\nhigher viewpoint that shows things in their right proportion, extent of\nvision, the self-possession that is not swayed by mob sentiment or led\nastray by long discarded false doctrines. It advocates a culture that has a\nmoral backbone. It places character above success, and wisdom above\nknowledge. Since Humanism is interest in the lives and thoughts of men\nas revealed in language, literature, and history, it may include all the\nimplications of his nature. Hence it stands for an idealism that makes\nof the universe a living thing, sees in it a universal will, holds as supreme\nsome form of reverence, and a mighty faith in the affirmative side of things.\nWithal it stands for real progress, wise sympathy, and a democracy that\ngives a just opportunity for nobility of intellect and character.\nAs conservative educators grant the reasonable claims for practical\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nloi\n\neflSciency, so they acknowledge the claims of science and its limitless contributions toprogress and human welfare. But the higher interests center\nin man as man. As expressed in a little romance of self-denial, noted\nincidentally: \"Just things don't count very much — it's people that does.\"\nMoral truths that \"smite the soul as with a sword,\" purposes that aim\ntrue, great causes, poetic insights, the good and strong will — ^these are the\nmeasure of real life. Romance is a spiritual thing. Poetry and philosophy\nalone can create a transcendent interest in nature — reveal it as pervaded\nby life and purpose. Labor, all material interests, life itself have not a\nsufficient meaning, unless to them is imparted some spirit of romance whose\nsource is an ideal of absolute value. As it were abroad and desolate, man\nmust have thus some concealed spring of joy — like Stevenson's Lantern\nBearers, who, in the autumn nights of cold and wind and rain, among the\nlonely sand drifts, could exult and sing at the hidden knowledge that they\nhad bull 's eyes at their belts. If you have not the patience for wise treatises,\nand must be entertainea, as is the spirit of the time, by an impressionistic\nstyle, turn to Chesterton for a while — ^he is not so crazy as at first appears,\nand may have a message for you.\nThere never was so great a need of an intelligent view of the place of\nHumanism in education. Leaders of educational thought have here their\ngreatest work — nothing short of giving teachers and the public a sound\nphilosophy of life, a true estimate of real culture, and the ways and means\nof making humanistic studies effective in education. For this high service\nof the teacher are needed — first, a strong personality, a cheerful outlook, an\nidealistic view, a power of appreciation; second, a knowledge of the means\nof education for power, of vital moral training, of imparting inspiration by\nthe deeds and thoughts of men. This view is not an argument for classics,\nonly for the principles of humanistic study; it does not neglect science or\nindustry; it endeavors to maintain a proper balance in education. The\npeople demand that the spiritual side shall find a place in our schools and\nin our national life, and any scheme of reorganization must reckon with\nthe fact.\nin.\n\nWILL\n\nIf there is a criticism more just than another it is that the schools do not\ngive satisfactory results in terms of will. Will training is the third of the\nvital problems of reorganization, but, perhaps, first in importance. Ease\nand luxury are condemned for making soft bodies and feeble souls. Easy\nliving, easy work, following likes and dislikes, never facing necessity, ruin\ncharacter. With all our progress it is claimed that in point of will power\nwe are inferior to other periods of civilization. This is an evil of society,\nbut also of the schools, and because much of the educational philosophy is\nsoft. Rousseau's doctrines are not a saie guide in character-making. If\nnothing else, the schools must teach accuracy, perseverance, and endurance.\nA child that suffers no hardship is on the road to perdition. It is not neces-\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsary to go to the treatises on ethics; read Kipling's recent poem entitled\n\"If\" and get the whole philosophy of the will; use it for yourselves and for\nyour pupils. Kipling knows the doctrine of the will in character and the\npoetry of the will in industry, and, in the better sense of the word, maintains for it an imperial standard. And by the way, we never shall have an\ninspiring science of education until we can read it out of writers like Kipling,\nStevenson, Thackeray, Dickens, out of the Bible, out of the philosophers and\nthe poets — revelations of human nature surpassing the professional formulas.\nI know the ethical significance of science and of industry; they give\nsociety a kind of material moral backbone. But many mechanical occupations require morals more than skill. As machiner}^ more and more does\nthe work of the world, the demand for responsibility will increase — the\nsense of duty that prevents waste and loss and accidents. The lack of\nefficiency in most industries and professions, when it is not a lack in foundation education, is largely moral. Humanism regards not the work only but\nman's attitude toward it. The business world will make a fearful economic\nmistake, if it insists on making of youth machines instead of men.\nIn a larger sense will depends upon great life motives that control the\naims and acts of every day. The alleged feeble spiritual power of the\nschools today is the occasion of the fresh interest in broad religious education, in the wise use of the Bible as furnishing great moral insights, and in\nthe essential ideals of our civilization. It shall be a chief work of the reorganized schools to inspire youth with a few of the great sentiments that\nare the saving principles of the nations. These must be made convictions,\nsuch as men fight for, like the chivalric sense of honor or truth. Zola's\nTruth is a classic on the schoolmaster's power to teach a living and lasting\nsense of verity and justice. All culture must have a moral basis. Without\nit culture is selfish, enjoys its own attainments, and seeks pleasure. Whenever the moral element has lacked emphasis, education and civilization\nhave suffered. Omar Khayyam, clothing an imsound philosophy in surpassingly beautiful verse, represents degenerate culture, and oriental\ndecay. Martin Luther, singing his song of faith and defying the devil,\nrepresents the strength, health, and optimism that have made a triiunphant\nwestern civilization. This is not a matter of rhetoric or of impossible\nideals. While we recognize the scientific methods and the spirit of truth\nemployed in the researches of psychology and pedagogy, and the many\nsound contributions to the science of education, we must feel that some of\nour educational principles are wrong and that the pedagogy of ethics is\nstill inadequate. Bacon, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Spencer, misunderstood and\nmisapplied as they often are, may do much to weaken a healthy philosophy\nof education and of life. There is a lack of food that makes men of sterner\nstuff. For the higher psychology of ethics turn to Plato, the Old Testament Proverbs that ''open all the abysses with a word,\" the arousing and\nstrengthening forces in literature, all prophets of the soul.\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n103\n\nWhenever I have discussed these questions as related to the ideals\nof our civilization today, I have been promptly. informed that I was \"all in\nthe air\" and that the attempt was futile. Does anyone doubt that our\ncivilization needs efficiency, the vision of a spiritual ideal, the strong will\nfor great causes and moral crises? Does anyone doubt that the people\nare demanding these results from the schools? Does anyone doubt that\nreorganization must come, if not from within, then by outward compulsion,\nand that it is the better part for us to get about the work speedily ?\nTHE OPPORTUNITY\nMRS.\n\nEMMONS\n\nOF THE\n\nBLAINE,\n\nTEACHER\n\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe opportunity of the teacher is the greatest opportunity in the world\ntoday or ever. In these United States of America today it might be called\nthe opportunity to save the country,\nI suppose to every age of the world there appear reasons why the needs\nof that moment are the most urgent that could be. To the eye that\nsees mistakes, the correction of those mistakes becomes of paramount\nimportance. When the world in sufficient mass has seen its mistakes and has\ncorrected them and has thus proceeded to a further stage of its development,\nthe heights to which it has arisen may dim the height of those ascents it has\nbut just scaled, and the effort, the struggle, the means that accomplished\nthe ascent, may fade in importance to the backward view.\nBut this is true only of the backward view that loses, from its limit of\nvision, all detail. If we could see history as history is, it would be a\nsuccession of present views and we should see the vital nature of all steps\nof humanity forward or backward; and we should see the pre-eminent\nimportance at each step of the forces that advanced or retarded progress,\nof the leaders who pointed the way.\nWhile it is true that the dimness of the before and after helps to make\nour own day stand out to us as pivotal, it would be a mistake to suppose\nthat this emphasis is false.\nFor a full view of the march of humanity would reveal to us that we are\na part in a great process of formation, and that each moment that gathers\nup the past and constructs it for the future is pivotal for all that is to come.\nIt is strange that we take to extremes in our view of our own relation\nto the whole. If we do not grow too anxious and even foreboding because\nof our responsibilities, we are apt to sleep at our posts and consider ourselves\nmere cogs in a machine, to take what comes from before and hand it on to\nwhat comes after in a mechanical fashion, forbearing, almost dreading, it\nsometimes seems, any imprint of our own upon it.\nWe have not yet learned the right view of our own part in the progress\nof the world — the attitude of inheritors W riches verily, who are thereby\nconstrained to put them to better and better uses for succeeding genera-\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "104\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\ntions — the attitude of constructive responsibility, with entire courage as\nwell as wise conservatism.\nThere are elements in the times we see and feel around us that give us\nthe keen sense of the pivotal nature of our own day.\nOur nation was not begun as other nations. Our country did not, like\nTopsy, just grow. It was brought forth in the throes of migration and\nrevolution — a child of oppression. Its foundation was an assertion of\nhuman rights, a revolt against human wrongs. Its beginning was a fully\nconscious and highly determined effort to attain for a people the principle\nof liberty — freedom for the individual to worship God according to his own\nconviction and freedom for the community to govern itself by representation. It was a demand for privilege — the privilege of principle — and that\nprivilege for all under its constitution.\nWe stand among all the nations as the great experiment of a wholly\nrepresentative government. The nations of the earth turn to us with eyes\nof longing and expectancy and question, as to the result of a last chance in\nthe westward course of Empire on this old round earth — and we have their\nquestions to answer:\nIs our representative government a home of religious feeling ?\nIs our representative government an avenue for the true freedom of a community's\ngovernment of itself ?\nIs our demand for the privilege of having principles and standing on them, having\nits fruition in our being a nation of principle ?\n\nIt is a common experience to find those of other countries, who come to\nour shores with these questions in their minds, carrying back, beneath their\ncourteous appreciation of all of our achievements, a sad feeling of disappointment.\nTheir view of us is not so important to us as our view of ourselves —\nand it is not so much to our point to ask what they find, as to tell ourselves\nwhat they may find, to disappoint them.\nThat our country was founded on principles no one can question.\nWhether we are carrying it on on the same plane may be questioned.\nWe must freely say to ourselves, if we see clearly, that we cannot call\nourselves a nation of strong religious feeling. It is but to put the question :\nWould we be more apt today to seek a country where we could be free to\nworship God after our own conviction or to stay in any place that furthered\na material advantage or satisfied a selfish interest ?\nWe must more freely and surely say, if we see at all, that our principle\nof self-government does not always work, does not always have much\nrelation to the will of the community; but furthermore, that the community ishalf the time more concerned that the government does not\ninterfere with its projects to get ahead of its neighbor, or to gain the almighty\ndollar, than to know that freedom is preserved, that true representation is\nmaintained and that honor and justice are upheld. We see the supplant-\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n105\n\ning of the desire for free representative government by the desire for free,\nundisturbed chance for the getting of money — ^be the government free or\nfettered, representative or boss-ridden, owned as a sacred right or bartered. We see pictures on every hand of the subordinating of our institutions to commercial gain.\nHave we, in the phrase of our beloved vernacular, made good — to our\nforefathers — to the world — to ourselves? We cannot say yes. We may\nnot in trueness to the best that is in us say a final no. We must say, not\nyet. Then how may we? is one of the chief questions on this earth.\nDoes all this seem to be a far cry from the opportunity of the teacher ? It\nis not ! It is the heart of the whole subject.\nOur country had its origin in the minds of its people — of its great who\nled and its great who upheld them. Our country's strength, its principles,\nwere in the purpose and in the hearts of its citizens. Its citizens of tomorrow are all in your hands.\nWhere, in any steps up in the march of mankind, has the teacher been\nabsent? In the olden days he wore a cowl. He could only live within\nthe church. With her protection only could he give the light that was in\nhim. Today he needs no protection. He may teach there, too, but he\nneed not. He has the arena of every schoolroom in this country. He has\nthe ears of the attentive, Hstening multitudes, of our children — our best\ncitizens, our citizens who are waiting only to be taught, to be led, to be\ninspired, to know their part as citizens of this country, in order to go forward\nto bear that part nobly. He has our whole body politic of the future\nAmerica in his hands. He has it before the soil of selfish commericalism\nin its adult form has more than reached its ears, before the grip of materialism has it by the throat. He has it in the fresh morning of youth when\ndawn is there, when morning beams gleam, when vision is awakening and\nlonging to open its eyes to fine, clear sights and sounds. Oh the squandering of human nature! that we let that morning so greatly slip by us, to have\nall its chances filled with sordidness, or left by neglect to the haphazard\nchance or mischance. What possession have we other than our human\nchildren that we treat so carelessly ?\nYou have them. They are yours to redeem; and they are the only\nhope for the redeeming of our nation. Every child is a possibility. Not\nonly the children whose parents help them to ideals, but every child has the\ndivine spark and may be awakened to the ideals of those who founded our\nnation — aye, and perhaps higher. Each generation that is built should be\nbuilt higher than the last. There is no hope that this country of ours may\ntake the great ideals of its foundation and carry them to their highest\ndestiny, except that the youth of the laiid be awakened, and catch the vision\nof principle, and of purpose, and of the endurance of hardship, privation\nand loss for principle, because of purpose — ^there is no hope but that the\nyouth of the land be aroused to live that principle and that purpose.\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n*\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n■\n\nIGeneral\n\nThey are waiting thruout the length and breadth of our country to\ncatch the fires of principle and purpose from you — to catch the enthusiasm\nof principle and purpose that comes alone thru the daily work, the daily\ninstruction — and, coming so, burns itself into the fiber of character that\nmakes citizens. The youth of the land is in your hands. The redeeming,\nthe salvation of our country, the molding of its future, rests largely with\nyou.\nPerhaps the greatest need today in the teacher's opportunity is to place\nthe teacher's work on the plane where it innately belongs, as the most\nvital, the most difficult, and the most exalted work that is to be done for\na people, requiring higher powers, intellectual and spiritual, than any other\nservice for the community.\nWhen we look back we think we have fallen away from a higher conception, which the world has held at times, of the power and dignity of\nteaching as a profession. We jump back to Greece and see how Plato and\nAristotle molded the republic. We may recognize in the origin of the power\nand authority of the Roman church the natural deference to the conservers\nof learning, to the one teaching body. We may come nearer and take\nglances at modern Europe and see with sadness how much more valued there\nis the profession of teaching than in our own land.\nBut it is not backward nor to foreign shores that we need to look.\nFrom our own minds must come the light that will lead us. From within\nour own borders come the watchwords of William James, Francis Parker,\nJohn Dewey, and hosts of others, exalting teachers and teaching. It is\nforward that we must gaze, for we know that the world has never yet had\na full view of the glorious possibilities of its dealings with its children.\nTo see these means the vision of the dreamer in the trained mind of the\neducator, and to draw these from the clouds of vision or from the plans\nof the sage into the life of the child, means the teacher, with intuition,\ngrasp, sympathy, force, and a heartful of love for the child, as well as a\nheadful of training — and it means an army of them.\nIt would be a mistake to suppose that a nation could be built or that ours\nneed be built wholly by the dictation of the profession to irresponsible\nparents. But it would be an equal mistake to think that a nation can grow\naright if all of the child's real self is left to the parents for development by\nirresponsible teachers.\nCo-operation between teachers and parents — ^leadership of the parents\nby the teachers, when they need leading — is the only way in which our\nyouth can be brought to their best.\nWhen parents have the right attitude toward their children they are\nthe natural, rightful leaders, and must go hand in hand with the work of\neducation. But when parents are day by day undoing a teacher's best\nwork, are steadily vitiating the work of education by a wholly harmful\nattitude, it sometimes seems as if the teacher should have the power to\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n107\n\ndiscipline them! A schoolmaster said to me once in despair that he could\nmake his school a good one if he could turn it into an orphan asylum!\nThere is another deeper reason why parents and teachers must cooperate. The parents who make the teacher long for an orphan asylum\nare the parents who are probably alienating as well as spoiling their children year by year, and in the end the tragedy of a severed relation will\noccur. This relation must be saved if possible, even by the teacher.\nIn our country, with our tremendous influx of foreign population, there\nare causes severing parents and children that are due not to unwisdom but\nto the division created by the new acquirements of the younger generation.\nThe school is the flowing stream where the past and present may unite for\nour incoming citizens. The parent and the teacher must work together.\nBut in the last analysis, must not the high light come to education from you\nwho have knelt at that shrine in dedicating yourself to a Hf ework ? Must\nthe whole country not ask of you help, inspiration, and leadership, ideas\nwhich shall permeate the whole community in what should be our chief\nconcern — the development of our youth ?\nThis is, of a truth, a high calling, a mighty opportunity: to re-create the\nlives of individuals; to influence the life of a nation; to build the nation\nof the next generation; to help to create out of the present a better future;\nto demand and hold the attention of our country by inspiration, by entreaty,\nor if need be by the authority of purpose and determination to its highest\nduty, its greatest privilege, the concentration of all our forces, material and\nimmaterial, on bringing the education of our children to the highest point\nthat science and inspiration can show us.\nThis is the work of teachers, of prophets, of seers. Are they not synonymous? For you cannot teach unless you try to see and you cannot\nsee unless you keep searching the sky. This is the work of a mission, and\nit can only be done in the spirit of a mission.\nWhen Mrs. Young gave me the invitation to come and speak to you\nhere today, the sense of inadequacy and lack of very much contribution\nto give you tried to hold me back. But it was of no avail — the grip of the\nteachers would not let me go. The chance of trying to add something to\nthese counsels held me.\nFor years I had thought a great deal about teachers and teaching. I had\ncome to the thought wholly from the standpoint of how teaching could best\nbe done, and all the teachers whom I have had the happiness to know had\nlooked at the question from that angle. Once a long time ago an incident\nhappened to me which showed me teaching from another standpoint with a\nvividness of contrast that I can never forget. Just as I was in the full tide of\nthe fervor of the thought of teaching for teaching's sake, for children's sake,\nthere came to me — I cannot now tell you hpw or from where, the detail is gone ;\nI retain only the vivid memory of the great revulsion of feeling that struck\nme — there came thru the press, the report of a discussion of teachers' rights\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto retain jobs — a discussion that had no relation to the performance or the\nfitness of the teacher, no relation to the children; a discussion that treated\na teacher's position on the same basis as any commodity, a ton of coal or a\npound of floor; on the same basis as any daily job, shoveling the coal or\nbaking the flour, and demanded that when a teacher had once acquired it,\nno matter how, no one should steal it from her — quite on the idea that the\nonly question in her losing her job was her loss of her pocketbook.\nThis presentation of the question, unrelated to any consideration save\nthat of gain, was a distinct shock. My mind grew hot at the idea, my spirit\ngroaned inwardly, and I remember thinking helplessly: Would it ever be\npossible to try to tell teachers how that idea perverts their divine calUng ?\nWould it ever be possible to try to present the cause of true teaching in\nsuch a light that commercialism could not in that light retain on it even\na faint grasp? — to show that tho the means of living may be considered\nfair game, this bird is too sacred to be shot? — to show that the finest\nbeauty of the teaching profession is that it is not held primarily for the\nteacher but primarily for the child ?\nI fear that the intense longing of that moment is partly responsible\nfor your being committed to listen to me today, for when the invitation\ncame to speak to this great body on teaching I could not say no.\nThat particular idea, of a divine work dealt with as a money value, is\nthe idea, thank God, that starts revolutions. When it became clear\nenough in his opinion to Martin Luther that the church of that day was\ntrading in divinities, his protest started a new church. When a like era\ncame, in some men's minds, in the Church of England, and it felt to some\nthat places were being fattened by the church, livings parceled out, instead\nof souls saved, the same thing happened — a new move toward the spiritual\nmeaning of the church's work. And it will ever be so. When churches\nseem to loss their high interpretation other churches will arise.\nThe human spirit soars. It must in the end do its highest work nobly.\nNo work done for the human race is higher than the work of bringing\nits children into their own heritage — ^possession of themselves and of the\nworld thru education.\nWhen American schools hold the chance to perform this high service\nas a commercial job, there will be a revolution.\nBut they will not — ^they cannot. The terms even of that discussion\ndo not truly mean that in its full sense. Let us not use the terms, then,\nlest they might mislead even one. Let us instead fling wide the other\nidea. I would like to have teachers write into their contracts a clause to\nthe effect that when anyone can be found to do the work better, that one\nshould be placed there instead — this only to have all concerned sign and\nseal to the high altar at which that service is offered. The teacher is a\npriest and humanity is the altar and there is but one test for the continuance of the relation — that it is a service to humanity.\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions] .\n\nTHE\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n109\n\nThere are two sides to the money question in teaching.\nOne side is given us from our great book: \"You cannot serve God\nand Mammon.\" If the uplifting of the child is the aim of teaching, the\nmoney cannot be. Therefore the money must not be, cannot be, the aim\nof teaching.\nThe other side is that for the highest service nothing is too high. It\nis the community's failure to grasp the significance and value of teaching\nwhich leaves to teachers' efforts the proper valuation of their work. It\nis the community that must see that heights are reached in the recompense\nfor this high work. Under the economic conditions of today, a man's or\na woman's first duty is to self-support. A still higher duty calls on the\nearning capacity of the individual. A teacher may not squander the lives\nof others even if he would his own. And it becomes the duty of the community that accepts the unbounded gift of the teacher to see that no such\npredicament is presented to one who, fitted to that great task, throws his\nsoul and his life into teaching. The community will come to — not conceed — ^but demand, money payment for the work of teaching commensurate with the payment of the highest experts in any field. It needs but\nthe conception of the community of what it must have for its children, of\nwhat it must give to its children and of how highly it must rate those who\nare making their lives — in the rating of earning power as well as of esteem\nand of gratitude. To reach this conception, it is you who must help to\nshow the truth.\nThat truth can never come out of the spirit of exaction. It will come\nonly out of the spirit of devotion, the spirit that would find a happiness in\nmaking ends meet for the sake of a cause, that would find a beauty in\neconomy for the sake of something higher than material goods. The spirit\nthat would cast oneself in to the extent that one could, with joy in the\ncasting, will send beams — has sent beams — shining thru our country;\nbeams of light that are bringing on the dawn of our higher education. To\nput the teachers of America's sons and daughters on this plane of devotion\nI should call one of the greatest opportunities on the earth today. Without\nthe spirit of the teacher, no pedagogy, no methods, no plans can be built\nto succeed. With the great army of America's teachers all moving as on a\nmission, half the battle of the future is won.\nThe other half concerns the questions: What shall we teach? How\nshall we teach ? My great quarrel with education today, speaking generally,\nis that those questions are taken so largely in their narrow sense and\nanswered usually from a narrow view: What shall we afford pupils as\naccomplishments ? and how shall we do it to make the accomplishments\nstick ?\nThese lines of thought do not to my mind touch the first principles of\neducation, and when so much as that is discussed and settled, the real\nquestion has not yet begun nor been broached.\nThe prime question is:\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWhat are we doing to develop the natures of the children ? How may we\ndo to bring them to their highest point of character and usefulness to the\ncommunity ?\nCurricula may come and go, may vary in various communities and\nclimes; methods may be tried and discarded and all the while improved\nas one tries out tools; all without deviating a hair's breadth from the main\npoint aimed at, if the great underlying purpose goes on forever and is ever\npresent. But when discussions and decisions on these lesser issues have no\nrelation to the harbor to reach, the ship seems rudderless and tossing on the\nseas.\nIn this realm, education has been handicappedby having some set harbors\nwhich it must reach in its curriculum. The college sets a narrow door thru\nwhich all pupils must go, and the business man sets other standards as\narbitrary and as necessary. Then both make outcry that the schools do\nnot meet their particular demands with efficiency. Any work attempted\nwithout efficiency does harm to the pupil. That goes without saying. It\nis as necessary to teaching as breath is to life.\nBut I make outcry that their questions touch but the tenth part of\nteaching and that they are almost the only questions asked by the community ingeneral, and that in meeting these questions the real fundamental\nquestions of school work are lost.\nIt is hardly ever asked of the schools whether they are preparing clearer,\nkeener, and more efficient voters and workers for the State. This is the\nfirst business of the schools of the country, and it receives but little attention from the public who constitute themselves the schools' critics, but who\nmust be led instead to see the greatest values and real responsibilities of the\nschool.\nCitizenship means the rounded development of character supported by\npowers of the mind. It is for this goal that we must steer all our courses,\nand our success in reaching it thru our education must be our one final test\nof its success. Have we reached it? Have we succeeded in our great\nsystem of education ?\nWe say we have not yet made good as Americans. Let us take a glance\nat the pre-eminent shortcomings that hinder us and see if they have for\nus indications wherein our educational system may be at fault. What are\nthe root qualities to which should be ascribed any failure of our country\nto make good as yet to its beginnings ? Or, to put it differently, and not\nto view the progress of our country always with a backward glance: What\nare the qualities in us which s^em to be endangering our progress toward our\nhighest goal ? The mind's eye runs over the high points of our national\nshortcomings.\nWe find three great avenues of weakness:\nFirst, the inadequacy of our government. The best people are not\nalways sought to fill our offices; the current methods are bungling in many\ndirections; the right compensation for service to the community is little\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nIII\n\nthought of; the subjects needing governmental care are many of them\nneglected; the governmental machinery is left to be used or abused by\nany who will. And under these conditions our leading citizens are pursuing\ntheir own way with few thoughts given to their duties as citizens, and those\nfew weak enough to be stifled in hopelessness ! The lack of responsibility\nof our most responsible people on this subject is an amazing fact today!\nNext, we are appalled by the utter thoughtlessness and carelessness for\nany and all conditions for others of so many of our money-makers in their\nmad rush for wealth; the general acceptance of the theory, \"the Devil take\nthe hindmost\" — the naive question, \"Am I my brother's keeper?\" and\nthe wonder that it should seriously be considered that one man could\nthink of the welfare of another while they work under the divine law of\ncompetition. These mean a deep lack of any true sense of the meaning\nof citizenship. They bode ill for the harmonious and real solution of the\nquestions appearing with such vast moment in our country between so-called\ncapital and so-called labor. They bode ill for that real democracy which\nin its greater, deeper unity of man working for man, makes null and void\nany such paltry division of people.\nAnd again, we are confronted by the general lack of discipline and regard\nfor law. 6ut of this glance there stand out two monsters that glare thru\nit all so fiercely that we are driven to call them the leading spirits in our\nweaknesses — materialism and selfish ambition.\nThe actors on our stage today were once children. The leaders of our\ncivilization were once in the nursery and in the schoolroom. If they are\nmaking mistakes in their leading, if they and those they lead are being\ndominated by materialism and selfish ambition, it is fair to ask of their\ntraining. It is true that training and influence cannot anticipate nor prepare for all conditions. It is probable that the unwonted success of American industry, of American enterprise, has gone to the American head, and that\nin the conditions confronting adults come the causes of the shortcomings.\nBut is not the purpose of training, the meeting of adult conditions ? Home\nand school must join hands in the search for the responsibility of an unsatisfactory national attitude. But I should like to see the school seek the\ngreater part of the responsibility in its eagerness to emanate a clearer\nlight.\nLack of responsibility in the government and for the government. Is\nour school system likely to fortify its growing citizens against this deadly\nevil which, just so far as it exists, must be striking at the very root of our\nnational life ? Responsibility is of a surety the first quality that the right\nschool life must develop. Yet I cannot see, as I think over schools in general\nwith their red-tape methods of discipline, that responsibility, that finest\nflower of the right disciplinary relation between pupil and teacher, has very\nmuch chance for consideration or for growth.\nThoughtlessness and carelessness for others in all the relations of life.\nDoes the school system plan that this weed shall be early uprooted and be\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nsupplanted by the beauty of always considering others? How can we\neven talk of supposing that we are arousing in our education a civic sense of\ncaring for the whole, when the fundamental basis of the plan of school\nachievement is for each pupil to get out all he can for himself regardless of,\nor even essentially against, all comers; when the basic idea in every recitation and in every course of study and in every department, is to shine —\nif possible, ahead of others; and when all the marks and ratings are on this\nplan ? It is ingrained in the whole system. How can we wonder, then, if\nlater in life these same citizens in pulling out their plums, care nothing for\nthe size of the other fellow's and never even imagine dividing up ?\nRegardlessness for law ! Is our school system building up in our youth a\nfine, high regard for law? I fear that the view of the school system is\nlimited to its need for having its own laws observed instead of thru them\ndeveloping a regard for law in its pupils; and I fear that the easy methods\nto accomplish this are usually resorted to — ^the threat and infliction of\npetty penalties and the offer of petty bribes — ^which place the law-keeping\non such a shallow basis, that it almost makes the enterprise, so often undertaken by the high-spirited youth, of breaking the law and escaping the\npenalty, the dignified thing that it seems to him. We cannot suppose that\na police system consisting of bribes and penalties is going to affect the\ncharacter of the pupil except to disregard laws so artificially related to him.\nUnless we can get the kind of interest in the laws that he will have if he\nhelps to make them, I do not see that we are really making him deeply\nappreciative of law.\nMaterialism! The only antidote for materialism is, to be filled with an\nidealism. Does our school system place before all teachers always that\ntheir great work is to develop souls ? Is. that the keynote of our educational\nidea? If not, how can we wonder at a materialistic outcome for these\nindividuals who are in our schools in the germ ? I fear that the school has\nbeen on a more or less factory-like basis — taking in raw material and turning\nout product, of thinking and counting machines. I fear that the school\nhas shirked its share in the finer side, the spirit part, the character of the\nchildren.\nSelfish ambition! It would be absurdity even to ask whether our school\nsystem is shaped to eradicate selfish ambition. I must think that the\nselfish ambition of the American is more than a result of the neglect of the\nschools. I must think that, however unknowingly, we are carefully\ndeveloping selfish ambition in the school life of our children. We have not\ndeliberately set forth to do this. We have not said we will create the type\nof citizen who will prey upon his kind ruthlessly for his own advantage.\nWe have not prepared courses of study with this end in view. We have\nnot erected this picture of the ideal American to work toward as an achievement. But the fact remains that we greatly achieve it. The thing has\ncome differently. We are caught by the system. The demands of the\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nI13\n\ncommunity, of certain specified results of the thinking-machine type, seem\nnecessary to meet. The educational proposition has been too big for us.\nThe very mass of it is overpowering. We have not had time to stop and\nthink just what our main aim should be. To meet the community's\ndemands and carry on the ordinary routine business of running our vast\nnetwork of schools has been all that we could do. To produce the results we\nmust have a strong leverage of some sort on the pupils — a powerful principle that will work.\nSelf-interest is an easy one — oh, so ready to hand. Mankind is in the\ndelusion that the only way to do anything is by downing someone else.\nWith its fine lack of reason it holds up the other way as the most worthy\nand to be admired and fiercely practices all the while the cut-throat principle. The general acceptance of the competitive idea as the only workable\nbasis for any achievement presses closely from every side on the schools.\nWe shut our eyes and grasp this tool of selfishness. We take this little\ninborn seed and assiduously cultivate it from the first year of school to the\nlast and by its aid attain certain results we point to with satisfaction. We\nsmile sadly at moments, and sympatheticaUy, at the unfortunate elements\nof human nature, and go on sublimely cultivating them just the same. At\nthe end we send forth products to wrestle with these same carefully and\nsuccessfully cultivated qualities of selfishness and, with or without the aid\nof churches, to undo the work just as far as possible if they may hope for\nsalvation. And then we wonder that, as we look about us, at the civilization these results are poured out into, we find a self-centered civilization —\na civilization on the whole, keyed to the note of selfish ambition, not much\nminding whether its success spells ruin to others, not questioning whether\nthe good to it is the good to the whole, rather pluming itself than otherwise that its credit marks mean marks over some less favored.\nWe must face the fact that our schools are the hot-bed of our civilization, with its faults, and when we find a question at the end, we must come\nback with the question to the beginning. We must free our minds of this\nclutch of circumstance and stand and look and think and intelligently plan.\nYou must come where, whatever the community may say to you, you will\nsay to it that it must listen while you deliver to it the high policies that must\nprevail in the elevation of its youth, if you take your part in that epochmaking process which is education.\nHere, then, is the culmination of the teacher's opportunity: To create\nthe teaching process that will make the citizen of the future. He must be\nresponsible — not passively but actively; an integer in the formation of the\nstate — seeking and acquiring the training that will make him an intelligent\ncivic force. His citizenship must be based on principle and on an ideal.\nHis principle and ideal must lead him t(4 sacrifice himself for them. His\nprivilege that he seeks must be the privilege of serving. And his powers\nmust be enlarged to make these qualities effective.\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThis citizen of the future cannot be without the co-operation of the home\nand the school in his formation. The home cannot alone bring this to pass\nthruout the land. The school must lead the way.\nWhat kind of a school of the future, then, can lead the way to this\ncitizenship? First and foremost, every school for teachers must be a\nschool of the prophets, and every school in the country must catch that\nspirit. This school of the future must be a vital force in the community —\nnot holding itself apart in a remote territory, but sharing in all phases of\ncommunity life. It must be ready to play a leading part, ready to be a\ncorrectional force, if necessary, where youth is concerned, by inspiration\nand suggestion. Its home should be the home of the community. Its\ninfluence should be that of a friend, and there should be no community\ninterest that might not find there its rightful arena for expression. The\neducation of the school of the future must be based on the principle of\ncitizenship. Its intellectual work must be based on the scientific principles of teaching. It must never rest on principles or on work achieved,\nbut must be ever setting its face to discover new truths. The school that\nwill bring to the world the kind of citizens that alone make the hope of the\nworld must be ready to lay down the law when need be. It should refuse\nto assimcie care of so much of the lifetime of the youth of a nation, to be so\n■ large a factor in the lives of children as it is, unless it may hold the crucial\nelements in the development of children to be its first responsibility. It\nshould refuse to carry on its work of the construction of human beings,\nunder conditions in which it is impossible to fulfill that sacred work. No\nteacher can be rightly responsible for fifty children! The school must be\nmore fully manned. The school must make the leaders of our nation listen,\nmust make the financiers of our country take heed, to see that the resources\nfor the financing of our greatest national work are amply provided.\nWhat are battleships, what are Panama canals, what are land-ways or\nwater-ways in comparison with our children ? What a shortsighted, ignorant people we are, with our eyes so fastened on the ground and our own next\npetty step that we lose all sight of the day that this dawn of youth means !\nIt is the schools that must awake us to the prime need above all other\nneeds, to the prime joy above all other joys, of placing our children where\nthey, at least, have all wise gifts to make them men and women.\nThis school of the future must take great note of the physical wellbeing of our children. We are chargeable in America by most of the other\nnations of the civilized world with neglect on this score. It must not be.\nWe must build for a stronger race physically than we yet have, and we must\nbuild while it is yet young.\nThis school must put its intellectual work on the basis of the highest\nscience, and this it must do with the highest efficiency. It must keep\nabreast with all established discoveries. It must hold its achievement in\nthat realm to be the development of thinking power, not the cramming of\nfact; of judgment, not of imitation; of action rather than of memory.\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nOPPORTUNITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n115\n\nBut above all, this school of the future must hold the character which\nis the result of its education as its first thought. It must seek to develop\nthe will and not the mere tendency to follow a rule. It must cultivate selfcontrol, and not a submission that is a result of any rod. It must make\nto grow an independence and individuality of character that will not submit\nitself to the copying of false or of arbitrary standards. It must cultivate\nvariety rather than conformity. It must create a demand in that individual for thoughts rather than for things. In this school it will be deemed\nno more possible to appeal to selfishness, as a motive power for work, than\nto develop smallpox or measles, for some ulterior purpose. Punishment\nwill disappear as a threat or a menace, reward will disappear as a bribe, and\nit will be of no moment that one excels over another. The only point of\nexcellence will be to excel over oneself. Ambition of the selfish sort will\nbe wiped out, and only the rightful, rational ambition to do one's best will\nbe left in its place. Competition will be relegated to the field of sports —\nrivalry for amusement ! To try seriously to get ahead of a co-pupil, will be\nsuch an insignificant and out-of-date idea as to command no attention\nwhatever. Co-operation will reign in the place of competition and mutual\nachievement be the thing to note — each contributing his share and that\nshare growing ever better and better. It will be an ignoble thing to note\nor count whose share is the largest. The only fact to make sure will be\nthat one's own share grows larger with one's growing powers 1\nIn this school the teacher will hold ever before the pupil an ideal which\nis constantly acting on his higher nature, in great moments and in small, so\nthat his mind and his spirit are moving instinctively toward that ideal\nas a flower turns toward the sun. This ideal will so dominate the whole\nrealm of work that it will itself grow to be a part of every individual, and\nthat ideal will be the best in every individual, and it will move toward all\nthe greatness that is in the world.\nIn this school the fundamental principle of growth will be, as it is in\ntruth, the prime law on which all things are based. The misleading will-o'the-wisp called \"finishing\" — that falsehood masquerading as a principle —\nwill be banished, and the school itself, and all persons in it, teachers and\npupils alike, will walk forward in a great progress of growth, never finishing\nbut always like all things in the world, going higher.\nAnd so this school will not be a factory but a garden. And in this\ngarden will always be a playground, and in that playground will be the best\nof all the education — pure joy.\nHow sublime is the teacher's opportunity! On our great American\npublic-school system to build out of the past the school of the future. To\nbring from its portals citizens, not to fit society, but from their great qualities, to make society; to re-create and uplift a nation.\nThe need is great.\n\nThe opportunity*is golden.\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii6\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nMARGARET\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF PERSONALITY\n\niGeneral\n\nTHRU\n\nEDUCATION\n\nE. SCHALLENBERGER, PRINCIPAL OF TRAINING\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL. SAN JOSE, CAL.\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nSubtle, illusive, unanalyzable, and indefinable as personality is, it has\nnevertheless thruout all the ages maintained a supremacy as one of the most\npotent factors in life. No one will deny that equally and sometimes far\nmore telling than the truths set forth by leaders in politics, science, art,\nletters, or religion have been the influence, the power, the persuasiveness, the\nindescribable charm of their personalities. On the other hand, many a\nroyal truth has failed to obtain recognition because there was no \"power\nbehind the throne.\" To be sure, conditions sometimes seem to force comparatively weak personalities into prominence, providing opportunities\nwhich they have only to grasp; yet, after all, it requires a certain amount\nof insight to be able even to see an opportunity, and weak personalities do\nnot possess this insight. Who does not appreciate Edward Rowland Sill's\nwonderful poem ?\nOpportxjnity\nThis I beheld, or dreamed it in a dream:\nThere spread a cloud of dust along a plain;\nAnd underneath the cloud, or in it, raged\nA fmious battle, and men yelled, and swords\nShocked upon swords and shields. A prince's banner\nWavered, then staggered backward, hemmed by foes.\nA craven hung along the battle's edge.\nAnd thought, \"Had I a sword of keener steel —\nThat blue blade that the king's son bears — but this\nBlunt thing — !\" he snapt and flung it from his hand.\nAnd lowering crept away and left the field.\nThen came the king's son, wounded, sore bestead,.\nAnd weaponless, and saw the broken sword,\nHilt-biu-ied in the dry and trodden sand,\nAnd ran and snatched it, and with battle-shout\nLifted afresh he hewed his enemy down,\nAnd saved a great cause on that heroic day.\n\nIt has always seemed as if the king's son represented the royal result\nof true education. He could see wonderful possibilities where the common\nsoldier saw — nothing. This ability gave him hope, made him strong and\nbrave and noble, a great personahty; while ignorance played no small\npart in the cowardly, despicable action of the craven. If he had only\nknown the latent possibiHties in a properly wielded piece of blunt steel,\nwould it have made a difference ? In other words, could that coward, even\nwith inherited tendencies toward cowardice, have been saved thru education the ignominy of such a climax? Could his personahty directly\ntrained in boyhood have been so changed as to have produced a keensighted, clear-headed, optimistic, generous-spirited, loyal, brave personality\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF PERSONALITY\n\nTHRU\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1 17\n\ninstead of a foolish, pessimistic, envious, disloyal, unhappy, cowardly one ?\nIs personality a fixed, static condition of human life, or is it amenable to\neducation? Possibly the question might be more interesting if it were\nmade personal. Let each of us then ask, \"What sort of personality might\nI have been now had my education, up to today, been — very different ?\"\nOr we might each imagine, ''What sort of teachers and environment should\nI have had in my childhood, girlhood or boyhood, and early womanhood or\nmanhood in order to have made of me the strongest, most charming, and\nmost effective personality possible ?\" It may be that each of us, even the\nmost retiring, is possessed of a goodly amount of egotism. Certain it is\nthat we all feel confident if our education has been wiser, and if some of\nthe conditions of environment, susceptible to change, had been improved\nwe might each one have been healthier, or heartier, or happier, more gentle,\nmore kind, and more studious, more musical or artistic, more witty, more\nwise, or more noble — more something which we very well know we\nare not.\nPlato's shadow-world is no myth. In every human being there lurk\nvague longings, stunted ambitions, dead hopes, unrealized ideals, both\nintellectual and ethical, which education has but crudely touched or has\nutterly neglected or abandoned. Every life is more or less of a tragedy\nin that no self is its best possible self, and largely because no self has been\ngiven a chance to be its best self. This is wrong. The adult world owes\nto the child world not only the discovery of what the child's potentialities\nare, but also what might be called the imaginary realization of each child's\nmost perfect future self; and conditions of education should tend to make\nboth the discovery and the realization possible. What sort of personality\ncan the child attain ? What part ought education to play in its development?\nOne big step in the right direction has been taken. Notwithstanding\nthe insistent and continued demand for simplicity and thoroness in education as opposed to multiplicity of experiences, of necessity somewhat\nsuperficial, there is more and more reason advanced for variety of educational stimuli, first, in order to discover natural tendency, and secondly,\nbecause the wise teacher, knowing how early a tendency may atrophy,\ndoes not dare deprive a human being of a chance to exercise his mind upon\nwhat later may become a dominant characteristic of his personality. Those\nof us, e.g., who for lack of opportunity to exercise the ability young enough\nhave lost all desire to play a musical instrument, to learn a foreign language,\nto be interested in any form of science, or to see the beauty in a gorgeous\nsunset, can bear witness to the unpleasant and weakening effect such mistakes have had upon our life equipment and interest, to the limitations\nthat have been established in our personalities thru a narrow tho perhaps\nextremely thoro education. And not only* directly as a means of mere\nintellectual gymnastics is this wealth of experiences necessary, but also\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\non account of the possible effect of some special stimulus upon the emotional\nlife. The boy who the teacher says can neither read, write, nor spell, but\nwho can, even tho it be in the most execrable English, hold the attention\nand win the respect of his more scholarly classmates by his lucid explanation of wireless telegraphy, is an absolutely different boy from that time\non forever. His superior knowledge and its recognized value among other\neducative values have given rise to hopes, courage, patience, ambition, selfrespect, determination, and happiness, where before were to be found only\ndiscouragement, hopelessness, degradation, and despondency. Compare the\nmethod, too, of obtaining this result to that of a systematic course of lectures\nor sermons upon conduct. Education should give to the so-called dull\nchild not advice, not rules and memorized precepts, not even habits and\nright desires, so much as a chance to gain the strength that just comes with\nthe joy of success; for with this joy not only are new emotions called into\naction, but what is far more to the purpose, a new personality is born into\nthe world.\n\"Allow me to introduce you to a new pupil,\" said a teacher in one of\nour grammar schools to the principal, as she presented a neatly dressed,\nwashed, combed, and brushed youth. \"A new boy, indeed,\" replied the\nprincipal. \"How do you account for it, Joe?\" \"I never knew I was\nworth scrubbing, sir, till last week, when the fellows say I won the debate\nfor our side (the affirmative), on the question — ^we chose it ourselves —\nResolved, that girls are worth more to boys in our system of co-education\nthan boys are to girls. It's the first time I ever had a chance at anything\nlike that, and I thought I'd make a white mark of myself, so's to remember\nI could score above 60 per cent in something.\" Let the early years, then, of\nchildhood be filled to overflowing with selected and varied experiences.\nThere is no telling in which one some smothered spark of human power may\nburst into living flame.\nAnother notable change steadily growing in favor is the attempt to\nmake school life more informal and natural. When this attempt becomes a\nreality, then will \"a great cause\" have been saved. So long as we think\nof education as that which gives knowledge, or skill, or habits, so long as we\nseparate it from the special personalities which it is its function to produce,\nor at least to render possible, just so long shall we lose sight of the essential\nefficacy of education and continue to speak of a well-educated man with a\nmost disagreeable or non-effective personality. Education used in this\nsense is entirely too narrow; it includes all that goes toward making a man\nor woman wise, active, efficient, lovable. A man's education is literally\na part of himself. This is not always understood. So gradually do our\nexperiences come to many of us, after school days are over, and so slowly do\nthey work changes, that we fail to recognize how radically different we may\nbe from the person who bore our name twenty years ago. To the college\ngraduate, who has lived rapidly for four years, who has received during this\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF PERSONALITY\n\nTHRU\n\nEDUCATION\n\nI19\n\nshort period hundreds of new impressions, who has parted, on the other\nhand, with hosts of cherished ideas, the truth is made more apparent.\nWhen he takes his place in the worid again he is often filled with surprise,\nsometimes with dismay, at the opinions he is supposed to hold and the\nmeasures he is expected to advocate. He looks out upon the worid with\nnew eyes. -He knows that he is another personality and feels embarrassed\nfor a while, as if he were sailing under false colors, until there is adjustment\nto this new condition. As a rule, liberal training tends to make modest,\nforceful, fair-minded, wise men and women. It is certainly a telling education and it does what it can surprisingly successfully, at this period of life,\nto supply material sufl&ciently nourishing to destroy all appetite for what is\nfoolish, narrow, petty, or mean. There is a charming simplicity, too, a\ndirectness, a frank, child-like attitude in such a man, that means a more\nattractive as well as a greater personality.\nBut aside from arranging the school curriculum so as to give the child\nas many educative experiences as possible, and in addition to this, placing\nhim in condidons as nearly like those he will meet in the outer world during\nhis child life as may be, we ought also to keep always directly in mind the\nfact that there are certain definite demands made by society which the\nschool almost totally ignores. One of these is the insistence upon gentle\nmanners. A personality whose leading characteristic is a nice regard for\nthe welfare of others, expressed gracefully and unobtrusively, is possessed\nof a power quite as effective as great learning, while great learning plus a\nsympathetic, gentle conduct is almost irresistible. The world is divided\ninto three great classes: those who possess noticeably good manners, those\nwho possess noticeably bad manners, and those who have no manners.\nMost people have no manners. They are not specially rude or boorish,\nbut they are not thoughtful about the comfort of others, and it never occurs\nto them to say or do things in a gentle way. If we were to list the forms\nof polite expression current in our schools, they would narrow themselves\nto \"excuse me,\" \"if you please,\" \"thank you,\" and — not very many more.\nAnd how often — i.e., in how many different ways — is opportunity given for\neven these few little polite remarks to be made ? Moreover, the common\ncourtesies of life, that act like magic upon high-spirited, nervous American\nboys and girls, do not occur nearly often enough. If more time were spent\nin outlining plans whereby courteous actions could naturally find expression,\neven at the expense of knowledge itself, surely we might send out pleasanter\nif less learned personalities. The world would get more from them and they\nwould appreciate and enjoy the world better. It is curious how obtuse\npeople are about this matter of manners. A mother who was urged to pay\na little more attention in this respect to her small boy said, with tears in\nher eyes, \" I do try to do my duty by him. He sets by me at the table and\nI holler and holler at him, trying to make h*m eat nice.\"\nWe teachers might ask ourselves profitably to which of the three classes\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwe belong. Not all teachers, at least, can be ranked in the first class, as the\nfollowing anecdotes testify. A little girl looked up innocently into the face\nof a new teacher, whose gentle ways were a surprise to her, saying, \"What\nmakes you talk poHte and say, 'I beg your pardon' and everything ? You\ndon't have to. You are a teacher.\" And this one is even more striking:\nA teacher visiting in a home last summer had not spoken of her profession\nfor several days, when suddenly the eight-year-old boy of the family\ndiscovered it and said to her, his eyes wide open with astonishment, ''Why,\nI didn't know you were a teacher. I thought you were a lady.\" It is\neasy to see how a child may gain this impression. The teacher's life is a\nlife of leadership, and perhaps too much of it is spent in the exercise of\nauthority; kindly, possibly, but rather crudely, expressed. Without the aid\nof social forms of etiquette she easily acquires other methods, effective,\ncertainly, but not charming. And the boys and girls being educated by\nher, likewise minus social forms of etiquette, grow up without one of the\ngreatest aids to human success— just plain, good manners.\nAgain, the school as an educative institution has never taken seriously\nthe education of a sense of humor. In fact, it has done a good deal to kill\nat birth any incipient tendency in this direction. I once heard Homer\nDavenport, the noted cartoonist, say that he had attained the ability\nwhich has made him somewhat famous, in spite of and not because of the\nAmerican school system. Every funny picture he drew as a boy in school\nwas sketched surreptitiously and he was subject to punishment according\nto the degree of mirth the picture was able to arouse. Every effort was\nmade to induce him to stop such foolishness and to settle down to \"real\nwork.\" A small boy with a gentle, unobtrusive, rather retiring disposition\nwas sent from the classroom the other day, because, in observing the\nthousand-legged worm, he remarked that he was glad he was not tailor\nto this particular species of legdom, as it would take a very long time to\nmake so many pairs of trousers. The teacher had no sense of humor. In\nall earnestness, is there a characteristic in any personality more attractive,\nmore winning, more deserving of cultivation than a sense of humor? It\nis susceptible of cultivation and is at least deserving of appreciation, when\nit shoots into life all unexpectedly and innocently, bright and sparkling as\na shining star.\nPersonaUty thru education! The phrase does lend dignity to the word,\neducation. What is there in each boy or girl that is most worthy of special\ndevelopment? What seems to need most strengthening? How is the\nchild impressing his fellows, his superiors, his inferiors, yoimger children,\nadults? Above all things let education bring about a personality, not a\npale gray shadow of one. Let something worth while be its dominant\ncharacteristic. Let opportunity be given for this something to act in a\nsufficient number of ways and under suflaciently varied conditions for it to\n*' strike in.\"\n\nThe something may be any one among hundreds of possi-\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nCOMPENSATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n12 1\n\nbilities, e.g., a sweet, strong voice, a firm, graceful poise or walk, love of\npoetry, interest in athletics, or art, or music, or letters, or history, or some\nform of science, a fine sense of honor, generosity, business ability, warm\nsympathy, a nice tact, gentle manners, neatness, order, personal cleanliness,\npunctuality, love of plant life, of animals, fairmindedness, courage, perseverance, acertain vivacity or sparkle that inspires, downright kindness of\nheart, musical or artistic or linguistic talent, taste in dress, ability to cook\nor sew, to arrange flowers, to nurse, executive ability, a sense of humor,\nself-respect, strong will, sincerity — any characteristic that will lend itself\nto educational influence, that tends to make life stronger or better or more\nbeautiful. For what shall it profit if we educate minds and not men ?\nTHE COMPENSATION\nJOSEPH SCOTT, PRESIDENT\n\nOF THE BOARD\n\nOF TEACHERS\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nThe subject of my address will probably excite in the minds of some of\nyou the idea that I am to refer to that phase of the compensation for teachers\nwhich is discussed by the idealist and the spiritually inclined and by the\npeople who dislike to look at this question from a business standpoint.\nI presume all of you have had such phases of the subject presented to you\nin a more or less earnest way many times, but it is my purpose tonight\nto beg your indulgence for a few moments while I discuss, the it may\nhorrify some of you, the commercial side of this question.\nTeaching is a profession, calling not only for a vocation to fulfill its\nbest purposes, but likewise a grade of intellect and knowledge which can\nbe adequately compensated elsewhere if the financial inducements do not\nexist in the teaching system.\nI take it there are two ways in which public services can be rendered:\nOne is along purely patriotic and public-spirited lines where the glory of\nachievement and benefits that will come to your fellow-citizens as a result\nof your efforts make the field attractive to those of you who can financially\nafford to donate your services. The other has reference to that very\nlarge class of public business, requiring business treatment, business\nmethods, and business salaries.\nIt has been my privilege to be identified with the Board of Education\nof Los Angeles city for the last seven years. I have been elected to that\noffice on three occasions, being now president of the board for the fifth\nannual term. There is no salary attached to membership on the board\nand therefore my motives in raising the financial question here should be\nfree from sinister criticism.\nI was amazed early in my experience on the Los Angeles School Board\nto note that when there was a question of curtailing expenses in the department the first place where it was felt the* pruning knife should be used\nwas in\" the salaries of teachers.\n\nI came to find on investigation that the\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsalaries of teachers were absolutely out of proportion to their cost of living\nand to the long ordeal of training and education necessary to fit them\nfor their professional work. It was also observed by me that our unwritten\nlaw required every candidate for admission to our School Department for\nteacher to be under the age of forty-five years, which forced upon me\nthe conclusion that in the judgment of those imdertaking to profess to\nknow, the teacher had outlived his usefulness at a time when other devotees\nof other professions were in the prime of their faculties and in the highest\nsphere of their usefulness.\nIt is generally conceded that the business side of teaching has not as\na general rule appealed very much to the average school board or taxpayer. Ifind two reasons largely governing the motives of school boards\nin keeping salaries at such a low figure: first, the fear of exciting the condemnation of the tax-payer and citizens generally at what might be\nregarded as extravagance if salaries were raised; and, secondly, the subservient and diffident attitude of the teachers themselves, who dislike to\npresent their views to the board for fear of incurring more or less drastic\ndisciplinary treatment.\nI am frank to state that we have tested in the city of Los Angeles the\nfirst objection and found it to be without foundation in fact. The average\nparent today, I believe, is beginning to realize that the school is not only\ntaking away from fathers and mothers the burden of training the mind of\nthe child, but it is also undertaking to give the boy and girl such training\nin personal hygiene and physical culture that the duty of the parent in\nthat regard can be almost ignored; in addition to which, I am happy to\nsay, there is creeping into the system of education some observance of\nthe highest form of education, to wit, the development of moral character,\nand therefore the average parent who has a particle of consideration of\nhis own responsibility is feeling more or less grateful to the teacher who\nis so marvelously relieving him of this burden and in a way by which\nhe himself could not possibly expect to accomplish the same results.\nIn the city of Los Angeles we are steadily raising the salaries of teachers,\nand furthermore we find no adverse comment either at the polls or in any\nother outward expression of sentiment. Of course, our Board of Education is non-partisan, is wholly removed from politics and political purposes, and is trying to conduct the department so far as the teacher is\nconcerned on the basis of merit alone. Mutual sympathy naturally\nresults from our attitude toward the teachers and the Board of Education\nfinds its relations to the teaching staff of the department most pleasant\nand agreeable. Unfortunately, however, we now find ourselves confronted with the proposition that whatever we may do to maintain the\nprinciple of the importance to education of adequate compensation, yet\nit is a most extremely difficult, if not hopeless, task to sustain such a position ifwe do not meet with co-operation thruout the coitntry.\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nTBE LIFE OF TEE TEACHER\n\nIt is no benefit to our proposed determination to increase teachers'\nsalaries if we are to be swamped in Los Angeles with statistics from other\ncities tending to show that teachers elsewhere are willing to submit to\nmuch smaller salaries and appear to be complacent therewith, which, of\ncourse, renders us liable to the charge of extravagance. Hence I have\nthe effrontery to appear here today and to suggest to this great body of\nteachers from all sections of the country that it behooves the National\nEducation Association to take cognizance of this question by setting the\nstamp of its approval upon the poHcy of making the compensation adequate\nfor the services rendered. Every other profession has its commercial side.\nSpeaking as a lawyer and as a member of my profession, I would be ashamed\nto say that I was indifferent to the commercial side of my work. I owe\nresponsibiUty to my family and to myself that can only be confronted along\nfinancial lines. The teacher is similarly situated and is entitled to be\nfree from domestic troubles and the gaunt phantom of a penniless old age\nand to be reassured with the hope that she is working at such a rate of\ncompensation that she can lay aside enough for the proverbial rainy day,\nwhen under her own Uttle rooftree, free from mortgage of any kind, she\ncan have an income sufficient to protect herself and those dear to her\nwho are dependent upon her for support.\nI am glad to take this opportunity to extend my greetings on behalf\nof the Los Angeles School Department to you all and to express the hope\nthat after satisfying yourself with the beauty and charm of this wonderful\ncity of San Francisco, rebuilt from its ashes, you will come down to the\nsunshine and flowers of southern California and see what we are trying to\ndo with the help of bounteous nature for the children of that part of California— a country which has been truly called the \"natural playground\nof America.\"\nTHE LIFE OF THE TEACHER\nCHARLES\n\nZUEBLIN, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nThe legacy of the nineteenth century is threefold: industrial organization, the democratic spirit, the cosmic sense. The modem world is\norganized on a large scale; the intense personal industry and life of earlier\ndays have yielded to the impersonal life of the industrial revolution. Industry issubdivided, the processes of distribution are gigantic; we deal\nin a world-market. Comforts multiply, the humblest demand conveniences, the standard of living has risen, but capital controls our lives.\nWe are the beneficiaries of a benevolent feudahsm, which is tainted with\nthe malevolence of misguided mastery. Nevertheless, the democratic\nspirit pervades increasingly all our institutions. We have not yet learned\nto organize it; we are fearful of our privileges, but we are learning that\naristocracy spells decay. The larger life is due chiefly to the revelations\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin the nineteenth century of the cosmic sense. The fifteenth-century\nworld of the discoverers was but the promise of the unfolding universe of\nnineteenth-century vision. Humanity, the world, the universe, and\nGod, have a larger meaning because of scientific discoveries. God is no\nlonger a magnified man looking down on his insignificant creatures; God\nis in his world and of it. It is all one.\nThese three great contributions of the past century are reflected in the\nthree-fold educational ideal: education for occupation, education for\ncitizenship, education for character. We can have no adequate organization of the life of humanity until the citizen is a worker and the worker\na citizen. The waking hours of most Americans are given to the economic\nstruggle, the vast majority being manual workers, driven by necessity,\nand finding their occupations by accident. Hence, manual and technical\ntraining and vocational courses and bureaus! At last we are awakening\nto the fact that most children have no time for classical culture and the\nmajority have hitherto received no immediate preparation for their probable callings. The good worker is not necessarily and spontaneously an\nintelligent citizen. He must be trained, and that by experience in the selfgoverning school. Not textbooks on civics, but observation of political\nbodies and the government of oneself, are demands of citizenship. The\ntraining for manhood and womanhood may be given by courses of moral\ninstruction, or the insistence on good workmanship, or the inspiration of\nthe teacher, but education is futile unless it embraces character. Ethical\ninstruction, long neglected or supposed to be furnished by alleged religious\nteaching, is demanded in the twentieth-century school. Public and social\nproblems will need exposition by word of mouth or book, but individual\nmorality will doubtless be most satisfactorily acquired by the exactions\nof school discipline, especially manual work, and the inspiration of the\nchief essential — the living teacher. As Carlyle says, \" Soul is kindled only\nsoul.\"\nby What\nis the goal for the pupil in education for occupation, citizenship,\nand character? Is it not also a threefold ideal: creation, service, and\nharmony ? The worker must be neither slave nor automaton, but creator.\nThe fatal American trick of imitation must be supplanted by the spirit\nof workmanship, induced by the reward of work as well as rewards for\nwork. The citizen must be not merely a perfunctory voter, but a public\nservant. He is not citizen but parasite if he make no return to the state\nfor its beneficence. Character is expressed ultimately in the development\nof a harmonious nature — ^in harmony with the great economic processes\nwhich make life possible, in harmony with one's fellow-men, and in harmony with oneself, with nature, with the great Life-Force.\nWhat constitutes the life of the teacher who can realize these ample\nideals? She also has her trinity of possibilities: individuality, independence, inspiration. No life worth living is all leisure, but there need\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nLIFE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n125\n\nnot be exhausting, ill-rewarded labor, and inadequate, empty leisure.\nOne must have satisfaction in his profession or he cannot find it in his\npay. Work and life may be a unit, if the teacher have individuahty,\nindependence, inspiration. \"Art is the expression of surplus energy.\"\nIf the teacher is to have individuality, to make her work an art, she must\nhave thoro preparation, involving years of labor and much expense. She\nmust have few pupils at a time; she must have good living, both physically and spiritually. Energy must not be consumed in undertaking the\nimpossible because of insufficient preparation, overwork, or a low standard\nof living. She may not be able to ape the extravagance of the overpaid\nrich, but she must live, at least spiritually, as well as her patrons. She\nmust, therefore, have both time and means for self-development.\nIndependence demands adequate economic support to suppress care\nor want. Good housing, food, clothes, books, and recreation involve\ndoubUng the average teacher's salary. Equal wages for men and women\nare ultimately desirable, but immediately a minimum wage is more important. Every teacher must have a living wage, and then we can afford live\nteachers. The effort to give women men's wages must not result in giving\nmen women's wages. Salaries which invite men would soon solve the\nquestion of the needed number of men. We must have more rather than\nfewer men in the schools that we may have men not merely in authority\nbut as colleagues and comrades. The able men are attracted to the executive positions (except for a few missionaries), and other men of ability\nare shortly drafted off to other callings; thus the women are generally\neconomic subordinates. The masculine and feminine mind and character do not have free play.\nThe teacher must have self-government by equal suffrage in the state\nand by constituting a \"faculty\" for the conduct of educational affairs.\nHow can children be taught citizenship by economic, political, and professional dependents? The contempt of man for petticoat government\nis the product of chivalry, that semi-barbaric device for keeping women >\ndependent by flattery. Olive Schreiner says that men have never objected\nto the historic labors of women interfering with maternity, but they revolt\nat the rewards which make women genuine economic competitors. Even\nthe masculine educator innocently protests against the unfeminine tactics\nof women politicians because he intuitively sees the fading of his prestige,\nwhich was built on her supposed infirmities. It is obviously weakness\nrather than strength which causes a man to depreciate the service of a\nwoman president. A virile mind is strong enough to recognize excellence\nand demand it; only cowards, parasites, and weaklings attempt to dis•\nguise it.\nSelf-government in the National Education Association is prophetic\nof self-government at home. The newly enfranchised often make mistakes, but they are the mistakes of enthusiams, not of spoils or chieanc.\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe methods of electioneering may be faulty, but they are the blunders\nof the untrained, not the stupidity of the privileged. In any case, citizenship can be learned only by being a citizen. The self-governing school,\nwhere the teachers have authority over the curriculum and the pupils\nover the classroom, is indispensable to the success of democracy. Principals and superintendents are expert civil servants; school boards are\nthe representatives of the people, instructed by their constituents, and\nsuccessful as they have given freedom to their superiors (in teaching),\nwhom they employ for the people. The self-governing school and the\nself-governing workshop are the corner-stones of democracy. Without\nthese we have benevolent feudalism with its contented or intimidated\nmasses, luxurious masters, and their decadent offspring. With selfgovernment we have emancipation and mastery by service. The teacher\nwill be independent in her work and in her leisure.\nThe teacher must have and be an inspiration. She has the inspiration\nof contact with youth, minds immature but unspoiled, unfolding according\nto the law of the cosmos. The teacher must also enjoy the inspiration of\nnature in flower and sky, by excursion and reading. The teacher must\nhave communion with fellow-men; both sexes are needed for morality and\nharmony. The teacher must have the inspiration of the infinite. Then,\nindeed, will soul kindle soul, and industrial organization, the democratic\nspirit, and the cosmic sense be incarnated in our children in creative work,\npublic service, and harmony of soul.\nCAN\n\nWE SHORTEN THE TERM OF YEARS WITHOUT\nDECREASING EFFICIENCY OF EDUCATION\nIN AMERICAN SCHOOLS?\n\nSAMUEL\n\nAVERY, CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY\nLINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nOF NEBRASKA,\n\nDuring the last few years there has been a tendency Lo give less consideration than formerly to the problem of shortening the length of the courses\nin American schools. The lack of results following President Eliot's plan\nfor a three years' course leading to the baccalaureate degree, and the efforts\nof the Carnegie Foundation to hold the institutions participating in its\nretiring allowance to their nominal standards for admission and graduation,\nhave been two influential factors in lessening interest in the problem. Then,\ntoo, the awakening of the country to the fact that some agricultural colleges and some independent normal schools were giving degrees based on very\ninadequate courses of study, and the general feeling that our professional\nmen should be as well trained as those of Europe, has led to complacency\nin regard to the lengthening of the period required from the entrance of our\npublic schools to the time of granting the professional degree. It has seemed\nto me, therefore, not inappropriate to review the situation, and to recall\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nSHORTENING\n\nTERM\n\nOF\n\nYEARS\n\nIN AMERICAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n127\n\nto your attention suggestions that have been made from time to time by\nour most eminent educators in regard to conservation of time and promotion of efficiency.\nIf an American boy enters a public school at six, spends eight years in\nthe grades, four years in the high school, four years in a general literary\ncollege, and then four years in a medical, law, or graduate college, he will\nbe twenty-six years old before his education in the schools is completed.\nIf his college and his university work are combined in a six-year course he\nwill be twenty-four years old.\nI think that no educator in America would make a serious claim that\nsuch a young man is better educated, either culturally or professionally,\nthan the German who has taken a course consisting of the gymnasium and\nthe university, losing a year in the army, and graduating at the age of\ntwenty-two. As a matter of fact, I think I am safe in saying that the\nAmerican at twenty-four is about as well educated as the German at twentytwo, except that the latter has a far better command of his native tongue\nand of foreign languages.\nIt would appear that even a superficial comparison of results obtained\nhere and in Europe should act as a challenge to us to do better work and in\nless time, for I cannot believe that the average American youth is not as\nbright as his European cousin. In fact, it is a very common observation\nthat American children in German and French schools make remarkable\nprogress; that American children generally are more precocious than European; that American students at maturity excel in their work in foreign\nuniversities. The only exception would seem to be in the case of the Rhodes\nscholars, but the fact that the Rhodes scholarships are awarded to a very\nconsiderable extent on account of proficiency in Greek and in athletics\neasily accounts for lack of brilliancy in scholarship on the part of the holders.\nOne could hardly expect that young men selected largely on the basis of a\nvanishing, and a distracting subject, would be brilliant scholars. Granted,\nthen, that there is no inherent reason why we should not produce the results\nobtained in Europe, we as educators should study our system until we discover just where the waste is to be found.\nOf course, you are all familiar with the proposed remedy of better\nteachers, and there is no need for me to recall the oft-repeated statement\nthat in Europe teaching is an honored profession and represents a life career,\nwhile here it is in many cases only a temporary expediency. I grant that\nthis statement has in it some elements of truth, but I am inclined to believe\nthat this phase of the matter has been overstated. Let any American\ncity superintendent be given the support that the corresponding German\nofficial has in building up his corps of teacTiers, and he can produce an\nalmost equally efficient corps. The vital trouble is the lack of support\ngiven to the authorities, the uncertainty of their tenure of office, the necessity of their catering to local influences, and the difficulty in resisting local\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npressure where pressure is exerted in opposition to the interests of the\nschools. I believe, therefore, that the first thing to do with our American\nsystem is to strengthen the central authority. The state superintendent,\nor corresponding official, should be appointed for an indefinite period.\nHe should be selected from the educators of the nation at large, not necessarily from the ranks of the teachers of the state which he is to serve. His\nposition should be as permanent and as dignified as that of the minister of\neducation in a well-ordered European state.\nCity superintendents should be regarded as permanent officials, and\nshould be subject to some authority removed from the immediate influence\nof the community. City superintendents should be entirely relieved from\nthe necessity of plapng politics to hold their positions. Strengthening the\nhands of the school authorities will in a very large measure solve the\nproblem of inefficient teaching.\nIn the internal working of the school I believe that certain things can be\nchanged without detriment. The special supervisor is at times a special\nnuisance. I recall my own experience with a supervisor of music. Having\nno ear for music, I was exposed to the dilemma of refusing to try to do my\npart, or submitting to the ridicule of my classmates for seldom being able\nto get within several notes of the right one. As most of the work was class,\nand not individual, however, I hit upon the expedient of watching my music\nteacher and trjdng to make similar muscular movements with my lips,\njaws, and larynx. This soundless music served the purpose, but I recall\nwith regret the wasted time, and my early lesson in deception. I would\nnot belittle the efficient work of these special supervisors in the schools,\nbut I would Hmit their activities to those pupils who show some aptitude\nfor, and whose parents wish them to pursue, such extra studies.\nOne source of waste both in the high school and in the college is excessive and absurd \"laboratoryism.\" Now, I am the firmest sort of a believer\nin laboratory work — definite, exact, carefully planned, and carefully supervised— ^but I believe that for the bright student there is an enormous loss\nof time in excessive laboratory \"puttering\" and in writing descriptions of\nthe work performed. Let us never for a moment forget that in education\nthe mind, and not the notebook, is to receive the impression, and that carefully prepared experiments become so much laboratory junk unless the\nperforming of them makes on the mind an impression of the scientific\nprinciples which they are supposed to reveal. In high-school chemistry,\nfor instance, there is Uttle to be gained thru the elaborate setting up of\napparatus. A graduate recently said to me, \"We put in a week making\nhydrogen.. The instructor left us in the laboratory and told us to follow\nthe inductive method. After a number of dangerous explosions we finally\nsucceeded.\" With proper apparatus any intelligent pupil ought to do the\nmechanical part of making hydrogen in fifteen minutes. An explosion\nis a disgrace to the laboratory. All laboratory work should be under constant supervision, and in charge of experts.\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSHORTENING\n\nTERM\n\nOF YEARS\n\nIN AMERICAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n129\n\nIn this connection I cannot resist registering a protest against the excessive amount of mechanical teaching in other than laboratory subjects.\nA notebook in history or in English may be valuable as evidence of study,\nbut if it is valuable for this only, it should be discarded. A teacher should\nnot require the pupil to spend much of his time in producing evidence that\nthe subject has been thoroly considered. He should find some way less\nwasteful of the student's time for determining the student's intellectual\nattainment. Too many of our teachers find that the easiest way to occupy\ntime in the schoolroom is to set the pupils at some more or less mechanical\nexercise which is to be turned in at the end of the period. It is the business of the teacher to teach, and any teacher who, without a careful\nconsideration of whether or not it will be for the benefit of the pupil,\nintroduces any mechanism to lighten his own work and keep the pupil\noccupied, is not doing his work fairly and honestly.\nA tremendous amount of time has been lost for the average student in\nphysics by the mathematical character that has been given to the work\nduring the last twenty-five years. In some of our high schools and universities the course in physics has been so planned that it would be admirable\nfor the production of a Kelvin, but would exclude a Faraday who had no\ntaste for the mathematical phases of the subject. Physics ought to be\nthe most popular study in the high-school and college curriculum; it is in\nthe truest sense a fundamental science. I venture the opinion that not\none-half of the students in the average American college gain much of value\nfrom the greater part of the course in this science. The high schools make\na better showing. The mathematical part of physics should be largely\neliminated, and physics made a study of intense human interest. This\nstatement, of course, applies to the many, not to the few who are to become\nspecialists.\nIn the best European schools below the university it is strictly understood that the young people are not in society — they are boys and girls.\nThey have no social life other than that which they get incidentally with\ntheir parents. There are no interschool affairs, no contests, nothing to\ndisturb their studies. They go to school forty weeks in the year, as against\nthirty-six in America, and they have a half-holiday instead of a whole\nholiday on Saturdays. Americans are more nervous than Europeans and\ntheir program would perhaps be too strenuous for us, but I believe that\nsocial distractions, more often than study, cause the student in the high\nschool and in the college to break down. The extent to which some American mothers encourage their daughters to be ''society girls\" is grotesque.\nIt has perhaps no equal anywhere else on the globe, except in parts of the\nPhilippine Islands, where the natives who»have a little money send their\ndaughters to school in dresses with trains, with maids to assist them.\nThe high-school boys also are accompanied by their valets. The insular\nbureau of education is doing much to eliminate these foolish customs.\nIn\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "130\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nso far as we encourage the society notions of our young people, we are\nputting ourselves in a class with the natives of the Philippine Islands rather\nthan with the enlightened people of France, Germany, and England.\nBefore the English-speaking people come to the full realization of their\ndestiny, two reforms must take place. I grant that it would not be possible for the teachers to bring them about at an early date. They can, however, constantly be educating the public to a realization of the need of these\nreforms. I allude to the adoption of reformed spelling and of the metric\nsystem. Probably the continued use of our accidental system of spelling\ncosts at least two years of a child's study, and handicaps all of us more\nor less during our entire lives. Here, again, we lag behind France and\nGermany. To be sure, they have their spelling troubles, but they are\nmeeting them in a more vigorous way than we have^ met ours. For a\nnation that believes in progress in all things, with exceptional knack at\ninvention, to \"stand pat\" on a system of spelling irrational and of exceedingly questionable origin, represents a most astonishing phenomenon. I\nhave heard appeals from educated men urging us not to desecrate the\nEnglish of Shakespeare in the interests of a modern fad. Alas, the Shakespeare that we read now is printed with much of the spelling of the continental typesetters who came to England in the seventeenth century and\nbrought their notions of how to express English sounds along with them.\nIf Shakespeare were to appear now he could read Hamlet just as well in\nsimplified spelling as in the copies on our library shelves. When will the\nrace be wise enough to learn that language is a living, progressive thing,\nand that resistance to changes can only impede, not prevent, its progressive development? We ought, therefore, to move just as rapidly\nalong the line of simplified spelling as we can without creating too great\nconfusion.\nWhen I was a student in the German empire in the '90's, I found the\nmemory of the war of '70 fresh in the minds of the people. All the older\npeople recalled its memorable scenes; the marching of the troops to the\nfront, the victories, the proclaiming of the King of Prussia Emperor of\nUnited Germany; and yet one of the incidents of the time — the introduction of the French system of weights and measures into the new empire —\nwas forgotten. The oldest inhabitants sometimes alluded to a pfund in\nthe sense of a half-kilo, but aside from this there was hardly an expression,\neven among the peasantry, to show that the older system of weights and\nmeasures was even a memory. The German pupil does not have to contend\nwith an irrational system of weights and measures. Then, too, he has a\nlanguage to learn in which, if he knows the sound of a word, he practically knows the spelling of the same. These two conditions would, to a\nvery appreciable extent, explain the reasons why an equally complete\neducation in America requires two or three years longer time than in\nGermany.\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSHORTENING\n\nTERM\n\nOF YEARS\n\nIN AMERICAN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n131\n\nIn our college and university courses in America, we are confronted\nwith two problems which require our most careful consideration. If the\nstudent is obliged to pursue a rigid, inflexible course, he must often waste his\ntime on subjects against which his mind revolts. No course of study could\nbe more wasteful than one filled with subjects in which the student has, or\ncan acquire, no interest. On the other hand, the free elective system is\npeculiarly wasteful in permitting a student to trifle away his time on subjects which can afford him no real help in his later work. A college diploma\nbased on subjects without sequence, elected without deliberation, sometimes made \"snaps\" thru the desire of professors to increase the size of\ntheir classes, is an absurdity. Let the student be free to elect the group\nof studies which is congenial and which forms a part of his training for his\nprospective life-work, but let his electives within that group be of a very\nnarrow range. The character of the greater part of his work should be\ndetermined by the experience of people older and wiser than himself.\nAside from the saving in the cost of education, the question naturally\narises. What is to be gained by producing well-trained men at an early\nperiod of life ? Why should we insist that our doctors of medicine or doctors of philosophy should be as competent and efficient at twenty-two as\nthey are now at twenty-five ? Some of the reasons are so obvious that they\nhardly require consideration or discussion. There is one point, however,\nworthy of special emphasis. We are woefully behind Europe in productive\nscholarship. That our five hundred colleges and universities produce only\nabout one-tenth as much in volume (I dare not make a comparison of value)\nof research work as the twenty-one universities of Germany, is not creditable to us as a people. Research is to Germany a great national asset.\nI need only allude to the discovery of chloroform in Leibig's laboratory,\nthe discovery of the principles of incandescent gas mantles in Bunsen's\nlaboratory, the researches on glass at the University of Jena, to confirm my\nstatements. Wonderful advances in medicine have also been greatly\nstimulated because the leaders of medical thought have had the constant\nassistance of yeung doctors, highly trained and desirous of working under\nmaster minds for a year or two before going into the active practice of\ntheir profession.\nWhile I would emphasize the need of an early selection of the pupil's\nprobable career, I would not advocate separate secondary schools for\nagriculture, domestic science, and the trades. We find that the best work\nin law, in engineering, in medicine, in agriculture, is done in universities\nand not in disconnected colleges. So the high schools should have different\nsections. No attempt should be made to convert the high school into a\nfitting school for the college. It is equally undesirable that high schools\nshould pay no attention to the colleges but train exclusively for the active\nduties of life. The high school can and must perform both of these functions. Let the high school be a true people's university, completing the\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\neducation of those pupils whose period of study will not be more than\nten or twelve years, and fitting for further study those pupils whose work\nin life requires a longer perioa of instruction.\nIt seems to me that we should now admit to college picked students who\nhave successfully pursued certain studies for three years in our best high\nschools. The high school might give extra credit for unusually good work\nand thus permit the student to acquire the number of points necessary for\ngraduation in a minimum of three years instead of four. Such extra creait\nshould be given for proficiency in such studies as foreign language, mathematics, science, ana the English tongue, not for subjects like manual training, domestic science, and other things which, no matter how useful, can be\nmastered with less academic attainment. These selected pupils should\ncomplete the work in law, in medicine, or in the graduate college in six years.\nA year should be saved below the high school, thus making units of seven,\nthree, and six years, or sixteen in all, instead of twenty, as at present, in\naccordance with the longest program. I would not advocate curtailing\nthe activities of the high school or the colleges and universities, but merely\nthe blazing of a path from the first grade to the Doctor's degree, which can\nbe traversed in sixteen years.\nI realize that some of the changes suggested can be accomplished only\nafter a long period of constructive work and public enlightenment, yet I\nbelieve they can in the end be brought about. We must learn to look at\nthe problem of education more and more as a problem of efficiency, in the\nengineer's use of the term. The factors of time and expense, as well as the\ncharacter of the finished product, demand our attention. Our school system\nis now able to turn out men comparable in educational attainments with\nthe products of the European schools, but at the expense of time. Even\nthis state of progress had hardly been reached twenty years ago. It is now\npart of our duty to overhaul our system and institute changes that will\nresult in the saving of several years' time. The American people have\nsucceeded in every problem they have undertaken seriously and unitedly\nto solve. I cannot believe that they will fail in one of the most vital of\nnational problems, the problem of an educational efficiency equal to that\nfound anywhere in the world.\nPRESENT\nKATE\n\nSTEVENS,\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nPRINCIPAL\nFOR\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nOF THE\nNORTH\nGIRLS, LONDON,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nISLINGTON\nENGLAND\n\nCENTRAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIn England, of late years, educational change and progress have been\nso rapid that it has been difficult even for those most concerned to follow\nthe various movements; while to those who have neither the time nor the\nopportunity for such a study, it cannot fail to present much that is difficult,\nif not bewildering, owing to the great variety of conditions and different\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESENT\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nEDUCATION\n\n133\n\ntypes of schools. It may somewhat clear the ground if we recall the chief\nlandmarks in English education since the Act of 1870 which made it compulsory for all children to receive an elementary education. In order to\ncarry out this act, school boards were created. The existing provision of\nschool places had been provided by religious denominations (Church of\nEngland, Roman Catholics, and Wesleyans chiefly) and the British and\nForeign School Society, where religious instruction on undenominational\nlines was given.\nUp to 1870 religious instruction had been looked upon as one of the\nregular school subjects. In 1870 this was changed. Scripture was now\nplaced outside the legal, secular school hours. It was to be given at a\ncertain definite, fixed time each day, and a \"Conscience Clause\" was\nobliged to be placed in every school, stating that, should any parent object\nto his child receiving the religious teaching of the school, he was to be\nwithdrawn from such teaching, and suitable provision was to be made\nfor his secular instruction during this period. The schools already in\nexistence, and mainly of a religious foundation, were now officially known\nas \"Non-Provided\" Schools, while the new schools built by the school\nboards out of the local rates, in order to meet the great and new demand\nfor school places consequent upon Mr. Foster's Act of 1870, were termed\n\" Provided \" Schools. Religious teaching was now no longer either required\nor forbidden. No child was now allowed to be excluded from any school\nfor not receiving the religious teaching, or attending the Sunday school,\nor church services favored by the managers of the school. As a further\nsafeguard the \"Cowper Temple Clause\" enacted that in a school provided\nby a public authority or school board, the reUgious lessons, if any, should\nnot be used to attach the children to any particular denomination.\nNeither the \"Conscience Clause\" nor the \"Cowper Temple Clause\"\nrequires religious teaching to be given. They emphasize the principle that\npublic institutions must be freely open and suitable for all denominations.\n\" The difficulty,\" says a paper published by the National Education Association of England, \"is not whether there shall, or shall not, be any recognition\nof religious thought and feeling in the schools (for the parents as a whole\nhave expressed themselves as being most emphatically in favor of Bibleteaching in the schools), but whether schools, provided and maintained at\nthe pubHc expense, shall, or shall not, be used to further the interest of a\nparticular denomination or church.\"\nFormerly the Non-Provided Schools were supported partly by the state\ngrants and partly by voluntary subscriptions and scholars' fees, while the\nProvided Schools were partly supported by the state grants and school\nfees, supplemented by local taxation. School fees were abolished in the\nProvided Schools in 1892 and in most of the Non-Provided Schools by\n1895. The voluntary subscriptions fell off so greatly that the strain and\nburden on the churches became \"intolerable.\"\n\nIn 1902 an act was passed\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwhich abolished the school boards and placed the education of the whole\ncountry, with the exception of London, under the control of the county\ncouncils and made local taxation also available for the support of the\nNon-Provided Schools, while at the same time they still kept their distinctly denominational teaching. At this there was a popular outcry, and\nthe \"religious difficulty,\" which still remains one of our great problems,\narose. \"Passive registers\" became numerous. These were people who\nconscientiously objected to provide public money in aid and furtherance of\nsectarian purposes, unless the management was under public local control.\nIt is the extremists on both sides who block the way. An \" educational\nsettlement committee\" has been formed under distinguished leaders \"to\npromote and maintain religious teaching as an integral part of the national\nsystem of education.\"\nMuch is hoped from this committee.\nThe \"Moral Educational League\" was formed \"to introduce systematic,\nmoral, and civic instruction into the schools of the country,\", in place of\ndirect rehgious instruction. There is also a \"Secular Education League,\"\nwhich was formed to consider whether, in view of the failure of the Education Bills and compromises, the societies could now join with each other\nin a united movement toward the secular solution.\nOur problems are many and varied. In some, we have gone far toward\nwhat seems to present a satisfactory solution under the circumstances,\nand under existing conditions. One has always to face the fact that conditions constantly change, and development is often rapid, calling for new\nsolutions. In the solving of many of the more general problems, you,\nin America, have led the way and we have been able to follow and profit\nby your experience. It is always inspiring and suggestive to us to visit\nyour country, talk with your school people, or to read your best educational Uterature.\nTurning now to other special English problems, the one most generally\noccupying the foreground, as of vital importance to our national welfare,\nis that of dealing with our adolescents at and after the school-leaving age\nof fourteen. The fact of the grave waste of time and opportunity that\nhas been going on during the most impressible years of the life of our\nyoung people has been effectively brought home to us in the realization\nthat over 80 per cent of our prison population began to go there between\nthe ages of sixteen and twenty-one.\nMr. C. P. Trevelyan, parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education, says:\nOne of the most pressing problems of the present time, one of the directions in which\nEnglish education is most inadequate, is in connection with children whose education\nentirely ceases at, or below, the age of fourteen, who do not go on to secondary schools\nand who either cannot go to continuation schools, because the nature of the industries in\nwhich they are engaged does not permit them, or who will not go to any further education, because there is no influence, private or public, to induce them to continue their\neducation.\nI do not wish to belittle the work which our continuation schools and our\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESENT\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nEDUCATION\n\n135\n\ntechnical schools, all over the country, are doing. They are doing far more effective and\nsystematic work than they used to do, but there is this remarkable fact about the increase\nof the numbers attending our continuation schools in the last few years, that it has been\nalmost entirely in the number of adults. It is not the children of thirteen to fifteen who\nhave been going more readily to these classes, but adults over the age of twenty-one.\nThis shows that large numbers of the more intelligent part of our industrial population,\nas soon as they leave school, drop out of school life and very likely lose a great deal of the\nadvantages of the education they received there. They go out into the world, and\nthen five or six years afterwards, having had perhaps some ugly experience in life, they\nrealize the inefl&ciency of their education and return to the continuation schools to learn.\nThese people who come back are the men and women in our industrial life who have\ngot the most grit, and who understand that they must get more education, after these\nyears of experience. But these people suggest to us an army of others, less enterprising,\nand more helpless, than themselves, who do not come back after the age of twenty, and\nwho are still more unfitted for life. It is the mass of children from fourteen to eighteen\nyears of age, who, I think, are the most neglected part of our population at the present\ntime. After all, fourteen to eighteen is the critical age.\nThe leisure classes submit their children to the sharpest discipline and the hardest\nwork between these ages; they know that these are the malleable and formative years\nof a child's life. We, however, are content to allow hundreds of thousands of boys and\ngirls to go out into professions, or no professions, at this age. We allow them to go\nto street trading, and you hear from chief constables that two-thirds of the street traders\nare in the police courts every six months. We allow boys to go out as errand boys in\nthousands, and they come back into the industrial world at sixteen or seventeen without\nany occupation at all. We allow in fact, during those years, an immense manufacture\nof loafers and wasters\nIf they could compel such children to continue their\neducation they would have grasped the real nettle of the difficulty of the creation of\nthe loafer. I feel sure that you are right in considering that, at this moment, the most\nserious defect in our whole education system is the lack of sufficient means of continuing\nthe education of boys and girls when they leave the elementary school between twelve\nand fourteen years of age. The extent to which they forget in many cases all their\nschooling is most distressing and dispiriting for educationalists. You will see that we\nhave just introduced a bill which will require all children to stay at school until at least\nfourteen, unless the local authority provides compulsory education classes which will\ncontinue up to sixteen. I think that the next great step therefore will be in some way\nor other providing that the children who leave school for labor shall continue, for some\nyears at any rate, to go to school, if only for a few hours in the evening. If we can accomplish this, and perpetually strengthen and extend our secondary schools, we shall be able\nto boast that we have a fairly complete system of education and what we ordinarily\ncall an \"educational ladder.\"\nThe religious difficulty, of course, remains very tiresome and cumbersome to our\nwork; and it is impossible to believe that we shall remain very much longer with a system\nunder which so many of the teachers whose salaries are paid by the state remain servants\nof a denomination and not of the state that pays them. I do not know that there is\nany book or pamphlet which I can specially advise you to read as to education policy.\nI am very glad that you are going to mention the strong feeling here on the subject\n. of arbitration treaty with America. I remember speaking about it myself twelve years\nago or so, when I was over in America, and finding even then a very ready response\nto such an idea.\n^\n\nProfessor Sadler remarks :\nNot only have we freed our boys and girls from school discipline and influence at\nthe age of fourteen at the latest, but we have provided no substitute, tho we knew\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat in most cases they were quite out of hand as regards parental control. We have\nshifted the burden and responsibiUty on to other shoulders, tho we have most of us had\nan uneasy conscience in so doing, and many in an individual way have tried to stem\nthe overwhelming tide. The children, we find, not only deteriorate on the moral side,\nand seem to have httle, if any, sense of social, civic, or any other responsibility, but they\nappear to have forgotten most of what they ever learned in school. This has given us\nas a nation food for serious reflection, and the country is now, I believe, thoroly awakened\nto 'the gravity of the situation.\n\nIn order to try and remedy this state of affairs, there have been many\nefforts made which have culminated in :\nTHE NEW\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBILL,\n\n1911\n\nMr. Runciman, as minister of education, on May 27, 191 1, issued a\nbill with the following objects:\na) Abolition of the existing half-time system.\nh) To give power to local authorities to compel the attendance of children, who\nhave ceased to attend the elementary school, up to the age of sixteen.\nc) Where this compulsion is not applied, fourteen will be the age for leaving school.\n\nFurther, the authorities will have the power to compel children to\nattend school between fourteen and fifteen years of age, but those who\nare to be employed in agriculture may be exempted from school attendance\nat thirteen.\nThis bill is now before Parliament.\nThere has been a marked development on the social and amehorative\nsides of school-life. In rapid succession we have had a series of acts of\nParliament deaUng with the intellectual side of the education of the schools.\nMr. Rimciman says:\nThere is no social effort that holds out the same degree of hope as the work of the\nschools; we must link up the schools to all our social efforts.\n\nFor some time past there has been a demand for a more practical\nschool education, for a system which, while giving a good all-round training, will at the same time give a definite bias and have some practical\nrelation to the future career of the pupil. In order to meet this demand\nthe London County Council education authority has lately established\nwhat are termed \"Central Schools.\" About forty of these have now\nbeen established, containing about twenty thousand pupils. Schools on\nsomewhat similar lines have been established in Manchester for some\ntime. These schools take both boys and girls between the ages of eleven\nand twelve, for a four years' course. The curriculum, which can be varied\nto suit local requirements of a district, must provide manual and practical\nwork for all, and instruction in domestic subjects for the girls. No class\nmay contain more than forty pupils. These schools are not elementary,\nnor are they secondary, in the ordinary sense of the term; they come nearer\nthe technical, but with the definite aim of fitting the pupils for the work\nthey will have to do in later life. They correspond, tho with some dif-\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESENT\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nEDUCATION\n\n137\n\nferences, to the Gewerbeschule in Germany. There are also day technical\nand trade schools for boys and girls.\nThe English press has lately been giving much attention to the question\nof the dangers of a more or less irresponsible bureaucratic government\nof the schools by permanent officials, whether central or local. The subdivision into so many departments tends to the multiplication of the\noffice and clerical work required from the teachers. The board of education, in fairness it must be said, have of late years done much to lessen\nthat burden. The local authorities, on the other hand, are continually\nincreasing the amount. Again there has been a demand on the part of\nthe public elementary school teachers of England that the highest educational posts should be thrown open to the most suitable and competent\npersons, including the teachers themselves. This involves the question\nof class prejudice, which dies so hard in England. In spite of repeated\ngalvanic efforts to keep it alive from above, it is slowly but surely being\nundermined by the ever-advancing democratic spirit which marks the\npresent day. The system of open scholarships in the schools by which a\npromising pupil may pass on, by stages, from the primary to a higher school\nand then on to the university, has done much toward this end. There is\nnow an educational ladder, tho with still some missing steps, it is true.\nAnother vital problem, following upon the introduction into the schools\nof the school nurse and medical inspection of the scholars, is the great need\nof the establishment of school clinics in order that the treatment of minor\nailments may be efficiently carried out. The indifference of some parents,\nthe loss of time involved in taking the children to the hospitals, and the\ngreat distance of these from the homes of many of the children, all prevent the greatest good from following the visits of the doctor to the schools.\nIn the few instances, mostly on private initiative, when school clinics\nhave been formed, great good has resulted in the physical and mental\nimprovement of the children concerned, and the questions of too much\nhomework, of unhealthful excitement, and of insufficient or non-restful\nsleep, now receive attention.\nThe grant-aided secondary schools are now obHged to reserve 25 per\ncent of free-school places for the most gifted and promising pupils from\nthe primary schools.\nThe professional status of the primary teacher has been raised of late\nyears:\na) By the higher standard of attainments required and the greater facilities afforded\nfor a higher or university education. No one is now allowed to enter the profession\nwithout having been a pupil in a secondary school.\nb) By increased salaries and better pensions (already granted or prospective).\nc) By a growing feeling in the public mind of the immense value and importance of\nan efficient education, and of how much the people owe to their schools. At every important trades union gathering, educational questions now play a large part. This\nindicates a growing interest on the part of the parents and citizens.\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nTime will allow only the briefest mention of other problems:\n1. Balance of studies. — ^We are coming to see more and more the importance and\nnecessity of correlating the motor and creative side of education with the intellectual,\nand departing from our former ideal of a merely bookish education. We have, within\ncertain limits, great freedom in the framing of the curriculum for each school in accordance\nwith the special circumstances and environment of the same.\n2. Age at which specialization should begin. — ^There is some danger of beginning too\nsoon before a good soUd foundation of general education has been laid. Some advocate\nbetween the ages of eleven and twelve, but I greatly doubt whether it is wise to begin\nvocational specialization before the age of thirteen to fourteen. Does not the pupil\nwith the wider foundation, more fixed and better habits of application and study, really\nprogress the more rapidly in the end?\nThere is a divided opinion on the subject.\n3. In the question of special departments vs. schools, the trend of opinion is decidedly\nin favor of the former as against the latter. It is bad for both children and teachers to\nbe shut off in separate isolated departments — it tends to narrowness and clique formations.\n4. Language teaching. — The teaching of phonetics to beginners with much use of\nthe direct method, gradually becoming less interesting (objectively), and more strenuous,\nseems to commend itself as the best solution.\nThe classics still retain a foremost place In our great public schools and older universities, asbeing of the highest literary and disciplinary value, tho recently at Oxford,\nfor the first time, it has been made possible for a man to obtain an honor degree in\nmathematics or science without compulsory Greek. In the newer universities and\nsecondary schools with modern sides, more stress is now laid on modern languages than\non the classics as being a better preparation for a livelihood.\n5. Private schools are both numerous and influential. The best ones are most helpful\nin being able to initiate, and often scientifically carry out, educational reforms and experiments, owing to their comparative freedom from official control, and to the smaller\nclasses. These plans, when matured and successful, are then frequently adopted by the\neducational authorities.\n6. Physical education, athletics, and school games are all of importance. In all the\nprimary schools one hour a week in physical exercise is compulsory, as are also organized\nschool games in infant and primary schools. In the secondary schools, games and athletics\nplay a large part, and in some cases there is the danger of their being considered of greater\nvalue and importance than the intellectual side of the school work.\n7. The organization, reorganization, and in some cases the reform of the secondary\nschools of England has made great strides since 1902, when they were for the most part\nplaced under the control of the local education authorities. One of the problems connected with all secondary schools of whatever type is: By what main aim are they to\nbe dominated? Are they to work upward with an eye to the more brilliant pupils who\nwill proceed to the universities, or for the general good of the majority of their pupils\nwho will, at the age of sixteen to eighteen, go direct from them into some business or\nprofession ?\n8. The use and place of examinations is another of our problems. We have been too\nmuch dominated by them in the past; they still influence the curriculum and are too\noften the means by which the success of the work of a school or college is tested. They\nare useful as a test of progress, and grasp, and ability to reproduce a subject, but they\nmust be taken, in their final issue, in conjunction with the regular, steady work and\napplication, and especially in the sustained effort put forth by the student.\n\nThe University of London, originally an examining body, was reconstituted by statute in 1900 as a teaching university. It has become a\ngreat federation, including twenty-six colleges and schools giving instruc-\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESENT\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nEDUCATION\n\ntion in eight faculties (arts, law, medicine, theology, science, engineering,\neconomics, and music) . The municipal universities of Manchester, Sheffield,\nBirmingham, Leeds, and Bristol have all been organized since 1900. These\nmodern universities have been marked by their equipment in science\n(pure and applied) and by their able departments of pedagogy. Manchester and Birmingham have given prominence also to problems in sociology and economics.\n9. The relation of the old and new universities. — Oxford and Cambridge were originally\nestablished for the study of the classics. Now Cambridge has a fine Science Department,\nwith splendid opportunities for research work. But the newer universities supply a need,\nin that here we have applied science. King's College, London, has a fine engineering\nside. It also, on the women's side, is making domestic economy a university subject.\nYet in classics, Oxford and Cambridge still lead and an ambitious man who cannot begin\nby going to Oxford or Cambridge direct, will try to go there after taking a degree at one\nof the newer universities. London University is also now granting a degree which practically isa commercial one. The older universities have modified their methods to some\nextent in scientific matters; e.g., Cambridge does research work in agriculture.\n\nPerhaps I may be allowed to quote the following as an example of the\ndevelopment of the work of our newer universities:\nThe committee appointed by the Council of Liverpool University to consider the\ncourse of study and the regulations for the degrees in commercial sciences has now delivered\nits report. The Committee has the assistance of leading business men of Liverpool\nin the work of devising a course of study which will be practical, and at the same time\nof a true university type. A day and an evening course for the commercial degree will\nbe inaugurated within the next few months. Commercial-degree courses have proved\nvery successful in Manchester and other places, and there is every probability that the\nexperiment will succeed in Liverpool. Graduates in commerce will, it is anticipated, be\noffered substantial advantages on entering employment, either in the form of a shorter\nterm of apprenticeship or increased chance of promotion. In order to keep the commercial community of Liverpool interested in this form of university activity it is proposed that the merchants should be appointed to an Advisory Board, so that the educational courses may be prevented from becoming unpractical or useless for commercial\npurposes. It is believed that the new class of students to be attracted by the scheme\nwill prove a source of real strength to the University.\nID. We have a great need for a central bureau of education similar to that at Washington\nin this country. We have much good work and many valuable educational experiments\ngoing on thruout the country, but the information regarding the same is not generally\nand universally available. In fact, one of the best places to learn of what is going on\nsystematically in our own country, from a wide and comprehensive outlook, is often in\nthe Annual Report and Survey issued by the Bureau of Education of the United States.\nII. The question of pensions for all grades of teachers, especially with regard to those\nengaged in secondary schools, is occupying a great deal of attention at the present time\nin England.\n\nI will close my paper with the following extract from a letter recently\nreceived from Professor M. E. Sadler of the University of Manchester,\n•\nEngland:\nI am glad you are taking as the subject of your chief address \"Present Problems in\nEnglish Education.\" It is almost impossible for anyone at a distance to get a mere\nreading idea of the strength and range of the educational movement in Great Britain at\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "I40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nthe present time. They will get from hearing you a true impression of the complexity\nof the forces which are at work, of the magnitude of the administrative problem, and of\nthe hopefulness of the opportunity which lies before us.\nEvery grade in English education and all the different types of school in each grade\nare coming under the influence of a changed point of view — a stronger sense of the unity\nof national education and of its intimate connection with home-Ufe, with industrial conditions and with social ideals. This seems to be the fundamental fact in the situation\n— an awakening — a new sense of the interdependence of the different parts of national\nlife, a broadening of the outlook, a deeper feeling of the responsibility and for the need\nof co-operation between agencies hitherto separate, and with this there has come a\ndesire for study and a greater readiness for united action for the common good. There\nhas never been anything like it in the history of English education. It is impossible\nto predict, I think, what will be the first administrative result of this new movement\nof thought. I doubt whether in legislation or administration it will be found possible\nto give adequate expression to the thoughts and hopes which are rising among those\nwho know the schools and who realize the needs of the city and village life. We must\nnot feel discouraged because we cannot see far into the future effect of it.\nM. E. Sadler\nEastwood, Weybridge\n\nI agree with you in thinking that, in its broader sense, the religious\naspect of education affects all our problems and cannot be ignored without\ninjury to the character and outlook both of the pupil and teacher.\nPEACE\nKATHERINE\n\nIN THE SCHOOLS\n\nD. BLAKE, PRINCIPAL\n\nOF PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nTwenty three years ago I came to my first National Education Association meeting in San Francisco. San Francisco was so kind to me then\nthat I can begin no speech in San Francisco without a word of appreciation\nfor your kindness to me in the past, in the days when your city was a\ndream of the early gold-seekers, days when every street was full of memories\nof the past and the romance of the past. For your kindness to me then I\nthank you, and for your kindness to me now, today, when that city of the\nold days is gone, and the new city, the wonderful city of courage, of splendid,\ninvincible courage, has come into being since the fire. I cannot begin without thanking you again from the bottom of my heart for all your kindness\nto me, and without again saying how wonderful I think you San Francisco\npeople are.\nI chose the title of my speech a long time ago. I say this because some\nof you may think it strange for such an insurgent to be talking of peace.\nBut I believe that the insurgency that had its first triumph in Boston when\nwe elected this noble woman president and the insurgency which won a\ntriumph yesterday is the beginning of a real peace and harmony in this\ngreat organization. I beUeve that insurgents and \"old guard\" from today\non are going to work together in a regenerated organization that will push\nforward not merely the organization itself, but the work of education all\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPEACE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n141\n\nover this great country of ours. It is because I believe this that I am glad\nI chose the title \"Peace in the Schools.\" When I chose that title, Mrs.\nYoung told me that already the subject had been discussed at the meeting\nof superintendents by that woman who has done so much for the cause of\npeace in the past few years, Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews.. I replied: \"I\ndo not think we can talk too much about peace.\" So if you are willing,\nI am going to stick to my text no matter who has talked about it, because\nI think we want to continue talking just as much as we can about peace.\nI have been told that my title is ambiguous, and have been asked whether\nI am going to talk about the value and the importance of having peace\nbetween pupils and teachers, or between superintendents and teachers.\nBut how should I presume to tell you about peace in a school — ^in my own\nsmall school — ^when we have as our presiding officer tonight the greatest\npeacemaker in America, the woman who took the Chicago schools when\nthey were in a state of rebellion bordering on anarchy, and in the short\nspace of less than a year changed chaos into order, dispensed even-handed\njustice instead of favoritism, and welded her corps of principals and teachers\ninto a solid body, all working for the good of the schools, a body that loves\nMrs. Young as few leaders are loved, with a deep and loyal affection ? I\nshall leave it to her to tell you the secret of peace between the superintendents and the teachers. I have not come to discuss that question. I have\ncome to plead for peace in its broadest sense, for peace as wide as the\nworld, peace that shall endure while men have breath; to ask you as educators to take the message home to your townspeople, to your children, to\nband yourselves together to plan for peace against the army that is banded\ntogether for war.\nThe important thing in this country, the thing that I have found to\nbe the cure for all the bad things, is publicity. Let the sunshine of pubUcity\ntouch an evil spot and that evil spot is cured. The people of the United\nStates do not know what is going on in our government, and we teachers\nmust publish these facts, so that children and parents shall both know;\nso that our government may not slip so fast toward miHtary dominance\nas it has of late. How many people in this United States know that the\nmilitary expenditures have increased 360 per cent in the past ten years ?\nThat for every dollar we spent ten years ago we are spending today three\ndollars and sixty cents ? And we are not in any more danger of war now\nthan we were then. We must publish these facts. I saw it stated the other\nday that if you added up all the expenditures of the nationa' government\nsince this country became a nation, eleven-twelfths of the money has gone\nfor war, past, present, or to come.\nI think some of you may remember ^[uite a httle flurry that there was\nin our newspapers last winter over an effort to raise our standing army to\nan army of a million men ! The attempt was caught before it was in a\nposition to succeed, but we must watch things. We must tell our children\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwhat we know. We must tell them that 70 per cent of the money that is\nspent by this government each year goes for war — 70 per cent of it, with\nonly 30 per cent for all the other expenditures of this government. Is it\nany wonder that some of you teachers have not got exactly what one\nwould call adequate salaries? W,e must tell our people that Congress\ncan cheerfully vote for two ten-nullion-dollar battleships a year, and can\nwith equal cheerfulness and scorn reject the request of the Commissioner\nof Education for seventy thousand dollars for the research work that we\nall know is vitally needed. Compare those two ten-million-dollar battleships— ten million each — and seventy thousand dollars to look after the\nchildren of this country, to solve some of the problems that you and I are\nstruggUng with.\nDo you know how much it costs to fire a gun — one of those great big\nguns — on a battleship ? In response to a request from me to the Secretary\nof the Peace Society of New York, the Secretary, Mr. Short, wrote to a\ncongressman, asking him that question, and he wrote back: \"Seventeen\nhundred dollars for one shot.\" The price of three good teachers for a\nwhole year! What does it cost when they go to target practice? The\ncongressman wrote: \"You know we must have target practice. As long\nas we have battleships, we have to send the men somewhere to do something.\" Yet this country, which stands almost the first as a world power,\nstands — ^friends, let us blush — seventh in iQiteracy. America seventh in\nilliteracy! We who have been so proud of our Uttle red schoolhouse, we\nwho have talked as tho everybody here knew how to read and write and\nwere a thinking, inspired being! I know what you are thinking: \"It is\nour ignorant foreigners.\" But it is not. It is native-bom Americans.\nWe can spend thousands on a sham battle at Newport, but we cannot educate the children in our mountain districts. Now, friends, I dare say all\nthese statistics are very old to you. You have heard them before, but I\nwant you to give them life. I want you to take them home with you. I\nwant you to repeat them to your children. Why is it this way? The\nmiHtary organization of this country is the most complete organization\nthere is. You think your labor organizations are strong, but your military\norganization is far stronger. If it were not, it could not get 70 per cent of\nthe national income. And that military organization! Think how it is\nsupported. Every city in this country has an armory, and every armory\nis a clubhouse — a center for military activity, a center for military legislation. Washington is a military capital. In 1909 — I don't know how many\nthere are now — ^but in 1909 there were 727 army offiqers, either on the\nactive roll or on the retired Hst, living in Washington with their families,\nwatching legislation, pushing ahead anything for the army, helping that\nalong.\nWe have here a great organization. If we stand shoulder to shoulder\nas the sons of Mars do the schoolhouse can conquer the armory. That\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsj\n\nPEACE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n143\n\nis the task we have before us. I have been thinking very hard over the\nsubject. When you have to combat something that should be combated,\nyou must watch the enemy and see what they are doing, and you must\nplay the same sort of a game, as far as you can. They are organized for\nwar. We must be organized for peace. They have their organization\nnot merely in the army, not merely in the family, but they have been cleverer than we are — they have it in the schoolhouse. How many schools\nhave the miUtary drill? Today, all over this country there is a movement— the Boy Scouts. Talk to anyone and he will say that it is peaceful,\nthat it is against war. Is it? On the way out here, in an illustrated\nmagazine I saw a picture of the encampment of the Boy Scouts, and the\ninscription imder it said they had the full miUtary tactics all thru their week\nof encampment, just the same as the regular army. And they have a\nkhaki uniform. All those Boy Scouts are being trained to revere militarism far more than anything else. It's fun to march behind a band.. I\nnever knew it until I marched in a suffrage parade this spring. There\nisn't anything much more inspiring. I have always wanted to go down\nFifth Avenue in a parade, but I never thought I was going to until I did\nit this spring. And I know now the fascination of these miHtary parades.\nWe must organize peace parades. We must organize a children's association that will offset these Boy Scouts. I have been racking my brain\nfor a month for a name that will be as vital and as crisp and enticing as that\nname, \"Boy Scouts.\" I don't know whether I have found it or not. But\nI think we can organize School Boy Friends and School Girl Friends.\nThere's something tremendously attractive about the word \"Friend.\"\nIt is the first word I spoke to you tonight. It is the word that goes to\neverybody's heart. Perhaps we can make a peace organization just as\ngood as their Boy Scouts if we work for School Boy Friends and School\nGirl Friends. By the way, I want to tell you something that I think only\ntwo or three people know. Mr. Short, the secretary of the New York\nPeace Society, communicated with the heads of the Boy Scout movement\nand said: \"We want to make a protest against your badge — it's miUtary.\"\nAnd they said: \"Oh, no, no! It isn't military. It's just a national\nemblem!\" Then he said: \"It shows a war eagle and back of it you have\na spearhead.\" They said: \"No, no!. ThaVs a, fleur de lis.'' \"But under\nit you have, 'Be prepared'.\" And they said: \"Be prepared to lend a helping hand to everybody.\"\nHe had an offer from a most distinguished artist to design a badge.\nKenyon Cox, whose name you all know as one of the foremost artists of\nAmerica, designed a badge for the Boy Scouts, a beautiful badge. It has\nthe fleur de lis as a background — only it is aifleur de lis; you won't mistake\nit for a lance — and it has two clasped hands, beautifully drawn, across the\ncenter. Underneath it has the word \"Steadfast.\" It is the same idea,\nonly it is not miUtary. Mr. Cox gave his work to help on this peace cause,\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand the leaders of this peaceful (?) Boy Scout movement rejected it. I\nbeHeve if we can organize our peaceful School Boy Friends and School\nGirl Friends we can have that badge. I can't make any such promise,\nbut I'm very sure of it, if you will help out. Will you ?\nFifty years ago this country was torn in two with civil war. A war\nmay possibly be defensible when you are repelling an invader, protecting\nyour hearthstone; but fighting in a family is a disgrace. I don't know\nwhat your papers in the West are doing, but I do know that our papers of\nthe East are digging up that war because it's just fifty years old, and are\nputting the anniversaries of those awful battles in the papers day by day.\nI think we teachers ought to stop it if we can. I felt terribly when my superintendent sent a circular to each one of us, asking us to draw lessons of\npatriotism from this semi-centennial. I could not do it. There's just one\nreason for us to remember that civil war, and that is so that we shall never\nhave another war of any kind. That war entailed fifty years of poverty,\nof unhappiness, of misery on our Southern brothers and sisters, and are\nwe going to remember it now ? We must forget it. I wish each one of you\nwould be a Httle center, when you go back, to take the message to the\neditors of your papers to end this revivification of the Civil War. It's\npart of the miHtary organization and we must stop it. Twelve years ago\na cry swept over this country: \"Remember the Maine!\" I don't know\nwhether you noticed it, but on the way out here I read General Bixby^s\nreport that we have no reason to remember the Maine except in humiliation;\nthat that explosion came from within and was no cause for war. Friends,\nthat \" Remember the Maine \" was a war-cry. Let us take it for a peace-cry.\nLet us \"Remember the Maine,\" and when again some war fever sweeps over\nthis coimtry, let us peace-people cry, \"Remember the Maine and go slowly!'*\nThis Association has formed a committee and provided a fund to study\nconditions with regard to teachers' salaries, tenure of office, and pensions.\nWe have been suffering because of present conditions. Our salaries are\nlow because of war. I don't know whether you are famihar with the\nreport of the Massachusetts Commission of Inquiry into the causes of the\nhigh cost of Hving. But that Commission has shown conclusively that\neach war period is a period of high prices and that in each peace period\nprices decline and comfort rises. There's a pocketbook reason for you\nteachers to organize for peace.\nI have given you one constructive thing to do in the \"School Friends\"\norganization. I want you to take another leaf from the book of the warrior.\nAll over this country there are organizations that you do not think of as\nmiHtary, Sons of the Revolution, Sons of the American Revolution, Daughters of the Revolution, Daughters of the American Revolution, Sons of the\nColonial Wars, Colonial Dames, Daughters of 1812. Just think how many\npeople those organizations take in — organizations that are so in love with\nthe warlike character of their ancestors that too often they fight now!\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPEACE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n145\n\nWhat do those organizations do? They hold meetings and they\nbrag about their General This and General That, and who their ancestors\nwere. And what are we peace people doing? Are we going about,\nboasting, I am a descendant of Eli Whitney, and I am a descendant\nof Burr, and I am descended from the founder of this university, from\nthe inventor of that ? No. We are letting them take all the fun, and\nall the pomp, and all the glory. We must take some of it from them.\nI hope before another year is over to see organized all over this country\nan association as honorable as that of the Sons or Daughters of any\nwar in the past, the organization of the Sons and Daughters of the\nPeace Heroes, those who have conquered the forces of nature, who have\nworked to make life more endurable, who have stood for peace when\nthere was a war spirit abroad; who have helped in the uplift of mankind\nin any way; a society whose duty it shall be to Hft from obscurity the\nnames of those benefactors of mankind; to place, with pomp and ceremony, tablets upon their birthplaces, even as tablets have been scattered\nover this broad land, holding in the memory of the people the fighters of\nthe past. I hope that this organization will spread from this country all\nover the world, so that the honor roll of peace may become as long and as\nglittering as that of war, including all the great leaders of thought, the great\neducators of the past, discoverers, scientists, or inventors, statesmen who\nheld their country to the side of peace altho it meant the scorn of their\ncontemporaries. The roll of honor in our own land would be bright with\nthe names of Roger WiUiams, Eliot, the great preacher to the Indians;\nJohnson of Connecticut, Henry Clay, John Jay, Harvard, Burr, Yale,\nand the other founders of great universities, Eh Whitney, Elias Howe,\nRobert Fulton, Benjamin FrankHn — the men who have made two grains\nof wheat grow where one grew before. It is pathetic to see how we have\nforgotten those to whom we owe so much; the story of the men who have\ngone hungry and cold and tattered in order to carry out some great scheme\nfor the benefit of the human race, is forgotten. If we honor them, the honor\ncomes too often when they are laid in their graves. Father Mendel, who\ngave us the law of inheritance which has made possible all the modern\nscientific experiments in agriculture, died unknown, and with the mortification of knowing that his patient years of toil, ending in a scientific\ndiscovery of incalculable value, were unheeded by the people of his day;\nand the story of Father Mendel is the story of a host of peace heroes.\nHenceforth this sin of ingratitude, if it continues, will he at our doors.\nThere is enough work for us to do. If we will do it, we can have just as\nmuch fun as those military people; we can have bands, we can put on good\nclothes, and we can erect tablets, and we can have the fun of collecting\nmoney to buy birthplaces and invite the Governor to help dedicate them.\nThere are some other things that touch us a little more personally. We\nwant to demand the rewriting of our history courses so that they will not\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlook, as they often do, as tho the history of America were a succession of\nbattles, with nothing of value between. We want to demand that battle\ndates be forgotten, and that dates of important events be remembered.\nI do not know how badly you people in front of me sin, but I know that in\nthe last two years in the English course of New York City 33 per cent of\nthe poems that are obligatory are war poems, and yet there are beautiful\npeace poems, and there are beautiful peace quotations.\nIf we go back to our children with these war facts, and if we go back\nto our boards of education with a unified demand for peace work in the\nschools, we can get what we want, because whatever this National Education Association really wants it can have. There is no question about that.\nWe teachers have the children, so we may say we have the game in our\nhands, if we will only put our minds to it and stop military drill and substitute peace drill, stop military poems and substitute peace poems, cease\nto demand the memorizing of \"Hohenlinden,\" the \"Battle of Waterloo,\"\n\"Old Ironsides,\" and let our Httle ones instead learn Southey's \"Battle of\nBlenheim,\" Longfellow's \"Arsenal at Springfield,\" and those beautiful lines\nfrom Ruskin's \"Dawn of Peace\";\nPut off, put off your mail, ye kings, and beat your brands to dust,\nA surer grasp your hands must know, your hearts a better trust,\nNay, bend aback the lance's point and break the helmet bar,\nA noise is on the morning wind, but not the noise of war.\nAmong the grassy moimtain paths the glittering troops increase.\nThey come! they come! how fair their feet, they come that publish peace.\nBehold! the time of wrath is past; and righteousness shall be,\nFor the wolf is dead in Arcady, and the dragon on the sea.\n\nPROGRESS\nFRANCIS\n\nG. BLAIR, STATE\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOE PUBLIC\nSPRINGFIELD, ILL.\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nWhat we are doing in public education today is at least twenty-five\nyears behind what we think we ought to be doing. Recognizing and giving\ncredit for everything that is being done thru the instrument of public instruction to establish and to promote common standards of citizenship, to raise\nthe level of intelligence, and to increase the general efficiency — recognizing\nand giving credit for all this — ^the fact still remains that the methods and\nprocedures and the results of public education are at least a quarter of a\ncentury behind what our ideals and our best judgments say these methods,\nprocedures, and results should be. A great gulf lies between our theory\nand our practice. We meet in a great convention like this and felicitate\nourselves over the educational outlook. We stand, as it were, Hke a pedagogical St. John on the Isle of Patmos, look off into the ethereal blue of\neducational idealism, and imagine that we can see the old order of things\npassing away and a new educational heaven and a new educational earth\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n147\n\nbeing created. We rejoice with exceeding great joy that the world is to be\nso quickly transformed thru the instrument of public instruction. But\nin the gray dawn of the morning after, when we turn our faces to look upon\neducational things as they really are and see the little circumscribed school\ngrounds, the ill-constructed school buildings, ill-Ughted, ill-heated, ill-ventilated, ill-suited to the life and work of the millions of children; when we see\nthe narrow, constricted courses of study, the short terms of school; when\nwe look into the schoolrooms and see the work being done in so many\ninstances by immature, ill-prepared, incompetent teachers — when we see\nall this a chill of disappointment, amounting almost to discouragement,\ncomes over us and we break forth into the question: Why is it that this\ngreat instrument of public education is so unresponsive to the theory and\nthe thought of those who know the most about what it should be ? Why is\nit that this great wagon of the common school is not more closely hitched\nup to the star of educational progress ? Why is it that we can meet here\nin national convention, adopt resolutions and platforms, which embody the\nsober and sound judgment of the best thinkers in education, and twentyfive years afterward find that those ideals and judgments have had little\ninfluence upon the actual administration of public education ?\nIn no spirit of complaint or quarrelsomeness, I wish to give, this evening,\na few of the things which I think explain this obstinate, unresponsive character of public education, for there can never be true educational progress\nuntil we have discovered and removed these causes and thereby rendered\nour practices in the administration of public instruction more sensitive and\nresponsive to the best ideals and the best thought.\nThe first thing that stands in the way of a quick response, a ready adjustment of the administrative systems to educational progress, is the lack of\nproper financial support. Look where you will in any of the commonwealths ofthis great nation, wherever you find the conmion-school system\nfailing to do the work that it should do, wherever you find it wasteful and\ndisappointing to everybody concerned, the one universal explanation is\ninadequate revenues. Our child-imagination was stimulated by the assurance that if we ran to the end of the rainbow we should find there a\nbag of gold. Our mature judgment must understand that if the rainbow\nof public education which we construct on the Fourth of July and on such\noccasions as this is ever to become the arch of support for a great efficient\npublic-school system we must find under it not only one bag but many bags\nof gold. The various commonwealths of the Union entered upon this\npropaganda of public education with great enthusiasm on the assumption\nthat the safety and welfare of the democratic state depended upon universal\nand democratic education. This fine sei^iment and enthusiasm launched\nus strongly in that direction, but the difficulty is that, having put our\nhands to the plow of pubhc education, we have turned back, expecting the\nplow to cultivate the field and produce the crops without being furnished\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe means whereby it could be pulled and whereby the field could be cultivated and the harvest gathered. I believe that the next step in educational\nprogress is a campaign to create sentiment and to direct the attention of\nthe people of the various commonwealths to this need of enlarged revenues\nif the public school is to be expected to do what it ought to do. We must\nbring clearly before the people the thought that if this common-school\nsystem is to be saved from being a wasteful, disappointing institution, it\nmust be pul upon a more solid financial foundation. In conducting this\ncampaign it will be necessary for us to go before the taxpayers in their\nvarious organizations — men's clubs, commercial clubs, business men's\nassociations, and before the various legislatures of the commonwealths —\nand preach this crusade of a more adequate financial support of this great\npublic-school system. And in doing this we will need to discover some\narguments in its favor which are not commonly used in educational discussions on such occasions as this, for when we go before these various\nbodies of taxpayers, and more especially before the various bodies of lawmakers, we shall find that the ordinary eulogy of the public-school system\nwill not count for as much as we thought it would. We shall discover that\na new line of talk and of argument is necessary. It will be fortunate under\nthese circumstances if there are those who can present definite arguments\nto show the relationship which education bears to the institution of property\nand of wealth.\nThe common resistance which is offered to every attempt to secure\nlarger appropriations and more generous revenue laws for public education\nis the protest that such increased revenues mean increased taxes and\nincreased taxes interfere with the value of property, even tending to its\nconfiscation. Every once in a while a man in the legislative hall puts his\nopposition in this form:\nAll of what you say concerning public education is very well, but if we make the\nappropriation which you suggest, or modify the revenue laws as you suggest, what will\nthe taxpayers say ? Will it not tend to discourage the investment of capital ? Will it\nnot tend to depreciate the value of property ?\n\nWhen that time arrives it will be fortunate for us if we are able to present\narguments which will show that education is a creator rather than a destroyer ofvalues, that education of the right sort — trained minds and trained\nmuscles — tends to increase wealth and to add to the value of taxable property.\nThere are those who must be shown the tangible, quantitative results of\neducation as expressed in dollars and cents. This is not always an easy\nor a pleasant task to perform, but all over the country men and women are\nappearing in the forum of discussion who can present this sort of an argument with great skill and with great effect, showing that wherever institutions of learning have increased, wherever boys and girls and young men\nand young women have been properly trained, there is a corresponding\naddition to the wealth and prosperity of the commonwealth.\nThere is another more general relationship, however, which education\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n149\n\nbears to property and to property values and it is in this broader view that\nmost of us find ourselves best equipped and most happy in arguing. When\nwe find certain men in lawmaking bodies or among taxpayers who stoutly\nmaintain that value is a thing inherent in matter, that wealth resides in\nstreams, in lands, in the stone in the quarry, in the iron in the earth, we\nmust find a line of argument which will show that value instead of being an\ninherent thing in matter like cohesion and gravity, is a conventional thing,\na creature of education and of civiHzation.\nSuppose it is a legislature sitting in one of our great agricultural states\nand we are asking for increased appropriations and better revenue laws in\norder that the public-school system may adjust itself to the best thought\nof what it should be in order to meet the demands of the times, and we are\nmet, as we are very likely to be met, by the statement that the farmers and\nthe landowners will object to the tax and there is danger that it will interfere with land values. Then we might turn to these men and say:\nWhy, you talk of the value of this land as if you thought this value was caught up\nin the constituent elements of the soil, which is not so. Has not this land for eons of\nages remained here, warmed by the same sunshine, wet by the same rains, above it hung\nthe same climatic conditions, and in its soil slumbered the great giant of productivity\nbefore education and civilization touched it ? But so long as the savage roamed over it\nand the buffalo made it its grazing ground it had no value in the sense which we are using\nit. Whence, then, came its value of $100, $150, or $200 an acre ? A religious enthusiast,\nwith his three caravels crossed the great Atlantic, braved its terrors and endured its hardships, and finally planted the cross of a great religion and of a great civilization on the\nborders of this new world. When that happened a new value attached to every square\nmile of territory in this wild continent, for a conventional thing, a creature of civilization\nand education had touched it. Later on when a mighty nation, thru discovery and\nconquest, had thrown about these agricultural states its arm of security, a further value\ncame into them. No change had come in the soil nor in the character of the climate, but\nthe establishment of a strong government had added to the value of every piece of real\nproperty. And still later on when across the Allegheny Mountains came a man on foot\nor horseback, down into the Ohio River valley where he saw the stretches of these prairie\nstates, looked around, took up his claim, and drove down his stake, saying: \"Here will I\nsettle, here will I build my home, hither will I bring my wife and children, and here will I\nbuild for myself a name and a fortune \" — when that happened a new value was added to\nevery acre of ground within a radius of one hundred miles. And when over the mountains again he came with the covered wagon, his wife and the children, the horses and\ncattle, and some of his neighbors, and when the houses were erected and the little church\nreared its spire, and the school bell rang, how quickly the values of land in all the country\nround about advanced. No change had come in the soil, no change in its productive\nquaUties, but the value that resides in educated minds and educated hearts, values that\nreside in education and civilization, had come with the men and the women and the children, and the land had increased in value.\n\nIf we are appealing to people in states which are more interested in\nbuilding materials than they are in agricultural lands, the discussion may\ntake this form:\n•\nYou speak about values in building materials as if that value were a part of the thing\nitself and that a tax levied for educational purposes would tend to depreciate that value.\nIn the time of the untutored savage this raw building material had no value whatever.\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "150\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGeneral\n\nHe was amply housed in his little wigwam. When the filth and squalor became so\nnoisome that he could not endure it he moved to some other place. In his untutored soul\nthere was no desire for better homes, for churches, for school buildings, for Houses of\nParliament, for great public buildings. Thru the processes of education the crude desires\nof civilized man were changed into refined desires and he asked for himself a home, which\nwould not only meet the mere animal needs, but which supplied comfort with a spare bedroom, with bathroom, and with the conveniences of life. Then he sought to express his\nrefined intelligence and ideas in the form of churches and school buildings. When that\ntime came every cubic yard of stone in the quarries from New Hampshire to California\ngot a new value; every bit of iron caught up in the mighty embrace of nature; every\nrunning foot of lumber in the forest from Michigan to Louisiana got a new value,. because\nthru the process of education man's desires and his appreciations and his demands had\nbeen changed. And moreover every muscle that helped to quarry the stone or mine\nthe ore or fell the tree or fashion them into forms of usefulness or beauty, every such muscle\ngot a new value. Every man who, thru education, has his natural powers trained into\nexpertness in the transforming this raw material into homes and churches and schools\nbecomes more valuable as an economic, a social, and a civic unit.\n\nAgain, let us consider the relation that education bears to the value\nof clothing material, either the raw or the finished product. The savage\nwas amply clothed to meet all of his desires with a buffalo robe or a bear\nskin, but when thru the process of civiKzation and education man came\nto desire for himself and to demand for himself a raiment which not only\nmet the needs of comfort and health, but which expressed his inner fancy\nand desire for form and beauty — ^when that time came every bit of cotton\non the southern cotton fields got a new value; every bit of hemp and flax\ngrowing in the field got a new value; every fleece on the back of every sheep\non our hillsides and pastures got a new value. There was no change in the\nraw material itself, but the change had come in the fancies of men, in their\ndesires and tastes, and value projected itself into these materials. It is\none thing for us to train a workman to produce a given thing and quite\nanother for us to train people to desire the thing which is made. We may\ntrain our workmen to produce and beautify a piece of furniture, but if\nthere has not been developed an appreciation for it and a desire for it in the\nhearts and minds of others the thing will have Httle value aside from its\neducational results. If we should take some of our best made things, our\nmost useful things, our most beautiful things, the things upon which we\nplace a great value, into darkest Africa and exhibit them before the untutored natives our scale of values would be upset. The things which we\nrated highest would be trampled upon by them and the things which\nwe considered of little value or of little worth would be paramount in their\nappreciation.\nIn this simple way, without economic refinement, we may be able to\nmake it clear that this thing which we call value, upon which taxes are\nlevied for school revenues, is in itself mainly a creature of education and,\ntherefore, there is nothing unjust or hurtful in levying a tax upon siich\nvalues for the support of the public education.\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPROGRESS IN Public education\n\n, 151\n\nAgain it may be easily shown that the value of property is very dependent upon the safeguards that are thrown about it. Take away from\nproperty the safety that surrounds it thru civil standards and laws and its\nvalues would shrink in a night. If we could by some influence strike back\nour civiHzation to that point where might made right, if we could cancel\nout with one stroke the influences of schools and education, we would have\nto patrol our country roads with armies to protect our farms, our grain,\nour cattle, and our horses. We would have to fill the streets of our cities\nwith armed constabulary to protect the wealth of homes and buildings and\nfactories. Now in what does this security rest ? Somewhat in the form of\nthe government under which we exist and somewhat in the laws that are\nenacted in our national and state legislatures. But how easy it is for us to\nsee that these laws thus enacted are of little effect unless they are enacted\nin the hearts and minds of children thru the process of education. You\nmay write your laws in Washington and the various state capitols, but unless\nthey are written in the hearts and minds and consciences of the citizens\nthey are of no effect. There may have been a Decalog written by the finger\nof God upon the tablets of stone on Mount Sinai, but for me there is no\nDecalog until it is written upon the tablet of my own mind, heart, and\nconscience. There may have been a Declaration of Independence written\nback there in Philadelphia, but there is for me no Declaration of Independence until I have written it upon the parchment of my own soul and signed\nit with the consent of my own heart and own mind. You may encumber\nthe statutes of your commonwealths with laws in the restraint of anarchy\nand for the protection of property, but unless these laws are written in the\nhearts and minds and consciences of the boys and girls and of the men and\nwomen they will be inoperative and useless. The pubUc-school system is\na great instrument for promoting and establishing good standards of citizenship and creating respect for law and order and inculcating a proper regard\nfor property and for placing about this institution of wealth and private\nproperty its greatest safeguard.\nOccasionally you will hear this statement:\nWhy should I pay taxes, why should my property be taxed in order to support an\ninstitution when I have no children of my own to go to it?\n\nThe reply can easily be made: Whether you have a child which has\nsprung from your own loins or not, in a very true sense every boy and girl\nwho pass your door are your son and your daughter. They can throw brickbats thru your window, they can steal your property, they can inaugurate\na reign of lawlessness in your community. They can make your city and\nyour state a byword. You are in a very true sense your brother's keeper,\nand what you are doing unto these you ai« doing unto yourself. There is\nno escape from it.\nOn another occasion you will hear some one say:\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGeneral\n\nIn a certain section of a certain region, the property values are low and the school\nequipment is poor and the children have very inadequate school facilities, but why should\nI be taxed to educate them. Let them take care of themselves. The children a hundred\nmiles from here are no concern of mine.\n\nBut the children a hundred miles away from you or a thousand miles\naway from you are your concern. Thru the increase of our means of communication and transportation the boy born in an unfortunate region,\nill-suppKed with educational opportunities, and ill-trained for the duties of\ncitizenship, tho a thousand miles away from you when the right educational opportunities were denied him, may live next door to you when he\ngets ready to exhibit the ugly phases of his ignorance and his prejudices.\nThere is no escape from it. We are all in the same boat. An educated\ncitizen is the greatest asset of the State and the Nation. An educated\ncitizen with refined desires and tastes is the greatest safeguard ot the nation.\nAn untutored, ignorant person, with low desires and low tastes is a state\nand national liabiHty. He adds little to the value of property and as a\ncitizen easily becomes a menace both to property and to society.\nAfter having gone far afield on this particular point, let me bring it\nto a conclusion by sa3dng that in this campaign for better revenues we must\ngo boldly before the lawmakers and taxpayers, not on bended knee or with\nbated breath begging for charity, but ask with reason, with faith, with\ncourage that the various commonwealths shall support the school systems\nin such a way as to make them more effective instruments for estabHshing\ngood standards of citizenship, raising the general level of intelligence, and\nincreasing the working and social efficiency of its citizens, thereby adding\nto its wealth, its property, and its safety.\nWith the forthcoming of adequate revenues the school system will\nquickly respond to our ideas of what it should be. We shall find better\nbuildings, better grounds, better courses of study, better length of terms,\nbetter teaching. But there is another thing which hinders the quick\nreahzation of our ideals in practice. That is the lack thruout the commonwealths of our union of competent, well-trained; expert superintendents\nand supervisors. There is great waste today in our educational system,\na great failure to do the work we ought to do, due to this one cause. Our\neducational progress depends very much upon our ability to go forth in the\nseveral states before taxpayers, school patrons, and lawmakers and convince them of the value of a well-trained superintendent or supervisor over\nevery unit of pubHc instruction. In some districts and even in some cities\nthe notion obtains that it is a waste of public money to employ a supervisor. The idea seems to be that with a teacher in every room the school\nsystem ought to accomplish all of its results. As a teacher in a normal\nschool I found on the pages of a certain book two problems which were given\nto the classes. The first of these problems was: If one acre of ground will\nproduce thirty bushels of wheat, how many bushels would ten such acres\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN PUBLIC EDUCATION\n\nproduce ? The answer was quickly and accurately given as three hundred\nbushels. The next problem was: If one man can make one chair in one\nday, how many chairs can ten men make in one day ? Some of the hasty\nstudents gave the answer as ten chairs. Others hesitated a while and said\nthat it would depend upon how the ten men were working, whether they\nworked separately or together. One student said, \"If you will let me take\nthe ten men and select from among them the one who knows the most\nabout chair-making and let me appoint him superintendent or boss, as the\ncase may be, and then assign each one of the remaining nine men to that\npart of the work which he is most capable of doing, letting this superintendent direct and co-ordinate the efforts of the other nine men — if this\nwere done the result of the efforts of these ten men for one day might be\none hundred chairs instead of ten.\" The value of having this one man as\nsuperintendent can be found somewhere between the difference in the value\nof ten chairs and one hundred chairs. It may be possible for us to show\nthat in somewhat the same way a superintendent of a system of schools\nwill increase the value of the work and the efficiency of every teacher\ntherein. Some of the schools which are lagging farthest behind in the line\nof educational progress, which are most unresponsive to the best thought\nand best ideals, are those which lack any supervision whatever or which\nare unfortunate enough to have superintendents and supervisors who lack\nthe fitness or the preparation or the elements of leadership. Several ladies\nand a boy, seven or eight years of age, were attending a concert given by\nFurello and his great band. The ladies were greatly interested in the\nwonderful work of the wonderful leader and were enthusiastic in their appreciation as he, in his matchless way, began to coax the music out of the\ncaverns of silence, pleading with it in the most winsome way, then urging\nit and commanding it until it came forth in such volumes it filled the auditorium, and then turned, as it were, to drive it back, commanding with\nvehement gestures until you cotdd feel the retreat into the golden silence.\nBut the boy, interested in the many peculiar instruments, could not understand why the ladies paid so much attention to the leader, and broke forth\nwith the following question: \"Why are you talking about that fellow all\nthe time ? He doesn't make the music. All that he does is to stand up\nthere on that box and wave his big stick. It is the men out there that make\nthe music.\" In reply one of the ladies said : \"It is very natural, my boy,\nfor you to think so, but let me tell you something about that man standing\non the box. Do you know that he can step down and take the instrument\nout of the hands of any one of ten or fifteen of those men and play it as well\nas he can ? And do you know that that fact makes those men respect him\nand look up to him and watch the movemejjt of that big stick, as you call\nit, in his hand ? Do you know that while every one of those men out there\nis an artist, that there would not be the kind of music that there is if that\nman on the box did not stand there and wave his stick ? Do you know that\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'General\n\nthe artists who compose this band could not be held together in this organization unless they understood that the man who stands on the box and\nwaves his stick is such an artist himself, so large and generous in his view\nand appreciation of them and their work, that they feel safe in joining\nthemselves with him ? They know that they will have a chance under his\nleadership to show all of their art and all of their skill.\" I know this is\nrather an extravagant illustration, but it illustrates fairly well the place\nin the public-school system of a trained, competent superintendent. The\npresence of such a superintendent or supervisor at the head of a unit of\npubHc instruction means better courses of study, greater unity in the instruction, greater co-operation of the several teachers in the various parts\nof the system, and a very greatly increased responsiveness of that unit of\ninstruction to the best thought and the best ideals of what that unit of\ninstruction should accomplish. I know that there are some superintendents,\nso-called, who conceive it as their function simply to sit and make life as\nuncomfortable as possible for the several teachers engaged in the work.\nThat is not the kind of a superintendent I am speaking of. His or her\npresence in the pubHc-school system is a millstone hanging about its neck.\nI am speaking of the superintendent who, having knowledge of the teaching\nwork, who, being in sympathy with the things that are to be done, establishes\nthe atmosphere and the conditions which will attract to the system the very\nbest teachers, who know that whatever they are able to do will have a chance\nto express itself under his or her administration. I am speaking of the\nsuperintendent who, having this experience and this knowledge, will have\nsympathy and tact to unify the efforts of these several well-trained teachers\nin giving to the boys and girls the largest possible educational opportunity.\nI believe that this National Education Association has done much in the\npast years to create a sentiment for expert supervision, but our progress\nwill not be great until this sentiment is more widely spread than it is today\nand we must continue the campaign which is already so well begun and so\nfar advanced.\nThe last thing which prevents our practice from embodying our best\ntheory and best judgment in public education is the presence in the publicschool system of all too many immature, ill-prepared, incompetent teachers.\nNo one can go ahead of me in his appreciation of the fideUty, the industry,\nthe enthusiasm of the great army of teachers at work in the common schools\nof our nation, but after I have said all that I can in favor of the great number who are prepared by nature and by education and by training for their\nwork I cannot avoid saying that the machinery is clogged here and there\nby teachers who lack the natural fitness, who lack the vision, who lack the\nscholastic preparation, who lack the enthusiasm of professional skill to do\nthe work. We may appropriate money, we may supply trained supervisors,\nbut the educational system will never respond to its best ideals, will never\nbe actually and effectively progressive until we have placed in every school-\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nIN MEMORI AM— JAMES\n\nORMOND\n\nWILSON\n\nroom of the land a teacher who by nature, in character, in personality, in\nscholarship, and in professional training is fit for the calling of teaching.\nAnd here, too, there is no need of blinking at the facts. If we are to work\nin this campaign for securing for our pubhc-school system a better prepared\nteaching force, the commonwealths of the nation must realize that at least\nthree things must be done. First of all there must be a more adequate\nsalary provided, one that will attract the brightest and best young men and\nwomen and give them the assurance of not only a living wage, but of such\nfinancial rewards that shall translate a mere job into a calling. And when\nour commonwealths have arisen to that necessity we will have taken a\ngreat step in the line of progress. But there is another step to takjC and that\nis to provide abundant opportunity for these young men and women who\nwish to enter the calling of teaching to prepare themselves for the work.\nThis always entails the expenditures of large sums of money to esjtablish\ntraining schools and normal schools and higher institutions of learning in\nwhich these young people are to be prepared for their work. And this\nrequires still another step. After we have offered such an opportunity for\nwork and have offered remuneration that shall attract young men and\nyoung women to it, after we have given them that preparation which fits\nthem for the work, we must see to it that our laws and legal machinery\nplace upon them the stamp of approval, just as the professions of law and\nof medicine stamp upon the men and women who have made proper preparation for their work. We must say to them that,\nHaving thus prepared yourselves, you may go into any part of this commonwealth,\nwherever there is a demand for you, and do the work of education, and so long as you show\nthe spirit of progress, so long as you show yourselves inclined to follow some expert\nleadership, so long as you show yourselves growing, efl&cient workmen there shall not\nbe raised any further question as to your fitness to teach.\n\nAnd, with these three things adjusted — adequate revenues, expert supervision, and competent teachers — I am sure that twenty-five years from\nthis time, when we meet in a national convention, there will be no need for\none to say, and no truthfulness in it if he should say, that what we are doing\nin public education today is at least tw6nty-five years behind what we think\nwe ought to be doing.\nIN MEMORI\nTHOMAS\n\nAM— JAMES\nW.\n\nBICKNELL,\n\nORMOND\nPROVIDENCE,\n\nWILSON\nR.I.\n\nIn the passing of James Ormond Wilson the National Education Association parts with one of the last of \"The Old Guard\" of the eastern states.\nHis immediate associates in educational work were Richards, of Washington, Hagar and Philbrick, of Massachusetts, Wickersham, of Pennsylvania,\nCamp and Northrop, of Connecticut, White and Rickoff, of Ohio, and\nNewell, of Maryland, all of whom he outlived in his record of eighty-five\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nT^ATtONAt EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGenewl\n\nhonorable years. A few only of those splendid pioneers of a half-century\nago survive. Mowry, in New England, and that grand old man of the\nCentral West, J. L. Pickard, are the surviving leaders in the National\nEducation Association before the Madison meeting of 1884.\nMr. Wilson was a true educator of the best type. He was broad, liberal, brave, sympathetic. He delighted in his work as a teacher as the\nservice of greatest value to society. Youth loved the man who carried a\nwarm heart in a manly breast. He knew no race, class, or social distinctions.\nHe knew men as brethren under the great Father.\nMr. Wilson was progressive, and won his successes by a frank, straightforward optimism. He accepted new ideas hospitably and indorsed new\nplans that called for faith and foresight. He was one of the first to indorse\nthe formation of a National Coimcil of Education, and, as president of the\nNational Education Association at Chautauqua in 1880, did all that he\ncould to install the new movement.\nHe was a strong, sane, healthful, hopeful man, and our national capitol, '\nhis life-long home, was the scene of his greatest works. Here he wrought\nand died, and his works rise up to bless the earnest workman. Presidents, senators, congresses, came and went, but James Ormond Wilson stood\nat the post of duty in Washington more than sixty years. He lived as a\nChristian citizen and educator should live. He died as a Christian hero\nmust always die, harness on, on his eighty-sixth birthday.\nBest seemed the thing he was, and joined\nEach ofl&ce of the social hour\nTo noble manners, as the flower\nAnd native growth of noble mind.\n\nWe give the following outline of his life:\nJames Ormond Wilson was born in Royalston, Mass., April 2, 1825.\nHis father was James Wilson and his mother Chloe Thursting Murdock.\nRobert Williams, an ancestor on his mother's side, aided in establishing\nthe first free schools in Roxbury, Mass., in 1645 (now the Roxbury High\nSchool).\nHe was educated in the schools of his native town. West Brattleboro,\nVt., New Salem Academy and WiUiston Seminary, Mass., and Dartmouth\nCollege, from which he received the degrees of A.B. and A.M.\nHe settled in Washington in 1848, where he conducted a private school\nwith great success for two years, studied law, and was admitted to the bar\nof the District of Columbia in 1853. I^ the same year he was married to\nSarah Ann Washington Hungerford, of Westmoreland County, Va. Then\nfollowed several years in the service of the United States government, in\nthe Treasury Department; he received his appointment thru the influence\nof Daniel Webster, whose ability he appreciated and whose memory he\nreverenced thruout his entire life. While in office he served on the Board\nof School Trustees from 1862 to 1870, taking an active part in all its pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nIN MEMORI AM— JAMES ORMOND\n\nWILSON\n\nceedings. In 1870 he was appointed superintendent of the public schools,\nand continued to hold that ofl&ce until 1885, when he resigned, owing to\nill-health. During that period he served as treasurer and committeeman and was elected president of the Department of Superintendence of\nthe National Educatic^i Association in 1874, and president of the National\nEducation Association in 1880; and was a life member of the Board of\nDirectors. A school exhibition was sent to each of the great International\nExpositions of Vienna, Philadelphia, and Paris. In each case an award\nof the medal of the highest honor was conferred on the work of the schools\nand the superintendent was decorated with the Three Silver Palms of the\nUniversity of France and the title of \"Officer de T Academic\" by the French\ngovernment during the Paris Exposition.\nThe schools of the District of Columbia are greatly indebted to his\nintelligent exertions and well-directed efforts, both as trustee and superintendent, for their present high standard of excellence. He was unusually\nsuccessful in securing public interest in the schools and awakened public\nsentiment for the necessity of better school buildings.\nThe four systems of schools (the white schools of Washington, the white\nschools of Georgetown, the county schools, and the colored schools of\nWashington and Georgetown) were consolidated under one board; the\npupils were classified and arranged in their present grades; industrial\ndrawing was introduced into all the schools; in 1873, a normal school\nwas established; in 1876 came the first high school for girls; in 1877, the\nfirst high school for boys, when military training was inaugurated; manual\ntraining in sewing, cooking, woodwork, shoemaking, floriculture, etc., were\nintroduced into the Industrial Home Schools. The motto of his administration ofthe schools was a thoro mastery of a few things rather than a\nsmattering in many.\n{Non multa sed multum.)\nAn editorial published on the morning of his death in reference to the\nnaming of the new normal school \" in honor, not in memory, of James\nOrmond Wilson,\" says:\nEvery Washingtonian will be glad to join, in spirit at least, in the celebration today\nof the birthday of J. Ormond Wilson, the patron saint of the district public-school system.\nAs trustee of the district schools from 1862 to 1870, and as superintendent from 1870\nto 1885, Mr. Wilson built for himself a monument that can never be forgotten or destroyed.\nHe organized the graded schools, and established our normal-school system. It is an\nappropriate though but slight recognition of his services to name the new quarter-million-dollar normal school on Harvard Street, the James Ormond Wilson School. Mr.\nWilson is eighty-six years old today. Washington wishes him many happy retiuns.\n\nThe giving of this name to the new normal school was unprecedented,\nas no school buildings had ever been named for living men or women.\nFrom 1870, Mr. Wilson was connect^ with many educational and\ncharitable institutions and societies. He was among the incorporators\nof the Industrial Home School and the Garfield Memorial Hospital, and\nwas an active member of the Columbia Historical Society, a trustee of the\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nGeorge Washington University and the society for the Industrial Education of Colored Youths, a director of the National Metropolitan Bank,\nand a trustee of the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church.\nSince his retirement from the School Board he had actively interested\nhimself in affairs pertaining to education.\nFrom 1892 to 19 10 he served as secretary of the American Colonization Society, issuing each year two bulletins in the interest of Liberia.\nHis death occurred on April 2, 1911. He was in his usual health up to\na week before, when suddenly he became very weak, and gradually grew\nweaker until he passed peacefully away, being unconscious only a few\nhours. He often said that he was sick with no disease — only with eightyfive years.\nHe is survived by three daughters. Miss Clara Wilson and Miss Anne\nWilson, of Washington, D.C., and Mrs. Elinor Wilson, wife of Dr. A.\nL. Wilson, of Lynchburg, Va., and three grandchildren, Mary Hungerford Wilson, William Lyne Wilson, and Chloe Murdock Wilson.\nHis death comes at the end of a long and honorable career which he met like a ripe\nshock of wheat ready for the garner.\n\nOut of respect to the memory of James Ormond Wilson, the president\nof the Board of Education ordered all flags on buildings under the jurisdiction ofthe school officials to remain at half-mast during the week, and\nthe schools to be closed the afternoon of the funeral. The zeal and love\nshown in his philanthropic work is appreciated in the following tributes:\n\"In placing upon record a memorial of the death of J. Ormond Wilson, the Board\nof Directors of the Industrial Home School of the District of Columbia feels profoundly\ngrateful that the grief of its members is softened by the reflection that more could not\nhave been done than had been done by our departed friend and associate. He was an\noriginal incorporator of the institution, was for many years the president of its Board\nof Trustees and, from his first connection with it over a third of a century ago, he was\nearnest in the prosecution of its work because he loved the children committed to its\ncare.\n\"Seldom does a man conspicuous in pubUc activities, as was Mr. Wilson, find the\ntime or possess the inclination to add to his manifold duties by assuming thruout such a\nlarge proportion of, his Ufe the added burdens and obligations of such a trust. Yet\nduring all this period he has remained a member of its Board of Trustees, and has been\nactive in advancing the interests of the institution, and has energetically given his time\nand best thought in accomplishing so much for its welfare. Until the infirmities of age\nonly recently prevented him from attending our meetings, we have had there the benefit\nof his wise counsel.\n\"While his public educational work has commanded the admiration and gratitude\nof many of the men and women of the District of Columbia who were children xmder his\nadministration of the public schools, it is those less fortimate ones who in their tender\nyears have received the training and care given at the Industrial Home School, who have\nparticularly loved and revered him and felt touched by the inestimable value of his life.\n\"We of the Board of Trustees, with a full realization of our loss, shall proceed with\nour work aided and inspired by his example and with a feeling of sincere gratitude that\nbe was spared to us so long.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nIN MEMORI AM— JAMES\n\nORMOND\n\nWILSON\n\n\"Mr. Wilson had many friends — real friends — and this fact attests the character\nof the man. Only men of great heart and kindly disposition make such friends as were\nMr. Wilson's. He will be remembered with affection and sincere regard by those who\nknew him, and the wholesome lessons taught by his school work and by his example will\ncontinue to have an influence for good in the community in which he lived so long.\" —\nEditorial Washington Evening Star, Monday, April 3, 19 11.\n\"The memory of J. Ormond Wilson will always be kept green. Our public-school\nsystem will always stand as a monument to his energy and genius.\n\"As a special mark of recognition, our new, magnificent, normal school will bear his\nname. No man could ask more substantial or more lasting recognition of the part he\nplayed in advancing the cause of humanity. A school system such as ours is a greater\nmemorial than any shaft of cold marble, however substantially and artistically turned.\"\n— Editorial, Washington Times, Monday, April 3, 191 1.\n\nHe wrote in collaboration with his daughter, Mary Hungerford Wilson,\na Word and Sentence Book, published in 1891 by Charles E. Merrill and Co.,\nNew York, and it is still in use. The following interesting appreciation was\nwritten by a friend and Dartmouth classmate, the late Professor John\nOrdronaux:\n\"I spent an evening over it, and was charmed as well as instructed by the ingenuity\nand artistic skill with which it is compiled. Such a contribution to the histology of\nlanguage reflects great credit upon the author. Like the colloquies of Erasmus it will be\nread by thousands of children, and help to lay the foundations of English speech in their\nminds.\"\n\nHe also was the author of a monograph entitled Eighty Years of Public\nSchools (1805-85), that appeared in the report of the Commissioner of\nEducation in 1894. Mr. Wilson delivered it before the Columbia Historical Society.\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\nMOBILE\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nMEETING,\n\nFEBRUARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n23-25, 191 1\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING SESSION— Thursday, February 23, 191 1\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in\nthe Lyric Theatre, Mobile, Ala., at 9:30 a.m.. President William M. Davidson, superintendent ofinstruction, public schools, Omaha, Nebr., presiding.\nThe session opened with a piano duet, after which were short addresses of welcome\nby Albert P. Bush, president of the Mobile Chamber of Commerce; P. J. Lyons, Mayor\nof Mobile; and S. S. Murphy, superintendent of schools of Mobile. The response was\nmade by President Davidson.\nThe program of this session was as follows:\nTopic: A Message of Achievement from the Southland\n1. \"The Progress of Its Schools\" — ^Henry J. Willingham, state superintendent of\neducation, Montgomery, Ala.\n2. \"The Ideals of Its People\" — ^Joseph M. Gwinn, superintendent of city schools,\nNew Orleans, La.\n3. \"The Glory of Its Children\" — ^Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools,\nAugusta, Ga.\nIn Memoriam: Warren Easton — ^James Benjamin Aswell, president. State Normal\nSchool, Natchitoches, La.\nWilliam Wallace Stetson — Payson Smith, state superintendent of public schools,\nAugusta,\nMaine. (Read by Mason Stone, state superintendent of education, Montpelier,\nVt.)\nAt the close of the morning session President Davidson annoimced the following\ncommittees:\nCommittee on Nominations\nA. E. Winship, editor, Neiv England Journal of Education^ Boston, Mass.\nHomer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nGuy Potter Benton, president, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.\nS. S. Murphy, superintendent of schools. Mobile, Ala.\nSamuel Hamilton, superintendent of public schools, Braddock, Pa.\nCommittee on Resolutions\nA. H. Waterhouse, superintendent of schools, Fremont, Nebr.\nMason S. Stone, superintendent of education, Montpelier, Vt.\nLeonard P. Ayres, secretary, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.\nJames B. Aswell, president, State Normal School, Natchitoches, La.\nCharles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schook, Denver, Colo.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nAt 2:30 P.M. President Davidson called the meeting to order, and after a piano\nsolo by Miss Ruth Rosenbaum, the following program was presented:\n161\n\n*\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "i62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nTopic: The Present Status of Education in America\n1. \"In the Elementary Schools\" — Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools,\nChicago, 111.\n2. \"In the Secondary Schools\" — Ellis U. Graff, principal of high school, Omaha,\nNebr.\n(Read by J. A. Doremus, superintendent of schools, Auburn, Nebr.)\n3. \"In the Colleges and Universities \"—Guy Potter Benton, president, Miami\nUniversity, Oxford, Ohio.\nGeneral Discussion — Leaders: S. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul,\nMinn.; John W. Abercrombie, president, University of Alabama, University, Ala.\n\"Preliminary Report of the Committee on Uniform Reports and Records\" — George\nD. Strayer, professor of educational administration. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Leaders: Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of\nEducation, Washington, D.C.; William H. Allen, director. Bureau of Municipal Research,\nNew York, N.Y.; Willard S. Small, principal, Eastern High School, Washington, D.C.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe evening session was called to order at 7:45 o'clock. President Davidson presiding.\nOwing to the unexpected absence of Bishop Gailor, who was to deliver the address,\nbrief addresses were given by the following:\nHenry Suzzallo, professor of philosophy of education, Teachers College, Columbia\nUniversity, New York, N.Y.\nElla Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nJohn MacDonald, editor, Western School Journal, Topeka, Kans.\nJames B. Aswell, president, State Normal School, Natchitoches, La.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— Freday, February 24, 19 11\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Davidson at 9 : 30 a.m. After a vocal\nsolo by Miss Mattie Gusman, the following program was presented:\nTopic: Our Educational Advance and Improvement over the Past\nWis.\n\n1. \"In City\" — Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.\n2. \"In State\" — Charles P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison,\n\n3. \"In Nation\" — Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C.\nGeneral Discussion — ^Leaders: Leonard P. Ayres, secretary, Russell Sage Foundation,\nNew York City; J. George Becht, principal, State Normal School, Clarion, Pa.; M. L.\nBrittain, state superintendent of public instruction, Augusta, Ga.\n\"Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Education\" — ^Henry Suzzallo,\nprofessor of philosophy of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York\nCity.\nThe annual business meeting followed the program.\nSeveral invitations were presented for the meeting in 191 2, and it was voted to hold\nthat meeting in St. Louis, Mo.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows:\nFor President, Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.\nFor First Vice-President, O. J. Kern, superintendent of schools of Winnebago County,\nRockford, 111.\nFor Second Vice-President, H. J. Willingham, state superintendent of public instruction, Montgomery, Ala.\nFor Secretary, Harlan Updegraff, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\nThe report was unanimously adopted and the nominees declared elected.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions followed:\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nReport of the Committee on Resolutions\nResolved:\n1. That this Department recognizes the steadily increasing value of the United\nStates Bureau of Education in gathering and making available educational facts and\nstatistics.\nIt recalls with satisfaction the prominent part taken by this Department nearly\nhalf a century ago in bringing about the creation of the Bureau of Education.\nIt endorses the earnest efforts that members of this Department and other friends\nof education are making to further increase the usefulness of the Bureau as defined by\nthe organic act under which it exists, and hereby authorizes the outgoing president of\nthis Department to appoint a committee of five, of which he shall be chairman, to be\nknown as the Committee on the Bureau of Education, which shall co-operate with the\nsimilar committee of the National Education Association in furthering the interests of\neducational progress thru the United States Bureau of Education.\n2. The question of the extension of the amount and the character of federal aid\ngiven to education is assuming great importance and demands the earnest consideration\nof all interested in education. This Department recommends that this question be given\na place upon the next program of the Department.\n3. It is the sense of the Department of Superintendence that uniform school records\nand reports are essential to the intelligent comparison of school systems for the purpose\nof increasing the efficiency of educational administration. It therefore recommends\nthe adoption by school authorities of the forms of record and reports as submitted by its\nCommittee on Uniform School Reports, provided that said forms shall be modified and\nimproved as may be found expedient from year to year by conference of the United States\nBureau of Education, the Bureau of the Census, the National Association of School\nAccounting Officers, and the Committee on Uniform School Records and Reports of the\nDepartment of Superintendence.\n4. The Department of Superintendence recognizes that the present lack of uniformity innomenclature found in texts in English grammar is confusing and unnecessary.\nIt therefore authorizes the president of this Department to appoint a committee of five\nto formulate and report at the next annual meeting of this Department a system of nomenclature for texts in English grammar, and recommends that publishers of such texts\nuse this system if adopted by the Department.\n5. The Department of Superintendence approves of the use of school buildings\nas community centers and recognizes in this movement a socializing force of immense\nsignificance. Genuine increase in efficiency is possible only where there exists the heartiest co-operation on the part of all agencies aiming at social advancement. The establishment during recent years of many organizations and societies devoted to the solution\nof various specific educational and social problems is most encouraging to all devoted to\nthe public.\n6. The Department is most heartily in sympathy with the policy of the Bureau of\nIndian Affairs to promote and encourage the attendance of Indian children in the public\nschools, and authorizes the outgoing president to appoint a committee of five to investigate\nthe present conditions of the Indians with reference to their relation to the public schools\nfor the purpose of determining what co-operation or supplemental work is practicable.\n7. The thanks of this Department are hereby expressed to the local committee,\nthe press, and to all concerned for the many courtesies shown to the officers and members\nof the Department.\nRespectfully submitted,\nA. H. Waterhouse, Chairman\nLeonard Ayres\nMason S. Stone\nJames B. Aswell\nCharles E. Chadsey\nCommittee\nThe report of the Committee on a Universal System of Key Notation was then read\nby Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nIt was voted that the report be adopted and the committee discharged.\nHenry C. Cox, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, offered the following\nresolution, which was seconded by E. O. Vaile, of Oak Park, III., and adopted.\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the chair to bring the report\non a Uniform Key Alphabet before the active members at the San Francisco meeting, to\nurge in behalf of the Department of Superintendence the adoption of a resolution declar-\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "i64 .\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\ning the needs of uniformity of our key notation for indicating pronunciation in our cyclopedias, dictionaries, textbooks, and all other publications, and endorsing for that purpose\nthe key alphabet just adopted by the Department of Superintendence.\n\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION— 2:30 p.m.\n\nThe afternoon was devoted to the respective round-table conferences, with programs\nas follows:\n(a) round table of state and county superintendents\nLeader — ^John Grant Crabbe, president, State Normal School, Richmond, Ky.\nTopic:\n\nA Story of Achievement and Endeavor in Co-operation\n\n(a) \"The State Superintendent, the Educational Commission, and the Legislature \" —\nE. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of public instruction, Topeka, Kans. Discussion\nby John W. Zeller, state commissioner of common schools, Columbus, Ohio; J. J. Doyne,\npresident, State Normal School, Conway, Ark.; and Harlan Updegrafif, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n(&) \"The County Superintendent and the Rural Communities\" — Miss Edith A.\nLathrop, county superintendent of schools, Clay Center, Nebr. Discussion by Lawton\nB. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga., and A. L. Cook, county superintendent\nof schools, Baltimore, Md.\n(c) \"The State Superintendent and the People — The Educational Campaign\" —\nCharles G. Maphis, secretary, Virginia Educational Commission, Charlottesville, Va.\nDiscussion by McHenry Rhoads, superintendent of schools, Owensboro, Ky.\n{d) \"The State Superintendent, the County Superintendent, and the State Normal\"\n— Charles P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. Discussion\nby James B. Aswell, president. State Normal School, Natchitoches, La., and J. Frank\nMarsh, supervisor of institutes and publications, department of schools, Charleston,\nW.Va.\n(e) \"The State Superintendent and the General and Southern Education Boards\" —\nGeorge B. Cook, state superintendent of public instruction, Little Rock, Ark. Discussion\nby P. P. Claxton, professor of education. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.,\nand Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington,\nD.C.\n(b) round table of superintendents of larger cities\nLeader — ^John H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala.\nTopic:\n\nSome Problems of Economic School Administration\n\n(a) \"Economic Aspects of Organization and Courses of Study\" — F. B. Dyer, superintendent ofschools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n(b) \"Methods of Classification and Standards of Promotion in Their Relation to\nRetardation\" — ^J. A. C. Chandler, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Va.\n(c) \"The Problem of the 'Repeater'\" — ^James H. Van Sickle, superintendent of\nschools, Baltimore, Md.\n(c) ROUND\n\nTABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nOF SMALLER\n\nCITIES\n\nLeader — E. E. Scribner, superintendent of schools, Ishpeming, Mich.\nTopic:\n\nUnity of Ideals and Purposes in Teachers\n\n(a) \"As Gained from Professional Training\" — A. C. Thompson, principal. State\nNormal School, Brockp)ort, N.Y. Discussion by Mrs. Eulie G. Rushmore, Northern\nNormal School, Marquette, Mich.\n(b) \"As Gained from School Supervision\" — E. C. Warriner, superintendent of\nschools, Saginaw, Mich. Discussion by George A. Works, superintendent of schools,\nMenomonie, Wis.\n(c) \"As Gained from School Administration\" — Mrs. Sarah E. Hyre, member of\nBoard of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. Discussion by L. L. Wright, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Lansing, Mich.\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Saperintendencel\n\nSECRETARY'S\nEVENING\n\nMINUTES\n\n16$\n\nSESSION\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 7:45 p.m. by President Davidson.\nAfter a violin solo by Miss Aline Rosen, George E. MacLean, president of the State\nUniversity of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, gave an address on \"An Educational Epoch in\nNew America.\"\nThe session closed with a vocal solo by Mrs. C. B. Hervey.\n\nTfflRD DAY\nMORNING SESSION— Saturday, February 25, 1911\nThe Department was called to order at 9:30 a.m., and the following program was\npresented:\nTopic: The Coming of the Humane Element in Education\nMusic: Song by pupils of the public schools.\n1. \"The Open-Air School\" — Sherman C. Klingsley, general superintendent. United\nCharities of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n2. \"The Training of the Mentally and Physically Unfortunate\" — Leonard P. Ayres,\nsecretary, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.\n3. \"The Peace Movement and the Public Schools\" — Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews,\nBoston, Mass.\n4. \"Education of the American Indian\" — ^H. B. Peairs, supervisor in charge of\nIndian Schools, Lawrence, Kans.\n\"Report of the Committee on the Mexican Centennial\" — Horace H. Cimimings,\ngeneral superintendent, Latter Day Saints Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nAfter the program, President Davidson announced the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF TIME\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCalvin N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind., Chairman,\nCharles S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho.\nFrank E. Spaulding, superintendent of schools, Newtonville, Mass.\nErnest O. Holland, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky.\nJ. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, California.\nThis committee is to co-operate with the committee of the National Council on the\nsame topic.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF KEY\n\nNOTATION\n\nJames H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md., Chairman.\nJ. A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio.\nBen Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nLivingston C. Lord, president, State Normal School, Charleston, 111.\nVernon L. Davey, superintendent of schools, East Orange, N.J.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nNOMENCLATURE\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nC. R. Rounds, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis., Chairman.\nElla Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nStratton D. Brooks, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\nA. F. Lang, head of Department of Education, University of California, Berkeley,\nCal.\n,\nHenry F. West, assistant superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md.\n%\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe last session of the Department was called to order at 2 130 p.m.. President Davidson presiding. The following program was given:\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "l66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nTopic: The Progress and the True Meaning of the Practical in Education\nMusic: Selections by the Misses Sterling.\n1. \"In Agriculture\" — P. G. Holden, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. Discussion\nby E. E. Balcomb, Department of Agriculture, State Normal School, Providence, R.I.\n2. \"In Vocational Training\" — Carleton B. Gibson, president of Mechanics Institute,\nRochester, N.Y. Discussion by Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee,\nWis.\n3. \"In the Balanced Course of Study, and the AU-Year-Round Schools\"— G. W. A.\nLuckey, Department of Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nAt the close of the program the meeting adjourned.\nArthur Deering Call, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTOPIC:\n\nA MESSAGE\nA.\n\nHENRY\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF ACHIEVEMENT\nSOUTHLAND\n\nTHE PROGRESS\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nOF ITS SCHOOLS\n\nJ. WILLINGHAM,\nSTATE\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nALABAMA, MONTGOMERY,\nALA.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nThis is an easy subject. Everybody likes to talk about what he ihas\ndone and usually very few people are interested in hearing him tell\nabout it.\nWe in the South are willing to admit that ours is the best part of the\nUnited States, and that fact makes it the garden spot of the world. There\nare many evidences that this country in the Southland was the final and\ncrowning work at the hands of the Creator.\nIn referring to the progress of the schools of the Southland, dealing\nwith a subject which covers nearly a million square miles, I shall necessarily\nbe confined to broad and general terms.\nIn 1865 the people of the South found for themselves more to do and\nless to do with than any other people in the history of the world. On\nevery hand was utter destruction. All was gone save honor and hope.\nOur remnant of men who had not been left on the battlefield found it\nnecessary first to rebuild their homes before they could rebuild their schools.\nPrevious to that time, thru the training received in their academies\nand seminaries and colleges and universities, the well-to-do and the great\nmiddle class in the South had been directing, in a large measure, the affairs\nof the nation. Our people, except those known as the \"poor whites,\"\nwere prosperous, contented, and happy. Whatever else the Civil War may\nhave done, it created the equality of opportunity for all our people and\nresulted in the establishment of a real system of public education maintained for all alike. While removing the ashes to begin the erection of\nnew schoolhouses and higher institutions of learning it was realized for\nthe first time that ours must be a dual system — one system for the white\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF SCHOOLS\n\nOF SOUTHLAND\n\n167\n\nchildren and anotl er system for the negro children. Why this was so\nat that time, why it is still so, and why it will be so a hundred years hence,\nneed not be discussed here today. Reference is made to our dual system\nof education only for the purpose of pointing out one of the difficulties\npeculiar to this section. I am happy in the behef that this difficulty will\nalways be one of the educational problems of the South; because, under\nthe directing hand and the wise counsel of native white men, the negro, as\na race, must work out his own civilization. Looking back thru the period\nof years during which the South has been developing and maintaining\na system of public education we find much cause for rejoicing and for\nmaking us to look with hope and good cheer toward the future.\nIn the olden days a child's education was thought to be a matter wholly\nwithin the discretion, and subject to the financial means and also to the\ninclination, of his parent. We have come now to know that the public\nwelfare requires a proper education and a suitable training of all the children\nat the pubUc expense. Furthermore, the recognition of this fact has\ncaused about half the southern states to take the additional step of requiring\nthe parents to send their children to school, and within a few more years\nthe seven remaining southern states will write upon their statute books a\ncompulsory-attendance law just as it is now in every state of the North,\nthe East, and the West. In those days private schools were the dependence\nfor the instruction of the children in the common branches. Now free\npublic schools supported by taxation dot the South in reach of every child.\nIn those days academies and seminaries were maintained for the few. Now\nthere are hundreds of public high schools thruout each of the southern\nstates and open to all aUke. In those days denominational colleges were\nexpected to provide in a large measure for the higher education of a limited\nnumber. Each southern state is now spending millions in providing for\nthe higher education and for the technical training of the many. In those\ndays three bales of cotton and one hundred bushels of corn could be obtained\nfrom the work of one mule in cultivating twenty acres. Now we can grow\nthree bales of cotton on one acre and one hundred bushels of corn on another\nacre by means of the scientific methods taught in our agricultural colleges.\nIn those days an education was considered necessary only for those boys\nwho were to enter one of the professions. Now the South knows that a\nproper education and a suitable training are indispensable to the highest\ndegree of success in any of the vocations of life as well as the professions,\nand therefore we are beginning to make provision for the industrial\ntraining of the children of the Southland.\nAbout every ten years the states of the South approximately double\ntheir investment in public-school buiMings. This ratio of increase is\napproximately maintained also in the total amount expended on pubUc\neducation. The good example set by other states of making large investments in the cause of public education is beginning to have a good effect\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "l68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobfle\n\non the states of the South. Nature was so lavish in her gifts to this section\nin soil and in climate, in water and in mineral, in field and in forest, that\nour people may have been somewhat excusable in not fully reaHzing the\nnecessity of providing ample educational facilities for their children.\nDuring most of the period since the South began constructing a system\nof public schools our people have depended largely on the state governments\nto furnish the revenue. In recent years most of the southern states have\ncome to know that while the state as a unit of government should furnish\nits part by taxation for the maintenance of a system of pubHc education,\nthe county as a unit should furnish its part and the school district should\nfurnish its part. You, my fellow-teachers, from the North and from the\nEast and from the West, come from sections where the smaller divisions\nlike the district and the coimty raise by taxation the greater part of the\nrevenues for the support of the pubUc schools; but we in Alabama, the\nhome of William L. Yancy, have been such strong \" States ' Rights Democrats\" that we believed in letting the state do nearly everything, while we\nas individuals returned the favor in full by continuing to vote the Democratic ticket. We now realize that democracy and home rule ought to\nhave taught us long ago to let the counties and the school districts assist\nthe state government in maintaining a system of public education.\n> These brief, passing references bring to our minds a review only of those\ngreater movements in educational developments which have transformed\nthe Old South into the South of today. These changes, these evidences of\nmarvelous growth, inspire us with hope and courage and confidence for the\nfuture. Of achievement, the schools of the Southland could sing a wondrous story; but they look not to the past, they look to the future.\nAnother cause for gratification is the fact that all our educational\nproblems and our educational institutions may be unaffected in future\nby sectional lines; because all sectional Unes are wiped out now. They\nare always wiped out every time the North and the South participate in\na public meeting. The latest proof that those sectional lines are almost\ncompletely obliterated was offered a few days ago when the metropoHs\nof the South, New Orleans, situated almost in sight of the Panama Canal,\nwas really seriously considered as a competitor with San Francisco, three\nthousand miles away, as the \"logical point\" for holding the Panama\nExposition.\nAnother important fact in connection with the growth of education\nin the South is the apparent admission on the part of most of the philanthropists ofthe North that the native white man of the South understands\nthe negro better than they do. In providing for the negro youth a commonschool education together with an industrial training we earnestly desire\nthe sympathy and co-operation of the North, but not its advice. We\nwelcome its benefactions, but not the absolute direction of these expenditures.\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nIDEALS\n\nOF PEOPLE\n\nOF SOUTHLAND\n\n169\n\nYou of the North and you of the East and you of the West have your\nproblems of foreign immigration. We sympathize with you, but we know\nyou can solve these problems better without our advice. We are not\nfamiliar with the difficulties, while you are. Why should we of the South\nundertake to advise you on a subject which from the very nature of things\nyou know more about than we do ? In like manner we probably imderstand better than you do the problems of the South.\nBut best of all, my brothers, we are coming really to imderstand and\nto appreciate each other. We of the South and you of the North are\ncoming to feel that your heroes and our heroes are the heritage of a common\ncountry. The deeds of your brave men and of our brave men, of your\nchieftains and of our chieftains, are transmitted as a glorious legacy to the\nchildren of America. To the keeping of the American school-teacher is\ncommitted not only the destiny of individuals but the ideals of the nation.\nMay he be true to his trust and equal to his responsibility.\nB.\nJOSEPH\n\nM.\n\nTHE IDEALS\n\nGWINN, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF ITS PEOPLE\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS, NEW\n\nORLEANS,\n\nLA.\n\nIt was a great son of the South who in 1776 penned that immortal\nDeclaration which proclaimed to the world the ideals of a new nation and\nset Liberty Bell ringing thru all times and to all lands the notes of freedom,\nliberty, the rights and powers of the people. Eleven years later another\ngreat son of the South wrote, \" We, the people of the United States.\" While\nhe wrote representing the whole people he had behind him a southern\nancestry and training and was injGluenced by southern ideals and traditions.\nOwing to the strength of the South at the time of the Constitutional Convention, and owing to the character of the men who represented the southern\ncolonies, the expression of political ideals set forth in the Constitution was\ndominantly southern. Southern thought and southern ideals played\nleading parts in laying the foundation and in raising the superstructure of\nour nation.\nWe, the people of the South, are of the people of the United States and\nhold with you of the East and North and West those ideals which have\ngiven individuality and character to this nation and made it a power for\ngood in the world and which have directed the course of our national life\nand made the form of our government a model for other nations to imitate.\nThe South has held these national ideals more sacred and inviolate than\nany other section of the country, for the South is essentially conservative\nand holds dear the foundation principles enunciated by the makers of the\nConstitution and applied by the buildefs of our nation. It has cherished\nand kept these ideals and its people have ever been ready to live and labor\nor j&ght and die, if need be, for their protection and maintenance.\nIn times past to some the South has seemed a problem and its people a\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "I70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\npeculiar people. To these the North has appeared to represent the nation.\nIt is true, due to causes well known to all, that no southern man has been the\nexecutive head of the nation in many years, but it should be recalled that\nbefore i860 nine of the fifteen presidents were from the South and in other\nbranches of the national government the South contributed its due share\nof leaders. But a better day dawns, when the South shall come again into\nits own in national leadership and be represented in the highest oflSices in the\ngovernment. The next Speaker of the House is a man of southern blood.\nWithin the past few weeks a great son of Louisiana has been appointed head\nof the national judiciary by a great son of Ohio. The American ideals —\nthey are the ideals of the people of the Southland.\nThe ideals of the people of the South! A mighty theme, its vastness\nappalls me as does my inability to treat it in any adequate way in this brief\npaper. For the South is a mighty empire stretching from beyond the\nPotomac to far El Paso, from the Ohio to the Florida Keys, with a population of 30,000,000. Geographically, the South is diverse with its Coastal\nPlain, Appalachian region, great and alluvial river valleys, and wide prairies\nand plateaus; with its cotton areas, its tobacco areas, its sugar areas, its\nrice and tea areas, its corn areas, its great forests, and wealth of coal and\niron and petroleum. Historically, the South is no less complex with its\nColonial period, the Ante Bellum period, the period of War and Reconstruction, and the New South, which is just now emerging with a wealth of ideals\ninherited from each epoch of the Old South. A history, long, complex,\nromantic, and tragic, wrought by a people of many nationaUties and of\ndifferent bloods, by CavaHers of Maryland and Virginia, Huguenots of the\nCarolinas, the Scotch-Irish of the mountain and interior states, the Spanish\nfrom Florida to Mexico, the French of all this lower coast and especially of\nLouisiana, the Germans in Texas, by thousands of Indians and millions of\nnegroes.\nThe South believes that differences exist among men due to nature, to\neconomic and social conditions, and to social heredity, and that these\ndifferences should be recognized in the treatment of the different classes.\nThese differences are recognized in most countries of the earth, including the\nleading nations of western Europe. An erroneous conception of democracy\nand a faulty psychology have led a portion of the people of our country into\nan attempt to treat all men alike. The Indians must be given the white\nman's education and social order and transformed into white Indians. That\nthe Indian is not a white man with a red skin has been learned at an enormous cost in dollars and a frightful waste of energy and life. When the\nnegro slaves were freed, they became, to some, white men with black skins,\nso that all that was needed to make them equal to the whites was to give\nthem the white man's privileges and the white man's education. This\nattempt has likewise failed. The same faulty notions led to an attempt\nto give the country child the same education as the city child, the trades-\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nIDEALS OF PEOPLE\n\nOF SOUTHLAND\n\n171\n\nman's son the same as the son of his rich employer, the girls and women the\nsame education as the boys and men, the illiterate adult the same as the\nchild in the first grade. The failure of all these attempts, together with the\nteachings of modern psychology and sociology, has brought the whole\ncountry to accept the doctrine that differences do exist among men and that\nmen should be treated accordingly.\nWhile the South has not been free from mistakes in education it has\nstood for vocational education, for agricultural schools in the country, for\ndifferences in education due to sex, and, in the main, for separate colleges\nfor men and women, and for an education for the negro suited to his nature\nand social and economic needs.\nEighty-five per cent of the people of the South live in the country and\nby farming. Their ideals are naturally the ideals of field and farm. Conditions inthe North tended toward commerce, toward organization, toward\ncohesion and centralization, and toward the development of great cities and\nthe submergence of the individual. In the South, due to separateness on\nfarms and plantations and the absence of great cities, the tendencies were\ntoward individualism and guarding rights.\nMeasured by the standard of dollars, the South has lagged behind.\nBut the South has not cared so much for storing up wealth. \"The South,\"\nsays Dixon, \"is raising men rather than money.\"\nChanning said, speaking\nof the Virginians, \"They love money less than we do\nPatriotism\nis not tied to their purse strings.\" The South has been criticized for being\nslow, for lacking the hurry and bustle of the North and West. The South\ntakes time to cultivate those individual graces and social virtues which\nhave made the southern woman and the southern man famous the world\nover and purchased for the South a reputation for unequaled hospitality.\nIt is a wealth of worth rather than a worth of wealth that is characteristic\nof southern ideals. To be able to produce a character like that of Robert\nE. Lee is esteemed of greater importance than to produce an army of\nmillionaires.\nThe South stands for the development of the individual, for his integrity,\nfor the individual's personal worth. This individuaHsm is needed in social\nprogress to oppose the centralizing tendency of the North.\nA kindred ideal for which the South stands and has stood thru all the\nyears is that of local self-government. This Anglo-Saxon principle is dear\nto our hearts. Of it President Dabney says, \"The South's best contribution to the cause of democracy was its ideal of local self-government.\"\nWith this ideal goes the ideal of the integrity of the state. The people\nof the South stand and have stood for the indestructibleness of the states\nand for their rights to govern themselves. The war between the states\nsettled once for all that this is to be \"an indestructible union of indestructible states.\"\nLife on the farms and plantations tended to magnify the home. The\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobn,\n\nplanter belonged to an aristocratic class and was proud of the blood in his\nveins. The plantation afforded all the necessities of life and many of the\nluxuries, so that life in the plantation home was almost ideal. The ideal\nof home is strong in the Southland, family ties are close, and social position\nand leadership depend more on one's family than on wealth or political or\nprofessional position. If the home is a mighty influence for good in the\npreservation of a nation, the Southland has contributed and will contribute\nmore than its share.\nWith the love of home and family naturally goes a reverence for the\npast. For\n.... in the land ob cotton.\nOld times dar am not forgotten\n\nNo, old times are not forgotten in the South. Thousands of families lost\ntheir wealth during the War and have never been able to regain the standards\nof living to which they were accustomed. To all such the glorious days of\nthe distant past are sacred memories. In wealth and in the strength of her\nmanhood the South is just now abreast of the mark she had reached in i860.\nMany states have lost rank which they can never regain. Under these\ncircumstances it is but natural that old times should not be forgotten.\nThen there were great principles contended for by our fathers, and national\nleaders went up from the South and great names were common in those\ndays. Why should the South forget the glories of the past ?^ It is learning\nto forget many of its dark hours, but it will never forget its heroes and the\nprinciples for which they stood.\nThe South is said to be conservative and exclusive and more or less suspicious ofstrangers. If the South were ever suspicious of strangers that day\nis now past. If this suspicion existed it was pathological and absolutely\nforeign to native southern character, for the typical Southerner is of simple\nand straightforward mind, with an open-handed hospitality imsurpassed.\nWhile the South is loyal and true to its friends, the warmth of its welcome\nand the genuineness of its hospitality to strangers stand out as conspicuous\nexpressions of the ideals of her people.\nDuring the dark hours of the War and the darker days of Reconstruction the South had many experiences with strangers which taught her that\nstrangers meant danger. The attempt to force a solution of southern problems by a method and on a pattern foreign to southern ideals and experiences\ncrystallized the South into the \"solid\" South and dried up for a season the\nnatural springs of hospitality in southern breasts. But the North has\nlearned that these problems cannot be so solved and that southern men\nwith southern methods must work them out. Force has been replaced\nby education and by constitutional provisions regulating the franchise. Thus\npeace, security, prosperity, and an opportunity to develop in its own way\nhave been guaranteed to each race. This has put the South at ease and\nhas started again the native springs of hospitahty to strangers. Rooted\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIDEALS OF PEOPLE\n\nOF SOUTHLAND\n\nin the old stock and out of the richness and grandeur of the Old South thru\nthe travail of the changing years the New South is born. She stands with\nopen arms and gives the warmest welcome and offers the richest opportunities to strangers from all lands and especially to the sons of the North\nwho wish to come to find a home. And they are coming by the hundreds\nand thousands, buying farms, building factories, directing and developing\nindustries, and furnishing a supply of superior labor. Let them come in\nincreased numbers for their good and for ours! We fear no strangers, for,\nas Thomas Nelson Page says of the South, \"There is something in the air\nwhich charms all who come within her borders.\" \"Let men but breathe\nthe air of the South and they are Southerners forever.\" When men become\nSoutherners they are no less Americans and especially so now, for the New\nSouth is filled with the spirit of nationalism — ^not a new spirit but a revival\nof the spirit of the old South of Washington and Madison, of Marshall, of\nJefferson and Jackson. The spirit of sectionaUsm has passed. A significant thing occurred in New Orleans and in other cities of the South ten\ndays ago. Lincoln's birthday was celebrated by the closing of the banks\nand the cessation of business by the commercial exchanges. The spirit\nof nationaUsm shines with undimmed splendor in the galaxy of southern\nideals.\nThe poUtical rather than the commercial and industrial aspects of society\nhave been emphasized in the Southland. The average Southerner is likely\nto be considerably interested in poHtics, and poUtics play a large part in\ncommunity life. The southern youth is taught that it is his duty to take\nan active part in pohtics and he is instructed in the party principles from\nboyhood. Rhetoric and oratory are natural concomitants of this emphasis\non politics, and the ability to make a rousing speech dealing in generahties is\nof more importance than an abiUty to present the detailed facts or make a\nscientific research and exposition.\nIn no field has the South achieved more than in the realms of its educational ideals. The story of the rise of our present-day ideals needs not to\nbe rehearsed by me, for the ideals are best seen in what has been done and\nis being done. Educational ideals are being made real at a greater rate in\nthe South than elsewhere. The marvelous achievement of the schools of\nthe South, when all the facts are kept in mind, is a theme every southern\nman deUghts to discuss. The facts of educational achievement and progress have been ably presented to you today by the state superintendent\nof this state. It is therefore not necessary for me to dwell on our educational ideals. I need but reiterate that a system of free public schools open\nto all, of whatever race, and giving to each the amount and kind of education\nbest suited to his nature and needs, is th^ideal of the people of the South.\nThe people of the Southland believe that this Ufe is worth Uving and\nthat one should take time for enjoyment; time for social intercourse, for\nfeast days and festivals; that one should be happy and whole-hearted and\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nnot permit the pressure and grind of wealth-getting to crush all the brightness and sweetness out of life. With this ideal goes emphasis on excellence\nof manners and a warmth of hospitality unsurpassed. The Southerner\nknows how to select a good dinner and he has sense enough to take time to\nenjoy it. He is a master of the art of conversation; he loves music and art\nand all other means of wholesome enjoyment. If he lacks somewhat in\npersistence, in application to business, he possesses the grace of Uving and\nthe ability to enjoy the good things of earth.\nThis meeting, I am told, is to be one of hope, of optimism, for the\nrecounting of the good that has been done rather than for the parading of\nfaults and failures. This being true, it is not becoming that I should mention our mistakes and shortcomings. The people of the Southland make\nno claim to perfection, for failures and shortcomings are many, but we know\nyou will draw over them the mantle of charity and hold to us the hand of a\nbrother to aid us to overcome them.\nWhile the war between the states was a physical defeat for the South, in\nmany respects it was a spiritual victory. It saved to the nation the principle of local self-government and the indestructibility of the states. The\nSouth has developed the individual as a bulwark against the centralizing\ntendencies of the North and so contributed one of the two essential elements\nin social progress. It has held fast the graces and virtues of the individual\nand produced the man of worth as complementary to the captain of industry.\nIn many ways the South has perpetuated and developed the ideals needed\nby our country in its proud course at the head of the nations of the earth\nin establishing a world peace and brotherhood of man in a true democracy.\nThru the ages past till now the star of empire has taken her course westward. The circuit of the earth is now complete and around the shore\nof the Pacific the civilization of the Western world has met that of the\nOrient. In the meantime man has conquered the equator and marked out\na new course for the progress of that star. The opening of the Canal will\nput the South on the highroad of the world whether east and west or north\nand south. The mighty Father of Waters courses his way southward and\ncalls the commerce of the world to ride on his bosom. Millions of fair\nacres of inexhaustible richness lie waiting a tenant. Hospitable doors\nstand wide to welcome strangers. The tide of immigration has already\nset in, and the industrial development of the South is at hand. Southward\nthe star of empire takes her course, and, with wealth created adequate to\nmeet the needs for the development of her ideals, the Southland will come\ninto the heritage that a prodigal nature has left her in store.\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nGLORY\n\nC.\nLAWTON\n\nOF CHILDREN\n\nTHE GLORY\n\nOF SOUTHLAND\n\n175\n\nOF ITS CHILDREN\n\nB. EVANS, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA,\n\nGA.\n\nSo long have speakers been accustomed to apologize for conditions in\nthe South, to explain why they are not better, to deplore the lack of educational interest among the people, that one has naturally come to expect,\nupon any occasion when the educational interests of the various parts of\nour country are under consideration, to see a self-satisfied smile of glorious\nachievement from the East, to hear a roar of exulting greatness from the\nWest, and a meek apology from the South.\nBut now the South needs no longer to apologize. The record of its\ngrowth and achievement in every particular of commercial, agricultural,\nindustrial, and educational enterprise is at once a source of pride to its\ncitizens and of gratification to its friends. The difference between ten-cent\ncotton and thirteen- to fifteen-cent cotton has meant a difference of one\nhundred and seventy-five milUons of dollars in favor of the southern farmer.\nThe increase of the number of cotton mills in the south, the increase in the\noutput of coal and pig iron, the growth of the fruit and vegetable industry,\nall have so greatly increased in the last few years that the wealth of the\nSouth is now to be taken into account.\nA capitalist of a western city recently said in my hearing at a dinner\nthat time was when the South clamored to borrow money at any rate, but\nnow the southern farmer and manufacturer not only did not need to borrow\nmoney, but actually had money to lend.\nThe improvement in agricultural conditions in the South is one of the\nmost hopeful signs of its prosperity. With the coming of the rural mail\ndelivery, the extension of the long-distance telephone system, the improvement of country roads, and the possibility of the motor-driven wagon, the\nsouthern farmer finds himself in daily contact with market reports, in instant\ncommunication with commercial centers, and with easy means of delivering\nhis products. In the state of Georgia as many as five thousand miles of\nimproved rural roads have been built in the past few years, reducing the\ncost of hauling from twenty- three cents per ton per mile to nine cents.\nWhat is true of Georgia is true the South over.\nWe still invite our friends to come and spend their millions in the South.\nThe water power going to waste sings its song to the cotton field along its\nbanks and prophesies of still another mill before the season is over; the\nbreeze shakes the pine forests and they murmur of ship timber and naval\nstores; the birds call from truck farm to peach orchard; and the coal turns\nover in its bed and says to the iron sleeping by its side. Let us be up, for\nthe long, dreary night is over and it is now the broad daylight of prosperity\nin the South.\nAnd for all this possibility of a greater South we are now rearing a generation of children whose eyes are no longer set back to the past glories of their\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Mobfle\n\nfathers, but whose minds take hold of the present, and whose eyes behold\nthe future, and whose hands are trained to skilled labor.\nThe latest available statistics furnish some interesting facts about the\ndistribution of children. Where the population is the densest the percentage of school children is the smallest. In the North Atlantic states,\nwhere the population is 130 to the square mile, the school population is\n24.4 per cent. In the Southern states generally, where the population is\nabout 30 to the square mile, the school population is 32.8 per cent. In\nthe North generally, one-fourth of the population is of school age. In the\nSouth generally, nearly one-third of the population is of school age. Rhode\nIsland, having 407 persons to the square mile, has 23 . 5 per cent of them of\nschool age, less than one-fourth. South Carolina, having 44 persons to the\nsquare mile, has 34 . 6 per cent of them of school age, over one-third.\nI believe it can be safely assimied that, family for family, there are\nmore children around the hearthstone of a southern home, especially if that\nhome is a cabin, than there are in a nursery of a northern home, especially\nif it is a brownstone front. Henry Grady said somewhere that the farmer's\nhome was as full of children as the nests were of birds, and if I should be\nasked to say what is the glory of the children about which I am supposed\nto speak, I should answer that the greatest glory is that there are so many of\nthem.\nEliminating the city child, whose problem is practically solved everywhere, we address ourselves to the rural child of the South. They constitute\nabout 85 per cent of all the children and are concerned with the main industry of the South. They are the farmers' children. We live on what they\nraise in the fields, and as they prosper or decline, we improve or fail. Consequently, the thought of the South is turning strongly toward agricultural\neducation in the country schools. We are now inducing the farmers' boys\nto stay on \"the farm and be good farmers instead of going to town to be\npoor lawyers and worse poHticians. Therefore we note the great increase\nof agricultural colleges in the South. In Georgia one has been built in each\nCongressional district; Alabama has made noted progress in the same direction. The state colleges of agriculture are campaigning by pamphlets,\nfield agents, reports, by demonstration work, exhibition trains, and farmers'\ninstitutes, until the country boy now begins to feel that he also must go to\ncollege, and that there is a college for him also.\nIn the schools of my county I am now sending to the state college of\nagriculture to get principals for the consolidated rural schools, instead of as\nheretofore to the state university, and I find that they are no longer insisting\non Latin, Greek, and the history of the Egyptians, but turn their pupils to\ncotton, corn, and the history of the Texas boll weevil. If the agricultural\ncollege will hereafter provide principals for rural schools, it will go a long\nway toward solving the agricultural education of the rural child.\nThe organization of boys' corn clubs has been a great stimulant.\n\nSome\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nGLORY OF CHILDREN\n\nOF SOUTHLAND\n\nof the results have been remarkable. In Mississippi one thousand boys\nwere organized into clubs and each planted his acre on his father's farm.\nThe government furnishes the seed, the farmer furnishes the land and the\ntools and the boy, the merchants furnish the prizes, and Nature does the\nrest. One boy raised 120 bushels of corn on his acre, where the average\nyield had been 14 bushels. Another boy in South Carolina broke the\nworld's record for boys by raising 228 bushels on his acre, which was more\nthan many farmers around him did on ten acres. To say that there are\nfifty thousand boys in the South today interested in increasing the corn\nyield per acre and setting a new standard of cultivation is not to exceed the\nfacts. It is an exceeding glory to the southern boy that he holds the record\nfor corn, good old corn:\nHeap high the farmer's wintry hoard!\nHeap high the golden com!\nNo richer gift has Autumn poured\nFrom out her lavish horn!\n\nIn the rural districts the schools are being consolidated, and pupils are\nbeing hauled in wagons to the central schools of high grade. We have come\nto the just conclusion that a one-room schoolhouse is a failure, but that a\nthree- or four-room house, graded, with a Ubrary, agricultural laboratory,\nexperimental garden, kitchen, and sewing-room, with an up-to-date principal\nwho knows his business and loves the country, is a success.\nAnd so there is a readjusting of ideals of the pupils and practice of the\nteaching forces. We no longer are educating statesmen and candidates\nfor president, but are educating farmers and their wives.\nNow let me approach the subject about which there is much yet to be\ndone, and that is the child of the mill. It seems that every section has some\nsuch problem. The sweat-shops of the East Side and Hester Street, the\ndistrict messenger-service, the cash-boy service, the child in the mines of\nPennsylvania, the child in the southern mill, all cry out to us for help. It\nseems that we cannot hide the innocents where the hungry hoimds of modern\ncommerce will not trail them. It seems that we cannot place them where\nthe bloody fangs of the dividend-maker will not fasten upon their hearts\nand fatten upon their Uves. The nation over, the children cry for protection against their parents and their would-be employers. Therefore the\nextension of child-labor laws prohibiting the employment of any child who is\nunder twelve years of age is to be greatly urged. Such laws do now exist\nin many of the southern states, but since it is of no pubUc interest whether\nthey are enforced or not, and since it is of interest for parent and employer\nto disregard such laws, I greatly fear the benefit is more imaginary than real.\nThe cure is to be found in compulsory education, which not only saves\na child from the curse of an employer, but*also from the slavery of his own\nparents. It makes but Uttle difference to a child whether he slaves for\nanother, or for his own father. It makes a vast difference to him whether\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobflc\n\nhe goes to school or not. And the sentiment for compulsory education is\ngrowing in the South. Kentucky and Arkansas have such laws. Virginia\nand North CaroUna have such laws, but leave it to the local communities\nto put them into operation. One-third of Tennessee is operated under\ncompulsory-attendance laws. Georgia and South CaroHna are laboring\nwith the passage of such laws. And if we could see plenty of money in\nsight to pay for compulsory education, we would sweep to it unanimously,\ncarrying the negro and all.\nI beheve that, taking it all in all, the mill children are better off than\nthey once were. Settlement workers, educational influences, and popular\nopinion have made better conditions for mill hands, young and old. There\nare many humane presidents and superintendents who provide comforts\nand pleasures for their hands and protect the helpless from the cruelty of\nthose who would oppress them.\nI would not be a true southern orator if I did not say something about\nthe negro. We have heard a whole lot about the incubus, the black cloud,\nthe race problem, etc., but I have to say this about the negro: Next to\nthe blessed sunshine, the fertile fields, and the blue blood of the native\nwhites, the greatest blessing the South has today is the presence of the negro.\nHe is not a curse, he is not a menace, he is not a danger. What would\nbecome of our cotton fields, our rice swamps, our sugar plantations, our\nturpentine mills, our lumber industries, were it not for the strong, willing,\ntractable black hands of the negro ? All waste and desert, gentlemen — at\nleast for a while. Of the three problems, the foreigner in the North, the\nChinaman in the West, and the negro in the South, commend me to the\nnegro.\nNow, ladies and gentlemen, let the negro alone. He will find himself in\ntime, and no amount of worrying, prophesying, guessing, or abusing is going\nto hasten the Almighty's plans for the final racial adjustment of the negro.\nHe is rapidly coming into his own social status, for he is finding a society\nof his own. He still lacks moral standards, but as for that, certain white\npeople do also. He is getting his industrial education and getting it fast.\nHe has long since found his industrial adjustment, and that is for labor,\nintelligent, skilled, independent labor, well paid and highly respected. Now\nlet us get together and stop making educated loafers out of the negroes, but\nmake educated laborers out of them.\nAnd so, ladies and gentlemen, the glory of the children of today is the\nhope of the South for tomorrow. In thirty years we shall all be gone, and\nthe school children of today will take our places, and the country shall then\nbe as we are making it now. The future of the South waits on the education of its sons and daughters, and they are crying to us from field and mountainside to give them a chance.\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIN MEMORIAM— WARREN\n\nEASTON\n\nIN MEMORIAM\nA.\n\nWARREN\n\nEASTON\n\nJAMES B. AS WELL, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL\nNATCHITOCHES, LA.\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nDuring twenty-five years, Warren Easton was absent but once or twice\nfrom the annual meetings of this Department of Superintendence. His\nplace is now vacant and his voice is silent forever.\nIt is, then, proper and beautiful that this great gathering of the school\nmen of the nation should pause a moment in its considerations of the practical educational problems of the day, to do honor to the memory of one who\ndid well his part in the rich constructive educational period of this vast\nregion of our southern country. It was a time when the South was bringing to the republic its own contributions of youthful spirit, purposeful\neffort, courage, and confidence, which have resulted in a new era of educational endeavor and adequate adjustment.\nWarren Easton, who passed out of this life on October 17, 1910, was\nan actor in this period of educational opportunity and achievement. He\nwas born in 1848, in the city of New Orleans, was educated at the state\nuniversity, was a successful teacher in the public schools, state superintendent of public education in Louisiana, leader in the establishment of the\nState Normal School, organizer of the Louisiana state institutes and\nsummer schools, for twenty-two years the trusted and beloved superintendent of schools in the city of New Orleans, once president, and, for a\nquarter of a century, an honored member of this body.\nHe was a teacher in the turbulent days of the Reconstruction in the\nearly 70's, and so well was his skill as a discipHnarian recognized that he\nwas moved from school to school to straighten out difficult situations. He\nbelieved and demonstrated that a group of apparently incorrigible boys\ncan be controlled, inspired, civilized, under the influence of music. He was\nthe first to advocate publicly and introduce the teaching of singing and\ndrawing in the public schools of his native city. Hundreds of prominent\nmen in New Orleans today speak tenderly of Warren Easton because he\nled them and compelled them as boys to obey. I have yet to meet a former\npupil of his who does not love him and who does not say, \"I am Easton's\nfriend because he helped me when I was a boy\" — and after all, this is the\ntest and the finest asset of a teacher's life.\nAs superintendent, beginning with little money and an uncertain public\nsentiment for public education, he advanced the New Orleans schools\nwith amazing rapidity. He increased the public funds to more than a\nmillion dollars, doubled the efficiency of the schools at every point, and\nestablished them firmly in the confidence of all the people of his city.\nEaston had a princely bearing — ^he was always immaculately dressed,\ncourteous, cordial, jolly. He had faith in his people and in his work — ^he\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "l8o\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\niMobile\n\nbelieved he had the best schools in all the world. He knew his eight\nhundred teachers personally, could call them by name, and locate the school\nand grade of each. It was his good-fellowship, his diplomacy, and his\nbuoyant hopefulness that made his co-workers love him. The children\nliked to meet him.\nTo be elected six times to the chief executive school position, and hold\nit for twenty-two years, in a great, growing, progressive city Uke New\nOrleans, is within itself not a matter of small consideration in estimating\nthe life of an individual. It is an achievement worthy of a man.\nWarren Easton gave forty years of active, continuous service to the\npublic schools, and he was never ashamed to be called a teacher. He\njoined every movement to promote the cause to which he had early consecrated his life, and few men rejoiced more in the educational advancement\nof our people. His devotion to this Department of Superintendence, his\nkeen interest in educational affairs generally, and his long rich experience\ngave him a progressive conservatism of great value to the school forces of\nthe country, and reveal today characteristics that give his life a high place\nin this memorial service.\nBut the quality in Easton's life that will perpetuate his memory was his\nunusual abiUty to hold his friends. To be once a friend of Easton was to\nbe always Easton's friend. His friends never deserted him. He was largehearted and loyal — ^his friends knew him, trusted him, and depended upon\nhim.\nThis, then, is the life we honor today, and it emphasizes the fact that\nin real achievement of permanent value a man may become a great leader\nin the nation's life as well by service to childhood as by subtlety in argument, shrewdness in business, or courage in war. It renews our hopes\nand gives us strength to be unafraid in consecrating ourselves anew to the\nsacred task of opening the way and directing the youth of this land to a\nwide and Uberal future of service to country and to humanity.\n\nB,\nPAYSON\n\nSMITH,\n\nWILLIAM WALLACE STETSON\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nAUGUSTA, ME.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAfter a lingering illness of many months WilHam Wallace Stetson died\nat his home in Auburn, Me., July 2, 19 10. Mr. Stetson was born in\nGreene, Me., June 17, 1847, and spent his boyhood in the wholesome\nenvironment of a New England farming town, attending the district\nschool near his father's farm and later Monmouth Academy and Edward\nLittle Institute. He began his work as a teacher, as so many of our great\neducational leaders have done, in the district schools, teaching his first\nschool at the age of fifteen. In 1868 he went to IlHnois, where, after attend-\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nIN MEMORIAM— WILLIAM\n\nWALLACE\n\nSTETSON\n\ni8i\n\ning Monmouth College, he taught in district, high, and normal schools\nand began his experience as superintendent of schools. In 1884 Mr.\nStetson returned to his native state where he was to render the notable\neducational service that was to win for him a far more than local reputation.\nUpon returning to Maine he became principal of the Webster Grammar\nSchool of Auburn and later superintendent of schools of that city. He\nserved as superintendent of schools of Auburn for ten years, during which\nhis great executive ability, his broad grasp of school problems, and his\nintuitive skill in devising methods of teaching won increasing recognition,\nso that his promotion in 1895 to the chief educational office in his state\ncame as a ready and natural consequence.\nMr. Stetson held the office of state superintendent of public schools of\nMaine for a period of twelve years, the longest term with one exception\nenjoyed by an incumbent of that office in the history of the state.\nSeveral important educational reforms were instituted during his\nadministration of this office. Among the more important may be named\nthe abolition of the district system with the adoption of the present township system, a provision for the consolidation of schools and the conveyance\nof pupils, the adoption of the free-textbook system, the extension of freetuition privileges in secondary schools to all pupils of the state, the state\ncertification of teachers, and the adoption of a plan of union supervision\nwhich is designed to extend the advantages of expert direction to the schools\nof all towns.\nThe Maine School Reports prepared by Mr. Stetson were among the most\nwidely circulated and most generally quoted educational documents of the\ndecade during which they appeared. His terse, graphic style serves to\ncommand ready attention to the clearly developed conclusions of his\neducational philosophy. This style, appearing not only in his written\nreports, but dominating likewise his expression in speech, won for him\na cordial welcome on the public platform, and his services as a lecturer on\neducational topics were constantly in demand. His skill as a speaker\nmade him a powerful advocate of any cause in which he might enUst while\nhis progressive ideals found him readily sympathetic toward any forward\nmovement. As a result he gave generously of his time, strength, and\nabilities to the promotion of advanced educational plans both of his own\nand other states.\nWhile Mr. Stetson held foremost his work for the public schools, he\nwas likewise always to be found in the forefront of any movement affecting\nthe welfare of the community in which he lived or of the state of which\nhe was a citizen. Service was the keynote of his life and the opportunity\nto serve was the goal of his ambition.\nRecognition of Mr. Stetson's broader ^educational activities is to be\nfound in the record of his connection with such organizations as the New\nEngland Superintendents' Association, the American Institute of Instruc-\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "i82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\ntion, and the National Education Association. He served as president\nof the first two and of the Department of Superintendence of the last.\nMr. Stetson received the degrees of A.M. and LL.D. from Colby College,\nMaine, and the degree of LL.D. from Monmouth College, Illinois.\nIn this brief outHne of the Hfe and activities of Mr. Stetson one touches\nonly upon his larger public acts and services. To those whose privilege\nit was to know him there remain the tender memories of a large, wholesouled man who loved to open his heart to friends, who found his greatest\njoy in the opportunity to share another's burden or to lighten another's\ntoilsome way, and looked always for those deeds and words of other men\nby which he might justify his own broad and generous faith in human\nkind. In his passing many men and women in many walks of life feel\nthe loss which is beyond recompense — the loss of a frank, courageous,\nheart-lifting, sympathetic friend. At no time did Mr. Stetson show more\nclearly the beautiful characteristics that dominated his whole life than in\nthe months when, wasted and weakened by disease, he awaited the last\nsummons. The philosophy of service which had guided his public career\nand his private relationships endured to the end, and even in the last days\nno friend left his presence who did not feel that he had himself received\nthe strength and the blessing of the interview.\nIt was in these last days that Mr. Stetson wrote a greeting to his friends\n— a greeting which was to be likewise his farewell. In this is the essence\nof his philosophy of life. In the \"Joy of Serving, \" which is quoted in conclusion, he delineated an ideal which, tho high, he attained, and which he\nleaves, with the manifold words and deeds of a richly abundant life, to be\nat once the consolation and the continued inspiration of those who miss\nhis kindly presence.\nTHE\n\nJOY OF SERVING\n\nSouls grow lean if they think much of self or the recompense they should receive for\nexhibitions of concern for others. They are victims of a poverty no riches can relieve\nor conceal. They are barred from those sanctuaries where the heart sings the songs of\npeace. As the days loiter to their close they discover life is a sleepless torture. They\nrefuse to learn it is not what you have that makes for happiness but the sacrifices made\nand forgotten that bring joys which abide. Life yields the largest dividends when you\nserve as spontaneously as you breathe and with as little aftermath of reflection. Then\nyou will walk with those who travel in lonely paths, place a lifting hand beneath wearying burdens, give unregretted dollars to carry sunshine into shadowed lives, dispense\nhome-brewed hospitalities, and nerve the elect with your hail and God-speed. Such\nservice will tint the dawn when your lovers are legion, shed around you \"the light that\nnever was on sea or land,\" sing anthems in the chancel of your soul, and let you whisper,\nas the canvas of the Lord slips down the west,\n\"I hope to see my Pilot face to face\nWhen I have crossed the bar.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTOPIC: THE\n\nPRESENT\nA.\n\nELLA FLAGG\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSTATUS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN THE ELEMENTARY\nYOUNG,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nIN AMERICA\n\nSCHOOLS\nSCHOOLS, CHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\n[Stenographic Report]\nThe subject before us may be viewed from several different standpoints,\nat several different angles. Upon first thought, in considering the present\nstatus of elementary education, one would look to the statistical side,\nseeking for the advance in the number of those who are being educated in\nthe elementary schools today, in comparison with the number ten years\nago. The figures for 1910 are not ready, and when they are presented in the\nadmirable report which our Commissioner of Education sends out to us,\nit will be much more satisfactory to study statistics from the printed page\nthan to attempt to take them in rapidly thru the ear.\nOne might also consider this question from the financial side, and it\nwould be interesting to note the increase in the amount of money poured\nout by the people of this country today for the education of the children\nin the elementary stage over that of ten years ago.\nThere is another side, however, which appeals to me more than the\nstatistical side of the number attending or of the finances, and that is the\nside which deals with the change in the interpretation of the meaning of\nelementary education, as understood today and as understood ten years\nago.\nIt is true that ten years ago leaders in the theory and principles of education in this country were forging ahead, discussing points which we workers\nin the field had scarcely touched upon; but with all their discussion, the\nideas which they had grasped were not generally accepted in the elementary\nschools. There is nothing more wonderful in the history of this country\nthan the remarkable strides made in the last decade by those who are in the\nfield — superintendents, principals, and teachers — ^in their understanding\nof what is meant by elementary education.\nIt has long been customary to say that education deals with the physical,\nthe mental, and the moral development; but let the men and women in\nthis room think back ten years and compare the practice of physical education in the elementary schools then with that of physical education\ntoday, and they will say that it was merely a matter of lip service\nthat we had so short a time ago, compared with what we are doing today\non the physical side for the development of children.\nIt is true that thirty years ago in France they had reached the point\nwhere the school medical inspector, in P^ris at least, visited the school\neach morning to inquire whether the children were in condition to be in\nschool and at work during the day, deciding whether this child or that\nchild might in some way infect with disease other children in the room.\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "i84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nBut we had not reached that point ten years ago; and yet today all over\nthis country, in the large cities and towns, special effort is made to get at\nthe physical condition of the children and see that they neither injure\neach other nor are injured by the surroundings of the school. The school\npatrons who form a department in the National Education Association\nare making tremendous efforts toward carrying this idea of the physical\nwell-being of the children into every school in the land, and they will\nsucceed, because those women are in earnest.\nThink of the exercises that we had for the children ten years ago that\nwe called physical exercises, when the little things stood and put out their\narms as if they were trying to draw them out of their sockets; then think\nof the games, the gymnastics for these children today, suited for their age,\nand suited for their stage of development.\nThere is a third phase on the physical side. We call it industrial or\nvocational training. We are still somewhat timorous about it, and yet\nwe are beginning to realize that there are many boys and many girls in\nthe schools who will not long continue to be interested in the purely academic\nor book work, whose whole being leans toward material construction —\ntoward the doing of things with the hand; and there are many who thru\neconomic conditions will be obliged to turn into industrial lines. In the\nelementary schools today we are studying to know what we can do to enable\nour schools to do their duty toward those children.\nOn the mental side there is a marked change. We certainly are much\nnearer to psychologic method than we were ten years ago. All method\nhas not been advance, however. I know it is a dangerous thing, Mr.\nChairman, to say here, but many of the subjects which we have introduced\ninto the schools, manual training and household arts and science, are taught\nin most places as formally as arithmetic, spelling, reading, and writing\nare still taught. With the new studies there has not always come psychologic method. But if we chance into a school in which old methods\nobtain in full force, we realize that in advanced methods altho we have not\nlearned to open always the way so that the minds of the children shall play\nnaturally in approaching and exploring the subject, yet there is something\nof Horace Mann's idea that the minds of the early learners should play\nabout the subject as the waters lap the shores of an island.\nOn the moral side we are working on perplexing problems. It is easier\nto advance physical education than mental; mental than moral. This\nwhole question of instruction in morals has become most complicated\nfor us with the great influx of peoples from all nations, with varying standards of morals and ethics. This whole question, as I say, has come upon\nus in such a way that it is most difficult for us to know just what to do.\nHere we have one side, indicated in an address made by Judge Lindsey\na week ago, to the effect that it is not the child that has all the little school\nvirtues who is always the good child. Then we have the other side, open-\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence)\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\ning up into that tremendous question, which does not originate in any\nweakness and which does not originate in any fault in the school, but which\nthe school at last sees that it, for the sake of the nation, must take up and\nhandle. I refer to the question of social hygiene but shall not be able to\nconsider it in the time allotted to me. With that first question we are\ntroubled, because it necessitates a change in ourselves. With the strong\nmen and strong women who have taught in the elementary schools and who\nhave laid the foundations for sterling manhood and womanhood in the boys\nand girls, it is true that to a large extent the measure of goodness of a\nchild has lain in his conformity to the ideal that the teacher has as to what\na boy or girl should be as his or her pupil. I remember the first shock I\nhad with regard to that question after I had taught school four or five\nyears. A boy who had been a model boy, who had always locked the\nwardrobe door and unlocked it, who had gathered up everything at night\nand seen to it that the room was in excellent condition, who knew all the\nbad boys and what they were doing, and told me that such a boy was not\nso good as he ought to be, had left school and been free out in the world.\nAlas! I soon learned, in hearing of his career, that he had simply the virtues, the methods, the customs that suited me in my school; that he had\nnot been strengthened to go out and meet the temptations of life that\nappealed to him. It was then that I began to study the question as to\nwhether virtues that are simply school virtues have lasting value. Do\nI mean that the children who are rebellious are the good children? No.\nBut there is something which we must yet learn, an ideal which must be\ndeveloped in our minds as to what is strength of character, and how strength\nof character is developed.\nTwo years ago I went to one of the large cities in this country, and was\ncalled upon by the newspaper reporters. It seemed as if they had got\ntogether before I arrived and planned to ask me one question. This was\nthe question: How do you explain the fact that all the aldermen and congressmen that have gone astray are graduates of the public schools ? Of\ncourse, I did not attempt to explain it. I told them that they must first\nshow me the statistics upon which they based their question. We know\nthat somehow we have not thus far succeeded in laying those foundations\nwhich make for a great nation, which make strong men and strong women.\nWe are doing a great deal, but there is more for us to do.\nLast October the Mayor of Chicago asked me to be one of the delegates\nfrom Chicago to the International Prison Congress. At first blush I thought\nit a little odd for me to go to a prison congress. On second thought I\nbelieved I should go there to find out how it happened that any of our\nboys and girls go to prison. What an experience I had in that congress!\nThose men and women in that congress were bent on studying, not how\nto punish, not how to reprove, but how to get nearer the good which lurked\nyet in this boy or that girl and to give it play. It was a wonderful lesson\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "l86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nWith all our ardor for developing goodness, we have much to learn about\nthat art. The superintendents in the elementary schools of America\ninto which the streams are pouring from countless nations are far from an\nunderstanding of moral education as a means of strengthening and purifying\nthe stream of civiUzation — ^we need another decade before the status of\nthis work can be presented.\nB,\n\nIN TEE SECONDARY\n\nELLIS U. GRAFF, PRINCIPAL\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\nSCHOOL,\n\nOMAHA,\n\nNEBR.\n\nThe public high school occupies a place of peculiar importance in our\nsystem of American education. Not only does it bridge the gap between\nthe elementary school and the college, but it also bridges the gap between\nthe elementary school and the active duties of hfe. The resulting multiplicity ofdemands gives rise to a conflict of aims difl&cult to reconcile. On\nthe one hand, those who believe in practical training and the social serviceableness of the high school have felt that college preparation has had too\nlarge a part in the plans and purposes of the school; they have raised the\ncry of \"college domination,\" which has been so often heard of late, and have\npictured the college as a huge giant with a big stick labeled \"entrance\nrequirements\" clubbing the high schools into submission. On the other\nhand, the colleges have felt that the schools have unduly broadened their\ncourses under the pressure of local needs and included subjects which are\nnot worthy of recognition for college entrance; that the interest of the\nschool is not primarily in thoro and accurate scholarship, and that a great\ndeal of superficial and inferior work is being offered as preparation for\ncollege.\nBoth of these views contain some truth, but the solution of the difficulty\nlies in a compromise between them. The high school needs the steadying\ninfluence of the higher institution with its scholastic ideals; the college\nneeds the socializing effect which comes from relationship with an institution incontact with the people. Recent signs indicate that this problem\nis being considered in a spirit of co-operation and that a better understanding\nis being arrived at. The high school with all its demands for autonomy is\npreparing more pupils for college than ever before. The college is showing\nan increased liberality in regard to entrance requirements and entrance\nexaminations. A significant example of this tendency is the recent proposal of the Harvard faculty to admit pupils on certificate and an examination in four subjects, instead of an examination in all subjects, as heretofore.\nThis indicates an increasing willingness to accept the work of the schools.\nIn the midst of this stress and strain of conflicting demands, what has\nbeen the effect upon the development of the secondary school? The\nmost significant fact in the current history of secondary education has been\nthe remarkable growth and progress in all its departments, especially during\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n187\n\nthe past two decades. The last report of the United States Commissioner\nof Education (1909) shows that the total number of secondary students of\nhigh-school grade for the year ending June, 1909, was 1,034,827. This is\nthe first time the number has reached the million mark. The number in\npublic schools was 841,273. This represents an increase, in twenty years,\nfrom 202,963, or over 400 per cent. Not only is the number larger than\never before, but the rate of increase from year to year is greater than the\nrate of increase in population.\nAn additional evidence of growth is found in the increase in the number\nof schools from 2,526 in 1889 to 9,317 in 1909; and in the number of teachers\nfrom 9,120 to 37,491.\nThese figures are significant. They indicate a remarkable growth,\nand show that in spite of criticisms which are often made and difficulties\nwhich are admitted to exist, the high school, as a whole, is fulfilling an\nindispensable function in our national Ufe.\nIn addition to these figures, growth is further shown by the increased\nexpenditures for buildings and equipment. While no exact figures are\navailable for this item, yet it is apparent that many fine buildings are being\nerected in various parts of the country and the equipment is being elaborated\nto a point of greater efficiency. It is true that in some cases money is spent\nfor outer ornamentation and other features of mere show rather than in the\ndirection of fireproof construction, good light, fresh air, well-distributed\nheat, freedom from dust, etc.; but as a whole the movement for better\nmaterial equipment has been in a forward direction.\nYet the condition of an institution cannot be measured by numbers alone\nnor in terms of material welfare. Dr. John H. Holmes has well said, \"The\nreal test of the vitahty of an institution is not that of number but of the\ninfluence which it exerts upon the controlling forces of human life.\" What\ncan be said of the influences of the high school ? There are many signs of\nunrest even in the midst of the present growth and prosperity. A careful\nstudy of our school population shows that a large part of our youth after the\nage of fourteen is out of school. A study of this subject by Mr. Arthur J.\nJones^ presents figures to the effect that the probable maximum enrollment\nby age in all educational institutions of our country is as follows: 14 years,\n83.87 per cent; 15 years, 57.65 per cent; 16 years, 39.64 per cent; 17\nyears, 23.84 per cent; 18 years, 14.74 per cent; 19 years, 9.99 per cent;\n20 years, 6 . 93 per cent. If these figures are even approximately correct, it\nindicates that over half of the young people between fifteen and twenty\nyears of age are not in any educational institution. The dissatisfaction\nwhich results from a contemplation of these figures does not arise so much\nfrom the feeling that the school is responsible for the dropping-out, nor that\nit should make greater efforts to retain its pui5ils, since much of the droppingout is necessary; it is rather caused by a feehng that the school should do\n» Bulletin No. i, 1907, U.S. Department of Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "l88\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nIMobfle\n\nmore for these pupils before they drop out; that too much that is given them\nis given because it will benefit them in their higher grades if they continue\nin school. In other words, the feeling is that the school is conducted too\nmuch on the plan of the tontine insurance policy — the rewards are all\nyours if you are fortunate enough to be able to persist thru the tontine\nperiod; if not, you obtain little, if anything. There is a reasonable basis\nfor this feeHng. Of course no plan can ever be contrived which will give\nto a pupil who discontinues his school work as much benefit as he would\nhave obtained had he remained in school; but it is not asking too much\nthat the work should be presented from the standpoint of its use and its\nbearing on vocation as well as from the standpoint of its being preparation\nfor further education.\nCorrelative with this unrest over the large number dropping out is a\nfeeling of concern on the part of teachers at the apparent lack of interest\nin scholastic work on the part of those in school. In a high-school teachers'\nmeeting which the writer attended this year a paper was read by a highschool teacher who deplored the current lack of interest in scholarly pursuits\non the part of the pupils and the impossibility of securing the same interest\nin Latin, algebra, and English as is bestowed upon athletics, social activities,\nand amusements. This is a fact which is apparent to all thoughtful students of modern educational conditions. The recent utterances of two\nprominent university presidents furnish a striking illustration of this\nfact. The first quotation is from an article by President Hadley of Yale\nin the New York Times for August 28, 1909. He says:\nThe growing complexity of the American social organization, the increase of wealth\nand the comforts and luxuries which wealth brings with it, the development of games\nand sports of every kind, and the great stress which all branches of society lay upon\nproficiency in those sports create a set of very distracting conditions in college as well as\nout of it. They lead the student who has no special intellectual interest, but comes to\ncollege for the sake of general culture, to seek that general culture on lines of least resistance. But if our definition of culture is correct, we can hardly expect to obtain it in\nthis way. The student who looks only at the immediate interests of the moment is becoming imcultured rather than cultured — ^is being trained to narrow angles of vision instead\nof wide ones.\n\nOf similar import is an address on \"The Spirit of Learning\" delivered in\nJune, 1909, by President Wilson of Princeton. He says:\nThe field is clear for all these little activities, as it is clear for athletics. Athletics\nhas no serious competitor except these amusements and petty engrossments; they have\nno serious competitor except athletics. The scholar is not in the game.\n\nThese analyses of the situation may be said to apply with equal force\nto high-school conditions, with this difference, that in college the social and\nother outside activities are an intrinsic part of the college world, while in\nthe high schools, since the pupils live in their own homes, they are to a\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "superintendence!\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\ngreater extent a part of the social life of the entire community. These\nviews are not expressed in a spirit of criticism, but they imply a criticism of\neducational institutions in that they have not somehow made scholarship as\nattractive as amusements.\nThus far our survey of the status of secondary education has shown two\napparently contradicatory sets of facts: first, a remarkable growth and\nprogress; and second, an undercurrent of feehng that the needs of today are\nnot being met by suitable kinds of training. What causes or forces underUe\nthese facts which will harmonize them and show them to be but two phases\nof a single problem ?\nThe sociological basis of education is well understood by the teachers of\ntoday; it has been thoroly discussed in the educational literature of the past\ndecade. They accept as self-evident truths such statements as this of\nRuskin :\nNo teacher can truly promote the cause of education, until he knows the mode of\nlife for which that education is to prepare his pupil;*\n\nor this, from Dr. Paul H. Hanus:\nTogether with this improved adaption of the school to the needs of each individual\nthere is also a growing recognition of the important social function which the school has\nto fulfill .... the primary social function of all education, and in particular of secondary\neducation, is to adapt every individual to the civilization of his time.\"\n\nYet the assumption of this task by the school is the largest single work\nundertaken by any institution in American life today, and the carryingout of the task involves Herculean labor. So complex and so shifting are\nthe conditions of modern life, that to attempt to prepare for them is like\ntrying to paint a picture with pigments which change their color as they\nflow from the brush. By the time the product of the school is ready for\nlife, the conditions demand something different.\nCompare for a moment the present decade with that of a generation\nago. The first characteristic which strikes the observer is the increase of\nwealth and of luxuries. This is the age of electricity, of automobiles, of\nairships, of machinery. It is easier to do the work of the world than ever\nbefore. Man's victory over the forces of nature is so nearly complete that\nhe is no longer obliged to struggle directly to secure food, warmth, shelter,\nand clothing. Thru machinery all is changed. The same kind of effort\nis not required as formerly. The emphasis today is on ingenuity and quickness rather than upon mere effort or industry.\nThe second characteristic is that this is an age of organization. An\nindividual no longer struggles by himself b*it, as Dr. George E. Vincent\nputs it, \"He does team work.\"\n\nIndividual power and ability count for less\n\n^ Crown of Wild Olive, essay on \"Work.\"\n* Educational Aims and Educational Values, p. 79.\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "190\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nrelatively. The emphasis is 'placed upon the relationships which the individual sustains to other members in the compHcated machinery of Hfe.\nThis has produced a certain impersonal attitude in society. Things\nare done by large organizations of men which cannot be done by individuals.\nAlso, many misdeeds are committed from which an individual would shrink\nbut which an impersonal organization would perform without compunction.\nOrganization and system have taken charge of the productive industries\nof our day. They are no longer carried on in the homes as formerly. This\nremoval of productive industry from the home has taken away from the\nyouth a valuable form of training which has not been replaced. It has\nleft many of them without occupation for their leisure hours. It has allowed\nthem to mature without development of self-reliance, and has made it difficult for them to be of service in the home life. This has resulted in a certain immaturity in the youth which is evident in their school life. They\nare not so teachable as formerly because they are not so mature and *not so\nself-reliant.\nEmerson has truly said:\nNo man can learn what he has not preparation for learning\n(jod screens us\nevermore from premature ideas. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that\nstare us in the face, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened — then we behold\nthem, and the time when we saw them not is like a dream.\n\nThese changes have a direct and vital bearing upon education. Instead\nof providing intellectual training as a supplement to the skill and development obtained from labor in the productive industries of the home, the\nschool is now face to face with the problem of supplying the foundation of\npersonal development upon which to build the superstructure of intellectual\nattainment. The pupil must not only be taught, he must be trained; and\nhe must not only be trained, he must be trained to some definite purpose.\nThis implies that the school shall minister not only to cultural aims but to\nvocational aims a§ well.\nHow this work shall be undertaken is the present pressing problem.\nSome think, with ex-President Eliot, that a system of trade schools will\nbe built up; others, that technical high schools will fill the need. Meanwhile, numerous supplementary schools are being established, Y.M.C.A.\nschools, correspondence schools, schools conducted by employers like that\nof John Wanamaker of Philadelphia and of Sears Roebuck Co. of Chicago.\nThese efforts are undoubtedly indicative of the need which exists, and they\npoint to a possible solution of the question; tho it is doubtful whether any\nbut public measures can ultimately minister to so general a demand.\nOf one thing we may be certain: whatever type of public secondary\neducation may develop, the aim of general culture will not be supplanted\nnor superseded. It seems most probable that the present type of education\nwill be supplemented with the necessary elements of training for twentiethcentury civilization.\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN COLLEGES\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\n191\n\nThe whole situation is well summarized by Commissioner Brown in his\nlast report.^\n\nHe says:\n\nThe dangers of the situation as regards the high schools are no less acute. These\nschools are affected by forces pulling upon them, not only from the colleges above and\nthe grammar schools below, but from the varied life of the community which they serve.\nThe new demands, which may be roughly grouped under industrial and commercial\neducation, must give them anxious thought. There are those who fear that the high\nschool as an institutional type may fall into disfavor unless it can readily adapt itself\nto the new needs of the time, as the Latin grammar school of colonial days declined\nbefore the rising academies, and less than a century later the academy declined before\nthe new popularity of the high schools. Either a modified and broadened high school\nor a school of different type altogether may fairly be expected to dispute the pre-eminence\nof the high school as it is today. But the high school is still on a rising tide, and its\npossibilities of readjustment to new needs are very great.\n\nIn conclusion, it may be said that the present status of secondary education is one of great prosperity; the future, of wonderful opportunity. To\nfulfill this opportunity the high school must continually readjust itself to\nthe needs of a changing society. It must thoroly analyze and understand\nthe conditions of modern life, its needs and its demands, and it must supply\nthe training which will fit the youth of its day and age to meet these\nconditions.\nC. IN THE COLLEGES\nGUY POTTER\n\nBENTON,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nOF MIAMI UNIVERSITY,\n\nOXFORD,\n\nOHIO\n\nIf status means a standing which is in any sense permanent, then there\nis no status of higher education in the United States. That there may\nseem to be no wandering from the subject, let us assume, then, at the outset,\nthat those responsible for this program have commissioned us to discuss\nthe present condition of higher education as represented by institutional\nstandards and by the opinions and policies of educational leaders.\nIn the beginning we may as well make full confession of the truth and\nadmit that there are no universal standards or fixed policies for higher\neducation in the United States. Before we can hope to have a permanent\nstatus which will command for • our institutions of higher learning the\nrespect of the world of scholarship everywhere there must necessarily be\ncertain agreed definitions of terms. The whole system of education in\nour country, from kindergarten to university, is subject to indictment for\ncapriciousness.\nThe American inclination to novelty is nowhere more manifest than in\nthe teaching profession. It is time that those of us who are charged with\nthe high responsibility of training childhood and youth should awaken\nto a solemn realization of the danger which lurks in ill-considered experimentation. The attempted practice of half-digested theories and the\nsuperficial imitation of the spectacular work of educational visionaries\n^ Report of U.S. Commissioner of Education, 1910, Vol. I, p. 19.\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "19^\n\nl^ATiO^AL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\niMobfle\n\nare menacing the coming manhood and womanhood of America. The\naverage teacher or educational leader is in such fear of being held answerable to the charge of antiquity that, in utter disregard for the rights of the\ntaught, he makes mad rush to get into the limelight with the rest of the\neducational crowd. Some prominent school superintendent pipes and those\nof lesser importance all dance. Some distinguished college or university\npresident theorizes and presidents of smaller stature run to practice. Some\ngreat specialist poses as a critic of the existing order of things and the\naverage college professor feels that, to be in the fashion, he must become\niconoclastic.\nThe greatest university president in America proclaims the need of a\nlarger freedom of electives with three years as sufficient for the baccalaureate\ndegree and the rest of us submit tamely to his leading. A pyrotechnic\nprofessor of English in one of our largest universities denounces all the\nhymns of the church as doggerel, and the collegiate critics of hymnology\nhave multiplied amazingly. Twenty years ago the National Education\nAssociation was almost wholly psychological in its convention program.\n\"Apperception\" was the chief subject of discussion and ''a pot of green\nfeathers\" was always in evidence. Pedagogical tyros presumed to discuss\ngreat psychological questions with all the assurance of studied specialists,\nand the storerooms of educational book companies were flooded with\nworks on psychology which could never hope to meet approval in the\ncouncils of thoro scholarship. The convention program of the National\nEducation Association in our own day is largely agricultural, industrial,\nand vocational. We have passed from the realm of the spiritual to the\nrealm of the material, and who is so bold as to prophesy what the subject\nof discussion in these meetings will be ten years hence ?\nIn elementary and secondary schools, courses of study are constantly\ntaking to themselves more subjects and the college curricula are becoming\nmore crowded with every added year. But the denunciation of all advanced\neducational thinkers as \"faddists\" is an easy way of escape for those who\nare opposed to progress. It is the subterfuge of the indolent. The educational \"stand-patter\" is a worse sinner than the educational \"insurgent.\"\nThe reactionary is, after all, the chief culprit among the many educational\noffenders. If compelled to make choice between two evils there is no question but that, with the end in view of the largest and best service to young\nlife, we should choose progressive agitation rather than ultra-conservatism.\nOut of this seething caldron of new ideas there may remain a residuum of\nrefined educational principles. Out of this ferment of discontent may arise\nan educational pohcy imiversally accepted as worthy of permanency and\none which will bring contentment to all who are interested in education.\nThen intensive work will be possible, and, by our constant growth and healthful development, we shall make the American educational system increasingly effective. The destructive critic never accompUshes anything which\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN COLLEGES\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nis worth while. In spite of all the just criticisms which have been lodged\nagainst educational work in America, the thoughtful and fair-minded person must admit that there has been a distinct advance made with every\nadded year of our history and that our record on the whole is one of progress.\nThe difficulty with us all Ues in the fact that no generally accepted definition\nof the real purpose of education has yet been found.\nThe earnest prayer of every progressive teacher of our own times should\nbe for poise, for balance, and for real sanity. When that prayer is answered\nthe attitude of the true teacher toward every proposed reform or suggested\nadvance in methods of education will be that of the scientist working in\nhis laboratory. The scholarly investigator never accepts the half-tried\ntheories of others as final. The research scholar submits his oTvn original\ntheories to the same tests he requires of those originating with others and\nannounces nothing as true until, step by step, he has estabUshed himself\nin absolute and final conclusions. The upturned, expectant faces of the\nrising generation constitute a silent, pathetic, and impressive appeal to\nthose who teach them to advance with the assurance of worked-out certainty, tobe progressive without fanatical superficiaUty.\nSince this particular time is set apart for attention to the status of higher\neducation in America we may dismiss, for the moment, all considerations\nof the weaknesses or excellences of elementary and secondary schools and\ndevote ourselves to a critical study of present conditions and policies in\nour colleges, and in the graduate and professional schools of our universities.\nThe American college is a transplanted institution. It can lay small\nclaim to originaHty. As we have it in our country today the college is an\neducational hybrid. It found its beginnings in an attempted imitation of\nthe aristocratic college of culture as grown in the English university system.\nUpon the original root have been grafted two very different shoots — one a\nsickly German university sprout and the other a somewhat healthful sprig\nof American originality. The situation which confronts us, however, is\nby no means hopeless. There is strong ground for beUef that out of this\nrooting and grafting there will soon come a vigorous tree, under whose\numbrageous protection all educationar leaders and followers will be pleased\nto find shelter.\nThere are about four hundred and fifty so-called colleges or imiversities\nin the United States. All stand committed in various ways by different\nrequirements to the English conception of the humanities as a necessary\nbasis for the baccalaureate degree. There is a smattering of the German\nuniversity system in all, with evidences everywhere of a liberal adoption of\nthe half-tested theories of one or more American educational theorists.\nThe result of it all is an American college ^d university system which is\na composite of requirements, electives, and groups, with conceptions of\nmethods of instruction and standards of educational measurements as\nnumerous as the colleges and universities themselves.\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nIt is not alone in the undergraduate colleges where the goal is the Bachelor's degree that these different views and varying policies are found. In\nthe graduate colleges and professional schools there is similar dispute as to\nmethods and there are differing notions of aims and purposes. Take one\nconcrete example, for instance. In the Law School of Harvard University\nthe baccalaureate degree is required for admission and the case system is\nused exclusively as the method of instruction. In other reputable law\nschools a high-school certificate will suffice for admission, and the textbook\nmethod is exploited as the only proper system of teaching. Then there\nare those who try to strike a balance between the two. The distinguished\ndean of the Law School of Yale University recently made manifest his desire\nfor safe passage between \"Scylla and Charybdis\" by advocating a combination ofthe case and the textbook system of instruction. Multiplied\nexamples might be given in proof of the proposition that higher education\nin America is not built on many foundation stones of common agreement.\nNevertheless, the institutions of higher learning in America have been\nmighty forces in the development of our civilization and, with all their\ndifferences and uncertainties, they could not be dispensed with without\nuntold loss. In spite of divergent policies their present value is simply\ninestimable.\nThe paramount reason for the lack of the largest efficiency of our colleges\nis found in the fact that the attitude of college and university men is too\nlargely one of independence and of separation from the elementary and\nsecondary schools. Apparently they do not recognize that the largest\neducational efficiency can be realized only thru an educational system which\nis a unified whole. The institutions of higher learning must be closely\nrelated to the pubhc schools and must be linked up in sympathetic co-operation with those who are responsible for the effectiveness of the elementary\nand secondary schools if higher education is to mean all it may mean by\nway of everything that is best in our American life.\nThe value of college and university training, if it have a value, must make\nitself manifest thru the college professor or instructor. It is a safe statement\nthat the most serious obstructionists in the way of real educational progress\ntoday are the ultra-conservative college professors in many of our institutions of higher learning. The sense of security felt by too many occupants\nof college chairs has a tendency to make them comfortable in laziness.\nRunning in a groove requires so little exertion that those once started are\nloath to get out of it. The complacent satisfaction of too many college\nworkers is a curse rather than a blessing to education. It will be admitted\nthat every great specialist should be primarily concerned with his own hne\nof specialization, but he cannot accomplish the utmost possible in his chosen\nfield unless he understands the relation of his particular department to that\nof all other departments. He will fail of the largest accompHshment where\nhe works if he is without sympathetic knowledge of the relation his work\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN COLLEGES\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\n19$\n\nbears to education in general. The proper attitude of the college worker\ntoward this general educational problem should be that of the scholarlyinvestigator, of the truth seeker. His chief effort should ever be to correlate. The difficulty now is that we are narrow; we are running in circles;\nwe are jealous of our own departments. Let us make shamefaced confession that it is because of this narrowness that the colleges are not filling\nthe largest possible place in the American school system and are not participating as it is their privilege to do in solving the problems of progressive\neducation.\nThe educational system does not consist of disjointed and competitive\nparts. \"We being many are one body\" in education, \"and every one\nmembers one of another.\"\nIt is a tremendous mistake to regard the college as isolated and independent. The inexcusable arrogance of the college professor in affirming\nthe independence of the college and its right to dictate to the secondaryschools has a tendency to thwart the fullest effectiveness of our entire\neducational system. My plea is for greater sympathy between educational\nworkers in all departments of a great system, not broken but united. There\nis no sadder spectacle than that of bargain-counter competition between\ndepartments in what should be one great educational corporation. The\nonly rivalry should be such as exists in a great general store where each\nparticular department strives to surpass the others in the efficiency of\nservice rendered to the employer who heads the entire concern.\nCo-operation is essential among the various and several departments of\nour educational system. We can never have this co-operation so long as\nthose responsible for the secondary schools, animated by jealousy, or\ngoaded by self -induced feelings of inferiority, assume the scornful or ffippant\nair of defiance toward those who teach in the colleges. Once more, we shall\nnever have this co-operation so long as college professors are snobbish and\ntake refuge in a self-opinionated and false sense of their superiority. There\nis often little ground for this superior claim of college professors. Too many\nof them have no pedagogical point of view. It is not disputed, I think, that\ninformation is the first necessary possession of him who would teach a\ngiven subject, but knowledge alone is not sufficient. It has been well said\nby another that \"a college professor may be a great man and an honored\nmember of many societies and still be, as a teacher, woefully incompetent.\"\nI have often wished that I might take some college professors on a pilgrimage\nto the room of some good primary teacher in order that those who pride\nthemselves on belonging to a higher grade of educational workers might learn\nhow to teach to the best advantage. If elementary and secondary teachers\nwill adapt, as fully as is possible, to a young^lass of pupils the scientific and\nlaboratory methods of the college, and if college professors can catch somewhat of the enthusiasm of the elementary and secondary teachers, added\nto the pedagogical knowledge which makes the public-school teacher now\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nmore generally successful as an instructor than the college professor, we\nshall have the very best teaching in all departments of one great educational\nsystem.\nQuahfying adjectives are unnecessary in describing teachers. A teacher\nis a teacher whether working in the kindergarten, the grades, the high school,\nthe college, or the university. No higher honor belongs to one than to\nanother. Each is important in his place and should regard his position\none of the greatest possible honor, provided only that he does the work\ncommitted to his hands in the best way possible for the growth and developrnent of those committed to his teaching. The dawning of the\nperfect day will bring a unified educational system, knowing no distinctions\nas to rank, but binding together, in sympathetic co-operation, all those who\nteach,\nwith all lowliness and meekness, with long siUBfering; forbearing one another in love;\nendeavoring to keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace.\n\nThe foregoing conclusion is in no sense a digression. It grows directly\nout of the subject assigned me. The status of higher education in the\nUnited States is not what it might be because of the fact that the institutions\nof higher learning have not properly related themselves to the educational\nsystem as a whole. They can never be all that they may be in efficiency\nwhile they exist in isolation and in the fancied security of their own\nsuperiority and independence.\nThe hope of a unified educational system in our country lies in the state\nuniversities of America. We have no national universities. That statement ismade without any desire to harrow the pride of the few who boastfully claim that their institutions are national in character. It will readily\nbe admitted that there are some American institutions which are more\nwidely known than others. It is equally true, however, that the state\nuniversity, which is chiefly a product of the great Central West, happily\nbelongs in a peculiar way to the pubHc-school system. State universities\nare receiving larger support every year and as those responsible for their\nmanagement come more and more to reahze the close relationship that\nshould exist between these institutions and the high schools and elementaryschools below we shall approximate, as fully as may be, in the United States,\nthe ideal educational system of the world.\nEducation is becoming increasingly democratic. A recent editorial\nin the Saturday Evening Post declares:\nThe older endowed colleges, of course, originally were, and still pretty largely are,\naristocratic institutions. They were meant for gentlemen. They contemplate that their\ngraduates should be ornaments to society. The public schools grew up in conformity\nwith the entrance requirements of the colleges — although it was obvious that a great\nportion of the public-school pupils would have no time to ornament anything except\npossibly their own picket fences with a coat of paint. The state universities may stand —\nand rather increasingly do stand — in a different relation to the public schools. They\nmay stand for a system built from the bottom up rather than from the top down.\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtcndencel\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN COLLEGES\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nThe state universities in the various states of the Union, by collaboration with state superintendents of public instruction, city superintendents,\nhigh-school principals, and county superintendents, may so weld university\nand college in with the high school and the grades as to give us an educational system which will produce in our country the largest social efficiency.\nThe great public-school system of America unified, then, in completest\npossible form from kindergarten to university, evolving policies which will\ngive to our elementary and secondary schools a status challenging the confidence of the American people, will also establish standards of higher\neducation that all endowed institutions, whether supported by some branch\nof the church or by private benefaction, will be obliged to follow.\nIf there be any such thing as a status of higher education in the United\nStates at this time it is on the few points of agreement to which all reputable\ncolleges and universities now subscribe. In higher education we are at\npresent, we may safely say, agreed on three things: first, that a completed\nsecondary-school training shall be required for admission to college; second,\nthat preparatory work shall be followed by further study in a college course\nof cultural and disciplinary studies ; and third, that graduate colleges and professional schools shall be maintained for advanced study and higher degrees.\nThis is really all there is to the status of higher education in the United\nStates at this moment. In nothing else is there an approach to unanimity\nof opinion. In making this statement, I, of course, speak only of standards\nof scholarship. In matters of conduct, standards of character, and ideals\nof public service, the institutions of higher learning in our country are more\nnearly in agreement. It is the generally accepted conviction, I believe,\namong college authorities that higher education is a failure unless it shall be\nable to boast as its best product a potent social force.\nSo far as matters of scholarship are concerned, while we are generally\nagreed that there must be a completed secondary-school training with\nadvanced study thereafter in a college course of cultural and disciplinary\nstudies, all to be succeeded by graduate and professional training, we are\nin disagreement about nearly everything else. We have constant controversy as to the purpose of a college course for instance, and at the present\ntime there is little prospect of a satisfactory solution of this problem. The\ndiscussions as to whether the college curriculum should be predominantly\nutilitarian or cultural and disciplinary in character is more lively today than\never. It promises to wax warmer until, by co-operation of the leaders in all\nbranches of a unified public-school system in America, we shall be able,\nthru careful investigation and by painstaking, cold-blooded weighing of\nresults, to reach conclusions which must be accepted by all as final.\nIn considering the status of higher e'ttucation in the United States we\nare also obliged to admit that there is wide difference of opinion as to the\nproper length of the college course between the high school and the professional and graduate college of the university.\nIn all frankness we are\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "igS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfMobUe\n\nbound to say that there is no immediate likelihood of agreement with\nPresident Baker, the distinguished head of the University of Colorado,\nin the position taken by him at the recent meeting of the National Association of State Universities when he said:\nThe thing to do with the liberal arts college is to abolish it, frankly and quickly, in\nits present form. If there was ever an absurdity in the history of civilization, it is the\npresent status and use of the college of liberal arts in this country. And you gave the\nwhole system away when you inaugurated the double degree scheme.\n\nNeither is there large and enthusiastic agreement with President Baker as\nhe farther declares:\nIt is time for us to say frankly that preparatory education should end at about\ntwenty years of age and there begin our university work; and then we should have none\nof these discussions.\n\nAnother subject of difference among the leaders of higher education in\nthis country is that which has to do with the character of college curricula.\nTo what extent the vocational and scientific studies may properly be\nregarded as disciplinary and cultural, and how far the pure mathematics,\nlinguistics, and the humanities may be regarded as practical are questions\nto which the most earnest and thoughtful of our educational leaders have\nbeen unable to find a common answer.\nHaving in this somewhat desultory fashion set forth the points of agreement and disagreement in the scheme of higher education in the United\nStates and having been driven to the conclusion that there is no present\neducational status in our colleges and universities that can properly be\ncalled such, I believe I have fully met the obligation placed upon me by\nthis subject.\nMay I not, however, in conclusion, venture to prophesy that a larger\nground of common agreement will soon be found ? The National Education Association has appointed a committee of five to deal with the whole\nsubject of the reorganization of American education, and at the recent\nannual meeting of the National Association of State Universities in Washington there was appointed a standing committee on \"Reorganization of\nEducation, \" consisting of Presidents Bryan of Indiana University, Schurman of Cornell University, Hill of the University of Missouri, Strong of the\nUniversity of Kansas, and McVey of the University of North Dakota. It\nis not too much to hope that these two committees in co-operation, representing unitedly the great cause of public education in our country, will reach\nconclusions which will give to higher education in the United States a real\nstatus commanding the respect of the world. Personally, I dare to hope that\nthese committees will conclude that the four-years' college course should be\nretained between the high school and the university, thereby prolonging\nthe infantile period and guaranteeing a later increased social efficiency.\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nTHE STANDARDS\nHENRY\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\nTEACHING\n\nLIFE\n\nLIFE AS APPLIED\n\nSUZZALLO, PROFESSOR OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION,\nCOLLEGE,\nCOLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nTO\n\nTEACHERS\n\n[Stenographic Report]\nWe are in the habit of calling some types of work professional, implying that others are not. At the same time our phraseology carries the\nimplication that one is more respectable than the other. Of course if\nthere are inevitable stratifications in jobs as there are in men it is necessary\nto recognize the fact and act accordingly. The purpose of this discussion\nis to raise and answer the following questions : What are the valid distinctions between professional and non-professional employment? What\nconstitutes the practice of a profession ? More particularly what does or\nwill make teaching a truly professional service ?\nThere are the four traditional professions — law, theology, medicine, and\nteaching. There are, too, some occupations that verge on the professional\ncircle, or are recent recruits. Such are engineering, journalism, nursing,\nsettlement work, and the like. On the other hand, we do not ordinarily\ninclude unskilled labor, the mechanic, and the business man among our\nprofessional servants. At once we feel the tendency to give greater praise\nor blame to professional men and women, as tho their work is more difficult\nor more important.\nThe reason for this suggested superiority or importance of professional\nservice lies in the fact that there is greater power for general human weal\nor woe united with prof essional . service than with business or unskilled\nand even skilled labor. A man who plants a field well gets a larger crop.\nThe man who does it ill spoils a field of clods and some grain. But a good\nlawyer earns not only his daily bread, but at the same time protects something precious — ^as property, Hfe, liberty, or happiness. The bad lawyer,\nthe unprofessional one, quibbling over technicalities and bullyragging\nwitnesses, juries, and judges, earns his daily bread, to be sure, but he has\nviolated the spirit of ancient laws, destroyed reverence for coutts and justice, and walked rough-shod over the sanctities and rights of men. He\nhas earned his bread, but he has incidentally destroyed institutions.\nIn a rough way society tries to protect itself against the abuse of these\nlarge powers which are incident to the earnings of a livelihood in professional service. It demands more general culture preliminary to the study\nand practice of a profession. This merely means it requires that the professional practitioner, because of his peculiar powers and temptations,\nmust be given a fundamental knowledge of those values, ideals, traditions,\nwhich are fundamental to our social life. * Hence the boy may go to a trade\nor a business at the close of the elementary school-, but the youth may not\nstart his work as a teacher, lawyer, doctor, or nurse ^efore he has passed\nthru the high school.\nThe secondary school means a broader and more\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nintensive view of life in general than the elementary school. The professional work is not merely more scientific and complex than non-professional\nservice — it has intimate connections with the fundamental values of life.\nIt ramifies into the greater movements of our civilization. Hence the need\nfor a wider, more intensive general education, which will foster a knowledge of, and a reverence for, human rights and institutions.\nIf the practice of professional life must rest upon a foundation of broad\ngeneral culture, what then are the special internal qualities which mark\nit off from other forms of service ? We would suggest four characteristics\nof professional life:\nFirst, It is a ministry to crises.\nSecond, It is an expert service.\nThird, It is a social servantship.\nFourth, It is an ethical co-operation.\n\nIt is with particular reference to showing how public-school teaching\nrealizes and fails to meet these standards that we are entered upon this\ndiscussion. Our purpose is never merely to find fault, but to get at the\nfrank truth of the matter and to suggest helpful lines of advance.\nA man who spends his life in the ever-repeating and monotonous business of working the lever of a machine in a shoe factory has little opportunity to meet new problems. It is not normal for him to be facing and\nsolving new situations, mental crises that require resource and thought.\nThe very nature of his situation makes it impossible for him to become\nwhat every professional workman is— a master of crises.\nNo such limiting situation exists in teaching. The teacher is master of\nthe school, unless he makes of it a machine which masters him. Every\nchild is in degree different from every other, and so is every class, and every\nday with the same class. Always there is some new ignorance, doubt,\nhope, or discouragement to cope with. Here the resource and the tact of\nthe teacher are called for fully. He must know and identify the situation,\norganize his resources, so as to bring it to bear definitely upon the novel\nproblem before him.\nAs a lawyer is called in to redeem a client from a situation which jeopardizes property, liberty, life, or happiness, as a doctor protects life and\nhealth, as a minister faces down the danger of spiritual sin, so the teacher\nprotects the divine potentialities of childhood, conquers the deathlike\ntouch of error and discouragement, fosters intellectual courage and the\npassion for goodness. The teacher is in short a minister to the intellectual\nand moral and spiritual crises of childhood.\nAt least it should be so, if teaching is rightly practiced. If our teaching\nbecomes a monotonous drill and grind, that the child feels to be of little\nmoment to him, then teaching is not a professional service. Schools\ncannot become \"lock-steps\" and \"machines\" and at the same time render\nprofessional service.\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nOF PROFESSIONAL\n\nLIFE\n\n20I\n\nThe crucial nature of all teaching of the young is frequently missed\nbecause we are dealing with children and not with adults. The difficulties\nof children are in most cases solved for the adult, and hence the adult\nmisses their significance. Because childhood's troubles are solved situations to the adult it does not follow that they are not important to the child.\nChildren's troubles are very real to them. Thru their solution comes\ngrowth in thought and action. To deny a child's curiosity as it pokes\naround in the world may be to commit him to slow intellectual starvation.\nTo hush up his play and his garrulousness is to cripple his ultimate power\nto act, express, and control himself.\nIt is also true that a child's troubles come close together, as they do\nnot in an adult's world. He is a baby ushered into a great confusing universe. Nothing is old to him; everything is new. The very commonness\nof new problems in his life hides their crucial nature from us, who look\nfor a new problem to appear only now and then. Only as we approach\nchildhood with the traits of full sympathy and versatile imagination can\nwe serve little children, ministering to their difficulties so that their potentiaUties have a fair chance to reach a full stature.\nAs teachers we are set aside to perform a specialized duty. We should\nnot have schools if homes could do the work as well. Teachers must have\nmore power about their business than ordinary laymen. Otherwise we\nare not expert in our workmanship. The authority with which we speak\nshould be based not upon more years of service, tho that ought to go far,\nbut upon superior scholarship, a fuller command of mental processes, and\nan excelling personality for stimulating thought and checking action.\nIn a world full of intelligent people, we shall have to stir ourselves to keep\nahead in a work which has so much to do with life in general, a field in which\nall men play some part. To be expert necessitates (i) a superior command\nover the wisdom of life and (2) a superior power in bringing it to bear\nupon human subjects. Each of these elements in teaching efficiency\nhas a double mode of operation. Our worldly wisdom may be simply an\nintellectual possession or it may be firmly organized in the web and woof\nof our personalities. As our truths and values are possessed in one or\nthe other of these ways, it has to be brought to bear upon childhood in one\nof two general ways: thru conscious and technical methods of instruction and\nthru the subtle and more or less unself-conscious reactions of the teacher's\npersonality. Expertness in teaching, therefore, consists in four typical\nsuperiorities: (a) in a scholarly command of subject-matter; (b) in a better\norganization of character; (c) in a larger and more versatile command\nof conscious modes of transmitting facts and ideals; and (d) in a more\npotent and winsome, forceful, and sympathetic manner of personal contact\nwith other human beings.\nWe must work always with regard to the social effects of our teaching.\nWe are not teaching just arithmetic, reading, writing, and the rest; we\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobfle\n\nare making men, the pillars of social institutions. The final significance\nof all our teaching is social. Our danger as teachers is not that we shall\nbecome unprofessional, but that we shall remain non-professional. Like\nthe minister, we have entered on our mission with the vow of poverty on\nour lips. A salary system inadequate in its provisions restricts our temptation to get rich. The fee system of the doctor and the lawyer is a temptation we do not have. We are not Ukely to neglect the plain social duty\nthat we behold to be ours; we are simply likely not to behold it at all.\nOur monastic vision, along with that of ministers, may make us scorn the\nworld a bit, when it is in that same world our product must be tested.\nTo be social and not bookish, practical and not pedantic, is our professional salvation. We cannot with safety ever let teaching be solely a means\nof HveUhood. The spirit of social service must dominate us, and we must\ntrust that the world will somehow let us live in decency, for teaching is\nnot primarily a business, a way of gaining worldly goods, however necessary\nthese may be; it is primarily a profession of faith in large ideals and the\nwilhngness to enlarge their operation in the world.\nA more vital danger than the temptation to look upon teaching as mere\nmeans of livehhood is the danger that we may shut ourselves out from the\nworld we are alleged to serve. Pedagogical aloofness and academic cocksureness are only modern forms of monastic isolation that check the\nfullness of our social servantship. School-teachers need social contact and\nsocial information; they need to derive their inspiration and their standards\nof efficiency not so much from their own vocational ancestors as from the\nstruggles and aspirations of the very real world that throngs around the\nschool. Only thru such intimacies with real life can teaching become\na true and real social servantship.\nAnd last I would call your attention to the liberal way in which education should be conducted. As a creative work, teaching builds with\nprecious human stuff. In building institutions and civilizations with men\na new principle enters that does not play a part in erecting buildings of\nstone, mortar, and other things. Children are our equals, they are like\nus in sensibiHty, they are blood of our blood. We should not, indeed, we\ncannot, successfully educate our fellow-humans unless the co-operation\nis considerate and complete. We have the right to manage and manipulate\nour children only under the guidance of well-established ethical principles.\nWe may use children but we must not \"use them up\"; we may use them\nbut we may not *' abuse\" them.\nTeaching is not a matter of might, but of right. It should not be a\nveiled coercion, the influence of which disappears when we are gone. Children for the most part should be led and not driven. The martinet makes\nonly two species of human beings with his overuse of authority and power:\na servile man with no will of his own who will become a henchman to the\nfirst ward boss he meets, or an obstinate reactionary who will disregard all\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nauthority once he gets free, becoming anarchistic or licentious, as his\nunrestraint expresses itself against government or virtue.\nIf our children are to be free men and women, they must be given\nfreedom enough to learn self-restraint. They must go toward the freedom\nof adult life by degrees and not by a single plunge. It is a paradox in the\ngrowth of human life that true obedience to authority in adult life is the\nproduct of a properly directed liberty in youth. Let the child's impulse\nplay free while he is yet in awe of this world and its human masters, then\nhe will take to heart the failures which his impulses register as they strike\nagainst other human personalities. Lead children into life, and guide\nthem. They are not much conscious of right and wrong in the beginning,\nthey merely wish to express themselves; give them the better way you\nknow, else they will use their own crude manners of meeting life. The\nleader of men is he who reads the discontent and eagerness of men and\ngives them voice. The teacher leads children by understanding their\nneeds and offering, out of his greater wisdom, adequate ways for expressing\nthem.\nIf he adjusts to their vague, mumbling desires with only his own selfish\ninterests in mind he is a cheap politician. If he gives outlet and form to\ntheir vague emotions, always with regard to the child's own ultimate\ngood and the final good of institutions, then he is a statesman. Teaching\nis only a form of statesmanship where the personal and public opinion of\nchildhood is molded to the good of the state. It is different in one fact\nalone, that it is the leadership of little men and women for a future good,\nrather than the leadership of grown men and women for a present good.\nIt is for us as teachers to bring the qualities of professional life into our\ndaily teaching practice and to make the term \"teacher\" mean four things\nin one: master, expert, servant, and leader.\n\nTOPIC: OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE AND IMPROVEMENT\nOVER THE PAST\nA.\nCHARLES\n\nE.\n\nCHADSEY,\n\nIN THE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCITY\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nTo assert that the problem of the city school is now far more complex\nthan it was a few decades ago is merely to give utterance to a truism.\nOriginally the city school system was merely a multiple of individual\nschools, just as the large building was at first simply an association of\nschools of similar types and ideals. When the function of the school was\nconfined to the attempt to secure reasonable familiarity with the \"fundamental\" studies, the administration of whatever school system existed\nwas very largely a matter of routine business and disciplinary control.\nCoincidentally with the general industrial expansion of the country\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nand the increasing complexity of business and social life came the modern\nschool system. It widens yearly its sphere of usefulness and attempts\ncourageously the solution of every problem which a people inclined to\nsocialistic remedies passes over to its province.\nA typical school system is rapidly becoming an organization difficult\nto describe or even to appreciate. As its foundation it still adheres to\nan elaborately organized grade system in which teachers work with\nlarge groups of pupils of comparatively similar general preparation and\nage. This ideal is found governing lower grades almost without exception. The higher elementary grades in many school systems and high\nschools everywhere have substituted for the grade teacher a specialist\nin some subject or group of subjects. This substitution has been made\nupon the assumption that the more specially trained teachers can thereby\nsecure better results. This assumption has been sufficiently successfully\nrealized to justify the acceptance of the departmental system as typical\nin high school and upper elementary grades of the normal city school\nsystem.\nIf, however, this group of schools where pupils are assembled together\nby a mechanical system of gradation and promotion was representative\nin any adequate sense of the modern school system, educational advance\nover the past would be far simpler to describe than, as a matter of fact,\nit is.\nEven if this were true it would still tax the limits of any paper to\nattempt more than a highly inadequate description of genuine advance\nalong numerous diverse lines of activity. It should include advance\nin architectural construction of buildings, improved professional preparation of teachers, and higher requirements of admission to the ranks\nof city teachers. It should not overlook the fact that we are securing\nbetter equipment, genuine compulsory education, more intelligently\norganized courses of study, progress in form and content of textbooks,\nthe beginning of more adequate pension systems, and the securing of\nmaterially higher compensation to teachers.\nSuch a resume also should call attention to the elimination to a\nvery considerable extent of the more offensive forms of political interference and the establishment of effective methods for the selection and\nappointment of teachers on the basis of merit only.\nIt should finally emphasize improvements in the business and educational administration of the schools, including the acceptance of the\nsmall, representative, effective Board of Education and the recognition\nof the city superintendency as an office which can be filled capably\nonly by an educational expert.\nIn omitting all consideration of such topics as these just enumerated\nand of many others which might easily have been included, I do not\nwish to imply that the advance along all these Unes is not of tremendous\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\n205\n\nsignificance. A complete consideration of educational progress would\nvery properly include extended treatment of each as a special subject.\nNearly all of these topics illustrate a progress which has been going\non for decades. They are striking illustrations of the general truth\nthat with each added complexity of life and civilization there come\ncorresponding adjustments on the part of all existing institutions to\nmeet the new needs.\nIn reality none of these advances, marked as they are and significant\nof a far more adequate and intelligent handling of our problem, constitutes the really vital difference between the typical school system\nof the past and the present.\nI should describe this difference as the developing of the power to\nappreciate the needs and demands of the individual. To furnish to\neach boy or girl the opportunity to secure the particular training most\ndemanded by his ability, limitations, tastes, aptitudes, and presumable\nfuture activities is now the great problem of every progressive school\nsystem. This problem is attacked in almost every conceivable way.\nNaturally many of the schemes, devices, and methods now offered in\nthe effort to solve this problem are hopelessly inadequate. The real\nadvance over the past lies in the recognition of the necessity of bringing\nabout in numerous different ways a genuine flexibility in the gradation,\nassignment, and advancement of the individual pupil.\nThe purpose distinctly in mind is to secure the overcoming of the\nlamentable waste of time and energy which characterizes any school\nsystem wedded to the traditional forms of classification and promotion,\nundefiled by the modern special school, special teacher, and special\nplan of organization designed to make the training actually fit the child.\nWhat are the specific forms thru which the city school of today\ndiffers from the mechanically perfect yet lamentably rigid school system\nof the past ? They are the practical realizations of nearly all the subjects assigned for special discussion at this and almost every educational\nmeeting of the past decade.\nNot all of them are found in every school system. Local conditions\nhave frequently prevented their establishment even where from many\nstandpoints a high degree of educational efficiency has been secured and\nmaintained.\nBut everywhere we find educational administrators aliye to the need\nand hopeful that the end sought, more genuine efficiency, will soon be\nrealized.\nThe modern school system is dynamic to the core and the superintendent not fully alive to the necessity of carefully and continually\nrevising and adding to his point of view is doomed to failure.\nEvery community realizes with daily increasing clearness the nature\nand importance of educational efficiency and demands with growing\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\npersistency the establishment of specific forms looking to the fulfillment\nof their hopes.\nThe recognition of the place of industries in education, the idea\nof the school building as the community center, and the establishment\nof the department of physical education as of equal dignity and importance with that of so-called intellectual training mark one side of the\nhumanizing of the modern school.\nThe other manifestation of the effort to present opportunities thru\nwhich the child of any environment, heredity, aptitude, or limitation\nmay secure that which is for him the most effective training is found\nin a variety of plans, each marking a distinct variation from the traditional graded system.\nAmong these can be mentioned the ungraded school found in many\nschool buildings, the rooms or buildings for children of foreign birth\nunable to speak the English language or badly retarded in their work\nthru a late start in American schools, and the various types of evening\nand continuation schools. We should notice also the school for the\nbackward child, and the special school or group of schools for children\nretarded thru ill-health, irregularity, or absence from school. Of\nequal importance is the school for the gifted child, he who can easily\naccomplish more than the curriculum plans as the work for the normal\nchild. Not unimportant in the general scheme are the schools for the\nfeeble-minded, the epileptic, the crippled, the deaf, and the blind.\nDistinctly significant and promising are the open-air schools for the\nanaemic, the tubercular, and even for the normal child whose parents\nbelieve in a purer, fresher air than that found in the ordinary schoolroom; the parental or truant school, the school for the juvenile delinquent, the elementary industrial or commercial school, the manualtraining movement now developing into the technical school, and the\ntrade school. Many variations of these efforts could be enumerated,\nthe difficulty being the determination of a genuine distinction as to type.\nAll are alike in their underlying purpose of securing more genuine\nefficiency.\nAmong the efforts to accommodate the city school to the needs of\nits constituency, the one most prominent in educational discussions\nand most conscientiously studied by all interested in education is the\nestablishment of vocational education.\nThis paper cannot attempt to present this problem, yet a resume of\neducational advance must not fail to include this movement for genuine\nindustrial education. Only a few cities have attacked seriously this\nproblem but the great interest excited everywhere in their experiments\nindicates clearly that within a few years we shall have many types of\nvocational schools in our larger cities. These schools are developing\nalong three lines:\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\n207\n\nFirst, the elementary industrial school designed for those who will\nnot go beyond the elementary schools and whose limitations or obvious\nfuture activities are such as to make the customary work of the elementary school comparatively valueless. A school providing some academic\nwork and emphasizing strongly training designed to furnish fundamental\nequipment for many kinds of manual activity offers a partial solution\nfor one vexing and discouraging problem of city schools.\nSecond, the technical or industrial high school with intensive training\nfor a number of vocations combined with fundamental mechanical\ntraining and narrow but effective academic work. This type of school\noffers a most promising variation from customary secondary training and\nbids fair to furnish a practical vocational education far less vulnerable\nto a certain kind of criticism as to public-school efficiency than any\nheretofore connected with the system of secondary education of the public\nschools.\nThird, the pure trade school, offering to young men and women at\nthe public expense and as an accepted department of the public-school\nsystem specific narrow training for definite trades or occupations, with\nthe intent that these young people can become wage-earners in their\ntrades with a training which will enable them shortly to become skilled\nworkmen.\nThis, while the most discussed and most strongly demanded type\nof vocational education, is found in only a few of our American school\nsystems. That the trade school is destined to play an important part\nin the modification of the schools to fit the needs of the individual is\nunquestioned, but this particular differentiation will be a characteristic\nof the future city school system rather than of the present.\nThe movement for a wider use of the school plant, involving the idea\nthat every school building should eventually become a genuine community center, devoted to all that makes for a more efficient citizenship,\nwhile yet in its infancy, bids fair to become a most important factor in\nthe modification of many matters connected with school organization\nand management.\nThis extension of the use of the school plant — the idea of the school\nbuilding as the community center — is resulting from an increasingly\ngeneral acceptance by the public of these fundamental facts: first, that\nthe education of the individual is a process not culminated at any\nparticular time or place; second, that education at public expense is\nin the last analysis a wise investment of public moneys; third, that the\ncontinuation of the education of the individual into maturity, whether\nphysical, social, intellectual, or mora!^ brings economic and social\nbenefit to the entire community.\nRecent years witness marked advance in city school systems in the\nphysical welfare of the children.\nThis is manifesting itself in many\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\ndifferent ways. The overcrowded schoolroom with an insufficient\nsupply of pure air is being replaced everywhere by rooms having a\nsmaller number of pupils assigned, more ample floor space, and equipped\nwith modern systems of ventilation assuring a continuous ample supply\nof fresh air.\nEven more recently has come the gospel of the open-air school,\ndesigned in some places to assure conditions within the room closely\napproximating at least the idea of a schoolroom on a porch protected\noverhead and on two sides. Such rooms enable pupils and teachers to\nwork during large portions of the year under hygienic conditions not\nessentially different from outdoor life.\nSome school systems have already been able to go even farther\nand to carry on during portions of the year schools actually in the open.\nSchools of this type have been designed to enable children of enfeebled\nphysique, unfortunate heredity, or unfavorable hygienic environment\nto overcome as far as possible their original handicap and improve\ntheir physical condition while incidentally holding their own in* educational development.\nThese schools are rapidly passing out of the experimental stage\nand winning for themselves an assured place in the public-school system.\nDetails of management, the medical inspection involved, the amount of\ntrained nursing necessary, the character of the food furnished, and the\namount of additional expense justified by the results are matters far\nfrom standardized. The fact that the special school of this type will\nsoon be found in all effective school systems must be admitted.\nThe installation in the city school system of medical inspectors and\nschool nurses marks another effort to provide more effectively for the\nphysical welfare of the child. Thru their skilled services the danger\nof the presence in the school of those who are physically unfit is avoided,\ndefects and disease are remedied, suitable segregations become possible,\nand a general improvement in all hygienic conditions results.\nWe shall soon secure thru these agencies systematic records and\nstudies of the individual child which will point the way to still further\neffectiveness in securing more ideal physical education and environment.\nThe supervised-school-playground movement shows wonderful\nactivity and promises much that is most helpful and valuable. This\nmovement is receiving such enthusiastic support from all interested in\ncivic betterment that one finds difficulty in determining with any degree\nof definiteness its possible future extension or its probable limitations.\nOut of it will certainly result conditions far more favorable to the\nexistence of true sport, of fair play, and to extended participation by\nour boys and girls. The danger of evil associations, too often the\nmenace of the unsupervised play, will be greatly decreased, and the\nphysical growth and betterment which accompanies proper sport and\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\n209\n\nthe physical activity of the outdoor game will be insured to a far greater\ndegree than heretofore.\nThe varieties of special schools now found in connection with city\nsystems, all designed to furnish the specific training needed by the\nindividual child, are too numerous to permit of anything approaching\neffective description. The recent emphasis given to retardation is\nresulting in efforts not only to overcome the causes and so greatly to\nlessen the amount of retardation, but to establish schools planned to\ncater directly to the needs of those who have accomplished less than they\nshould and have fallen behind in their educational advancement. These\nschools are demonstrating most conclusively how often the child hitherto\ndiscouraged and a laggard will respond when placed in more favorable\nenvironment, under teachers whose sole auty it is to find the seat of\nthe trouble and to remove it, if possible.\nAnother form of special school tending to increase the flexibility of\nthe graded-school system is that designed for the pupil able to do more\nthan normal work. Under the unmodified system of gradation and\npromotion the unusually gifted child suffers. The extent of injury to\nthose of this class is as yet scarcely realized either by parents or teachers.\nIn numerous places, however, we now find tentative efforts to meet the\nneeds of this class and to prevent thereby the deadening of power and\nthe temptation to the formation of habits of idleness or worse. This\nt)^e of school will at least lessen the unnecessary waste of time, which\nconstitutes a present vital criticism of the public school.\nFinally, a complete recognition of the possibilities of extended use\nof the special school for the retarded, the backward, the bright, and the\nmisfit will result in such a breaking-down of the old grade system that the\nold-time adherents will scarcely recognize it.\nAny school system having definitely committed itself to departmental work and to special schools or teachers for the various types\nof pupils differing from the average or normal soon will be forced to\nthe final step away from that which up to very recently has distinguished the elementary from the secondary school. Promotion practically by grade only is still the custom in the former. Promotion by\nsubject has long characterized the latter.\nMost of us still work and reason by custom and hold to our traditions. But change and advance, generally permanent and effective,\nhave come so rapidly that before long the fetish of the grade as the\nnecessary mechanical system of a public school, without which all would\nbe chaos, will have lost its grip upon us and we will have realized fully\nthat which is the characteristic of th* educational advance of city\nschools in recent years, the breaking-down of mass education and the\nsubstitution of the problem of the intelligent treatment of the individual\nchild.\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nB.\nCHARLES\n\nP.\n\nGARY,\n\nSTATE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nIN THE STATE\nSUPERINTENDENT\nMADISON,\nWIS.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThis is a large topic for so brief a time. When the history of education in America comes to be written in future years the period thru\nwhich we are now passing will doubtless be regarded as little less than\nan educational renaissance. No great revolutionary changes are occurring, but evolution is proceeding with unexampled rapidity. Enormously increased appropriations, both local and state, have almost\nceased to be matters of comment. States that sustain state universities\nand normal schools have doubled, trebled, and even quadrupled their\nappropriations to these institutions within a decade. State distributions of money to the common schools are steadily and rapidly increasing\nin volume. In this respect the states vie with one another, north and\nsouth, east and west.\nNew schools of various kinds are added at every legislative session\nin most of the states of the Union. Agricultural schools of various\ntypes seem to predominate, but training schools for teachers, industrial\nand vocational schools of various sorts are rapidly multiplying.\nIn nearly every state of the Union there is a marked tendency to\nincrease the qualifications for teachers. It seems to be the ultimate and\nnot very distant aim everywhere to require professional training of all\nteachers, with the possible exception of college and university teachers.\nThe proper training of country teachers is the most troublesome problem\nto be solved in the most of our states, but the experiments that are in\nprogress everywhere indicate a determined effort to solve the difficulty.\nFortunately no state in the Union is content to contemplate the development within its boundaries of a class of uneducated tillers of the soil,\nwhether white or black. With some notable exceptions our farm population the country over seems to educational leaders to be apathetic\nwith respect to education beyond the meager elements found in the\ntextbooks devoted to the common branches. They are disinclined\nto spend money, beyond the meager necessities of the case, in school\nbuildings, school equipment, and teachers' salaries. As a result there\nare going on in every state that is educationally awake campaigns of\nsome sort designed to stimulate the interest and pride of the farming\npopulation in their schools. Sometimes it takes the form of whirlwind\ncampaigns, sometimes school-board conventions held in each county\nin the state, sometimes contests of one sort and another planned for the\npurpose of stimulating the interest of the farm boy and girl and thru\nthem the interest of the community. There is no greater educational\nproblem in America today than that of reaching and rousing the agricultural population to the tremendous importance of suitable schools\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\n2II\n\nand competent teachers. State departments of education are keenly\nalert to the situation, but doubtless inventive ingenuity will discover\nmany new ways of carrying on the missionary work which is so greatly\nneeded. I doubt if any of us yet have utilized as fully as we should the\npublic press in carrying on our campaigns of enlightenment. I doubt\nif we have yet done as much as might be done thru pamphlets, bulletins,\npublic addresses, and local organizations. If I had but one word of\nexhortation to give to my fellow-workers it would be, Let no day go by\nwithout racking your brains for new ways and more efficient ways of\nenlightening our country communities as to the value of the right kind\nof education and stimulating in them the desire to secure for their children the most in the way of education their circumstances permit.\nThere is a notable tendency, particularly in the South, to increase\nlocal taxation for school purposes. The educational leaders of the\nSouth have rendered splendid service to the cause of education by\ndeveloping the sentiment of local initiative in this respect. When\ncommunities begin to tax themselves for educational purposes they are\non the highway to all sorts of educational progress. The more they do\nfor themselves, the more they want to do. Notwithstanding the grumbling that we hear everywhere as to taxation, there is nothing that\ntends more strongly to educate a community in the right direction than\ndiscussions with respect to the proper expenditure of money raised by\ntaxation for school purposes.\nAnother tendency that is rapidly developing thruout the nation is that\nof taking educational affairs out of politics and putting them on a\nprofessional basis. This is particularly noticeable with respect to the\nchief school officer of the commonwealth. The state of Pennsylvania,\nfor example, has at the head of her school system a man, an honored\nmember of this department, who has been appointed again and again\nby successive governors regardless of politics. When his present term\nexpires he will have served for a period of twenty years. The state of\nNew York has appointed a man for life to a similar position. The state\nof Massachusetts has taken for her chief school officer a man from the\nfaculty of Columbia University, not even a resident of the state. These\nare a few of the more notable instances of the complete subordination\nof politics to the cause of education. City superintendents today are\nrarely, if ever, selected on a political basis. County superintendents\nare likewise rapidly escaping from the political yoke and are coming\nto be regarded in the most progressive states of the Union as professional\nmen and women of high standing. It is to be hoped that the time will\nsoon come when every state and county superintendent who is efficient\nand who does not meddle with politics in a^^artisan way will be regarded\nby his educational equals as filling a position that they would no more\nthink of attempting to displace him from than they would think of\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Mobile\n\nattempting to displace, for their own benefit, a man who fills any other\neducational position. In other words, professional honor and courtesy\nshould be extended to state and county superintendents the same as\nto any other sort of educational workers.\nAlong with increasing qualifications of teachers may be noted a\nmore or less rapidly increasing salary scale for teachers, supervisors,\nand superintendents. While salaries are still far below the level that\nwe believe should exist, the change that is in progress in most states\nis highly encouraging. In the last analysis the salary question is the\nmost vital question involved in our educational progress. Increasing\nsalaries will draw into the profession men and women of larger ability\nand better training than those they displace. Stationary or decreasihg\nsalaries will drive from the profession all except those who have a\npassion for teaching and those of such indifferent capacity that they\ncannot hope for anything better in any other field of effort. Mediocre teachers must ever be associated with moderate salaries, but high\nsalaries will attract talent in this profession as in any other. The\nhigher salaries are the result of increased intelligence and interest in\neducation and these are the result, in large measure, of intelligent\nstate activity in the cause of education. Even more than in the case\nof teachers, the salaries of supervisors and superintendents are increasing.\nThe most progressive states in the Union are today making special\nefforts to train a body of professional superintendents and supervisors\nof education. It should not be forgotten that with a greater appreciation ofthe superintendent's function there goes an increased amount\nof clerical help which enables the superintendent to be something more\nthan a mere clerk dealing with educational statistics and school supplies.\nIt is coming to be keenly felt by the educational leaders in many\nof our states that anything more than a common-school education is\nlikely to become rather rare for any except those who have the good\nfortune to possess wealth. Educational departments and legislatures\nthe country over are interesting themselves in securing, so far as possible,\nequal educational opportunities for all. Equal wealth for all seems\nout of the question under the present economic order, but society should\nleave no stone unturned to bring the highest educational opportunity\nto the door of those who care for it. The country high school has\nbecome a necessity; and if the people immediately concerned are indifferent to it, it should in some way be thrust upon them by society at\nlarge. There should be state aid to weak school districts, both for\ncommon-school education and for high-school education, and there\nis a strong tendency toward a larger unit of taxation.\nCompulsory-education laws and factory laws are rapidly assuming\neffective form the country over. Fourteen years of age is the usual\nlimit of compulsory education, but I have little doubt that sixteen\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\n213\n\nyears will be the lower limit in most of our states within the next decade.\nChildren from fourteen to sixteen, just entering the adolescent period,\nare in the most susceptible stage to educational influence of any period\nin their lives. If they are not educated in the schools they are likely\nto fritter away their time, get into occupations that have no future\noutlook, or develop habits of idleness that a lifetime cannot cure. The\nidea of continuation schools and night schools is rapidly growing, and\nyet we have everywhere great cause to be distressed at the lack of efficiency and sufficiency of such institutions. We are rapidly coming to\nsee that education of an exclusively literary type is adapted to comparatively few children. The industrial or vocational side makes a\nmore immediate appeal to many and can readily be made educational\nto a remarkably high degree. To this idea and to the industrial and\neconomic necessities of the case are due the rapid development of agricultural schools, trade schools, and the like, to which reference has\nalready been made. There is a growing conviction on the part of\nour people that education must be brought nearer to common, everyday\nlife. The idea is rapidly developing that our education has been of\ntoo bookish a character, that it has far too mUch ignored the natural,\nspontaneous interests of the child in his contact with his environment,\nand that it has too greatly neglected proper attention to the social\nefficiency of the child after he leaves the school.\nI cannot omit even in this brief sketch allusion to one of the most\nmarked characteristics of our time: namely, state interest in the health\nof the people. Health campaigns are in progress everywhere. In some\ncases the stimulus comes from the state board of health, sometimes\nfrom the state department of education, or from still other sources,\nbut there is a rapidly growing tendency to require medical inspection\nin our schools, to require ample playgrounds for school children, to\nprohibit the common drinking-cup,.and so on thru a long list of details.\nState efforts to stamp out tuberculosis, the hook-worm, typhoid fever,\nand many other ills that afflict humanity are so common as to impress\neven the casual observer. State legislatures and state departments of\ninstruction are coming to insist upon the proper construction of buildings, including especially proper lighting and ventilation. The state\ninterests itself in the site of schoolhouses and is ready to condemn\nunsanitary buildings and unsanitary sites.\nThe concentration of authority and responsibility in the state\ndepartments of education is a marked tendency that has not escaped\nthe attention of educational writers. There is a growing desire for a\nunified system of education. Courses of study, the licensing of teachers,\nthe construction of buildings, the distribution of state aid, the supervision of the training of teachers, the inspection of all kinds of public\neducation are rapidly passing into the hands of the chief school officer\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nof the state. Rapidly, but not rapidly enough, needed assistants are\nbeing added to the superintendent's department. His function is one\nthat can be satisfactorily executed only by an educational expert of\nwide experience, reliable judgment, and statesmanlike breadth of view.\nHe should be surrounded by a staff of educational experts.\nDr. Henry Pritchett, head of the Carnegie Foundation for the\nAdvancement of Teaching, is undoubtedly right when he says in the\nAtlantic Monthly for December, 1908, that —\nthe absence in nearly all states of the Union of any form of supervision over higher education is a singular feature of our educational history. The absence of any rational supervision or even of any provision for fair criticism or review of our higher institutions of\nlearning is in part due to the attitude of the colleges themselves. College professors\nhave been not a little inclined to look down on those who supervise state schools.\n\nThe worst feature of the attitude referred to by the head of the Carnegie\nFoundation is the insistence everywhere of our state universities that\nthey shall be treated as independent organizations having no relationship with the educational system except in the matter of financial\nsupport. They insist upon fixing their own entrance qualifications\nregardless of the state system of schools and of keeping inspectors in\nthe field for the purpose of shaping secondary education to meet the\nassumed needs of the university. In some states they have entirely\nprevented state inspection and supervision of high schools. In a few\ncases where they were hard pressed or foresaw they might be, they have\nsecured thru the legislature an anomalous compromise with the state in\nthe nature of a board whose function is to determine courses of study\nfor the high schools of the state and direct the inspection of schools.\nSuch a board is a snare and a delusion and is brought about by the\nefforts of the university to hold its own in the state against the tendency\nto increase the authority and responsibility of the state department.\nSuch a board tends to produce a fixed order of things as unchangeable\nas the laws of the Medes and Persians and little adapted to meet the\nchanging needs and conceptions of the communities that support high\nschools. This is a tendency that should be emphatically checked\nin every state in the Union, for it is the sort of thing that will inevitably\nbe resorted to, if possible, by state universities in their efforts to preserve\ntheir autonomy in relation to the educational affairs of the state. One\nboard of this type determined the course of study and then saw to it\nthat the legislature enacted that course of study into law. The board\nthen went about its business and gave itself no further serious trouble.\nIn another state the board is, so far as this part of its function is concerned, ofno effect so far as I can discover. Tho I have been repeatedly\nassured that the schools enjoy the utmost freedom in the making-up\nof their courses, I finally discovered by sheer accident, as it were, after\nhours of talk on the subject, that the university would accept only what\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence) ■ OUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNATION\n\n215\n\npleased it in the last analysis and unhesitatingly rejected anything\nthat it regarded as unsatisfactory. Such a board as some of our states\nare at this time contemplating would be at best little more than a\ndebating society for the edification of the members. To meet modern\nconditions and modern needs the adjustment of courses of study and other\neducational affairs of state interest should be left in the hands of a capable state supervisor of education of the highest type of professional\nability, who can in a rational but not arbitrary manner stimulate here\nand hold in check there and thus preserve that fluidity that is essential\nat this time to educational evolution and for the prevention of the\nnecessity of educational revolution.\n\nC.\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nIN THE NATION\nUNITED\nSTATES\nTION, WASHINGTON,\n\n'\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nD.C.\n\nOF\n\nEDUCA-\n\nOur educational advance in the nation consists in the advance of\nthe idea of national responsibility in educational affairs. The conception of such responsibility has been hammered into us by the friendly\ncriticism of foreign nations. Foreign criticism charges us with educating\nonly a portion of our population, leaving great numbers of our citizens\neither without schooling, or with schooling for so brief a period and under\nsuch unfavorable conditions as to count for little. Foreign criticism\ncharges again that we do not fulfill in the higher grades of our schools the\nlarge promise of our lower grades. Dr. Muthesius, of Berlin, for example,\nhas reported as foUows regarding American instruction in drawing:\nThe results of the instruction .... in the lower grades exceed all expectations.\nIn the advanced grades, however, they do not wholly accord with this auspicious beginning. While the work of the children of eight or nine years is so admirable the pupils\nof fifteen or sixteen often offer correspondingly little that is satisfactory. We should\nexpect from the pupils of the highest grades that in drawing from nature they would have\nthe ability to see form clearly and to apprehend an object accurately. But instruction\nhas failed to develop a disposition to see clearly; the plant drawings of the sixteen-yearold pupils frequently present the same schematic picture as those of the lower grades.\nManifestly, this is due to the fact that instruction wholly neglects exercises in accuracy.\n\nForeign criticism yet again calls attention to the lamentable uncertainty as regards the significance of our academic and professional\ndegrees. The English Journal of Education for September i, 19 10,\ncontained the following declaration:\nThere is a real evil in connection with the use of American diplomas in England,\nbe it by American or by English citizens. And these facts seem to be beyond dispute:\n(i) In the United States honorary degrees are conferred in such numbers that they have\nno real meaning or value. (2) No distinctive mark separates in usage the honorary\nfrom the earned degree. (3) The degree by examination is sometimes conferred under\nconditions that are simply farcical.\n(4) Many of the institutions from which degrees\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Mobile\n\nproceed are far below the rank of even the smallest European universities, and possess\nno reputation that can be injured by laxity in bestowing their distinctions. We speak\nonly in defense of our own people. It is the genuine graduates of genuine American\nuniversities .... that have the greatest interest in effecting a reform.\n\nEven in our neighbor republic of Cuba, a government commission,\nreporting recently to the Secretary of Instruction on the recognition of\nforeign degrees by the Cuban National University, referred to\nthe fact that many American institutions gave degrees with relative facility, which are\nnot regarded as sufficient even in the state in which the institution is situated, as the\nauthorities require an official examination before the holder is entitled to exercise his\nprofession.\n\nIt is evident that the reference is mainly to our professional degrees.\nThe commission recommended a restricted recognition of such degrees\nas given in this country.\nThe chief significance of this foreign criticism is that it calls attention to defects in our system of education from which our own people\nare the chief sufferers. The sting of adverse comment from abroad\nmay awaken us to a sense of obligations at home to which long custom\nhad hitherto blinded us. But such foreign criticism has a further\nsignificance: It shows that we are dealing with a national, and not\nmerely a local, question. Both our place among the nations and our\nduty to our own citizens are involved — a nation-wide imperfection or\nmisfortune calls for a nation-wide remedy. But let us not use the\nword national hastily nor carelessly. In speaking of education in and\nfor the nation, I am speaking as a firm believer in the educational rights\nand responsibilities of the several states. Our national education\nis the sum total of education in the states, with something cohesive\nadded thereto. That something added is an increasing measure of\nhelpful activity from the side of institutions, both public and private,\nwhich are either Federal or distinctly national in character.\nNational results are not to be accomplished by Federal action merely.\nThey are to be accomplished by Federal agencies in co-operation with\nmutually co-operating states, with a good deal of non-governmental\nnationality thrown in. This is a situation that calls for patience,\nsince our national improvements are not to be forced by a stroke of the\npen at one single governmental center. But can we not see the overwhelming advantages of such a situation ? I believe it offers the finest\npromise of a rich and varied and spontaneous educational development\nthat is enjoyed by any people. If everything seems to hinder, with\ninsurmountable obstacles, it is equally true that everything helps.\nAn improvement in any corner of the land is a contribution to national\nimprovement.\nNow, with such a nationality of many in one, what progress have we\nbeen making in this twentieth century toward the correction of such\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\nSuperintendence]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNATION\n\n217\n\ninadequacies as those already mentioned? What progress have we\nbeen making toward better things than the preceding centuries have\nfound attainable ? While my answer to this question will have in it the\nbitter herb of frankness regarding the things we have not yet attained,\nit will none the less be in full accord with that hopefulness which is the\ndominant spirit of this meeting.\nThe mere bigness of our achievements is a familiar story. We know\n\nI\n\nthat we have a billion dollars invested in our public-school \"plants.\"\nWe know that for education of all kinds, from the most elementary to\nthe most advanced, we are now spending over half a billion dollars a year.\nWe know that our high schools now enroll over one million students\nannually, which is more than one per cent of our whole population,\nwhile our various institutions of higher education have more than a\nfourth as many in attendance.\nWe are so familiar with this talk of bigness that we have begun to\ntire a little of mere magnitudes. Right here we may find one of the\nevidences of genuine progress. We are inquiring with a little more\nearnestness than ever before what these magnitudes shall mean. Numerical statements are sifted and analyzed a little more closely; and the\ninquiry is made more insistently: What quality is represented in these\nquantities ? Some of the ways in which this attitude has of late been\nmanifested are seen in the movement for the improvement of our educational statistics; in the inquiries concerning laggards in the school\ngrades; in the efforts to provide for more individual instruction, with\nvarying rates of promotion ; and in the provision that is making in many\ndirections for the training of exceptional children. The meeting of\nthis department last year at Indianapolis signalized the change that\nis here referred to, partly in its emphasis upon individual differences\namong pupils, and partly in the appointment of a committee on uniform\nstatistics. If we could say without reserve that the interest in American\neducation, from the kindergarten to the universfty, has been definitely\nshifted from quantity to quality, we should make one of the most\nhopeful and inspiriting declarations that could be made. I do not\nventure to make such a declaration; but I believe such a shifting has\nplainly begun, and some of its finest beginnings are to be credited to\nthe first decade of the twentieth century.\nIt should not occasion surprise that the movement toward more\naccurate and comparable statistics should be viewed as a sign of the\nshifting of emphasis from quantity to quality. It is indeed a most\nimportant indication of such a change. We are losing interest in statistics which simply give us ground for indiscriminate congratulation or\nindiscriminate condemnation. Our statistics are to help us find our ^\nway in the face of recognized difficulties. They are to be unimportant\nin themselves; but they are to be increasingly helpful in the effort\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\ntoward improvement. They are to enable us to locate definite weaknesses; and they are also to give us a more precise statement of any\ngood thing that has been done anywhere, and so make it possible to\nspread improvements more surely from city to city and from state to\nstate.\nThe first decade of the twentieth century has seen the growth of\na nation-wide interest in our educational standards. This is undoubtedly\none of the most remarkable developments of the period under consideration. The first steps have been taken toward removing the reproach\nwhich has lain against our academic and professional degrees. This\ncompany is very familiar with those steps, and they need not be reviewed\nat this time. It is generally known that the most influential agency\nin the \"standardizing\" movement has been the Carnegie Foundation\nfor the Advancement of Teaching, which has done great and unexpected\nthings on the way to an answer to the simple question. What is a college ?\nVarious other voluntary bodies have worked together to the same end.\nIn an important sense, this work is already a national work. It is\nmanifest, however, that it cannot become a permanent and universal\nwork till it has passed over into the sphere of government. And it\ncan become fully established in the governmental sphere only by the\nconcurrent action of the state governments, which are the source of all\npower to grant degrees within their several jurisdictions, and of the\nFederal government in so far as its jurisdiction over the District o!.\nColumbia is concerned. Is it beyond hope or belief that the several\nstates will act in unison in this matter ? A few of them, with New York\nin the lead, have already undertaken to regulate the granting of such\ndegrees. I venture the expectation that the rest will follow in time, till\nthe purchased diploma and the unearned scholastic title shall be altogether unknown in our land. Some of the obvious difficulties in the\nway of such a program will be lessened if it be understood that an\nimmediate adoption of one standard for all states and all institutions\nis not to be considered. The thing to be desired at the outset is an\nagreed scale of standards, upon which states and institutions may\nrange themselves according to their condition and the needs of their\npeople, their place upon such a scale being known to all and freely\nacknowledged.\nA further suggestion should be added. The more mechanical and\noutward determination of scholastic standards is merely a clearing\nof the way for the finer, more intangible, and more vital standards\nwhich, while they measure spiritual achievements, cannot themselves\nbe measured by any quantitative scale. Such standards are chiefly\nsupplied by great teachers and by groups of great teachers. It would\nbe difficult to say whether the past decade has shown an advance in\nthese finer standards or not. It is a significant fact, however, that\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence)\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNATION\n\n219\n\nit is a decade in which there have passed from this earthly scene such\nteachers as Shaler and Sumner and William James and Harris and Le\nConte and Harper and Mclver and Curry (for I am using the term\n\"teacher\" in some of its wider meanings) and Alice Freeman Palmer\nand a large company of their, inspiring associates.\nJust at this time I am particularly interested in American standards\nof elementary education. We are coming only by slow degrees to any\ngeneral agreement concerning the norms by which a common school\nor a system of common schools may be judged. Some beginnings have\nbeen made in the application of definite measurements in this field.\nFor the most part, however, we try to gauge its successes in a rather\nbroad way, by reference to prevalent practice in progressive communities, by general conceptions of the aims and possibilities of education,\nand by the common-sense which emerges from wide experience. There\nis a prevalent tendency, manifest in some recent articles, to measure\nthe progress of a city system of schools by the agencies organized for\ndoing things beyond the ordinary scope of the schools. I cherish a\nstrong belief in those activities which are referred to as the wider uses\nof the school plant, and I have been reading, with special pleasure and\nsatisfaction, Mr. Perry's book upon those wider uses. But I think it\ncannot be denied that the wider uses may be most safely and effectively\ncultivated in a system of schools which is sound and strong in its main,\ncentral core. It is no easy task to judge fairly of the strength and soundness of that central core, nor is it easy to say, with precision, whether\nreal progress has been making or what progress has been making within\na decade as regards the central and essential excellence of our teaching.\nI believe, however, that substantial progress has been made and that\nsuch progress will continue thru the years that are to follow. Our\ncities play so characteristic and leading a part in our national civilization\nand their influence and standards are so largely independent of the\nboundary lines of the states, that the things which concern their efficiency must be regarded as a national interest, and their co-operation\nfor the improvement of city-school standards generally must appear\nas a patriotic and national service.\nThere are four lines of improvement respecting fundamental facts\nof school education which call for emphasis. They are school attendance, teachers, buildings, and supervision. In these fundamentals,\nany national improvement is dependent almost wholly upon the independent efforts of the several states. From the side of the Federal\ngovernment, only information, with incidental advice, can be offered.\nIt is encouraging to note signs of positive •Improvement in these particulars within the decade past. The percentage of our school population enrolled in the schools has not greatly changed. But school\nattendance is more regular and for a longer annual term.\nIn the larger\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\ncities, attendance for the first half of the elementary course is now in a\nfairly satisfactory condition. With all of their differences in detail, the\nstatisticians agree that attendance in the latter half of the elementary\ncourse, even in the larger cities, still shows a lamentable falling-off.\nThe area of compulsory school attendance is gradually widening, and\nit seems inevitable that before long all of the states will agree in providing for such compulsion. The dovetailing of compulsory school attendance with provision against unsuitable employment of children is\ngradually coming to greater effectiveness.\nGreat improvements in schoolhouse construction date from the\nCoUingwood fire. Supervision has made notable gains; indeed, some\nof the most hopeful signs of progress are to be found in this part of the\nfield. Normal schools, state and city and county, are prospering,\nand our teaching force is gradually working toward the point where all\nof its members will have had some measure of professional training.\nOne of the most interesting efforts toward definite co-operation between\nthe states is the effort to arrive at a satisfactory basis for interstate\ncomity as regards the granting of teachers' certificates.\nTaken altogether, the past decade has been a time for overcoming\nmere state and sectional and institutional isolation. There is still\nisolation — too much of it altogether — and the defects that arise from\nisolation. But there is less of isolation, and more of conscious unity,\nthan there was ten years ago. The sense of a common cause is here.\nAll of the aspirations and obligations of nationality lend force and\nsacredness to that common cause. We are helping each other a little\nmore than we did, and each receiving a little more help from the rest.\nWe are keeping step together, not under military compulsion but under\nthe joyous consciousness of common aims and mutual support — keeping\nstep — keeping step — and marching forward, all over our common land,\nto ends that are oUr country's, our God's, and truth's.\nDISCUSSION\nLeonard P. Ayres, associate director, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.\n— The Department of Superintendence has always believed in the United States\nBureau of Education, ever since bringing about its creation nearly fifty years ago.\nDuring the past year members of this Department have been engaged in an attempt to\nsecure larger Federal support for the bureau, and of this movement and its results I wish\nto give some account. Former attempts to widen the activities of the United States\nBureau of Education have failed largely because the requests have been in the nature\nof general appeals for the enlargement of that bureau, Members of the United States\nCongress have never been greatly interested in enlarging the United States Bureau of\nEducation. Another reason for the failure has been the fear of the states \"that the government might encroach upon their rights in the field of pubUc education.\nThe hope of the present movement consists in the fact that the appeal is not a general\nappeal for enlargement, nor in any way an interference with the rights of the states.\nThose directly interested in promoting the efl&ciency of the United States Bureau of Educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNATION\n\n221\n\ntion at this time aim simply to secure a field force of expert scientific investigators for\nthe purpose of ascertaining more adequately the facts of present practice and making\navailable to each school worker the experience of all. The efiforts put iorth to convince\nlegislators have assumed the form of letters, literature, personal effort, and telegrams.\nThere has been a splendid response from many quarters of our country, especially from\nthe educational people.\nThe Commissioner of Education and the Secretary of the Interior have united in\nworking for the appropriation of $75,000 for the establishment of the corps. The\nrecommendation was approved by the subcommittee of the House of Representatives\nand by the general Committee on Appropriations, altho the ten specialists asked for\nwere reduced by them to two. When the matter was brought before the House of Representatives iwas\nt\ndiscussed for a longer period than any educational measure of recent\nyears. The Senate coramittee seems to be favorably disposed and it now seems probable\nthat Congress will provide for three specialists. The work in behalf of the measure had\nbeen of great interest and enlightenment to the legislators and has made possible a fine\nadvance.\nIn conclusion: There is a need for a committee of this Department on the Bureau\nof Education, and I bespeak your support for the resolution which will be submitted by\nthe Committee on Resolutions relating thereto.\nJ. George Becht, principal. State Normal School, Clarion, Pa. — Within the past\nquarter of a century the lines of advancement have been in the direction of finding a\nnational basis for the training of children and in a sensible appreciation of what scientific\nmethod and management may accomplish when applied to the common arts of life.\nThe truth of this last statement is significantly reflected in the periodical literature of\nthe day as never before. The standard literary magazines are giving over their columns\nto the propaganda that education to be efficient must relate itself to these common arts\nof life; that education means adjustment and conservation; that adjustment means\nadapting one to his environment and conservation means eliminating the waste of human\neffort. This widespread discussion on the part of the laymen in educational practice\nis one of the most hopeful signs in the educational firmament. It is a just appreciation\nof what science may do when practically applied and will in the end work a moral, social,\nand economic revolution.\nFrederick W. Taylor, a pioneer in this direction, shows in a very conclusive way\nwhat may be accomplished by applying the principles of scientific management to the\nactivities that range from carrying a hod to the highest expressions of physical labor.\nAs an illustration he takes the trade of brick-laying, which has been carried on in the\nsame way since the days of primitive man. But science steps in and asks. Why lower a\nhundred pounds of human flesh to lift a four-pound brick? Why shall a brick-layer\ntoss a brick three or four times to find its best face ? Why tap it three or four times to\nget its proper level? Why stand in a position that requires a half-dozen movements\nwhen one would suflSce? And science gives the answer, Build the platform for the\nbricks so that it can be easily adjusted to the height of his work. Lay the bricks on the\nplatform with the best face in position, make the mortar of uniform consistency and a\nsingle tap will be sufl&cient; and take a position that will eliminate useless movement.\nM. L. Brittain, state school commissioner, Atlanta, Ga. — In the general progress\nwhich has been shown I desire to emphasize two subjects in particular in which the\ndevelopment has been marked during recent times.\nOne of these is the increasing attention paid to health and hygiene.\nIt was Herbert Spencer, I believe, who was really tfesponsible for much of the emphasis which our schools now place upon the study of our bodies and the art of right living.\nIn his Essay on Education he refers with fine scorn to those who have so persistently\nexalted the merely ornamental over those studies which are so vitally worth while. We\nare learning the lesson the gteat philosopher taught and not only have placed physiology\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Mobfle\n\nalmost universally in the courses of study of our public schools, but of late are striving\nto reach the subject in still more practical fashion. \"Health Days\" and \"Cleaning Up\"\nanniversaries are being celebrated, and special occasions are being used to direct public\nattention to these important matters. They are even yet, however, not well enough\nemphasized altho history and common-sense show their importance. The Greek mind —\nthe greatest of the centuries — ran most swiftly along the pathway of literature and\nlearning when it dwelt in a body which thru training and culture was the wonder and\nadmiration of the world.\nThe other point to which I shall refer is the increasing attention paid to the teaching\nof agriculture. The rapid growth of urban life and depopulation of our farms have been\nbrought forcibly to our attention, not only by the figures of the Census Bureau, but by\nthe increased cost of living as well. Nearly every man who comes to the city from the\ncountry becomes a consumer instead of a producer. The increase in the first class and\nthe loss to the second naturally have an important effect on the cost of food and clothing.\nThis injures everybody concerned and yet the migration is unnecessary and frequently\nundesired even by those who make the change. Our books and courses of study have\ntended cit3nvard in their influence and are yet too much inclined to give instruction on\nstocks and bonds instead of fields and crops. If we had devoted some of the educational\nmoney we have been spending to make doctors, lawyers, teachers, preachers, and merchants toward giving instruction in agriculture it would have been better for us all. The\nvery subject in which we are most vitally interested has been a sort of Cinderella, sitting\ndisconsolate in the ashes while her haughty sisters flaunted their proud plumes thru\nthe culture courses of the average curriculum. It is perhaps as important for the urban\nchild to acquire some knowledge of Nature and her products as for the one living in the\ncountry, for it was no meaningless myth which the classic story told of the renewed life\nand vigor which came to the wearied Antaeus from contact with his Mother Earth.\nBut to make this teaching effective we must bring to it the same interest and energy\nwhich have achieved success elsewhere.\nAbove all there must be enthusiasm in the work.\n\nPRELIMINARY\nGIVEN\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\nOF TIME IN EDUCATION\n\nON ECONOMY\n\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nHENRY\n\nSUZZALLO\n\nIN THE ABSENCE\n\nJAMES\n\nBAKER,\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nOF\n\nH.\n\nTHE\n\nOF PRESIDENT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe chairman of the Department of Superintendence has given me\nonly ten minutes in which to make a preliminary report for the Committee on Economy of Time in Education. Any thoro report is, therefore, out of the question, and I shall confine myself to the presentation\nof the three important conclusions of the committee that bear on the\nmotion to be presented at the conclusion of this presentation, namely,\nthat the Department of Superintendence appoint a Committee of Five\non Economy of Time in Elementary Education to work in connection\nwith the general committee appointed from the National Council.\nA SHORTENED\n\nPERIOD OF GENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOur first proposition is that the period of years now allowed to general\ncultural or liberal education by the existing organization of our school\nsystem is too long, and should be abbreviated.\nThe committee specifi-\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendcncel\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n223\n\ncally recommends that the period of general education should close by\nthe twentieth year.\nThere are many substantial arguments for such a recommendation,\nof which only a few may be mentioned here.\nIn the first place, the period of plasticity during which a human\nbeing can be profitably educated is not coterminous with life. People\nmay be flexible and educable to the end of life; but the period of greatest\neducability closes for most by the end of the twenties. There is considerable variation in individuals, but, in general, a man who has not\nfound his work and place in life by the time he has reached his thirtieth\nyear is indeed unfortunate. His chances of success are greatly diminished.\nIf the period of plasticity is thus confined, it is essential that every\nimportant and requisite mode of training fall within the period of plasticity. Now the modern contention is that a man's adjustment to the\nworld in which he lives is dependent upon three types of training: (i) A\ngeneral or liberal education which will give him a command over those\nhuman institlitions in which he holds a membership in common with\nother men; (2) a specialized vocational education which will fit him\nfor his particular economic function; and (3) an apprenticeship to his\nspecific work and station in life which will snugly fit his theoretic education to the concrete and practical situations which he must meet.\nIf our scheme of general education takes till the age of twenty-two,\nvocational education and apprenticeship, at least for those who go into\nprofessions, must be crowded into the six or eight remaining years of\nplasticity. This would seem to be a disproportionate allotment.\nMore often than is desirable, if observation counts for anything, the\ncollege graduate is left without the eagerness and adjustability to pursue\nhis vocational education and to undergo the specific and somewhat\ntrying apprenticeship thru which the world insists upon passing its\nyoung. The ordeal of doing practical work in a subordinate position\nought to be presented a year or two earlier to most boys, say at the\nage of twenty. That such a plan is wise on theoretic grounds is apparent; that it is a feasible practice is proven J^y experience abroad and\nat home.\nFor the most part, England, France, Germany, and other less important European countries have a system of school organization which\nprovides for a completion of the period of general education by about\nthe eighteenth year. There are variations in the cases of both individual\npersons and particular institutions, but the general practice proves the\naccuracy of the contention that the periodof general education may be\nclosed earlier than is the case with our general American practice without\nany appreciable loss of efficiency and, indeed, with an appreciable gain.\nThe American school organization is, in its lengthened period of\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\ngeneral education, an anomaly among national systems of education —\nan anomaly created by an accident of history. Once the American\nyouth completed his collegiate training four or five years earlier than\nnow. This period has been extended by an increased standardization\nof the academic attainments of the lower schools enforced by higher\ninstitutions. The German university and the English college, once\nparallel developments and roughly covering about the same age period,\nare, in America, treated as institutions of different grades, the German\nuniversity being superimposed upon the Americanized English college.\nSuch attempts as have been made in the United States to shorten\nthe period of general training by two years substantiate the European\nexperience. Wherever the professional training has been provided at\nthe beginning of the junior year of college we are led to believe that the\narticulation has been successful. So successful has it been in the eyes\nof the university administrators that the association of state universities\nhas declared for a distinct articulation at the close of the second collegiate year.\nOn these three grounds your committee on economy in education\nbelieves that the period allotted to general education should be shortened\ntwo full years: (i) In order that vocational education and practical\napprenticeship be given a fairer share of the period of plasticity; (2)\nbecause European experience proves the feasibility of such a plan in\ngeneral; and (3) because such preliminary experiments with a shortened\nperiod in our American schools determine its feasibility for American\nstudents.\nA NEW\n\nARTICULATION\n\nOF\n\nOUR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOur second proposition is that the period of general education should\nbe differently subdivided — more specifically, that six years be given\nto elementary education, six to secondary education, and two to that\ncollegiate training requisite as a proper introduction to professional\neducation.\nCareful investigation of all the distinctions made between elementary,\nsecondary, and collegiate education fails to reveal any large functional\ndifferences. Collegiate education is an intensification and expansion\nof the culture of the secondary schools, as that of the secondary schools\nis an enlargement of the liberal training given in the elementary unit.\nAnother substantial difference is, that each higher school presents\nan increased degree of variability that personal ability and ultimate\nvocational placing may be taken into account. It is because lawyers,\ndoctors, ministers, and teachers in higher schools, more than any nonprofessional class, have a far-reaching influence on the fundamental\ninstitutions of life that we demand of them a preliminary education\nextending thru the college. It is because the skilled craftsman and the\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nECONOMY\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n225\n\nlarger man of business have a more general influence on common affairs\nthan the unskilled workman and the commercial shop-clerk that one\nusually goes thru high school and the other does not. The articulations\nexpress the degree of general training which society in its rough wisdom\ndecrees as necessary to protect the wider social interests which tend\ninevitably to be affected by the spirit and method of a particular vocational group.\nIf such is the real distinction between elementary, secondary, and\ncollegiate education, then there are many reasons for believing that a division of the first twelve years into two six-year periods is better than the\nunequal eight- and four-year division we now have.\nIn the first place, such expert testimony as we have indicates the presence\nof considerable waste time and energy in the elementary school. There\nis a very widespread belief among school men that the fundamental facts,\nhabits, attitudes, and ideals demanded by the general needs of our civilization can be fixed in the nervous system of the child in six school years.\nIn the second place, the compulsory-education law under our present\norganization gives society control of the child only long enough to guarantee\nthe abler child eight years of general training. It cannot guarantee him\nthe additional years of vocational education required to make him an\nefficient, self-supporting, and self-reliant citizen.\nTo shorten the elementary school to six years without impairing its\nefficiency is to allow two further years of control that will guarantee every\nchild, who does not go to the high school, some vocational education.\nThe need to guarantee some vocational education to the retarded students\nis so important that many careful students of social conditions are ready\nto say that the compulsory school age must be extended to sixteen years\nso as to carry the least able elementary-school children who now get no\nfurther than the fourth, fifth, or sixth school year, thru one, two, or three\nyears of vocational education.\nIn the third place, the six-year articulation is regarded not only as a\nbetter ending-point for the general elementary studies but as a better\nbeginning point for the secondary studies. There are certain inner physiological changes that usher in adolescence that now occur at about the time\nwhen the average child makes the transition from elementary to secondary\nschool.\nThe strain of outer and inner conditions are more or less coincident.\nTherefore the resulting school mortality is likely to be larger than it ought\nto be or school life is continued at a larger physical and nervous cost than\nought to be the case. It would be a distinct gain for a child to get fairly\nwell started and adjusted to his n^w schoci life, vocational or secondary,\nbefore the full weight of physiological and nervous changes are thrust\nupon him. The two adjustments can be better cared for in series than\ntogether.\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Mobile\n\nAgain, it is the opinion of schoolmasters in general that, for those who\nhave the peculiar mentality to go on to the ordinary academic high school,\nit is decidedly more profitable to begin the foreign languages at twelve\nthan at fourteen years of age. The same advantage may be held in other\nsubjects where a large acquisition of facts is necessary to successful work.\nIn the case of those children who are more given to action than to\nabstraction it is equally profitable to begin to center their intellectual\nwork about an active vocation early. To begin vocational education,\nwith its practical life-career appeal, at twelve rather than at fourteen is\nto save many children from truancy and disinterest. It will extend their\nschool life so that they are not too early driven into unprofitable and futureless employments. They will still take up much general training parallel\nwith their broad study of vocational work.\nA six-year articulation will force a needed economy in the elementary\nschool; it will permit the state to guarantee some vocational training as\nwell as some general education; it will permit the child to get started\non his school adjustment slightly before adolescence overtakes him with its\nstrain of inner reconstruction; it will permit an earlier differentiation that\nwill better meet individual and class needs.\nOur third proposition is that the elementary-school curriculum should\nbe rearranged so as to shorten the time distribution by two years. The\nadvantages of such a step have already been argued. It is now merely\na question of practicality. We have only to turn to the concrete efforts in\nthis direction that have already been made by American school men.\nSuch experiments as have been tried in American schools and school systems\nunder practical operating conditions prove with certainty that the elementary school may be reduced to seven years; and that there is an almost\nequally strong probability that the articulation at the close of the sixth\nyear would be fully as efficient.\nThe main requirement at this point in our progress is to investigate the\nwaste in the elementary schools and to make definite proposals for eliminating the archaic and least useful materials of the course of study and to propose more economical methods of teaching.\nTo this end, I move that the Department of Superintendence appoint\na Committee of Five on Economy of Time in Elementary Education,\nthis committee of practical superintendents to co-operate with the general\nCommittee on Economy of Time in Education.\n\nGEORGE\n\nAN EDUCATIONAL\n\nEPOCH\n\nE. MACLEAN,\n\nSTATE UNIVERSITY\nIOWA\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nIN NEW\n\nAMERICA\nOF IOWA, IOWA\n\nCITY,\n\nThe general topic of this Convention, and its admirable program, have\nproven that the first decade of the twentieth century is an educational\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "SupcrintendtnccI\n\nAN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEPOCH\n\nIN NEW\n\nAMERICA\n\n227\n\nepoch in New America. In the language of the stars an epoch is the point\nat which a star seems to halt and from which its future orbit is calculated.\nThis decade is a turning-point in the star ascendant of education in the\nstarlit firmament of New America. Isn't it a glorious time to go stargazing together ? There have been other brilliant epochs bringing in the\nnew, but none greater than ours, for they all have been preparing ours\nand shine thru it. Paul, the greatest man of history, who beheld a heavenly\nvision, exclaimed, \"Behold, all things are become new,\" and his compeer,\nJohn the seer, beheld a new heavens and a new earth. Therefore the new\nand, necessarily, progress have characterized the Christian era from that\nepoch to this. The epoch of adventure and exploration incarnate in\nColumbus discovered a new world, led our forefathers on as pioneers, made\nus discontented until we discover the earth's poles, and in the field of truth\nnever-resting pilgrims of progress. The epoch of settlement tied down\nthe new to the old nationalities — New Spain, New France, New England,\nNew Amsterdam, Nova Scotia, New York, New Brunswick, and even\nNew Jersey. Naturally Harvard was planted at Newtown, later Cambridge, Yale at New Haven, and Kings' (Columbia) at New York.\nThe epoch of 1776 with Washington and the Revolutionary fathers\ngave us a new republic, a United States of America, in reality only a confederacy of the new old colonies. The era, however, of political liberty\nwas insured. The twenty-five hundred living graduates of the nine colonial\ncolleges at the outbreak of the Revolution were leaders of the sons of liberty,\nfurnished about one-half of the field officers of the militia, the larger share\nof those in the Continental Congress, and four-fifths of the signers of the\nDeclaration of Independence.^ What wonder that the attempt was made\nin the Federal Convention of 1787 to give Congress powers over public\neducation, and that the endeavor to provide for a national university at\nthe seat of government was not only made in that convention but fostered\nby the six successive presidents of the United States? Washington led\nthe way in his messages, and by a bequest in his will. In this Jefferson\nheld hands with Washington. Jefferson's epitaph put as the climax of\nhis life \"founder of the University of Virginia.\"\nThe educational epoch of the Revolution was, as usual, in conjunction\nwith the political, and introduced the era of the founding of state universities as well as of many endowed colleges. In a high sense the most\noriginal American contribution to the educational history of the world\nhas been the rise and progress of state universities, inspired by their Magna\nCharta in the Ordinance of 1787 in the words \"Religion, Morality, and\nKnowledge, being necessary to good government, and the happiness of\nmankind, schools and the means of educatioik shall forever be encouraged.\"\nThe original Federal land grants made possible the state school systems,\ncrowned by the state universities.\n' C. F. Thwing, Higher Education in America, pp. 172 ff.\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nThe epoch of the civil war that added political equality to the liberty of\n'76 witnessed another conjunction of an educational epoch with a civil.\nThe Federal land grants to state universities and common schools had\nprepared the way for the second greatest era in American education — the\nindustrial. In 1862, when Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act inaugurating land grants, from which have sprung sixty-five colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts in every state and territory, he became Lincoln\nthe Educator as great as the Emancipator. Washington and Lincoln\nteach that eternal education is the price of liberty and equality in the new\nnation Washington dreamed of and Lincoln die^ for. The new NatioUy\nnursed by John Marshall, came to self-consciousness in the adolescent\npains of the war for the Union.\nOurs is the glory of the third great poHtical and educational epoch, and\nof the Spanish- American War. The cry \"Cuba Libre\" was not raised for\nconquest, but to free suffering brothers from cruelty. It brought in the\nera of fraternity between North and South. They were reunited in their\nunselfish devotion to mere human brotherhood, a cause of war unknown\nbefore in the history of nations. With the appearance of Uncle Sam as\na big brother among the nations known as \"world-powers,\" begins the\nrealization of the ideal of the brotherhood of nations. The new nation\nis of necessity involved in international relations which naturally tend to\nbreed a new nationalism at home.\nAs educators we can safely leave the problems of new nationaHsm\nto time and the statesmen. We will deal with what is unquestionably\nhere — the New America. It is, first, the hemispheric America. The PanAmerican union of twenty-one republics is a potent fact, as its commercial\nconference of the last week shows. It only remains that the proposed\ntrade reciprocity agreement with Canada should draw British North\nAmerica (in the extreme terms of Mr. Chamberlain) \"from the imperial\norbit into the vortex of [American] continental politics, and the interests\nof the United States.\" With the Panama Canal completed, and the\nreciprocity and continental policies of President Taft, inspired by the fragrance of McKinley's memory, (;arried out without entangling political\nalliances in the bonds of peace and trade, there will be a commercial confederacy ofrepublics and peoples from Cape Horn to Peary's pole. This\nis indeed our New America, bounded on the north by the Aurora Borealis.\n• Beckoned on by the fraternalism of all the American peoples the New\nAmerica far transcends the trite title of \"world-power,\" for leadership\nin bringing the fulfillment of Tennyson's vision of \"the federation of the\nworld.\" It stands for international fraternity on the sure foundation of\nthe fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. This is the New\nAmerica, whose vision and voice our southern poet, Sidney Lanier, saw\nand heard in the Centennial Meditation of Columbia in 1876:\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEPOCH\n\nIN NEW\n\nAMERICA\n\nNow Praise to God's oft-granted grace,\nNow Praise to Man's undaunted face,\nDespite the land, despite the sea,\nI was; I am; and I shall be —\nHow long, Good Angel, O how long ?\nSing me from Heaven a man's own song!\nLong as thine Art shall love true love.\nLong as thy Science truth shall know.\nLong as thine Eagle harms no Dove,\nLong as thy Law by law shall grow,\nLong as thy God is God above.\nThy brother every man below,\nSo long, dear Land of all my love.\nThy name shall shine, thy fame shall glow!*\n\nThe era of the Prince of Peace will come, tho Army and Navy remain\nfor police powers and to execute the decrees of the permanent high court\nof international justice. This day is heralded not only from The Hague,\nbut also by the hand-clasp of the Kaiser, war-lord of Germany, with our\npeace-war-lord, hero of San Juan hill, dictator of the peace of Portsmouth,\nand holder of the Nobel peace prize. He is the apostle who has preached the\ngospel of our New America in Europe, Asia, and Africa. He is the third\nperson in the trinity of world-wide known Americans — Washington and the\nepoch of liberty, Lincoln and the epoch of equality, Roosevelt and the epoch\nof fraternity!\nThe corresponding educational epochs and successive eras have been\nassociated with central persons. Washington is the first, the father of\nthe idea of a national university and national education, from which\nproceeded the era of the establishment of state universities and common\nschools by national land grants, and the multiplication of colleges by church\nand private endowment. Lincoln is the second, the reviver of Federal\nland grants, specifically applied to colleges of agriculture and mechanic\narts, from which has proceeded the era of industrial education, and that\nof the differentiation of universities as contradistinguished from colleges.\nRoosevelt is the third, the reformer, preacher, and the teacher by tongue and\npen of political, economic, and social doctrines in a complex and in what\nsome consider a chaotic, but, we believe, a culminating, educational epoch,\nto be succeeded by an era of social education, with national and world\nstandards, correlating and unifying all social forces.\nThe responsibilities of our educational epoch are stupendous, if we are\nto meet the demands of the New America. Impressed by the very magnitude of the figures summing up our work we become overconfident and\ngrandiloquent. A standard journal, remarking upon the United States\nas the international schoolmaster, tells of •the attendance of a hundred\nthousand school children in Porto Rico, and of a million and a half in the\nPhiUppines, and enlarging upon the influence of American teachers and\n* The Poems of Sidney Lanier, p. 256 (Scribner).\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nschools in the Orient and even Europe, entitles the article \"The United\nStates Teacher for the Universe.\" We have almost the disposition to\nannex the new world in making revealed by the Mt. Wilson telescope and\nphotographed in a swirhng mass of gases, five hundred billion miles in\ndiameter. We exult that the photograph shows a spiral nebula, apparently\ndisproving the hypothesis of the Frenchman, La Place, and substantiating\nthe American hypothesis of Professor Chamberlain, of the University of\nChicago. American schoolmastering is counted almost powerful and practical enough to guide and teach the Creator the most approved methods of\nmaking a new world.\nThe epoch indeed has colossal statistics. The total attendance of\npupils has increased from seventeen millions plus at the beginning of the\ndecade to nineteen millions. The teaching force has increased to 495,463,\na gain of 14 per cent as against 9I per cent gain in the number of enrolled\npupils. The average monthly wages have increased for men from $47.55\nto $62.35, for women from $39.17 to $51.61. The actual increase in\nsalaries is greater, as the average length of the school term has been extended\nfrom 143.7 d3,ys to 154. i days. The angehc quality of the teachers has\ncontinued to increase, as there were only 104,495 ^^^ i^ the service, or\n21 per cent of the entire force, as against 29 per cent in 1900.^ Of course,\nour pride must hasten to add, \"No other country in the world provides at\npublic expense for the instruction of so large a proportion of the population.\"\nThe expense is impressive — three hundred and eighty millions of dollars,\nequivalent to $31 for every pupil in average attendance. Most encouraging\nis the high enthusiasm for education in the South, and its progress in this\ndecade in the education of the negroes. It is estimated that the statistics\nfor 1 9 10 will show an increase in the current expenditure for public education in the southern states of 150 per cent since 1900, and in the value of\nschool property a gain of 200 per cent.'\nThe problem of the education of the negro is a matter of such grave\nnational, as well as state, concern, as to demonstrate that in some form\nwe must have national education or aid for it. Only less acute is the need\nfor further national aid for industrial education, inclusive of agricultural\neducation. President James's plea for National aid to elementary education deserves attention. The New America plainly demands the continuation and the enlargement of the national pohcy of forever encouraging\nschools and the means of education by Federal aid. \"Education is not a\ngood thing to be encouraged by government but a vital thing to be provided by it.\"\nLet us lay aside all prejudices arising from the discussion concerning\nNew Nationalism. This is the old nationaHsm unfolded. It is not necessary to disturb the state as the educational unit in America. It is well\nto discourage, and to defeat the blanket legislation that does not recognize\n' American Year Book, 1910, p. 778 (Appleton).\n\n' Ibid, p. 786. .\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nAN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEPOCH\n\nIN NEW\n\nAMERICA\n\n231\n\nthe diversity of conditions in the states of the Union, and attempts specifically to put the directing hand of the nation into the expenditure of the\ngrant, as has been done in the Davis, and the reshaped Dolliver Bill for\nagricultural and industrial education. Generous as are the purposes of\nthis bill, it would lead into temptations, waste, and inefficiency. But the\ngeneral principle and purpose of Federal aid is to be strengthened, and\npursued as consistently as we pursue expenditures for equipping the National\nGuard in the states, and as we co-operate with the states in geological\nsurveys and other enterprises of common interest to the nation and the state.\nThat this historic policy of national aid may be wisely pursued we must\ncease our pettifogging and niggardliness with reference to plans for the\nextension of the United States Bureau of Education. When some of our\nstrongest Congressmen have been successful in scaling in this Congress\nto a paltry $9,000 the $75,000 appropriation asked by the Commissioner\nof Education for a field force of consulting specialists in ten branches of\neducation, estimates approved by the letters and petitions of over sixteen\nhundred persons and the strongest educational organizations, it shows\nthe need of educating. Congressmen. They are without the vision of the\nNew America. With zeal for the conservation of natural resources and\npatriotically responding with abundant appropriations to the tune of \"The\nArmy and Navy Forever\" they forget the perils of ignorance in a republic.\nThey have not learned the axiom of a Rosebery: \"In the last resolve, the\nefficiency of a nation rests in its education,\" nor have they heeded Washingon in his farewell address: \"Promote then as an object of primary importance institutions for the diffusion of knowledge.\" It is the hand of Washington, but the voice of Jefferson, that adds, \"It is essential that pubHc\nopinion should be enlightened.\" With the new Hfe in this bureau under\nthe able leadership of its distinguished commissioner, it is only necessary\nthat we educational Rip Van Winkles wake to his support and a recognition\nof the fact that education is a branch of government as important as the\nWeather Bureau, the Department of Agriculture, or of Labor and Commerce, and indeed their indispensable ally.\nThe New America witnessing, as the acme of the celebration of the\nMexican Centennial, the founding of a great national university on the\n1 6th of last September, and the United States developing a university of\nthe Philippines, must hasten the day of the founding by the gathering of\nthe elements, the disjecta membra, of a national university at Washington.\nThere must be the crown of the historic endowed American universities,\nand the point of co-ordination of the state universities in graduate work\nand research. The Smithsonian and the enlarging Carnegie Institution\nare the magnets of private munificence, «vhich should attract the full\nbenefits of governmental privileges and support.\nThe so-called ambitious, and to some affrightening, proposition for\n\"the reorganization of American education\" is a note of this decade.\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nThe industrial era to which we have referred, culminating in this epoch,\nhas driven us to this startling study. The report of the committee on the\nplace of industries in public education to the National Council of Education\nfurthers this movement. Despite diverse opinions, the desirability of havir^g\nthe elementary school terminate with the sixth grade is pretty generally\nrecognized. The persistent suggestions of the universities to have the first\ntwo years of college, grades thirteen and fourteen, considered as parts of\nthe disciplinary, or high-school education; grouping grades eleven and\ntwelve of the high school with grades thirteen and fourteen gives an opportunity for subdividing the grades from seven to fourteen into two stages\nof four years each. Mr. George A. Merrill, principal of the School of\nMechanic Arts at San Francisco, proposes\nan intermediate school, grades seven to ten, which would graduate boys at the age when\nso many of them drop out of the second year of the high schools, and hence such a school\nwould be the logical place to develop \"industrial intelligence\" preliminary to an apprenticeship.^\n\nHe proposes a high school, or college, grades eleven to fourteen, where\ndifferentiation should begin. Some would-be trade schools, some classical\nschools, some pre-medical, some technical high schools, some commercial.\nHis scheme is designed to save the boys who drop out of the school when\nthe \"industrial instinct\" begins to manifest itself — ^in other words, at the\nend of the sixth grade. The above from the Pacific coast.\nFrom the Atlantic coast the High-School Teachers Association of New\nYork City sends out as a feeler a proposal for the organization of secondary\neducation under the title Articulation of High School and College. They\nwere surprised at the complacency with which their propositions for the\nmost part were received. If President Ehot represents the Atlantic, he\nseems to be largely in harmony with the Pacific, when he says:\nI agree with you that the changes you advocate amount to a reorganization of secondary education: but the essence of the reorganization in my opinion will be differentiation\namong high schools, and greater range of selection among studies for pupils.*\n\nThe answer to President EUot would be to reverse his statement, and\nhave the differentiation among colleges instead of among high schools. This\nis in fact done in most of the state universities, and among others, where\nthe university has many kinds of colleges and a wide-open elective system.\nMr. Charles F. Warner, in his minority report upon industrial education\nin the secondary school, looks in the same direction, when he says: \"Furthermore, itis generally recognized that the open-at-the-top policy is a\nnatural characteristic of American education.\"^ If the brethren in the\n^ Report of the Committee of the National Education Association on the Place of\nIndustries in Public Education, 1910, p. 105.\n* Articulation of High School and College — High School Teachers Association of New\nYork City, 19 10, p. 20.\n3 Report of the Committee (National Education Association) on the Place of Industries in Public Education to the National Coimcil of Education, July, 1910, p. 115.\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEPOCH\n\nIN NEW\n\nAMERICA\n\n233\n\nEast and the extreme West could realize how in the Middle West flexibility ofentrance requirements has been attained with a well-nigh irreducible\nminimum of specified subjects, and with the organization of schools —\ntechnical and professional — and a wide range of electives in group systems\nin the colleges, they would see their acute problems of the articulation of\nhigh school and college largely solved. The complaint of the domination\nof the college is an inherited one with little ground left to stand upon.\nNow college and secondary school men sit together in shaping entrance\nrequirements. It is becoming clear that no part of the educational system\nexists for itself. No more than one member of the body can say to another\nmember, \"I have no need for thee,\" can one part of a school system say\nto another, \"I have no use for you.\" Many of the colleges, practically\nall of the universities, have been reorganized, and have courses that will\ncontinue courses in the secondary schools. Therefore, even if the high\nschools were to take the motto Mr. Green recommends, \"fit for life first\nand for college incidentally,\" they will find that they have fitted for life\nand college. Surely, in this day of the acceptance of Herbart's doctrine\nof interest, and of the cultural value in socialized education of subjects\npursued thoroly and psychologically, the high schools do not mean, by\n\"fitting for life,\" merely to teach the trick of getting a living. They\nmust impart the art of life and conduct in the sense that the intellectual\nlife, the true life, is more than meat and raiment.\nBy the present flexibility of entrance requirements, and the articulation\nof the graded, the high schools, the colleges, and universities in the Middle\nWest the way is open for a reasonable and established reorganization in\neducation.\nThe strong tendency for the unification of all educational forces is in\nharmony with the times and will counteract the movements to extreme\ndifferentiation of various types of schools, and preserve the unity of the\nschool system. The evolution of an almost model system of education\nis to be found in the Department of Education of the state of New York,\nwith complete administrative freedom for the commissioner. A somewhat\nsimilar development of the educational commission in Massachusetts,\ncorrecting the error of setting up a separate system for industrial education,\nthe establishment of educational commissions in some fifteen other states\nencourage the belief that such systems of education will be freed from\npolitical entanglements, that tenure of office will be secured for professors\nand teachers, and that the state systems will continue as the vigorous\nunits in the greater unity of the on-coming nationalism in education.\nOur educational epoch is second only to its manifestation of the American\n\"passion for education\" in its \"passion%for societies.\" Not less than\nthirty national, most of them called American, societies, having to do\nin one way or another with education, have been formed within the decade\nwith a membership of above ninety thousand.\nThese all are steadying\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nthe ark of education, and carrying it forward. They stand ready, after\nthe old Anglo-Saxon fashion, by voluntary enthusiasm and enterprise to\ncounteract adverse political influences and the deadening tendencies inherent in the routine activities of the profession of teaching. In their range\nthey cover the entire field of science, pure and applied, of the professions,\nof the arts, of the humane activities, beginning with eugenics and the\nprotection of the child, and not even ending in art and archaeology, but\nextending on toward the infinite in associations like that of Religious\nEducation. Few of us are familiar with the activities of these handmaids\nof education. For example, how many are aware that the most important\nevent in the art life of the United States occurred last May at Washington\nin the First National Convention of the American Federation of Arts,\nwith the representatives present of one hundred and three chapters and\nfifty thousand persons ?^ Have we kept up with the development of museums of all kinds, no longer considered as \"storage warehouses\"? Have\nwe begun to know that this is an age of libraries, not simply housed in the\nCarnegie palaces, but circulating in the schools and traveling to the farthest\nrural district with thirty-four state library commissions? We rejoice\nin the great movement that has given us above four thousand consolidated\nschool districts of all kinds. The traveling libraries, however, are consolidating our entire communities, with a common library, and hastening the\nday of the social center in schoolhouse as well as country church. Aided\nby the educational and public press, and the bulletins of agricultural and\nuniversity extension, our whole people in fact today are becoming a republic\nof learners. University and school extension supplement the continuation\nschools, so well begun in the cities. Education is now perpetual and\nuniversal.\nThis diffusion of knowledge in the eyes of some means diffuseness,\nsuperficiality, and brings out the objection \"a little learning is a dangerous\nthing.\" Our epoch meets this with an earnest effort to raise standards.\nThe standardization of education is a present watchword in every kind\nof school, college, university, and profession, including the veterinarian.\nSome are frightened, fearing dead uniformity and mechanical results, or\nthat there will be an institutional tyranny that will crush individuahsm.\nThese are real dangers which, however, will never prevail in a society as\nkeenly alive to education as ours in this epoch and as diverse in character\nwith the different t)rpes of education and with the states as the primal\neducational unit. Where educators do not respond to the standardizing\nprocesses, standards are being forced upon them, forged by the evident\ninconveniences and commercial waste for schools and students, and compelled by the requirements of the professions that deal with life and property. The legislatures are driven to enact standards into laws to protect\nthe people. The prevalent greed and graft have worked as subtly and\n* Appleton's Year Book, 1910, p. 737.\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEPOCH\n\nIN\n\nNEW\n\nAMERICA\n\nwidely in education as elsewhere. The idealism of the American and the\nmarvelous prosperity in certain centers have lifted up standards worthy\nof imitation. We are, therefore, rapidly approximating national standards,\nand world-standards, befitting the new nationalism of our New America.\nThey are as convenient and educative as a national bank currency in the\nworld of finance. Who does not know the meaning of fifteen secondary\nschool units? Of sixty collegiate year-hours, with the qualitative definitions given to units by associations of college and secondary-school men,\nand instrumentalities like the College Entrance Examination Board and\nthe National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary\nSchools ? The conferences of the chief state school officers of great sections\nof the country, of state examining and licensing boards, and of the professions are endorsing these standards, and waiting upon us school men for\nthe perfecting of them.\nLast and not least, this has been the epoch of private munificence, in\nextent rivaling the bounty of the state. The old and new endowed institutions are enabled to be as national in spirit as the state institutions,\nand the two types safeguard academic freedpm, and give a variety and\nglory to our patriotism. The most original development is the establishment of great foundations like the General Education Board, the Carnegie\nInstitution for Research, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of\nTeaching, the Russell Sage Foundation, the proposed Rockefeller Foundation, worthy in wealth and purpose of our New America, and reassuring\nin this commercial age that our educational epoch is the beginning of an\nera of a republic of research, of letters, learning, labor, and humanity,\nbroadening and making perpetual the repubHc politic of Washington,\nLincoln, and Roosevelt. Thus may the New America be perpetuated,\nthe \"Messiah of the Nations\" of Riley's song:\nHigh o 'eriooking sea and land,\nAmerica!\nTrustfully with outheld hand,\nAmerica !\nThou dost welcome all in quest\nOf thy freedom, peace and rest —\nEvery exile is thy guest —\nAmerica!\nAmerica!\nThine a tmiversal love,\nAmerica!\nThine the cross and crown thereof,\nAmerica !\nAid us, then, to sing thy worth;\nGod hath builded fro* thy birth,\nThe first Nation of the EarthAmerica!\nAmerica!\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\nTOPIC:\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE\n\nCOMING\n\nOF THE HUMANE\nEDUCATION\n\nA, THE OPEN-AIR\nSHERMAN\n'\n\nC. KINGSLEY,\n\nELEMENT\n\n(MobUe\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGENERAL SUPERINTENDENT,\nCHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nUNITED\n\nCHARITIES\n\nOF\n\nThe children of the United States spend 1,476,744 years in the schoolroom each twelve months. To this should be added the time spent by\ndull and backward pupils kept in at recess and after school, because they\ndid not get their lessons or for bad conduct. No one has attempted to\ncompute the loss in efficiency, school progress, and health of this vast\narmy of children because of overheated, foul air prevalent in the schoolroom, and no one knows to what extent stupidity and bad conduct are\nattributable to the same cause.\nCertain pressures for results prevalent in the business world do not\noperate in the schools. Unlike the factory or mercantile house, the schools\nhave no anxiety about obtaining raw material. Each year finds a roomful\nof children waiting at every grade. The school likewise has no problem\nof advertising or salesmanship in marketing its product, for each year the\nopposite door opens and an equal number dissolves back into the general\npublic. The community giveth.\nThe community taketh away.\nGo back to the school of your childhood. The room is full of children\nof the same age as you and your fellows when you were there. It is as\ntho the world stood still and did not grow up. A never-ending stream of\nchildren is ready to the teacher's hand. She has her chance as this ceaseless procession makes its pause in her room and goes on during the brief\nyears of school life and out into the world.\nThe general subject of the morning, \"The Coming of the Humane Element in Education,\" interests me greatly. It is a most significant topic.\nThe word \"coming\" rather than \"arrival\" or \"arrived\" was doubtless\nused advisedly. All will gladly concede that the \"humane element\" has\na legitimate place in a system which deals with 19,000,000 children in a\nsingle year.\nFor this vast army resolves itself into individual units. Each wears\nclothes, lives at a certain address, possesses the possibiHty of getting wet\nfeet and catching cold, knows whether and why he likes or disHkes his\nteacher. Let me select one from this number and tell you a word about\nher. In this way, you will understand why I, an outsider, am interested\nin this subject and why I have been asked to take part in this meeting of\nsuperintendents.\nOn the first Monday of September two years ago, Julia was one of\nforty-five children to be gotten over certain intellectual ground before\nthe end of the school year by a teacher in the second grade. Most of the\nchildren got the pace and made progress, but Julia, for some unaccountable\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE OPEN-AIR SCHOOL\n\nreason, lagged behind. The teacher, desiring to bring all her group under\nthe wire inside the time limit, like all teachers who are judged by their\nability to chase their brood toward that college somewhere, finally became\nconscious of Julia as an individual problem. She saw a very ordinary\nlittle girl, ten years old, pale, Hstless, but not markedly different from the\nother children except for this unaccountable \"stupidity.'* She wondered why a child, older than the rest, always quiet and attentive, could\nnot keep up. One afternoon she got her clue when she heard a little boy\nshrilly whisper: \"Hello there, 'Con Kid,'\" and saw Julia shrink back into\nher seat as if someone had struck her.\nIn May, Julia's father had died of consumption. Until two. months\nbefore his death, the child slept with him. When she began to cough and\nrun an afternoon temperature, the tuberculosis nurse found a back porch\nroof on which Julia's cot could be placed, and coaxed her to sleep there.\nIt was not a secluded spot. When one's mother is trying to bring up four\nchildren decently on nine dollars a week, one does not live in the suburbs.\nMany curious windows looked down on the little cot, and the children of\nthe neighborhood, with innocent but exquisite cruelty, twitted and taunted\nthe sensitive \"con kid\" until she refused to sleep on the roof, and begged\nher mother to move to some place where no one would know about her.\nBut education is compulsory, so she sat, five hours a day, with the other\nsecond-graders in the stuffy schoolroom, running a temperature every\nafternoon and trying hard to get lessons in which she always failed.\nFortunately for Julia, the teacher read the papers, and she remembered\nthat a school for such children, founded in loving remembrance of a child\nwho died, was soon to be opened on a roof near JuHa's home. She took\nthe child there, and Julia discovered that she was not the only \"con kid\"\nin Chicago. That helped. The open-air life and the good food helped\ntoo; so did the Eskimo suits, and presently Julia began to learn. She\ngained ten pounds, made her grade, and, most important of all, she forgot\nall about being different from other children and enjoyed herself. Today, ■\na picture of the \"con kid,\" rosy-cheeked, bright-eyed, and fairly radiating\nvitality, is going all over the country to help other children, well and sick,\nto win their fresh-air rights.\nThree years ago, there was not a single place in this country where such\na child could obtain medical care and schooling. The school that received\nJulia was Elizabeth McCormick Open- Air School No. i, conducted by the\nUnited Charities of Chicago and the Board of Education; in which all\nexpense of food, clothing, and equipment was met by a grant from the\nEUzabeth McCormick Memorial Fund Trustees.\nJulia's story helped to jar us awake n*t only to her situation and that\nof her mother but to thousands of boys and girls in the city in a like condition.\nWe came upon these children in other ways.\n\nThe United Charities of\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobfle\n\nChicago carries on an extensive outing work. Medical inspection of the\nchildren often eliminates from the joys of a vacation in the country children\nwho are predisposed to tuberculosis, who are running temperatures, and\nwhose physical condition is such that they cannot safely romp and\nplay with other children. Furthermore, our work calls us into homes\nwhere tuberculosis has laid low the supporter of the family. Chicago is\nstill losing 4,000 people a year from tuberculosis. Our Tuberculosis\nInstitute has found that from 25 per cent to 30 per cent of the children\nin such families are infected. The heaviest toll laid upon the resources\nof the United Charities of Chicago by any one cause is that occasioned by\ntuberculosis.\nWe know the three-room home, the family trying to live on six dollars\na week. We see the children as babes, as little boys and girls; later, we\ndeal with the same boys and girls who come out of school and try to\nfind employment. We witness their disappointment when they fail\nbecause of health. We deal with grown people, failures because they have\nnot the physique to stand up and take their place in the world. We see\nthe finished dependent become chargeable for life upon the community\nbecause of failure of health or moral deUnquency that arises thru inability\nto earn. We reaUze that it is hopeless to deal with trouble after it happens ;\nthat prevention is necessary; that it must be brought about thru education\nand the spread of right knowledge of living; that the hope is with the\nchildren of the country.\nProfessor Irving Fisher states that there are 138,000 deaths in a year in\nthis country from tuberculosis, and estimates that unless something is\ndone, of people now Uving 5,000,000 are destined to die from this preventable disease. It levies its greatest toll between the ages of twenty and\nthirty years. Saying nothing about affection, human values, and happiness. Professor Fisher states that the money loss alone is $1,100,000,000\na year. Another authority has recently shown that in the state of\nIllinois alone $1,187,000 a year has been spent in the work of educating\nchildren who died before reaching their twentieth year.\nThe discovery of health needs has come from another angle and almost\nsimultaneously. Medical inspection of schools began in Brussels in\n1904, and is now national in scope in England, France, Belgium, Sweden,\nSwitzerland, Bulgaria, Japan, the Argentine Republic, and practically\nso in Germany. In the United States, Boston began in 1894. Now all\nMassachusetts towns and cities and seventy cities in this country outside\nof that state have medical inspection. The data are not very accurate,\nbut it is the universal experience that physical defects are found in a large\npercentage of the children. We are now speaking of all kinds of defects —\nnot tuberculosis only. In Minneapolis, in 1908, 65 per cent of the children\nexamined were found defective; in New York, in 1906, 71 per cent. As\na rule this inspection is yet crude, and only the more patent defects are\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE OPEN-AIR SCHOOL\n\ndiscovered, because the examinations are not detailed or thoro; however,\nimperfect as is this machinery of discovery, it is much more complete than\nthat for remedying defects when discovered. For instance, in Cleveland\nin 1907, only 22 per cent of the defective children discovered secured attention and correction; in New York, 25 per cent; in Somerville, Mass.,\n15 per cent. This seems to indicate need of further interest and action\nby both teachers and the general public. It is of Uttle value to know that\n100 children have defects if only 25 receive treatment. It has not proj&ted\nthe other 75 much that somebody knows there is something the matter.\nThe particular form of reHef which we are discussing this morning is\nthat of anaemic children, those predisposed to tuberculosis. In Sweden\nthere have been some very careful investigations. In Stockholm, this\nthoro work revealed the fact that 1.61 per cent of all the children under\n15 showed pronounced tubercular infection. If this percentage were\napplied to the United States, and it is believed by many authorities to be\na conservative estimate of children similarly affected in this country,\nit would mean that we have 230,000 such children.\nIt is commonly agreed that the usual school regime is not adapted to\nthe needs of children of such pronounced physical handicap. The openair schools that receive these children are essentially ungraded schools,\nand perhaps 25 would be the right number for each room or teacher. If\nthis were the case, there ought to be in the United States 9,200 such schools\ninstead of 27 as there are at present. It would mean 85 in the city of Chicago instead of two.\nWhat then is the open-air school? How did it come about? Charlottenburg, a suburb of Berlin, led the way. With German thoroness,\ntheir people discovered the needs of these children first. They were also\nfirst in the field with sanatorium and scientific treatment. They discovered\ntwo things:\n1. That the ordinary school r6gime did positive physical injury to such children.\n2. That if they sent them to the sanatorium, while they improved in health, they\nlost their chance for an education or fell behind; hence the Wald Schule was the happy\nmiddle ground.\n\nThey took a group of anaemic children predisposed to tuberculosis\nto an open-air school in a forest near by, and the thrilHng results started\na chain of schools around the world.\nIn the open-air school, the health of the child is made first consideration,\nand the school work fits in according as physical needs will warrant. There\nis much more freedom and informality in such schools than in the usual\nschool. Medical inspection, weighing, taking of temperatures, care and\nsupervision by a nurse, knowledge of hom* conditions form an important\npart. Usually the day is something as follows:\nArrive at school, temperature taken, and inspection by nurse, 8:00 to 8:30.\nBath followed by lunch, 8 : 30 to 9 : 00.\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nIn school, 9:00 to 10:15.\nRecess, 10:15 to 10:30.\nIn school, 10:30 to 11:45.\nPreparation for dinner, and dinner, 11:45 to 12:45.\nPeriod of rest of one section of the school alternating with the second section which\ngoes through the same regime, 1 2 : 45 to 3 : 1 5.\nThen play, gymnastics, temperature, and lunch, return home and to bed at eight\no'clock.\n\nThe school regime includes not only the medical inspection but care\nand attention of the nurse all the time and careful and thoro knowledge\nof the home conditions of each child and a conscious, definite effort made\nthru the doctor, the nurse, and the social worker if need be to reach the\nhome conditions and render them suitable to the needs of the child. This\nmeans diet, ventilation of sleeping-rooms, cleanly habits, good cooking,\nand all the rest. It often meant putting relief in the home, because the home\nconditions of most of the 49 children who came to the Elizabeth\nMcCormick Open-Air School was such that it needed not only the advice\nand help of the nurse but often relief from charitable agencies.\nIn the distinctly open-air school as conducted in this country, children\nof pronounced predisposition or infection are selected. In the New York\nand Boston open-air schools, cases of open tuberculosis are admitted.\nThese schools have been conducted in all kinds of places — schoolrooms,\nroofs, ferryboats, balconies, tents, unused school buildings, dwelHnghouses, municipal bath buildings, park refectories, and specially designed\nrooms.\nGrowing out of the experiments with these children who showed tuberculous infection, the open-window room with its particular regime is evolving. These rooms are designed for anaemic children and those with less\npronounced physical difficulties.\nThe expense in the open-air schools incurred on account of food, clothing, special attendants, and usually the building is borne by some private\nagency. The average cost for such schools, exclusive of the original\nequipment, is from twenty to twenty-five cents per school day per child.\nIn the open-window rooms any extra expense for food, clothing, attendants,\ncost of special equipment is also borne by some private agency. The\nschool board, I think, in every instance has suppHed the teacher and all\nschool equipment and supervision.\nThe regime for the open- window, room, at least in Chicago, has 'not\nbeen fully standardized as yet, but I think that all will agree that there\nshould be careful medical inspection in selecting the children, that they\nshould be weighed periodically, temperatures taken, home conditions\nknown and made suitable if possible, and that the services of a nurse or\nattendant to supplement the teacher's work by taking care of feeding,\nwrapping the children up when they are lying down, helping to remove\nwet clothing, etc., should be a part of the scheme.\nChicago is planning\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSCHOOL\n\n24 1\n\nalso to have three or four rooms where it is hoped that the only addition to\nthe usual school regime will be more careful and detailed medical supervision. These will probably be known as low-temperature rooms, but it\nit is to be distinctly understood that low temperature in this sense is synonymous with fresh air. No one wants to make the mistake of assuming\nthat cold air is necessarily fresh air. The great point to be achieved in\nall this work is that the whole 19,000,000 children should get their share of\nthe fresh air of which the Good Lord has made plenty for all. If they are\neducated to the right feeling for fresh air and for health needs and health\nrights, the problems of smoke nuisance, bad air in theaters, churches,\nstreet cars, and trains will be on the high road to solution. It only needs\nthe right attitude on the part of the public to obtain its rights in this respect,\nfor the fresh air is present ever)rwhere, only waiting to be let in, and certainly the intelligence of the American people will find a way.\nNow as to the results. The universal testimony is that the children\ngain in weight, that temperatures are reduced, that listless children become\nalert and attentive, and that there is a marked change in the mental grasp.\nIn the Elizabeth McCormick Open-Air School, there was an average gain\nof something over four pounds. Altho there was one-third less time spent\non the school work, no child failed to make his grade, three of them made\ntwo grades, and one made three.\nWhat do the teachers think about this work? Here are testimonials\nfrom those who have been engaged in this work in places scattered all over\nthe country.\nTESTIMONY\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nWHO\n\nHAVE\n\nTRIED\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\n\"I would not care to return to the closed room.. My pleasure in my work makes me\nwish that for the sake of the teacher as well as the pupil every room might be an open-air\nroom.\" — Marie E. Powers, teacher in the Providence Open-Air School.\n'\n\"As I am an arrested case of tuberculosis, I could never have stood work in any place\nbut an open-air school. I never wish to go back to the usual poorly ventilated school\nbuilding.\" — H. L. Birdsall, teacher in the Brooklyn Open-Air School.\n\" For a score or more years my experience as a teacher has been gained in the public\nschoo.ls of this country, in good old New England, California, and the Middle West. Our\nteachers today are victims of nervousness, irritability, and so-called overwork. Those\nwho have tried the outdoor work have been capable of more prolonged labor with far less\nfatigue. This is my own experience and nearly all teachers who have given it a fair trial\nfeel that there is no place for them like the open-air school.\" — Helen M. Mead, formerly\nteacher in Franklin Park School, Boston.\n\"The work is heavier in an open-air class, but I feel much more able to accomplish\nit. After a day's work I now return home fresh and do not suffer from the usual headache\nand dryness of throat that follow teaching in the ordinary room.\" — Katherine Nolan,\nteacher in open-air room, Public School No. 21, New York City.\n\"My color has improved and my weight increas^. At 3 : 15 I do not feel the fatigue\nI formerly felt at 10:30. I am comfortable in a lower temperature than before. Trifles\nwhich had assumed the proportions of mountains affect me less.\" — Effie Hoerner, teacher\nin open- window room, Graham School, Chicago.\n\" Fresh air has done wonders for me.\n\nI am strong and fat and have gained ten pounds\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nsince last year in spite of seven weeks' work in the summer. My complexion has undergone a complete change. Instead of being a sallow, dead, dry-skinned person, my skin\nis fresh, full of life and rosy.\" — Henriette Roos, teacher in open- window room, Graham\nSchool, Chicago.\n\"I have never in my life been so free from backache and extreme fatigue as I have\nbeen since I took the open-air school. 'How do you keep so fresh ? ' asked another teacher\nlast night. 'I am always nervously exhausted after a dark, rainy day like this.' I told\nher, truthfully, that I had ceased to dread such days. Not even rain can dispel the sunshine in the open-air school.\" — Anna Bunker, teacher in the Elizabeth McCormick OpenAir School, Chicago.\n\nBoston has already voted to have at least one room in each new school\nbuilding constructed with the intention of being used for open-air work.\nNew York has remodeled rooms in several buildings so that roofs can be\nutiUzed and windows opened clear out. A school principal in San Diego,\nCal., writes:\nMy building here in this city is so crowded that the board are talking of erecting a\nnew building. I am trying to persuade the superintendent to give me a thoroughly t)rpical\nsouthern California schoolhouse, all on the ground floor, if need be, with one side of the\nroom so constructed of glass folding doors that the entire side can be thrown open to the\nair. There are not more than ten or a dozen days during our school year when we could\nnot have that side open.\n\nThe Elizabeth McCormick School was started and maintained by a fund\ngiven in memory of a most unusual child. In her few brief years, she had\ngiven indication of a Hfe of altruism and great usefulness. A child herself,\nher interest was pecuUarly in children, in surrounding their lives with\npossibiUties of happiness. Thru this fund in her memory was discovered\nJuHa*, the httle girl whose picture graces the cover of the book, Open-Air\nCrusaders. Both of these children have had a part in carrying this\nmessage — ooe who gave, and one who, in receiving, also gave.\nB. THE\n\nTRAINING\n\nLEONARD\n\nP. AYRES,\n\nOF\n\nTHE MENTALLY\nUNFORTUNATE\n\nRUSSELL\n\nDEVELOPMENTS\n\nSAGE\n\nAND\n\nFOUNDATION,\n\nOF THE\n\nPAST\n\nNEW\n\nPHYSICALLY\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nDECADE\n\nEleven years ago the school superintendents of America, assembled\nin convention in Chicago, discussed the problems then foremost in educational thought and action. Diligent search thru the printed report of that\nmeeting discloses no single mention of child health, no word about school\nhygiene, no address devoted to the conservation or development of the\nphysical vigor of youth.\nAt that time eight cities in America had systems of medical inspection\nin their public schools. Today the number of such systems is over four\nhundred.\nThis development is without parallel in the history of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supcrintendencel\n\nTHE\n\nMENTALLY\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICALLY\n\nUNFORTUNATE\n\n243\n\nNo one there present had ever heard of a school nurse, for no city in the\nworld employed one. But today seventy-six American cities have corps\nof school nurses as permanent parts of their educational forces. Had\nanyone in that Chicago meeting dared prophesy that we should soon\nemploy dentists to care for the teeth of our school children, his words would\nhave been greeted with derision; but today forty-eight cities employ\nstaffs of school dentists.\nTen years ago those who discussed the problems of educating the\nmentally deficient, the blind, the crippled, and the deaf thought and talked\nonly from the standpoint of treatment in special institutions. But today\nNew York City alone has in her public schools one hundred and ten classes\nfor mentally deficient children, with ever-increasing provision for the\nother classes of unfortunates, and the work there is merely a sample of\nwhat is going on in the cities thruout our land.\nThese changes represent no passing fad or temporary whim. They are\npermanent, significant, and fundamental. They mean that a transformation has taken place in what we think, as well as in what we do in education.\nThey mean that the American common school has ceased to be merely\na place where for a few brief years our children shall acquire useful information. Instead, it has entered upon a new r61e, in which it is destined\nto reach and to reach profoundly the whole of every child. These changes\nmean that in ever-increasing measure our schools are to reach the exceptional child as well as the normal and are to make provision for his physical\nwell-being as well as for his intellectual development.\nThis profound change in our educational practice did not come thru\nthe slow processes of philosophy, nor because we were awakened by the\nstirring words of voice or pen of any educational prophet. No school men\ncan claim great credit for having hastened its advent. It was forced upon\nus, first by the natural results of compulsory education and still more\ndefinitely and directly by three of the strangest allies that ever contributed\nto the work of social reform.\nTHE FIRST REFORMER — THE\n\nCONTAGIOUS\n\nDISEASES\n\nOF CHILDHOOD\n\nThe first of these three reformers was the contagious diseases of childhood. When Boston began medical inspection in America in 1894 by\ndividing her schools into fifty districts and placing a doctor in charge of\neach district, she did so in the hope that the new measure would curb the\nwaves of contagious disease that repeatedly swept thru the ranks of the\nchildren, leaving behind a record of suffering and death. The experiment\nwas successful and when the other cities learned how Boston was solving\nthe problem, they too began to employ school physicians and to organize\nsystems of medical inspection.\nDuring the first years the spread of the movement was slow, only one\nor two cities taking it up each year. Then these pioneers were followed\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nby dozens of their sister cities, then by scores, and in the past few years by\nhundreds.\nThis sudden recognition of the imperative necessity for safeguarding\nthe physical welfare of our children grew out of the discovery that compulsory education under modern city conditions meant compulsory disease.\nThe state, to provide for its own protection, has decreed that all children\nmust attend school, and has put in motion the all-powerful but indiscriminating agency of compulsory education which gathers in the rich and\nthe poor, the bright and the dull, the healthy and the sick.\nThe object was to insure that these children should have sound minds.\nOne of the unforeseen results was to insure that they should have unsound\nbodies. Medical inspection was the device created to remedy this condition. Its object was prevention and cure. But it was destined to have\nfar greater influence than its early sponsors dreamed.\nWhen school men watched the doctors discover and send home children\nsuffering from contagious disease they asked whence those diseases came.\nThey examined their records of absences and they discovered that in nearly\nevery city the number of cases of contagion among children leaps up each\nyear when the cold weather approaches and the children return to school\nto sit quiet in close contact with their fellows, to drink with them from the\nsame cup, and breathe dust-laden and artificially dried air. And when\nspring returns and the windows are again opened and schools are closed\nfor the summer, those who are left go forth to be comparatively free from\ndisease until the return of the next school year.\nSchool men pondered these facts well and now in city after city schoolhouses are being constructed in which the paramount object is to have\nthe rooms so clean, the drinking-water so pure, the air so fresh, and the\nsunlight so plentiful that compulsory education shall no longer spell compulsory disease but rather compulsory health.\nThe sanitary drinking-fountain and the individual cup are fast driving\nout the common and dangerous tin dipper. Sixty-nine cities already\nclean their schools with vacuum cleaners and the days of the broom and the\nfeather duster are numbered. We are nearing the day when our schools will\nbe as clean as hospitals and for the same reasons.\nNor is it only within the four walls of the school building that provision\nis steadily being made for conserving health and developing vitaUty.\nThe only educational movement that ever approached medical inspection\nin the rapidity of its development is the playground. Almost unknown\nten years ago, it is now becoming as much a part of the modern school as\nthe roof or the walls.\nThe movement for public-school athletic leagues is spreading from\ncity to city and carrying with it the knowledge of how to give every boy\nand girl the physical advantages thru exercise that were formerly reserved\nfor those already so well endowed that they did not need them.\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nTHE\n\nMENTALLY\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICALLY\n\nUNFORTUNATE\n\n245\n\nThe child with contagious disease has done well and thoroly his work\noi educational reform. The health movement in our public schools has\nbeen transformed during the past decade from a merely negative movement\nhaving as an object the avoidance of disease to a splendidly positive movement having as its aim the development of vitahty.\n\nI\n\nTHE SECOND\n\nREFORMER — THE BACKWARD\n\nCHILD\n\nThe second of the strange allies that came to help us reshape our educational doctrines and practice was the mentally deficient child. We discovered that the dragnet of compulsory education was bringing into our\nschools hundreds of children who were unable to keep step with their\ncompanions, and because this interfered with the ordinary administration\nof our school systems we began to ask why these children were backward.\nThe school doctors helped us find the answer when they told us that\nhundreds of these children were backward purely and simply because of\nremovable physical defects. And then we took the next great forward\nstep for we came to realize that children are not dullards thru the will of\nan inscrutable Providence, but rather thru the law of cause and effect.\nThis led to an extension of the scope of medical inspection to include\nthe physical examination of school children, with the aim of discovering\nwhether or not they were suffering from such defects as would handicap\ntheir educational progress and prevent them from receiving the fullest\nbenefit of the free education furnished by the state.\nThis work was in its infancy five years ago, but today two hundred\ncities have systems of physical examinations of their school pupils.\nNor was this the only contribution of the backward child. Along with\nthe knowledge of the importance of physical defects came the realization\nthat compulsory education lays a deep obligation on the state as well as\non the parent. If it is .to insist that every child shall attend school, it\nmust provide schools fitted to the needs of every child. It is in response\nto this realization that thruout the land the public schools are opening\ntheir doors and fitting their work to the peculiar needs of the blind, the deaf,\nthe crippled, and the mentally defective. It is in response to this realization too that we are at last beginning to make special provision for that\nstill more exceptional and vastly more important group made up of the\nchildren of special talent and even genius.\nJust as the work begun with the object .of excluding disease froni the\nclassroom has developed until it is now redounding to the benefit of all\nschool children, so the special provisions devised for dealing with the backward child have developed and expanded until they now bid fair to benefit\nthe children who are not backward.\n^\nTeachers, principals, and superintendents have watched the splendid\nwork of the special classes in giving education to children who formerly\nwere doomed to lives of uselessness to themselves and deep menace to the\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUc\n\ncommunity. And as they have seen the seeming miracles those classes\nperform, they are asking why the same measures of small classes, skilled\nteachers, play, manual work, and abridged courses of study should not\ngive even greater results among normal children.\nTHE THIRD REFORMER — THE TUBERCULOUS\n\nCHILD\n\nThe last of the three allies in the work of educational reform was no\nother than the great white plague, tuberculosis. Four years ago the city\nof Providence started an open-air school for tuberculous children. During\nthe following year two other cities followed her example. Two years ago\nfive cities had open-air schools. Last year the number was eight and this\nyear the new work is'being done in twenty-eight cities.\nIn city after city across the country open-air schools have demonstrated\ntheir abiUty to take pale, wasted, and sickly children and convert them\ninto strong, vigorous, and healthy children. And moreover they have\nproven their ability to teach these ailing children faster and better than the\nregular schools in the same cities can teach the strong and normal children.\nAnd school men, reading the lesson so clearly taught, are asking why\nall children should not be allowed to breathe pure air. In answer to their\nquestion school architects and heating and ventilating engineers are discarding their traditional ideas of ventilation, and are even now constructing school buildings with the avowed object of bringing to every boy and\ngirl the advantages heretofore reserved for the tuberculous.\nKEEPING FOR THE STRONG THE BENEFITS DEVELOPED\n\nFOR THE WEAK\n\nThese three reformers — the child with contagious disease, the backward\nchild, and the tuberculous child — ^have done their work well, and that work\nis not the mere provision for the needs of sick and exceptional children; it\nis the fundamental reshaping of our educational aim.\nFor nineteen centuries the educational world has held, as the most\nperfect expression of its philosophy, that half-Une of Juvenal in which he\npleads for the sound mind in the sound body. It has remained for the\nfirst decade of the twentieth century to awake to a startled realization that\nJuvenal was wrong — ^wrong because he bade us think that mind and body\nare separate and separately to be provided for.\nOnly now have we come to reaHze the error and to take steps to rectify\nit. Only in the last few years have we begun to see that educationally,\nat least, mind and body are inseparable, and that the sound mind and the\nsound body are inextricably related — ^both causes and both effects.\nAll these things mean that it is our splendid privilege to see and to\nbe a part of a movement which is profoundly transforming our traditional\nideas of education. They mean that our children and our children's\nchildren will be a better race of men and women than we are or were our\nfathers.\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "1Superintendence]\n\nPEACE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTRUE\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUMENT\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n247\n\nOF EUGENICS\n\nIn recent years there has appeared a new science calling itself eugenics,\nthat seeks to discover the secrets of heredity and environment and to\ndevelop methods that shall insure for future generations greater strength,\nmore vitality, and enhanced intellect. The aims of that new science are\nhigh and noble beyond those of almost any other form of human activity.\nBut in their methods its advocates are wrong.\nThey are wrong when they seek to apply to the breeding of men the lore\nof the stock-breeder, because they overlook the deepest and most fundamental factors in man's nature.\nWhat they are aiming at is the steady improvement of the human race,\nand that is coming. But it is coming thru the public school of the future;\nthe school in which the physical, the mental, and the moral will be developed\ntogether and not separately, the school in which the child will not only\nlive in healthful surroundings but in which he will learn habits of health\nwhich will be lifelong.\nThe human race will be a better race because of the lessons that have\nbeen taught us by the child having contagious disease, the backward\n1^ child, and the tuberculous child. Because of these lessons, the youth of\nj^P the future will attend a school in which health will be contagious instead\nof disease, in which the playground will be as important as the book, and\nwhere pure water, pure air, and abundant sunshine will be rights and not\nprivileges. He will attend a school in which he will not have to be either\ntruant or tuberculous or delinquent or defective to get the best and fullest\nion.\neducat\nf\no\ne\nr\nmeasu\nI\nMENT\nE\nOLS\nIC\nC. THE PEAC\nMOVE\nAND THE PUBL\nSCHO\nIE\n\nMRS. FANN\n\nional\n\nFERN\n\nEWS,\n\nANDR\n\nON,\n\nBOST\n\nMASS.\n\nt\nl\nvemen\nvor t he lose\nat\ntiona\n\"Educ\nAchie\nand Educa\nEndea\na t C\neth\ny,\"\nt\nsion\ne\ni\nr\nc\nd\nt\nu\ne\nt\na\nn\nt\nj\ns\nn\nc\ne\nn\nb\ne\ne\ne\nr\no\nof th Fi entDieon,\nof th lyTw\nCelete\ntihderastui\nof oudtiscus ng\ne\nv\ni\np\nv\nh\nd\ns\ne\ns\nin thi cocne\ncan har\nrec t, com\ncon\nwit\ntaki\nn\nn\na\ne\nz\nm\nh\ni\ne\ne\nc\nn\ne\nc\nd\nv\ny\n.\ncog\nof the pea\nmo\nwhi\nma be sai to hav had its\nte nception n he irst ecade f he ineteenth entury, nd. hich,\ne\nr\nc\nP\nn\n^\no\nI\nc\nore, i s ust oiundting f ut d entuory t f n ignificant c evelopmenat w he\ntheref\ni jnt r\no a c\no s\nd\nT\ne\nional ovement, nd e\npeace meosvem\nin its very nature is an educat\nm\na\nth\non\nss ust e ecorded n ny dequate urvey\nf\nmilest nal of its preongtr.e\nm\nb r, r\ni a es a\ns\nnto\nio\nem\npl\nve\nis mosveme\nh\nf\neducat\naclhyiev\nMoreo\nthe princi\no\nt\nal\ng\ne, o mpressed hemselve\nhave, especi\ndurin the last decad\ns i\nt n\nupon\no\n,\ni\nc\nl\nt\ni\na\ni\nc\nm\n,\nn\ni\nl\nI^P the socia econo\naanld polit\nlife that iotnj^eir recog\nmust, from\nnow on,tifoonrm an integr part of the educat\nof the people.\nSince thde\na\n,\nz\nze\ny\ni\nt\ne\nn\ne\nk\nc\nt\na\ni\nw\norg\nin 181ce5, of the Ne Yor Pea\nSoc\nthe firs orgnani\na\ny\no\npe\nll\nti\neffort for worldthe idea has gradua\ngrown into convic\nthat\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nthe prosperity of a nation is intricately connected with the life and growth\nof other nations. From this conception of interrelationship, the conclusion\nnaturally follows that as civilized individuals no longer resort to the duel\nor the street fight in the settlement of their differences, so nations should\nhave recourse not to fighting but to reason, not to armies and navies but\nto international courts. This spirit, which has come to be called the\n\"new internationalism,\" is developing a new kind of citizenship which\nis demanding new responsibihties. It is, therefore, fitting that a body\nof educators take note of a force which is so vitally affecting the life for\nwhich the schools are preparing.\nRecent international events have taken place so quietly and rapidly\nthat their full significance is not generally understood. Unless one has\nfollowed the consecutive steps in the approach of the nations for an organized world, he cannot realize how direct and constructive this action has been.\nThe First Hague Conference, which convened on the eighteenth of May,\n1899, ushered in a new epoch in international politics, and changed the whole\naspect of the peace movement. Until then the leaders in this worldphilanthropy, altho they had always argued that international federation is\nthe prerequisite for international peace, had made their forward advances\nchiefly in creating a sentiment against war by showing its injustices and its\ninconsistencies with economic, ethical, and humane principles. The\nFirst Hague Conference, by evolving a practical method of stopping\ninternational warfare, converted the peace movement into a practical\nscience and pointed out a clear course for governmental action, which can\nin time bring about permanent peace among the nations. The rapidity\nwith which this proceeds will depend entirely upon the demands of public\nopinion thruout the world.\nIt was a striking manifestation of the progress of public opinion in international matters that twenty-four nations responded to the invitation of\nthe Czar of Russia to send delegates to a conference to discuss methods\nof stopping international warfare, a subject which before this first peace\nconference had been jealously held as a matter for each individual nation\nto settle. And it was none the less obedience to public opinion that prevented these one hundred representatives from coming to any concrete\nagreement concerning armaments. The adoption of new rules for alleviating the cruelties of war, and the signing of the convention, providing\nfor the establishment of an international arbitration court to which nations\nin dispute may appeal, reflected the desire of the world at large to base\ninternational relationships on the law of reason rather than that of force.\nThe importance of this court was well understood by those far-sighted\nstatesmen at The Hague, and indeed it has well proved its worth, for since\nit was opened in April, 1901, eight important cases of international controversy, representing nearly every great nation of the earth, have been settled\nby its judges.\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nPEACE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n249\n\nThe results of the First Peace Conference are far greater than the world\never dreamed of. And perhaps the greatest result of all was the calling of\na Second Peace Congress, which was held in 1907, and which included practically every nation of the world. One of the most important decisions\nagreed upon by this conference was the one concerning The Hague Court.\nThis world-institution had shown its ability to settle any dispute that might\narise between nations; but the Second Peace Conference made it doubly\ncertain that disputes should be referred to this court. These statesmen\ndecided that in case of a conflict between two powers, either of them might\ngo to the court and ask to have the difference settled, no matter if the other\nwere unwilling to have the case referred. This was indeed a great improvement over the rule made by the First Peace Conference, which compelled\nboth nations to agree to submit their difference to the court before it could\nbe tried.\nThis rule is greatly strengthened by the signing, since the First Hague\nConference, of a hundred arbitration treaties, pledging reference of disputes\nto The Hague Court. Thirty-six nations have thus expressed their desire\nto use the court, while the United States is a party to twenty-five of these\ntreaties. Most significant of all is the growing idea that all questions,\nincluding those of national honor, should be submitted to arbitration.\nThe most significant utterance on this subject is that by President Taft,\nmade in New York on March 22, 19 10:\nI do not see any more reason why matters of national honor should not be referred\nto a court of arbitration than matters of property or matters of national proprietorship I do not see why questions of honor may not be submitted to a tribunal\nsupposed to be composed of men of honor, who understand questions of national honor.\n\nHaving then an international court of arbitration with its tested ability\nto try cases, and a reasonably satisfactory assurance that disputes will be\nthere referred, the world can be relieved from the immediate fear of war,\nand can carry on its peaceful pursuits in science, industry, and education.\nDoubly certain is this contention when one interprets the action of the\nSecond Peace Congress in dealing with the matter of a permanent International Court of Justice which shall be to the nations of the world what\nour Supreme Court is to the states of the United States. Everything was\nagreed upon which should make this court a reality except the method of\nselecting judges. It is probable, however, that the proposal by Secretary\nof State Knox to the government to transform the International Prize\nCourt, which was provided for by the Second Peace Congress, into an\n^\nInternational Court of Justice will be adopted, and the nations thereby will\n■■ have evolved a world-institution which is tU^ foundation of the judicial\nII\ndepartment of a world-government.\nIB\nBy its declaration in favor of periodic Hague Conferences, and the stipu|B\nlation of a third conference to be held about the year 1015, the Second\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Mobile\n\nPeace Congress has also laid the foundation for a parliament of the nations,\nthe legislative complement of the International Court. That this third\nconference will develop and extend the constructive work of the two previous ones is assured, if in no other way, by the direct efforts for worldorganization of the Interparliamentary Union, composed of three thousand\nmembers of the parliaments of the nations. This body, which initiated\nthe call for the Second Hague Conference and was largely responsible for\nits program, is mapping out the next logical steps in the organization of the\nworld with which the Third Peace Congress should deal. The international\npeace movement has indeed made great strides in the first decade of the\ntwentieth century.\nSide by side, however, with this world-movement for international\nfederation, looms the mad rivalry among the nations in the equipments of\nwarfare. There never was a time in the history of the world when so much\nmoney was spent on armaments. Certainly this is a contradiction to the\nremarkable advances made by the governments toward permanent international agreements. The situation is indeed paradoxical; but paradoxes\nare never enduring. The Hfe of this particular one depends on the future\ngrowth of international legislative and judicial institutions which will make\nwar preparations so apparently unnecessary that they will gradually\ndiminish and finally disappear. Optimist as I am, however, and as one\nmust be who interprets the meaning of modern history, I do not expect\nanything sudden in the breaking down of the war system. It is entirely\na matter of state of mind, and this mode of thinking must be brought\nabout thru education.\nAs the public schools have been the bulwark in creating standards of\ncitizenship, so, I think, they have a close connection with the development\nof the new ideas which are changing the responsibiUties of the citizen.\nNew generations must carry into effect the constructive measures so\nauspiciously inaugurated. It was recognition of this function of the\nschools that led the French Minister of PubUc Instruction to prescribe the\nteaching of international arbitration, humanity, and brotherhood in the\nprimary, secondary, and normal schools of France. The teachers of the\nUnited States who deal with the children of all the nations have a special\nopportunity to inculcate in the minds of the youth the spirit of the new\ninternationaUsm which has certainly changed the economic and political\nstatus of our country.\nIn history, literature, and geography our teachers can point out the trend\nof thought which is bringing the whole world together into one family.\nOn the eighteenth of May, the anniversary of the opening of the First\nPeace Congress at The Hague, the teacher has an opportunity of calling to\nmind the principles for which this day stands, principles which stimulate\nsentiments that^make for international justice. On this day, a special\nreview should be made of the principal forces leading up to the caUing of\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPEACE\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n251\n\nThe Hague Conferences, of their work, the definite results so far accomplished, and the achievements yet hoped for. Thru such teaching, there\nwill be developed that state of mind which, without criticizing the past,\nwill be able to discern the heroic figures in the peaceful progress of the world,\nand give them their just and rightful place in the world's history.\nThe American School Peace League was organized to create this state\nof mind, and to this end it seeks the co-operation of the teachers of America.\nIt comprises today representative educators from every state in the Union\nand has twenty duly organized state branches. The work of the League\nlies in three directions. First, it aims to acquaint the teachers of the country with the facts and principles of the new internationalism. It does\nthis thru teachers' institutes, special teachers' meetings, and teachers'\nconventions; thru the educational press of the country; and thru the\nPublications Committee, which is circulating articles on internationalism\ndirectly applicable to the teachers' work.\n^\nOn account of the special opportunities in teaching the history of our\ncountry — ^whose federation of states foreshadows the federation of nations;\nwhose National Congress, the Congress of the world; whose Supreme\nCourt, the permanent international court — a Committee on the Teaching\nof History was organized with Superintendent Wilbur F. Gordy, of Springfield, Mass., as the chairman. This committee compiled last year the\nresults of a wide investigation of history examinations given to teachers in\none case, and to pupils in the higher grammar grades in the other. The\nreport states that \"in some school systems much time is devoted to the\nstudy of (i) such useless details as unimportant dates and statistical\nmatter; (2) the complex principles underlying the organization and\nevolution of political parties; and (3) battles and military campaigns.\"\nThe report further states that by far the greatest waste in history\nteaching results from the excessive and disproportionate amount of time\nwhich is spent in the study of wars. While, of course, wars should be\nstudied and should receive much attention on account of the important\npart they have played in both racial and national evolution, they should\nnot involve the teaching of the mihtary minutiae of campaigns and battles.\nAnd finally, the committee says: \"When we learn to keep in mind the right\nperspective in teaching the national biography of such a peace-loving people\nas we have been from the beginning of our history, we shall devote to the\narts of peace and to the social and industrial conditions of life that large\nmeasure of attention which is their due.\"\nThe third Une of action which the League is pursuing is its efforts to secure\nthe interest of the teachers in all countries in the movement for international\nco-operation, so that the whole world shall move simultaneously in one\ndirection. It was for the purpose of developing this plan that the Secretary\nspent three months in Europe last year. The result of this work is an\norganization of an International Council which shall consist of two repre-\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "5$^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niMobflc\n\nsentatives of each country of the world. This Council has six objects : First,\nto organize national groups of teachers in the interest of internationalism.\nSecond, to collect and distribute publications relating to internationalism\nwhich are of specific value to teachers; and to make an organized campaign\nto place literature in college and school Hbraries. Third, to extend information on such educational movement thru the magazines of every country.\nFourth, to stimulate the development of all devices that will bring about\ninternational understanding, such as the international exchange of university professors, teachers, pupils; international correspondence among\nschool children, and international prize essays. Fifth, to seek means of\nestabUshing international standards of instruction, especially in literature,\ngeography, and history, which shall develop among the pupils of all nations\na common sentiment in favor of international friendliness. Sixth, to maintain an international speakers' bureau which shall consist of a list of approved speakers with the object of recommending them for the programs\nof international educational conferences.\nThe Secretary of the League visited Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Belgiiun, France, Germany, and England, and in every country found a most\ncordial response to the ideas both of national groups and of the international\nbody. While attending the International Peace Congress at Stockholm,\nthe International Congresses on Home Education and Popular Education\nin Brussels, the Secretary met prominent people from thirty-two different\ncountries, and in nearly every case an organizing group was selected which\ncan be approached to initiate work in its particular country. Steps in this\ndirection have already been taken in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland,\nBelgium, France, and England. Last autumn the School Peace League\nof Great Britain and Ireland was organized on practically the same lines\nas the American School Peace League.\nWe hope to see before another year comes round the formation of several\nnational leagues with a central administrative body which shall co-ordinate\nand extend these educational efforts. The work of these leagues stands\nfor broad citizenship and calls for the support of every true educator\nthruout the world.\nD. EDUCATION\nH. B. PEAIRS, SUPERVISOR\n\nOF THE AMERICAN\n\nIN CHARGE\n\nINDIAN\n\nOF INDIAN SCHOOLS, LAWRENCE,\n\nKANS.\n\nThe first tableau given on this stage on Thursday evening brought to\nmind very vividly the first tableau that was ever thrown upon the screen\nof this country; namely, the landing of Columbus on the eastern shore\nof this continent. The principal characters in the picture were Columbus\nand his associates standing on the beach looking shoreward where stood a\ngroup of red men of the forest curiously gazing into the faces of the newcomers. After placing the flag of their country and taking possession of\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF AMERICAN\n\nINDIAN\n\n253\n\nthe new land in the name of the King, white man and red man exchanged\ngreetings cordially. Such was the first meeting with the Indians. Soon\nanother scene followed. It was much as follows: Several red men bound\nhand and foot being forcibly marched onto ships anchored at the shore,\nready to make a return trip. Rapidly following this came battle scenes;\nIndians fighting to save their possessions. Any race which would not have\nfought under such circumstances would not be worthy of the name of\nAmerican. The Indian would never be enslaved. He fought and died in\npreference. Continuing the picture, we in our imagination can see the\nIndian retreating, fighting every foot of the way, the victors grabbing and\nholding all they conquered. The next scene shows the Indians collected\non bodies of land known as Indian reservations, these surrounded not by\nbarbed wire fences as during the Cuban War, but by soldiers with fixed\nbayonets ready to charge if any Indian should attempt to leave the reservation. Up to this period the treatment of the Indian might be said to\nhave been inhuman. At this time, however, the scene changes and the\nhumane element in the treatment of the Indians is introduced. It was\ndecided that it would be cheaper to educate the Indian than to fight him.\nSchools were planned and built. Gradually but slowly the number was\nincreased, being built mostly by missionary effort in the beginning. Later\nthe government took up the work, and as is always true in this great country\nof ours, the work undertaken by the government has been well done.\nApproximately $60,000,000 have been exj>ended for Indian education.\nMore than 350 schools have been erected and are now being maintained.\nToday approximately 35,000 Indian boys and girls are attending these\nschools. Thoro elementary, academic, and industrial training is being\nregularly given during nine months of each year. The usual literary\nsubjects are taught to both boys and girls. In addition the boys are\ntaught handwork, not merely manual training but actual industrial work,\nsuch as farming, gardening, stock-raising, dairying, blacksmithing, carpentering, masonry, painting, the elements of steam engineering as applied\nespecially to heating, harness-making, cobbling, tailoring, printing; and\nthe girls are taught cooking, sewing, laundering, general housekeeping,\nnursing. Picture if you will in your minds 350 day and boarding-schools\nscattered over 22 of the states of the union, with groups of from 10 to 30\nchildren in the day schools and groups of from 50 to 1,000 in boardingschools, mass them all together until you have a picture of 35,000 red\nchildren varying in age from 6 to 21 years, and you will have an educational\npicture into which the humane element has been introduced and is taking\na large place.\nThe picture is very incomplete, however, «s Indian education does not\nstop with the children. It deals with adults as well. Fathers and mothers,\nyes, grandfathers and grandmothers, are included. All over the country\nwherever Indians have land, allotments have been and are being made,\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nand the Indians are being taught the necessity of having permanent homes.\nSchools located on reservations among the Indians are being constantly\nurged to emphasize the value of home life. Such schools are in fact community centers and their work is with the family unit, not simply with the\nchildren. Schools located away from the reservations place emphasis on\nthe teaching of the home industries, such as farming, gardening, care of\nstock, the use of simple tools, etc., for boys, and cooking, sewing, laundering, etc., for the girls. Some of them also conduct what is known as the\nouting system, placing boys and girls in homes where they may learn\nlessons of home life from actual contact and association with them, the\npurpose of such work being gradually but surely to improve the Indian\nhome. Other very important features of Indian education that might be\npictured, if there were time, are the very active campaigns that are being\nmade under the direction of the Indian Bureau in an effort not only to\nrelieve the diseased and distressed who have been marked by the dread\ndiseases of tuberculosis, trachoma, and others, but also to prevent so far\nas possible any further extension. Also the campaign is carried on against\nliquor traffic among Indians, and in enforcing proper marriage and divorce\nlaws.\nMy time is short; therefore I must not dwell at greater length upon\nwhat is being done. The Federal government has done and is doing much,\nbut I should like to call your attention for just a few moments to some\nthings which it would seem might be better done by state and local authorities than by the Federal government.\nAmong the resolutions adopted by this conference yesterday was the\nfollowing :\nThe department is most heartily in sympathy with the policy of the Bureau of Indian\nAffairs to promote and encourage the attendance of Indian children in the public schools\nand authorizes the out going president to appoint a committee of five to investigate the\npresent conditions of the Indians with reference to their relation to the public schools for\nthe purpose of determining what co-operation or supplemental work is practicable.\n\nI trust that I may be pardoned if I suggest some needed co-operation.\n1. In securing attendance in some school of every Indian child of school age who is\nphysically able to attend.\nAs the Indian children go out of the government school into the public school their\nattendance will be very irregular unless looked after carefully.\nThere are approximately 60,000 Indian children of school age in this country.\nBetween 20,000 and 25,000 of them are out of school — many because there is no law to\ncompel attendance. The Federal government carmot enact such a law for the several\nstates. The states must do it. Federal officers are not in a position to take any active\npart in securing the enactment of such laws. I trust that this may be thoughtfully considered bythe members of the committee appointed to represent this Department of\nSuperintendence.\n2. Co-operation is needed in the campaign against the sale of liquor among Indians.\n3. The work of the health section of the Indian Bureau in an effort to stamp out\ntuberculosis aud tr^chom^ should be supplemented, extended.\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintcndenccl\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON MEXICAN\n\nCENTENNIAL\n\n4. Proper marriage and divorce laws should be enforced among the Indians.\nstates must see to the enactment of such laws.\n\nThe\n\n5. Government schools need a much larger eligible list of well-qualified teachers in all\ndepartments. State normal schools and agricultural colleges and other public and private\neducational institutions can, by co-operation, help to secure such help.\n6. Many Indian schools are isolated and necessarily the instructors are out of touch\nwith educational movements. A liberal distribution of educational reports, bulletins, and\nhelps of all kinds would be a blessing and great inspiration to such teachers. During the\npast year the various state courses of study have been adopted by the Indian schools.\nWe do not want to be a side show any longer. We want to become an integral part as\nfar as possible of the great public-school system.\n\nOnly by such contact and competition may the Indians ever become\ngood, independent, productive citizens.\nI hope that the appointment of a committee for the study of the conditions ofthe Indians by members of the Department of Superintendence\nof the National Education Association will mark a new era in Indian\neducation.\n\nREPORT\nHORACE\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE\nH. CUMMINGS,\n\nGENERAL\nSALT LAKE\n\nON THE MEXICAN\nSUPERINTENDENT,\nCITY, UTAH\n\nCENTENNIAL\nL.D.S.\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAt the annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence two\nyears ago an invitation was received from the Mexican government thru\nits Department of Education for this body of superintendents to meet in\nthe City of Mexico during the month of September, 19 10, and take part\nin the grand centennial celebration of Mexican independence. If impracticable for the entire body to meet there, it was urged that a delegation be\nsent to represent them. Accordingly Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of Illinois, Edmund A. Jones, at that time commissioner of common\nschools of Ohio, and Horace H. Cummings, general superintendent, L.D.S.\nschools of Utah, were chosen as delegates. Unfortunately, however,\nwhen the time arrived for the visit it was impossible for the first two members of the delegation to go, and the duties of the three fell upon the shoulders of the one least fitted to discharge them.\nSimilar invitations were sent to leading educational institutions of the\nworld and some forty or fifty delegates from the great universities of Europe\nand America were present and took part in the festivities\nOn arriving at the City of Mexico the delegates were met by conmiittees\nappointed by the Secretary of Public Instruction, and escorted to good\nhotels where they were given every comfort^ convenience, and attention.\nIn fact, more skillful and generous hospitaUty could hardly be provided.\nEvery want was anticipated and provided for almost before it was felt. Carriages and automobiles carried us to and from the various functions, chairs\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "2S6\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nIMobile\n\nat the opera were provided for unoccupied evenings, and attentive servants\nwere always within call. For two or three weeks we enjoyed the proverbial\nhospitality and politeness of the Mexicans, which must be experienced\nto be truly appreciated.\nThe centennial celebration lasted during the entire month of September,\nbut the important educational features did not begin until after the tenth\nand most of the delegates did not arrive until September 12. From the\nmoment of their arrival, however, they were kept busy, for from two to\nfive functions in which they were expected to take part occurred every\nday until the time arrived for their departure. It was indeed a time of\nstrenuous pleasure as well as profit.\nAmong the many interesting educational features the following important ones are mentioned, but space forbids more than the briefest account\nof them:\n1. The Seventeenth Congress of Americanists convened and held daily\nsessions for about two weeks. This is an organization of archaeologists devoting themselves to the study of American antiquities. Mexico offers the\nrichest field for such research, and the government has been very liberal\nin appropriating means to aid them in their work. Excursions were given\nto the delegates to some of the most important of the ancient ruins which\nare being uncovered and restored. A wide interest is felt in this work.\n2. A national primary industrial school was inaugurated with fitting\nceremonies and given a new modern building to occupy. This will provide\nfor the introduction of industrial education into their system of schools,\na feature for which the children there have a natural aptness.\n3. The estabHshment of a normal school for primary teachers was not\nonly a beautiful and impressive exercise, but a movement of the greatest\nimportance, for the conditions there seemed at once to render such an\ninstitution necessary, and to insure it a useful and successful career.\n4. The inaugural session of the National Congress of Primary Teachers\noccurred September 13 and was followed by daily sessions thereafter until\ntheir work was finished. Here reports were given from the various states\nand districts comprising the Republic of Mexico, showing the condition\nof progress of elementary education in each, and plans were stated for future\nimprovements. In considering the statistics setting forth cost of school\nbuildings and equipment, the number, sex, and salaries of teachers, the\nattendance of pupils, etc., the reports on the whole were most gratifying\nand demonstrated that rapid and substantial advancement is being made\nwhere it is most needed and will do the most good to Mexico.\n5. The opening of the Mexican Medical Exposition was an event well\ncalculated to give an idea of the attention given and the progress made\nin the science and practice of medicine in that land. A national medical\ncongress was also inaugurated September 19 with imposing ceremonies\nand held a number of sessions during the month.\nThe latest medical\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintcndenccI\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nMEXICAN\n\nCENTENNIAL\n\n257\n\nproblems are receiving attention there, and the best methods of public\nsanitation are being introduced.\n6. One of the prettiest of all the educational functions was the ceremony connected with the inauguration of the National School of Higher\nStudies, attended principally by the educational delegates, and conducted\nby the Secretary of Public Instruction and Fine Arts. Here that earnest\nworker for Mexico's educational progress, Sub-Secretary Chavis, who will\nbe remembered affectionately by many of us for his recent visit to our\ngathering, gave a most lucid and earnest outline of the work of this institution.\n7. The Exposition of Mexican Contemporaneous Art opened with the\nusual formalities on September 19. It was something much enjoyed by\nthe visitors. The exhibit consisted chiefly of oil paintings and pieces in\nwater colors. A few specimens of mechanical and architectural drawing\nwere present, but almost no work in sculpture. The many original works\nwere characteristic in some respects and possessed a good degree of merit.\n8. The Teachers College of Columbia University presented the Horace\nMann School of the City of Mexico a large portrait of that great American\neducator. The gift was accepted, with appropriate and beautiful ceremonies in which the pupils of the school took part. Most of the delegates\nfrom the United States were present and greatly enjoyed the exercises.\n9. The most formal and imposing of all the educational functions\nwere no doubt the ceremonies connected with the inauguration of the\nNational University of Mexico. The President of the Republic, the members of his cabinet, and the delegates from foreign universities occupied\nthe platform. The Secretary of Public Instruction and Fine Arts directed\nthe exercises, and President Diaz at the proper time arose and declared\nthe National University of Mexico fully and legally established. Short\ncongratulatory speeches were made by several of the delegates after the\npurposes and scope of the institution had been set forth by the Secretary\nof Public Instruction. It is intended that this institution shall rank with\nthe great universities of the world and be a fitting head for the national\nsystem of education which received so important an impetus during the\ncentenary celebration.\nAfter these exercises were concluded the delegates were conducted into\nthe chamber of the University Council, where we were all introduced to\nPresident Diaz and members of his cabinet. It was plainly to be seen that\nthe President was greatly pleased with the educational features of the\ncelebration, and that he is certainly a patron of pubUc instruction. After\na short period of conversation the delegates were conducted to a banquet\nhall where a sumptuous feast had been provided by the National University,\nand all were invited to another in the evening at Chapultepec, the official\nhome of the president.\n10. The next day was spent under the direction of the Secretary of\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "2S8\n\nNATION AI, EDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nPublic Instruction at Xochimilco. Besides a grand ball and banquet, the\nvisitors saw the famous floating gardens of that place. These consist of\nquadrangular islands about two rods wide by three or more rods long, in\nthe midst of a shallow lake. The owners or renters dart hither and thither\nin canoes among them; and I am sure the visitors never saw so many\nuseful plants growing to the square inch before. The soil is black and rich\nand yields three or more crops each year. That these same gardens have\nbeen subject to this intense cultivation from time immemorial and the\nfertihty of the soil retained is truly wonderful.\nA grand ball given by President Diaz in the National Palace was the\nconcluding event for most of the delegates. To describe it if I were able\nwould not be necessary here, but it was a fitting climax of a wonderful and\nalmost bewildering series of functions, crowding upon one another during\nalmost an entire month, in commemoration of the one-hundredth anniversary of Mexico's independence.\nPerhaps nearly a hundred functions besides those mentioned took place\nduring the celebration. Many of these were indirectly educational and\nnearly all of them were conducive to a broader and better civilization.\nA few of these should be mentioned in this report, as follows:\nThe inauguration of an Exhibition of Hygiene; the dedication of a new\nbuilding for the Secretary of Foreign Relations; the opening of the Exposition of Spanish Art; the opening of the Japanese Exposition; an excursion\nto the ruins of Teotihuacan; the laying of the corner stone of a monument\npresented to Mexico by the American colony, and of a monument of Pasteur presented to Mexico by the French colony; the unveiling of a large\nmarble statue of Baron von Humboldt presented by the Emperor of\nGermany; a grand torch-light procession; a grand civil procession; a\nmost artistic and unique historical procession; an imposing military parade\nin which several nations participated; imposing ceremonies in commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of the first cry for liberty; the opening\nof the Congress of the Union; the unveiling of a large and most beautiful\nstatue of Juarez; the opening of the new city water-works; the completion\nof the new sewer system, and a new addition to the penitentiary; the\nremodeling of the Municipal Palace; besides a great number of events\ncommemorative of mihtary exploits, deeds of patriots, etc.\nMost of these ceremonies were very formal, solemn, and impressive,\nand were well calculated to demonstrate the progressive poHcy of the\nadministration. No doubt large sums of money were required to defray\nthe expenses attending a celebration so elaborate and prolonged; yet it\nwas certainly conceived in a spirit of the highest economy, since there\nwas so little spent simply for show. Barring the gorgeous displays of\nfireworks and electrical illuminations, most of the features of the Centenary\nconsisted of needful modern pubUc improvements, begun at the proper\ntime to be completed for the occasion, and permanent in their nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nMEXICAN\n\nCENTENNIAL\n\n259\n\nThere were no regrets that costly buildings and displays would be destroyed\nIafter the celebration. It was a gigantic affair, very impressive, instructive,\nand enjoyable, with few things about it to regret.\nIn this connection it may be well to state that the City of Mexico now\n6eems to be as clean, as well drained and paved and supplied with water,\nas any of our own large cities, and is with its even and delightful climate\na, a safe and pleasant city in which to live.\n^^H\nSince real conditions, however, cannot be judged from dress parade\n^i exhibitions, I took excursions into the suburbs, which I found clean and\nto live in Mexico twenty-five\nsanitary — a remarkable change since I used\nI\nyears ago. I also visited rural schools in three different towns, Ciudad\nJuarez, Ixtacalco, and Tlalpam, and in one of them I was invited to conduct\na recitation in history.\nj I found the children, most of whom are full-blooded Indians, very polite\nand intelligent — far more capable than the Indians of our own country.\nTho the conditions and methods in the schools have improved much since\nmy former acquaintance with them, they are still much behind the times.\nThe little restless tots are confined in school from nine till five and sometimes\n\n^^ longer. The charts and texts used reminded me of my own childhood\n^■school days in the far West. Still, elementary schools are much more\n1^ numerous and teachers use better methods and are better paid than forthat Mexico is one\nwas often impressed with the thought\nI,\nly\nand\ner\nIm\nnation, at least, who does not in her rapid rush toward higher civiUzation\ndestroy her native races, but patiently helps them along the same road.\nThe attitude of the administration toward education is most gratifying.\nWithin little more than half a decade the Secretary of PubHc Instruction\nand Fine Arts has been advanced from a subordinate branch of the Department of Justice to that of a Cabinet minister, while the national appropriation has been increased in four years from $2,000,000 to $8,000,000.\nThe new school buildings are of the latest and most approved styles —\nwell lighted and ventilated. The same is true of other pubUc buildings.\nThe new City Post-Office is a model of beauty, stability, and convenience,\nwhile the new opera house nearing completion will have few equals in the\nworld. The hotels also show the spirit of the modern movement which\nis everywhere.\nBut more in the broad, wise, and generous treatment of the education\nof the masses than in any other feature do I see the true foundation of\nMexico's future success and greatness. It is chiefly thru her schools that\nshe may hope to prepare her people to exercise safely and wisely the freedom\nand power of self-government so well provided for in her constitution.\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nTOPIC:\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n«\nTHE PROGRESS AND THE TRUE MEANING\nPRACTICAL IN EDUCATION\nA.\nCARLETON\n\nIN VOCATIONAL\n\nB. GIBSON,\n\nPRESIDENT\nROCHESTER,\n\niMobUe\n\nOF THE\n\nTRAINING\nOF MECHANICS\nN.Y.\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nThe agricultural and industrial development of our country brings\nanew the old cry for the practical in education. Notwithstanding the\nexodus of population from the rural districts to the urban centers of civilization, more or less alarming in certain centers, our agricultural products\nhave, within the past two decades, increased from three billion to the enormous sum of nine billion dollars.\nThru the technical training given in the more progressive agricultural\nschools and colleges and thru the unusual work of our efficient national\nDepartment of Agriculture, the broad acres of America have been made\nto yield threefold. And yet anyone who rides thru almost any section of\nour country must feel that agriculture as a science is still in its infancy,\nand general agricultural education has only begun.\nNotwithstanding all the work of the schools and colleges and the various\nbranches of our national and state departments of agriculture, perhaps\nnot more than lo per cent of those now engaged in farming as a vocation\nhave had any technical training, or have even felt the stimulus of a general\nincrease of interest in better farming methods.\nOn a few scattered acres of the many millions in this country, it is true\nthat one hundred bushels of corn have been made to grow where less than\ntwenty grew before, and much has been done to disseminate information\nof this wonderful increase. In a few places in the South, we hear of three\nbales of cotton being raised on an acre when the average over the South\nis one bale to five acres.\nThru the processes of plant breeding and scientific agriculture, some\nincreases in the production of wheat per acre have been quoted. Much\nattention has been given to raising apples and citrous fruits, but it is not\nin any sense general; indeed, the marked improvements in products have\nbeen of rather a sporadic nature and we may not be surprised to find within\nthe next ten years even at the same rate of exodus from the country to the\ncity, that our increase in farm products will be far more than three or even\ntenfold more than they are today.\nThe growth of cities has brought a wonderful increase in manufacturing.\nThe products of the soil must be turned into useful forms. The wealth\nof the mines must be made available for the people. Clothing must be\nprepared to meet increasing per capita demands, and the great increase\nof our population, and the marvelous inventiveness of the American Yankee\nmust have an outlet thru thousands of newly manufactured articles.\nNot only is the amount of manufacturing increased even beyond the\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n261\n\nrate of growth of our population and the ever-increasing demands of urban\nlife, but the variety of manufactured articles has increased in even greater\nratio.\nIn 1890 our exports of manufactured articles were one hundred and\nfifty million, Germany's one hundred and sixty-five million. In 1908 our\ntotal export of manufactured articles was six hundred and sixty million\ndollars, while Germany's amounted to a bilUon and seventy milUon dollars.\nOur home consumption of manufactured products has doubtless increased\nin even greater ratio and the \"Made in Germany,\" with which we are\nfamiliar, leads us to believe that a large part of Germany's exported articles\nfind use in America. Notwithstanding our great increase in manufactured\nproducts, we have not yet been able to supply the demands of our own\ncountry.\nThere are three essential factors in the building of industry. These\nare: capital, managerial brains, and skilled labor. Thru the wealthproducing power of the American and great aggregations of fortune, there\nhas not been wanting abundant capital for legitimate manufacturing\nenterprises. The oldest schools of technology and engineering, and many\nmanufacturing estabhshments have turned out men equipped with managerial brains, but the supply of skilled labor has in no sense been adequate\nto meet the demands of manufacturers.\nThe great influx of foreign population into certain sections, and the\ndrafts upon the less thrifty of our rural population in other sections, have\nnot yet brought an adequate army of toilers, and in no sense has the skill\nof these workers been satisfactory.\nThe one factor in industry for which there is great and growing demand\ntoday is skilled labor. This demand creates a throng of opportunities\nfor remunerative service. Many of the higher grades of industry have\nbeen trying to import this labor from the older centers of industrial civihzation and from countries that have given more attention than has America\nto the industrial training of her children.\nBut the supply seems to be growing somewhat less and the demands\nof high-grade manufacturers have been increasing. Advertisements and\nexpert labor scouts have not been able to bring to a certain class of\nmanufacturers anything like an adequate supply of satisfactorily skilled\nlabor to meet their annual loss by death, old age, or the migratory impulses\nof the workingman. Some of these institutions have been forced at enormous expense to undertake to supply this demand by instituting schools\nof their own.\nThe National Association of Manufacturers declared in its last convention, with feeUng and impressive unanin^ty, that —\nthe time has arrived when all discussion regarding the importance of industrial education\nshould give place to the establishment of schools, and to other methods of securing such\nindustrial training.\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nAnd it cries aloud for trade schools, for the enrichment of training in factory\nor apprentice schools, for half-time schools, for evening schools where\nspecial skill and shop practice in various branches of mechanical trades\nmay be had, for half-day schools co-operating with shops, for independent\nindustrial schools, for all kinds of schools of a practical nature that will\nincrease the immediate efficiency and earning power of young workers.\nThe American Federation of Labor declared at its Toronto meeting that\n\"the future welfare of America depends largely on the industrial training\nof our workers,\" and said:\nThe inquiries of the committee seem to indicate that if the American workman is to\nmaintain a high standard of efficiency, the boys and giris of the comitry must have an\nopportunity to acquire educated hands and brains, such as may enable them to earn a\nliving in a self-selected vocation. No better investment can be made by taxpayers than\nto give every youth an opportunity to secure such an education. The committee recommends that the technical education of the workers in trade and industry, being a public\ninterest, should not be a private but a public function, conducted by the public and the\nexpense involved at public cost.\n\nThe report of that special committee, signed by John Mitchell, chairman,\nand approved by the Committee on Education, was adopted by the federation.\nThe cry for the practical in education has not been limited to a certain\nclass of educators, nor to a few educational conferences, but it has come\nin no unmeaning terms from employer and employee.\nBut this cry for the practical in education is not peculiar to the present\ntime. While at some times it has been louder than at other times, it has\nalways existed; and the nature of the demand has depended upon the social\nideals of the people.\nWhen the social ideals were physical strength, and beauty, and symmetry ofhuman form, there was a national cry for the practical in education\nand the people demanded that the youth be trained, almost wholly, thru\nathletics.\nWhen the social ideal was achievements of war and conquest thru arms,\nthe cry for the practical in education was that every boy be given a soldier's\ntraining and be inured to hardship, to stern discipline, and skilled in the\nuse of implements of war.\nWhen the social ideal became veneration for the achievements of ancestors, and culture was measured by the knowledge of the events of the\npast, the cry for the practical in education was that these ideals might be\nfurthered by a constant conning-over of the ancient books which recounted\nthe glorious deeds of the forefathers.\nWhen the social ideal was a broad and general knowledge of the classics\nand an acquaintance with the Hterature of foreign tongues, there was a\ndemand that the youth of the schools be brought from other forms of training which were considered purely cultural and be made to study thoughts\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nof more or less remote antiquity as given on the printed page, and their\nculture slowly began to be measured by their easy familiarity with such\nliterature.\nWhen, thru the recognition of the value of science, the social ideals\nbecame the promotion of scientific investigations, laboratories became the\nworkshops of the schools and there was a cry for the practical in education,\nor the training in these laboratories. And it gradually came to be recognized that real culture could be had in conforming to that social Ideal.\nWhen, in these modern times, the social ideal of the people has come\nto be the transformation of crude, raw material into forms of beauty and\nusefulness to the people, the cry has gone up in no unmeaning terms for\nthe practical in education thru vocational training; and in time it will\ncome to be recognized that true culture may be developed even in the workshops of the school.\nIt is generally conceded that manual training carried on in connection\nwith public schools, however faithfully the work may have been done, has\nnot produced and is not now producing results adequate to meet present\nneeds.\nThe tendency seems to be to get away from the conduct of manualtraining shops for purely cultural or educational purposes, and industrialize\nthem as the basis of vocational training. If this be done with any degree\nof effectiveness, it will be necessary for those now engaged or about to engage\nin the teaching of manual training in the grades to break away from a graded\ncourse merely for instructional purposes and give students some introduction to the practical utility of their handiwork. There is an increasing\ndemand for actual shop experience in teachers of manual training.\nIn anything above the grades of the elementary schools, an industrial\ntraining should begin to be specialized and lead very early into a definite\ntrade.\nThe National Association of Manufacturers and the American Federation of Labor have both declared strongly in favor of trade instruction.\nThe former says:\nA trade school cannot be too practical; the more practical, productive and commercial, the more possible is mechanical efficiency as well as mental discipline and general\nculture.\n\nThe latter says :\nWe favor the establishment of schools in connection with the public-school system\nat which pupils between the ages of 14 and 16 may be taught the principles of trades, and\nthe course of instruction in such schools should include shop instruction for particular\ntrades.\n\nThey also advise that to keep such schools in close touch with the\ntrades, there should be local advisory boards, including representatives\nof the industries, employers, and organized labor.\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUc\n\nIt is not a matter of supreme importance whether the graduates of these\nschools go immediately into trades as satisfactory journeyman workers at\nfull wages, or for a term of years during the development of trade instruction in connection with public schools they be merely introduced to the\ntrades with a good foundation upon which to build their wage-earning\npower.\nThat trade instruction may be successfully given boys between 15 and\n17 years (5f age may be shown by the records of the graduating classes of\none of our trade schools for the years 1905 to 1909 inclusive. On November\nI, 1909, it was found by investigation that of 268 trade graduates, 244, or\n91 . 7 per cent, were working at their trades; the bricklayers' average wage\nbeing $4 . 64 for 8 hours a day; carpenters', $3 . 84 for 8 hours a day; machinists', $3.28 for 10 hours a day; pattern-makers', $3 . 10 for 10 hours a day.\nOf the trade classes graduated March 26, 1910, it was found within six\nmonths after graduation that of 51 graduates, 50 were engaged at their\ntrades, with the following results: 12 bricklayers, averaging 51 hours per\nweek, at 40.5 cents per hour; 13 carpenters, averaging 51.6 hours per\nweek, at 30.6 cents per hour; 11 machinists, 55.7 hours per week, at\n26 cents per hour; 10 pattern-makers, 54.6 hours per week, at 30.3 cents\nper hour; 4 steam and electrical work, 61.7 hours per week, 20.6 cents\nper hour. The average hours per week of the 50 was 53.79, the wageearning power per hour 30.8 cents.\nThat school is in the serious business of preparing its students, thru\nacademic training and a speciaUzed trade, for intelligent citizenship and\ngood earning power in industrial occupations. Its work continues thruout\nthe year, 8 hours a day, five and one-half days a week.\nOne of the beneficial effects of instruction in agriculture and the mechanical trades promises to be greater conservation of opportunity in education\nthru the reduction of time lost in vacations and short daily sessions, which in\nthe old forms of education seemed to be necessary. A practical school of\nagriculture cannot well succeed when the school is closed during the months\nof growing crops. The graduates of a trade school will not easily and\ngracefully link themselves to trade conditions if the trade student has\naccustomed himself to very short daily hours, full holiday each week, and\na long vacation thruout the summer. This conservation of opportunity\nwill mean a considerable financial saving, in that the number of hours of\nshop and classroom instruction per year may be greatly increased and the\nnumber of years of twelve-month periods necessary for preparation may\nbe proportionately reduced. The increase of hours per year may safely\nbe made much greater than the necessarily resulting increase in annual\nexpenditures for education.\nIt is interesting to find the pubHc-school systems of a few progressive\ncities leading in this movement of such tremendous economic importance\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nDISCUSSION\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — Within a decade\npractical education, as typified in vocational training, has established itself as a part of\nour public educational system. Previous to that time, the general sentiment among school\npeople was against the plan of making education practical to the extent of training young\npeople for vocations by which they might earn money. But within ten years the obligation to do this has become so generally acknowledged that it may now be considered as\naccepted that our educational ideal includes schools where young people can be trained\nin handicrafts and other employments by which they can earn a livelihood.\nWe have long recognized the propriety and necessity of providing schools in which\nthose seeking to enter the learned or highly skilled professions— law, medicine, engineering— might be prepared for their work. The proper education of persons who were to\nexercise these callings has been thought so important that the public has very generally\nbeen willing to bear the expense of schools in which this training might be given. Universities supported by the public quite frequently include colleges of law, medicine, civil,\nmechanical, electrical, and mining engineering, and, of late years, colleges of agriculture.\nAt the same time the public demand for vocational training has led the secondary\nschools to provide courses in which young people are trained to earn money as bookkeepers,\ncashiers, and stenographers. These \" commercial \" or business courses in our high schools\nhave been well patronized and have supplied an evidently felt want. More recently some\nof the agricultural colleges, and in some states special schools of agriculture of secondaryschool grade, have been giving to the young people from the farms, and to others who\nwished to learn the elements of agriculture, an opportunity to fit themselves for this work.\nBut we are only now beginning to establish and to include in our educational system\nschools where young men and young women can be trained in handicrafts — where they\ncan learn mechanical trades and become skilled craftsmen and craftswomen. A few of\nthe large cities have schools of trades for boys or schools of trades for girls, and a very\nfew cities have both. In the best of these schools young men and young women are taught\nall departments of the work of the trade; they are taught to use all the tools of the trade,\nincluding machine tools; and further, they are not confined to one, or two, or thrpe, or a\nsmall part of the processes of the trade, but each student in the apprentice school is taught\nto do all the things which a competent and skilled workman at the trade should know, as\nwell as to use all the hand and machine tools required for the most successful practice of\nthe trade.\nThese schools are fighting their way; they are also winning their way.\nSo-called \"trade schools\" of cheap and inferior quality maintained by private persons, preparing young persons hastily in a part of the knowledge and practice of a- trade,\nhave done much to injure the standing of trade schools. This standing the thoro and wellplanned trade schools are gradually regaining thru the excellent work of their graduates.\nThere has been a prejudice against these schools on the part of the proprietors of\nshops who perhaps have had experience with the poorly prepared product of private \"commercial\" trade schools. There has been a prejudice against graduates on the part of the\nforemen of the shops and factories who learned their trade in the old method by long\napprenticeship and who also have suffered from the poorly prepared students sent out from\nthe commercial trade schools.\nThere has been some feeling against these schools too, on the part of mechanics, some\nof whom feel that not all the parts of the trade can be learned in a school. While it is true\nthat in the building trades experience in the erection of buildings and in the putting together\nof their parts must be learned in some of its features \"%n the job,\" after leaving the school,\nyet the advantage which pupils in the trade school have, thru the fact that they are taught\nby skillful mechanics who are at the same time careful teachers of the processes and applications of the trade, more than offsets the lack of practice upon the work. The speed which\nthe joiurneyman mechanic needs, and experience in putting materials into place on the job,\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nare quickly acquired by a well-trained trade-school graduate who has been taught all the\nprocesses of the trade and knows also, in theory, how the construction work should be\ncarried on.\nAnother cause has prevented these schools from enrolling as many students as they\nshould have: boys who are old enough to begin the learning of a trade are also old enough\nto go into some unskilled employment and earn a few dollars per week. Too often the\ntemptation of the present few dollars is great enough to make the young people and their\nparents disregard the much greater advantage which comes from a thoro grounding in\nsome good trade, and the boys and girls are allowed to enter employments as messengers,\ncash girls, unskilled workers in factories, and other employments which, while furnishing\na small amount of ready money weekly, do not lead to improved positions, and do tend\nto keep the young people from rising into the ranks of more skilled and better-paid labor.\nThe sentiment of many mechanics has also been adverse to these schools; sometimes\nbecause they feared that too many craftsmen would be turned out. The more intelligent\namong them, however, do not seem to fear this. They are aware that in other lines of labor\nmore people enter than can at all times find profitable employment. The number of\ngraduates turned out from trade schools cannot, for many years, be such as to overstock any\ntrade. Only a few cities are likely to have trade schools and not all the graduates of these\nschools are likely to settle down in the town where they learn the trade. They will be scattered about the country.\nBut, while we have accepted and are acting upon the principle that we may properly\nteach handicrafts to yoimg people who have finished the work of the elementary schools\nand have reached the secondary-school age, we are not prepared to accept the principle\nwhich is now being advanced that the teaching of vocations ought to be carried down into\nthe elementary schools. The common or elementary schools ought to be the trainingground for all the citizens of the state, for those who enter the learned professions, the\nskilled handicrafts, commercial employments, agriculture — all the various walks of life.\nSuch training as is given in the elementary schools should be of educational rather than\nvocational character. If we can so revise our courses of instruction in the elementary\nschools that the boys and girls who finish the grammar grades shall have a better knowledge\nof the English tongue and better power to use it correctly in oral and written speech, this\nwill certainly be a great advantage to our young people into whatever vocation they enter.\nIf we can also give them some better training in the fundamental principles of arithmetic,\nand teach them to perform more promptly and more accurately and intelligently the computations which are required of them in the various common relations of life, we shall have\ndone something for all vocations. If we can give to all the boys and girls such training of\nthe hands as shall make them skillful in the use of the elemental hand tools and some ability\nto work upon materials of different kinds, we shall have done something of real value, no\nmatter what vocation is followed in later life. And if we are able to give to all the girls\nin the common schools such training in the arts of the home, in cooking, sewing, care of\nthe house and its inmates, as shall make more capable and intelligent housewives out of\nthe 80 or 90 per cent of girls whose lot it is to assume the care of a home, we shall have\ndone much, not only for these individual girls but for the state of which the families over\nwhich these girls are to preside form important basic units.\nSo far we are all prepared to go with those advocates of more and better training in\nthe elementary schools; but beyond this we refuse to be carried. It is no part of the duty\nof the public educational system to train boys or girls in a little of a trade or occupation\nin order that they may enter factories and workshops and be from the first more profitable\nemployees to the factory owners because they have been given a little training in performing one or two of the processes carried on in the factories. It is the duty of a public educational system to lay down its course of instruction in these subjects so as to make wellrounded craftsmen, if it enters upon this duty at all. The constant pull of commercial\nconditions draws enough boys and girls into employments where they acquire no skill\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence! BALANCED\n\nCOURSE\n\nAND\n\nALL-YEAR-ROUND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n267\n\nwhere their work from year to year does not develop them, and does not open to them any\nfuture. If we are to teach a vocation, let it be a real vocation, one that it is worth while\nto teach. Let us ground upon ourselves the proposition that children have a right to\ntheir childhood and that the state has a duty to see that they are not robbed of it; that\nthe boys and girls of the nation are to be kept in the schools at least until they have completed the work of the elementary grades; and that only after this has been done, with\nfull opportunity for learning those things which the common schools can teach to foster\ngood citizenship, should they be allowed to take up the work of preparing themselves for\nspecific vocations.\nWe, in planning our educational system, must be wiser than those owners of forests\nwho allow the small trees to be cut down; we must be wiser than those breeders of horses\nwho put two-year-olds upon the race track. We must allow our boys and girls to grow\nout of their childhood, at least into the early years of their youth, before we begin in the\npublic schools to classify them according to the occupations which they plan to follow\nthru life. Let us never lend ourselves to the pressure which will be many times applied\nto induce us to train our boys and girls of tender age in the common schools into deft\nmill hands to feed the maws of those factories where boys and girls, men and women,\nspend days and weeks, and months and years in repeating over and over and over again,\ncountless thousands of times, the same set of motions in the tending of a machine or in\nthe performing of a single process which the complex organization of our modem system\nof manufacture sets apart from them. While, no doubt, hands will be found to do this\nwork so long as these great institutions are orgam'zed upon their present basis, yet it is\nno part of the duty of the public schools to so shape our boys and girls in the elementary grades that they may feed the long files that pass within the factory doors to engage\nin this stultifying, deadening, poorly remimerated labor.\n\nB.\n\nIN THE\n\nBALANCED COURSE OF STUDY\nYEAR-ROUND SCHOOLS\n\nG. W. A. LUCKEY, HEAD PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nLINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nTHE\n\nALL-\n\nOF NEBRASKA,\n\nRecent years have increased our knowledge of the laws of nature and\nof life, and yet we seem far removed from the solution of the riddle of\nexistence. When man was created we know not, how he was created is\nmore of a mystery, but that he is, lives, and desires to live we are most\ncertain. As a child of Nature he is subject to certain, definite, physical\nlaws, some of which we know, more of which we may know. It is the\nprovince of education to bring man into harmony with these laws, to\nenable him to understand them and to use them to the betterment of himself and of others.\nIn the study of education it becomes necessary to know the nature\nof man, to have a standard of values, a philosophy of life. What is the\nmeaning of creation, and the purpose of humanity? Why are we here?\nWhy are we given such a short period in wjjich to accompUsh the world's\nwork?\nThe more we study the problems of hfe the deeper our conviction that\nthe hand that made us is divine. In creation, man is the finished product.\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Mobfle\n\nEverything seems adapted to his needs, his comfort, and his spiritual\ngood. Limited in body, he may become universal and eternal in soul.\nFor man's highest success and truest happiness but one thing seems\nabsolutely demanded — to develop in harmony with this world-order of\nwhich he is a vitalizing part.\nThe thing that is greatest in this complex whole, and that for which\neverything else seems planned, is life. Men come and go but life continues\nalways. To conserve the life he has, to increase and enrich it, and to give\nit to others, is, I believe, man's highest mission. In fulfilling this truly\nhe receives the truest and most lasting happiness. Nature has provided\nfor this by making possible healthy reproduction, but to truly live means\nmore than being born well. It means to discover the laws of life, to enrich\nthe soul and become spiritually dynamic. Here is the work of the teacher,\nthe inspirer of youth.\nHence in the truest sense education is the development of life, the\narousing and bringing into control and efficiency latent possibiUties. It\nis the process of teaching one how to live, of giving the psychic control of\nthe physical, the soul control of the body. Education always means\nchange in the functioning of an organism and this change to be vital must\ntake place at the time of growth and in harmony with the natural laws of\ndevelopment. Eating may cause growth but it is exercising, thinking,\nand willing that make character.\nWhere there is no life nor growth there can be no education. It has\nbeen found, however, that a veneer can be given which simulates education\nbut in no way modifies or affects human action and culture. To make\neducation real it must occur in connection with nascent periods and the\ndesire or impetus must be aroused from within. Hence in the education\nof children it is important to know how to strengthen and increase life\nand to make it self-directing and self-sustaining.\nWe are interested in the physical only as it affects the spiritual, but the\nrelation is close and the interaction important. So far as we are aware\nperfection of soul can occur only in perfection of body.\nEducation and nature must go hand in hand. Both are conservative\nand tend to establish norms. Too great variation from these norms means\ndeath, while slight variation if in the right direction may mean greater\nlife. In this connection the most fitting man seems to be the balanced man.\nHe is the more tenacious of life. He transmits more permanent quahties\nto offspring. He is nearer the universal type, the genus homOj and exerts\nupon others a more immediate influence. The healthiest Ufe is the balanced\nlife and the education that is strongest and best parallels physical growth\nand development.\nThe body as we know it is an exceedingly complex organism. Beginning\nwith a single cell it soon becomes an organized community of biUions of\nhighly differentiated cells acting as a imit. In this growth there is law and\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence) BALANCED\n\nCOURSE\n\nAND\n\nALL-YEAR-ROUND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n269\n\norder, all parts do not develop simultaneously, some grow first, others\nlast. All individuals follow closely the same order and have most in\ncommon ; however, growth furnishes many abnormalities and variations\nfrom the type. Faulty education tends to increase these.\nThe physical variations or abnormalities of children seem to be greatest\nbetween the ages of eight and nine, and become less pronounced with the\nadjustments of growth during adolescence. Habit variations are probably\nthe greatest at sixteen or seventeen. AbnormaHties are greatest in children\nwho are below grade. Defective body structure must mean defective\nbrain or nerve structure, and hence defective psychic life. All this seems\nto point toward the necessity of a balanced course of study, worked out\nin harmony with, and according to, the needs of natural development.\nIn harmony with the laws of physical development there seem to be\nat least four rather clearly marked stages of mental development: the\nfirst covering the period from birth to six or seven, the second extending\nto fourteen, the third to eighteen or twenty, the fourth continuing thru\nthe rest of the plastic life. There are overlappings and some elements\nand needs common to all periods, but the distinctions are sufficiently\nmarked to be carefully noted in all true education.\nThe first is the kindergarten period, in which the child thru the exercise\nof instincts gains intelHgence and acquires a limited amount of muscular\ncontrol. As Froebel has said, it is the period par excellence for rendering\nthe inner outer. The second is the period par excellence for gathering\nsimple facts, concrete material; for gaining fundamental muscular control and acquiring the use of the fundamental instruments of education,\ne.g., reading, writing, drawing, music, numbers, and the elements of language and science. The third is the period of youth, the period of organization and construction, of generalization and the perceiving of relations;\nthe period of transition from boyhood to manhood, from being self-centered\nto altro-centered. The fourth is the period of specialization, of research,\nof purer and clearer thinking, and of constructive wiUing. It is the time\nof service, of vocational activity, of the Master's business, and the world's\nwork.\nDuring the first two periods the necessity of a balanced curriculiun seems\nunquestioned and in a large part of the third it is almost as essential. During these three periods most of the physical and much of the mental become\nestablished and to a large degree fixed. From this time on there is less\nneed of a balanced curriculum. If the foundation has been rightly laid\nthe thinking will be of the highest order. Investigation and research will\nlend a pecuHar charm. The student will perceive himself as an atom in\n*\na world-whole.\nIn the true school three things are necessary: organized play for all,\nmotor activity in constructive work, and wisely directed mental effort.\nWe have learned thru the open-air schools that dull, unhealthy children\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobfle\n\ncan be changed in a single year to bright healthy children thru change of\nnourishment, more fresh air, play, motor activity, and but one-third the\ntime given to mental effort. We might have anticipated the results as\nmany did, but what shall we say of the more fortunate children who are\nnow devoting from a third to a half more time in mental work than is found\nnecessary for the dull? We need a balanced curriculum but we need\nalso a school organized and planned in harmony with the present thought\nof the necessity in education of work and play.\nI agree with Superintendent Elson that the lengthening of the school\nyear is in accord with present-day thought. In the first place it has been\nfound to work favorably with non-promoted children to have a lengthened\nsummer term. Many have made in a few weeks or months what would\nhave otherwise necessitated a year's difference in grade and have acquired\nbetter health in doing it. Mental retardation often indicates physical\niretardation or weakness. If anyone should be free to have a more outdoor\nlife in the summer, it should be the physically weak or mentally retarded\nchild. Since a lengthened school year is found advantageous to the nonpromoted child it certainly will be found more advantageous to the healthy,\nvigorous child. School work should never become drudgery and with\nmore play and motor activity the lengthened school term will add to the\nchild's pleasure.\nThe processes of learning are going on all the time in every healthy\nchild. Mental growth, hke physical growth, is a continuous process. Education, to be vital, must take place during the nascent period. Since\ngrowth does not stop during the summer, there is no good reason why the\neducation should. It would be a difficult thing for the child to eat enough\nduring the first nine months of the year to last him, without eating, during\nthe next three. It is just as unreasonable to do without mental food, and\nespecially so during the years when the child is growing and changing so\nrapidly.\nThe school is the child's workshop and recreation center. Here he\nacquires the habits that give meaning and direction to his after-life. When\nin business, his shop will not close for a summer vacation, and neither\nshould he form habits in youth which would make a prolonged vacation\nseem necessary. Not only is there a beautiful and expensive school plant\nremaining idle many months of the year, but the accumulating physical\nand mental energy of the children is being wasted for the want of direction;\nor what is more discouraging, the city children are forming the habits of\nthe gang, the loafer, and the hobo. The lengthened term would add to\nthe moral tone, better the health conditions, save both money and time,\nand strengthen the mental product.\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nON UNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\nRECORDS AND REPORTS\n\nREPORTS\n\n271\n\nON UNIFORM\n\nTo the President and Members of the Department' of Superintendence of the\nNational Education Association:\nThe Committee on Uniform Statistics begs leave to submit the following\npreliminary report:\nYour committee has endeavored, thru the co-operation of school superintendents thruout the country, to bring before this meeting for consideration tentative plans for uniformity in records and reports. The work\nthat we have done has been made possible thru the co-operation of the\nUnited States Bureau of Education, which sent out our proposals and\nreceived replies with regard to the propositions which we have advanced.\nIn the case of the schedule for reporting fiscal statistics the Bureau of\nEducation, at the request of your committee, invited representatives\nof the Bureau of the Census, of the National Association of School Accounting Officers, and of our own committee to meet in Washington. Two\nsuch meetings were held. As a result of these conferences, the forms\nwhich we recommended come before you with the indorsement of all of\nthese bodies, as well as with the approval of a great many superintendents\nthruout the United States.\nThe foundation of all statistics concerning pupils is established in the\nrecords made by teachers in the schoolroom. Unless these records are\nexpressed in common terms having a definite meaning the data gathered\nfrom them are not comparable. School statistics as at present compiled\nand compared are unreliable and of little value, and they will continue to\nbe so until agreement can be reached not only as to terms used and the\ndefinite meaning of these terms, but also, to some extent, as to the method\nof recording and arranging the original data upon which school statistics\nare based.\nThe first work of the Committee on Uniform Statistics consisted of\na careful investigation of the subject of school records, and this resulted\nin the submission of an elementary school record system, thru the co-operation of the United States Commissioner of Education, to school superintendents thruout the country. Altho several forms were offered for the\npurpose of getting criticisms and suggestions, and for the sake of illustrating\nthe complete working-out of a system of school records, chief emphasis\nwas laid on the cumulative record card which was framed to serve as a\npermanent and progressive record of the pupil's kindergarten and elementary school career. The form recommended follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n272\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Mobile\n\nship\n\n1\nC\n\nd\n\ne\n\nDate of\nAdmission\n\nAge Sept.\nI\nYears\nMonths\n\nGrade\n\nRoom\n\nDays\n\nf\n\ng\n\nh\n\nHealth\n\nduct\nScholar-\n\nent\n\n*\n\n1\n\n1\n\nPres-\n\nCon-\n\n^\n\npupil. the\n\noffice the in\n\nI. Last name\n\nhas who teacher the to sent be to then is It records.\n\n1\n\nb\n\nprincipal's the to\nchange a requiring made is change any when office\nsent and out filled be to is It transferred. or promoted is pupil the as\n\nRECORD PROMOTION SYSTEM— RECORD SCHOOL ELEMENTARY\n\nSchool\n\nschool to school from or teacher to teacher from pass to is card This\n\na\n\n(over)\n\n2. First name and initial\n\n1\n\nELEMENTARY SCHOOL RECORD\nSYSTEM — ADMISSION, DISCHARGE, AND PROMOTION CARD\n\n3. Place of birth\n\n4. Date of Birth S. Vaccinated\n\n6. Name of parent or guardian\n\n7. Occupation of parent or\nguardian\n\nTo be kept for every pupil and\nsent with the pupil when he is\ntransferred\nto any\nschool,\neither public or private, in the\ncity or outside the city. Great\ncare should be used to have\nthe names COMPLETE and\nCORRECT.\nWrite\nall dates as\n1912-9-25.\n\n8. RESIDENCE.\n\n(Use one column at a time.\nGive new residence\nwhen pupil is transferred.)\n\n0.\nDate of\nDischarge\n\nfollows:\n\n10. Age\nYears Months\n\nWhen a pupil is permanently discharged to work, to remain at home, or because of death,\npermanent illness, or commitment to an institution, this card is to be returned to the principal's\noffice and a full statement of the cause of the pupil's discharge is to be made in the blank space\nremaining above.\n8-304\n^°''^'^\n\nAfter an examination of more than five hundred repHes to that part\nof the commissioner's circular relating to a cumulative record card the\ncommittee finds as follows:\n1. That there is substantially unanimous assent to the following general proposition:\nA cumulative record card should he kept for every child thruout his entire kindergarten\nand elementary school career,\n2. That suggestions made by correspondents have not shown a preponderance of\nopinion in favor of any specific increase or decrease in either the size or contents of the\ncard.\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n273\n\n3. That in view of those conclusions the card submitted has been adopted as best\nrepresenting the consensus of opinion on the matter of a cumulative record card, and the\ncommittee recommends the general use of this card, or one in substantial agreement with\nIt as to the essential facts needed for statistical data and school administration.\n\nThe committee desires to call attention to the following suggestive list\nDi uses to which the card may be put:\n1. Amount of attendance of individual pupil for one year.\n2. Comparative rates of progress in schools having seven-year, eight-year, or nineyear elementary courses.\n3. Classification of pupils by age and grade. (Note that a standard date for computing ages is established, viz., September i.)\n4. Classification of pupils for enrollment data:\na) Duplicate enrollment in the school.\nb) From other public schools in town or city.\nc) From other public schools in state.\nd) Original enrollment from all other sources.\n5. Number of times child has been detained in a grade.\n6. Foreign birth as affecting progress.\n7. Kindergarten training as affecting progress.\n8. Attendance in other schools as affecting progress.\n9. Absence as affecting progress.\n10. Numerous inquiries having to do with individual school management.\n\nDiverse opinions as to the necessity of certain items on the Admission,\nDischarge, and Promotion Card, as, for example, item \"Conduct,\" are\nnot necessarily barriers in the way of the uniform use of the form of card\nrecommended; for in any school system such an item may be omitted by\ndirection of the superintendent, or left optional with principals. The\nvalue of a uniform card lies chiefly in three considerations:\n1. Universal adaptability for use in whatever system of schools the pupil may enter.\n2. Decreased cost because of printing in large quantities.\n3. Establishment of common practices of record making and common^ terms for the\nexpression of facts valuable for statistical investigation.\n\nIt is beheved that any general record card recommended for universal\nadoption should not include a detailed statement of facts needed for an\nadequate study of individual cases of physically abnormal and retarded\nchildren. For such a purpose a special form should be used providing for\nyearly records of defective eyesight, hearing, condition of teeth, and other\nphysical characteristics, and for records concerning nutrition, environment,\nspecific cases of illness, special aptitudes, and such other facts as are likely\nto be desired. The exact form of such a card may well be left for future\nconsideration.\nThe general cumulative record card and this supplementary card will\nrepresent the minimum and maximum requirements of the individual\ncumulative record.\nIt seems inadvisable at the present time to submit for general agreement\nany specific form for the recording of dailjf attendance and for monthly\nand yearly reports of the same; but certain general principles ought to\nbe given careful consideration, and there are some particulars in which\nuniformity of practice is very greatly to be desired.\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nThe daily register or daily summary should show four groups of admitted\npupils as follows:\na) Pupils previously enrolled during the year, including transfers, within the school\nor school district. (This item is thrown out in computing the number of different pupils\nenrolled during the year in a given school or district.)\nh) Pupils previously enrolled during the year in some other school or school district\nin the town or city. (This item is thrown out in computing the number of different pupils\nenrolled during the year in a given town or city.)\nc) Pupils previously enrolled during the year in other towns or cities in the state.\n(This item is thrown out in computing the number of different pupils enrolled during the\nyear in a given state.)\nd) Pupils not previously enrolled during the year in any town or city in the state.\n(These are original enrollments included in all reports.)\n\nIt is not useful to attempt a classification of discharged pupils into four\ngroups corresponding exactly to the four groups of admitted pupils. The\nfollowing classification is suggested as a desirable one:\na) Pupils temporarily discharged, and transferred within the school or school district.\nh) Pupils transferred to any other school, public or private.\n(Graduates separately.)\nc) Pupils permanently discharged to go to work. (Schooling discontinued before\ncompletion of elementary-school course.)\nd) Pupils discharged for other reasons. (A relatively small number whose schooling\nis discontinued before completion of elementary-school course for accidental reasons.)\n\nMore important, at the present time, than forms for recording attendance and enrollment data, is the securing of a common terminology for\ncertain conditions of attendance and enrollment. The following definitions are submitted as representative of the best practice:\n1. Age and grade classification. — For this purpose the age on the first day of September should be used. This is the age at which, approximately, the pupil enters upon the\nwork of a new grade. There are good reasons for taking it in preference to January i,\nthe day on which the work of the grade is partially completed, or July i, the approximate\ndate on which the work of the grade is finished. It is commonly used in school census\nenumerations, and is conveniently near the time at which a great majority of pupils enter\nschool. If once recorded on the Admission, Discharge, and Promotion Card it can be made\na matter of record for each succeeding year with practically no effort and with little likelihood of error.\n2. Number enrolled. — It is generally understood that this item means the number\nenrolled exclusive of dupHcation, in whatever school unit it is reported for. The way in\nwhich this number may be ascertained is indicated under \"Enrollment Data,\" above.\n3. Number belonging. — As soon as a pupil is known to have left the school without\nintention to return he ceases at once to belong and he is not thereafter included in the\nnumber belonging. If absent under any other circumstances he is carried on the rolls as\n\"belonging,\" and marked ahs&aX for five consecutive days (or until he returns if his consecutive absence is less than five days in duration). He is \"temporarily discharged\" at the\nend of five consecutive days of absence, and then ceases to \"belong\" until he returns\nto school and is \"readmitted.\"\nFive days (ten half-day sessions in schools having two sessions a day) constitute one\nweek in a great majority of schools, and represent a fair compromise between extremes\nof practice in this particular.\nN.B. — \"Average number belonging\" means the same as \"average membership.\"\nThe average number belonging is found by the same process as the average attendance.\n4. Average attendance. — The average daily attendance during the school year (which\nis the average number of pupils actually present each day the schools were in session)\nmay be computed as follows:\na) For a single school: Add together the number of days each pupil was present\nduring the year or the number of pupils present each day during the year, and divide the\nsum (which is the \"aggregate attendance in days\") by the number of such school days.\nh) For a group of schools having the same number of days in the year (as the schools\nof most cities have) : Divide the combined aggregate attendance in days of all the schools\nby the number of days in the school year.\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n275\n\nc) For a system of schools having different lengths of school year (as, for instance,\nthose of a county) : Add together the average attendance of the component schools\nand groups of the system as ascertained by the foregoing rules. For larger systems,\nas those of a state, the summing-up process is continued in the same way.\nNote. — In systems of schools where monthly reports of attendance are called for\nthe general principles of a, b, and c, above, apply to the finding of monthly averages.\nThe sum of the monthly averages of attendance in the schools of most cities, divided by\nthe number of months, is approximately the same as the average attendance for the year\nfound by the methods given above.\n5. Average number of days in the school year. — In a school system having different\nlengths of school year in its various units (as in c, above), the average number of days in\nthe school year is found by dividing the combined \"aggregate attendance in days\" of all\nschools\nof the system by the \"average attendance\" as ascertained by the method given\nin c.\n\nThe second recommendation of the committee has to do with the form\nof reporting fiscal statistics. With the variation in record and report\nwhich we now have it is impossible to make any adequate comparison of\nthe cost of education as among any group of cities, and usually it is not\neasy to determine the cost for any particular unit within the school system\nitself. The form of report recommended by the committee provides for\nsuch differentiation as will enable anyone to make adequate comparisons\namong the several cities of the United States, and, at the same time, calls\nfor a system of accounts which will make it possible to discover the cost\nof particular types of schools within the system itself.\nIn some of our cities as much as one-third of the entire city revenue\nis devoted to education. The demands from all departments for more\nfunds are insistent. Increased expenditures for education must be justified by showing the maximum of return for money already granted. Such\nevidence of efficiency calls for a system of accounts and of reports at least\nas elaborate as that which is required to fill out the schedule of fiscal statistics recommended by the committee. The schedule recommended for\nreporting fiscal statistics follows:\nA.— PAYMENTS\nI.— EXPENSES\nEXPENSES\n\nTotal\n\n(Cost of Conducting School System).\n\nOF GENERAL\n\nCONTROL\n\n10.\n\nTotal\n\nOther\nObjects\n\n(OVERHEAD CHARGES)\n\nI. 'Board of Education and Secretary's Ofl&ce\n2. School elections and school census\n3. Finance offices and accounts\n4. Legal services\n5. Operation and maintenance of oflSce building\n6. Offices in charge of buildings and supplies\n\n7. Office of superintendent of schools\n«\n8. Enforcement of compulsory education and truancy laws\n9. Other expenses of general control\n\nSalaries\n\n...\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n276\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Mobfle\n\nsi\n\n1\n\n;\n\n:\n\nj;\n\n:\n\ni\n\n::\n\nJiii\nll\n\n•\n•\n\n\\!\n\\\n\n1 1\n\n1\n\ni ll\n\ni1\n\n•B\n\n0\n\nM\"2\n\nH Sj S Ci H\n\nIt\n\nH\n\n1\n\nSi\n\n0\n\n*©\n\n11 1\n\n1\n\n\"o\n\nen\n\n0:\n\nB\n\n1/\n\n%\n\n1\n\n12\n\n1\n\n1\n\n\"0\n\nII\n\n1\n\n\"c:\n\n-J2\n\n•c\n\na\nc\nM\n\nen\n\nC\n\n1\n\nc3\n\ni\n\nen\n\n0\n\nvd\n\n1\n1 1 11\na\n\nen\n\nw\n\n<N\n\nia\n\n00\n\n1\n\n0\n\nH\nM\n\nH\n\nd\n\n0 CO\n4\n\ng\n\nll\ni1 1\ni\n11 1\ntr.\n\ntn\n\n0\n\n0\n\n8\n\nCI\n\ntn\n\n<N\n\n0\n\n1\n\n00\nen\n\nu.\n\nI\nll\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n277\n\n3\nbC.S\n\na.s2\nu\n\nra\n\nrn\n\n.B^ Z *^ S\nbOv«\n\nO\n\n°\n\nG\n\nT3 a c c B\nu\n\no\n\nto -<:i 0)\nCO rt TO « 4> 2\nPL,\nfi^ u ;ih P^ o\n\n?\n\naj *•»\n\nf-T' rr »^\n\n^ 4> ;3 3 S\"\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIII.— OTHER\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Mobne\n\nPAYMENTS\n\n53. Redemption of bonds\n54. Redemption of short-term loans\n55. Payment of warrants and orders of preceding year\n56. Payments to sinking funds\n57. Payments of interest\n58. Miscellaneous payments, including payments to trust funds, textbooks to\nbe sold to pupils, etc\n59.\nTotal\n60. Balances at close of year at\n61.\nTotal payments and balances\n\n$.\n\nB.— RECEIPTS\nREVENUE\n\nRECEIPTS\n\n62. Subventions and grants from state\n\n$.\n\n63. Subventions and grants from county\n64. Subventions and grants from other civil divisions\n65. Appropriations from city treasury\n66. General property taxes\n\n•\n,\n\n67. Business taxes (licenses, excise taxes, taxes on corporations, taxes on\noccupations, etc.)\n68. Poll taxes\n69. Fines and penalties\n70. Rents and interest\n71. All other revenue\n72.\nTotal revenue receipts\n\nj_.\n\nnon-revenue receipts\n73. Loans and bond sales\n74. Warrants issued and unpaid\n\n$. .\n\n75. Sales of real property and proceeds of insurance adjustmenls\n76. Sales of equipment and supplies\n77. Refund of payments\n78. Other non-revenue receipts\n79.\nTotal non-revenue receipts\n\n^_^\n\n80.\n\n$.\n\nTotal receipts\n\n81. Balances at beginning of year\n82.\nTotal receipts and balances\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n279\n\nThese two forms of record — namely, the cumulative pupil card and the\nschedule for reporting fiscal statistics — are each made more significant\nby reason of existence of the other. It is to be supposed that these accurate\nrecords of the attendance, promotion, retardation, and elimination of\npupils will be used in connection with the fiscal statistics in order to determine the cost of education per pupil in any school, or if the fiscal schedule\nbe somewhat elaborated, in any subject.\nThe report has thus far considered the problem of uniform records and\nreports as affecting cities. The problem of comparison among the several\nstates was also considered by your committee.\nThe value of educational statistics for purposes of comparisons between\nstates depends largely upon the degree of uniformity and the form and\nmethod in which they are reported. Such value also depends in great\nmeasure upon the extent to which the terms employed are commonly\naccepted and definitely understood.\nTo secure such uniformity of method and form the following recommendations are suggested:\n1. That the terms and definitions used by the Bureau of Education be accepted\nand employed in collecting and reporting all local data by the states, supplemented with\nsuch other terms and definitions as the statutes of the individual state may require.\n2. That the blank forms employed by the state departments for collecting statistics\nbe based, so far as practicable, upon the arrangement used by the United States Bureau\nof Education.\n3. That all the facts of educational interest tabulated by the United States Bureau of\nEducation be fully and uniformly reported by the states.\n4. That the printed reports of the states cover, so far as practicable, for each state\nthe same scope of educational activity as that covered by the reports of the Bureau of\nEducation for the entire nation.\nCOMMENT\n\nON RECOMMENDATION\n\nNUMBER\n\nONE\n\nThe first of the foregoing recommendations calls for mutual agreement\nto accept and employ somewhat arbitrary definitions and terms now\nvariously interpreted, as, for example, \"school enrollment,\" \"average\nattendance,\" \"truancy,\" \"school age,\" etc., etc. Such definitions should\nbe made by a committee representing the states, but should, so far as\npossible, conform to any majority practice already accepted, and should\nbe submitted to a referendum of the state departments.\nCOMMENT\n\nON RECOMMENDATION\n\nNUMBER\n\nTWO\n\nThe advantage of employing forms as nearly as possible uniform in\narrangement would be the more rapid acceptance and understanding of\nthe items required under any given subject. The use of such forms by\nlocal reporting officers would tend rapidly toward a general and uniform\nunderstanding of items now variously understood because they are reported\nfrom various points of view.\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIMobUe\n\nThe blank forms should constitute the subject of further investigation\nby the Committee on Uniform Statistics or a similar committee and should\nbe subject to a referendum of the state departments.\nCOMMENT\n\nON RECOMMENDATION\n\nNUMBER\n\nTHREE\n\nAn examination of the state reports and those of the Bureau of Education reveals a considerable lack of uniformity in certain fundamental\nmatters reported by the Bureau of Education. The third recommendation\nwould call, therefore, for the extension of inquiry on the part of the states.\nThe following items are selected as representative of facts reported by a\nmajority of the states, but not collected and reported by all of them.\nA. School Census.\na) Not taken by three states.\nh) Sexes not enumerated by thirteen states.\nB. School Enrollment.\na) Lack of unifonnity of definition.\nh) Sexes not enimierated by twelve states.\nC. Average Attendance.\na) Statistics uncertain because of lack of uniformity of definition.\nD. Teachers' Wages.\na) No dififerentiation between sexes by nine states.\n6) The distinction between elementary and secondary schools is not clearly indicated\nby many states.\nE. Private Schools.\na) Statistics for the majority of states are inadequate. Seven states report no statistics. Other states gather such statistics, but not uniformly in time or method\nwith those for public schools. A number of states give approximate figures only.\nF. School Revenues and Expenditures.\na) Methods of gathering and reporting these figures vary greatly among the states.\nSuggestions for improving these form the subject of another section of this report.\nG. Classification of School Expenses.\na) See note imder F.\n\nCOMMENT\n\nON RECOMMENDATION\n\nNUMBER\n\nFOUR\n\nAn examination of the state reports reveals no general practice relative\nto the publication in school reports of statistics of educational movements\nand institutions not under direct public control.\nIt is apparently the practice of many states to include in the publicschool report figures and statistics relative only to those items which are\nspecifically controlled by state or local public-school authorities. The\ncommittee would suggest the proposition that it is desirable that each\nstate report shall cover all essential particulars of the varied educational\nactivities within the state. Among the features not reported uniformly\nby all states are:\nA. Private elementary schools.\nB. Academies, seminaries, and other private secondary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSupcrintendencel\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n281\n\nC. Colleges other than state universities and land-grant colleges.\nD. Schools for defectives and delinquents.\nE. General educational movements, as, for example, public playgrounds, school\nhygiene, etc.\n\nThe committee suggests that the use of the state report as a clearinghouse of educational information would simplify the task of gathering\ninformation on the condition and progress of education among the states\nand that reasonable uniformity of treatment would simplify the interpretation of the facts reported. As a basis for such uniformity the committee\nsuggests the adoption by the states of the general form of report adopted\nby the Bureau of Education.\nThe recommendations of the committee with regard to the type of\n•record to be kept become significant only in proportion to the use which\ncan be made of the statistics gathered in the organization and administration of our schools. The discussion and illustrations which follow furnish the best argument which can be made for the adoption of more adequate\nrecords and reports.\nUSE OF STATISTICS IN SCHOOL\nFACTS VERSUS\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOPINION\n\nWhen the school was small, consisting of one or two teachers, or at\nmost of one or two buildings, definite knowledge with reference to school\nneeds and the work done was easily acquired. With the development of\nschool systems involving expenditure of millions of dollars, comprising\nthousands of teachers and hundreds of thousands of pupils, direct knowledge of what should be done, and of what is being done, is rendered more\nor less impossible, yet the necessity of positive knowledge of actual school\nneeds and conditions is imperative.\nTeaching is at best only becoming a profession. Perhaps in no other\nline of activity do custom and tradition play such a prominent part. The\nsame activities are carried on today because they were carried on yesterday.\nThe same emphasis is given a study now because this was the emphasis\nformerly given. The same topics are taught in the subject because these\nwere previously taught. In a word, we are just beginning to study the\nreasons for this and that activity, and for doing this and that type of school\nwork.\nAt best, theories of education are difficult to define and to determine.\nOur attitude toward foreign languages, toward science, toward formal\ngrammar, toward the time and place given to arithmetic, our ideas of\nwhere to begin the teaching of formal spelling, or of writing, or of geography, rest not upon facts, but very largely upon opinions — opinions which\nin turn are determined to a large extent by education and temperament.\nNot only in the work of administration are our larger policies a reflection, to a greater or less extent, of persona^ bias, but even in the smaller\nmatters,, if they may be so called, the personal point of view doipainatea\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\niMobile\n\nto a considerable extent. We arbitrarily assume that our children profit\nby the study of Latin, by the study of science; we arbitrarily assume that\nthe high school is doing all that it should for its pupils; we arbitrarily\nassume that pupils are efficient in reading; that this style and type of writing is preferable; that our children are good or poor in spelling; that the\nwork in history and geography is effective; we arbitrarily assume that\nproper emphasis is placed upon each of the studies, and these given their\ntime-value and proper emphasis in the advancement of children through\nthe school. Seldom indeed in the past have school men measured by any\ndefinite criteria, or proved by systematic investigation, any of the above\nassumptions.\nIf the administration of the public school is to be elevated above the\nplane of personal opinion, if our theories are to be given foundation in fact,\nif our assumptions with reference to lines of work, methods of instruction,\nmastery of subject-matter, and skill in manipulation are to be displaced\nby positive knowledge, data must be collected with reference to actual\nsocial conditions, with reference to the effect upon children of certain lines\nof instruction, and with reference to the effectiveness of given methods of\nteaching. In a word, if school administration is to be rescued from the\ndominion of tradition and personal bias, systematic and scientific study\nmust be made of school methods, and of school results. For only as facts\ntake the place of opinion, assumption gives way to definite knowledge, mere\npersonal point of view yields to established principles, will the administration\nof our schools be placed upon a firm footing, and education be made scientific and professional.\nDETERMINING\n\nTHE WORK\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe annual reports of given school systems may show an increase\nin the number of children receiving their education at public expense.\nYet in centers of rapidly increasing population the school registration may\nbe increasing and still the public school be losing ground. The basis of\ndetermining whether a given system is reaching a larger and larger proportion of children of school age, or of determining what part of its whole\ntask a given school is doing, lies not in the enrollment, but in the relation\nthis enrollment bears to the total school population.\nTo know the whole work of the school, it is therefore necessary to secure\nan accurate school census by ages. A comparison of this data with the\ntotal enrollment in public, private, and parochial schools will reveal the\npart of the whole work which is not being covered by any school, also the\npart of the whole work being done by the public school.\nTable I shows the school census by ages of the city of Cleveland for\n1 908-1 909, the number enrolled in public, private, and parochial schools,\nthe number in no school, and the percentage of all the children of the city\nin the public school:\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "•3\n\n\"*\n•g\n\nto\nto\n\nto\nto\n\nto\n\nVO\n\nOC\n\nvO\n\nto\n\n^\n\nto\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nTf\n\nON»o UNIFORM 00 RECORDS\n\nM\nM\nC4\n\nM\n\n00\n\nto\nt^\nNO\nC4\n\n^\n\nCO\n\n0\nr^\n\nto\n0\n\ns\n\nt^\n\n0^\n\n0\n\nto\nM\n00^\n\n0T?\n\n00\n\nVO\n\nt^\nto\n1^\n\nCO\nto\n\nCO\n\nQ\n\n0cT\n\nM\n\n*\n\nM\nto\n\n\"\n\n00\nCO\n\n^\n\nt^\n\ntc \"\n\nto\nCO\nt^\nM\n\nkT\n\nr^•\n0\n\nCO\n\nt-T\n00^\n\nVO\n\n\"\n\nto 00\nto\n\nM\n\nvo\n\nt^\nM\nM\n00\nt^\n\nto\n\ncT\n\nM\nfO\n\n«*J\n\n••^«t\n\n-\"t\n\nVO\n\nq\n\nM\n\n0V)\n\ns\n\n?\n\nVO\n\nOv\nt^\n\nOv\nto\nfO\n\nt\n\nto\nVO\n\n00\n\nt^\n»00\n\nto\n00\n\nt^\n\nw\nv00\nO^\n\nCO\n\n1^\n\n0\nTj-\n\n1\n\n0\n\n0\n\nto\n\nN\nTf\n\n283\n\nM\n\n^\n\n•8\n\n^\n\n5\n\n0\n\nCO\nv>\n\nREPORTS\n\n00\n\n*o\n\n^\n\nAND\n\n•s\n\nCO\n\nt^\n\n00\nN\n«o\nC<\n\n0\nvO\n\n^\n\ncT\nt>.\n\n0\n\nto\nfO\nN\n\n0\nM\n\ns\n\n10\n\nto\n\nVO Ov\nt>.\nt>.\n\nCM\n\ns\n\n00\n\n2\n\n^\nW\n\n<>\n\nt^\n0\n\ns\n\nCO\n\n1s\n\n^\n\nM\n\nCI\n\nM\n\n00\n\nto\n10\n\n»o\n\nto\nH\nTh\n\nSc5^\nt^\n\n«^\n«\n\n-\n\nVO\n\n0M\n\nM\n\n1\n\nto\n\nt>.\n\n00\nu>\nw\n\nTi-\n\n«\n\n0CO\n\nM\n\n00^\n\nc<\ncT\n\ns\n\nt^\n\n1\n\n-3\n\n<>0*\n\nvo\"\n\nt^\n\nVO\n\nto\n«\n^\nN\n00\n\nN\nto\n\nt^\n\n1\n\ncT\n\nt^\n\n^\n\n^>.\n\nto\nCO\n\nvcT\nVO\n\n00\n\nM\n\n00\nTt\nVO\n^\nto\n\n1\n\nt^\n\ncT\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\nto 00\"\n\nto\nW\n\nVO\n\n0\nt^\n\nt^\nvO^\n00\nt^\n\npT\n\ni\n\nl>;\n\n00\n\ncs\"\n\nCO\n\n1\n\n^\n\nt>.\na\n00\n\n•\"t\n\nc«\n\n0\n\ni\n\nM\n\n~\n\nNO\n00\n\n?\n\n^w\n\n0M\n\n^\n\nM\n\nM\n\n^\n\nM\nw\nt^\nt^\n\ni\n\nI\ntn\n\ni If\n\na :\n\n1\n1m\ns\n\n4> ^4\n\n^ rt\n\n^\n\n?\n\nI\n1\non\n\n,£j\nt^\n\nT*-\n\n•s1\n\n1\n\ng.13\n\nS .2: '^0\n\ng.\nh\n\n4> J.\n\n^\n\n^\n^ cg\nov\n\ni\n\nt11\nh\\\n\n^\n^\n\nfi^\n\n1\n\nM\n\n.s\n\nn\n\ntJ-\n\nTj-\n\n\"\n\n00\n\n0\"\n\n2\n\n1\n\nS\n\n<r\n\n0\"\n\n1\n\nvo\"\n\nM\n\nm'\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Mobile\n\n^0\n\n^30\n\n^0\n\nSd\n\nko\n\nIt\n\n96\n\n90\n\nirrj\n\nChildren Six\nChildren Seven\nChildren Eight\nChildren Nine\nChildren Ten\nChildren Eleven\nChildren Twelve\nChildren Thirteen\nChildren Fourteen\nChildren Fifteen\nChildren Sixteen\nChildren Seventeen\n\nZl\n\nChildren Eighteen\n\nFig. I. — Black shows percentage of all the children of Cleveland of each age from\nsix to eighteen not attending the public school in 1908-9.\nDETERMINING\n\nWHERE\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBREAKS\n\nDOWN\n\nIn the administration of the public school, new problems have arisen\nwithin the last few years, and new standards of eflaciency have been raised.\nThe most important of these new problems is the one of educational waste.\nThe work of the school up to the present time has been judged in large\nmeasure by the number of its graduates and by their intellectual attainments. Little or no account has been taken of the number that withdrew\nbefore reaching the sixth grade, to say nothing of those dropping out before\ncompleting the elementary or high-school course. In a word, the problem\nof withdrawals has been ignored. The public school ought to be so attractive and so effective that once a child enters he will continue until he has\nat least finished the elementary course. We are, however, at present far\nfrom attaining this degree of efficiency. But to what extent we are failing\nto hold our children cannot be known until definite data are collected with\nreference to withdrawals; moreover the public school has not done its\nfull duty by the child until the causes of withdrawal are ascertained, and\nthose lying within the school eradicated.\nAgain, the public school ought to be so organized that the child entering\nat the age of six will be able to complete his elementary education by the\nend of his fourteenth year, and his high-school education by the close of\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendenccl\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n285\n\nthe eighteenth. To measure the efl&ciency of the school in this respect,\nit is necessary to know the number of retarded children. By a retarded\nchild we mean one behind his grade for his age. So to order our records that\nthe degree of retardation and the causes may be known, and that by the\nproper use of these data children may be advanced thru the school on time,\nis one of the pressing problems of the day.\nThe elementary school is divided into eight grades and the high school\ninto four, each representing a unit of work which supposedly is to be covered\nby the child in one school year. When a child fails to do the work in a given\nperiod J he is compelled to go over it a second timCj and becomes thereby a repeater.\nThe school, as it is now, is far from being able to carry the child thru its\ntwelve units of work in twelve years. That school is, however, the most\neflScient — taking just standards of attainment into consideration — which has\nthe fewest repeaters, and it should be the conscious endeavor of every\nsystem to ascertain the number of repeaters and the causes, and to reduce\nrepetition to a minimum.\nJust as the outcome of repetition is retardation, so the direct cause of\nrepetition is non-promotion. That iSy children fail to be advanced from one\ndivision to the next higher y or from the highest division of one grade to the lowest\nof the next grade. Non-promotion results of course from failure in studies.\nTo reduce retardation, it is therefore necessary to know the niunber and\ncauses of non-promotion and the studies and the grade in which children\nfail, to the end that external factors, such as physical defects and irregular\nattendance, may be eradicated, and that materials in the studies of the\nschool may be better adapted to the age and capacity of pupils, or the\nrequirements in these studies lessened.\nIf, therefore, the problems of educational waste as measured by withdrawals^ retardation, and repetition are to be squarely faced, and the\neflSciency of the school in these respects increased, there is imperative need\nof the collection and the use of data in making the schools more attractive,\nin adjusting its requirements to the abilities of children, and adapting its\ncourse of instruction to their needs.\nThe following tables upon, withdrawals and causes, upon retardation,\nupon repetition, and upon non-promotion and causes, collected with\nreference to the Cleveland pubUc schools, are typical of data that must\nbe collected and used in meeting the aboye problems.\nTable II shows, for each of the last ten eighth-grade classes of all elementary schools, the total niunber of pupils enrolled in the first grade,\nthe number of these reaching the second, the third, and so on to the eighth\ngrade; it shows also the percentage of the total enrolled in the first grade\nadvancing to each higher grade, and the percentage of the total withdrawing\nby the end of each grade:\n\n\" •\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[MobQe\n\nTABLE II\nYka»\nEntered\n1892-3\n1893-4\n1894-S\n1895-6\n1896-7\n1897-8\n1898-9\n1899-00\nI 900-1\n1901-2\n\nTotals\n\n♦\n\nt\n\nGrades Elemektary School\nFirst\n\n9,341\n10,830\n9,422\n9,976\n11,720\n12,257\n12,442\n12,561\n12,619\n12,860\n114,028\n\nSecond\n\nThird\n\n7,123\n7,103\n7,527\n8,074\n8,129\n7,908\n8,653\n\n29.19\n70.81\n\nFifth\n\n7,061\n8,164\n7,851\n8,763\n7,908\n8,581\n8,838\n9,352\n81,360\n28.93\n71.07\n\nSixth\n\nYear in\n2,555 8th Grade\nSeventh\n\n4,637\n\n7,185\n7,339\n\n8,581\n8,558\n9,094\n80,750\n\n6,853\nFourth\n\n7,267\n7,120\n8,357\n7,751\n8,108\n\n5,875\n5,789\n6,454\n5,957\n\n2,519 I 899-1 900\n2,472\n\n4,849\n4,640\n\nEighth\n\n8337\n3,58\n3,\n3,893\n3,\n5182\n3,54\n\n1902-3\n1900-1\n2,708 1903-4\n1901-2\n1904-5\n5,278\n2,820\n6,0518\n6,179\n7,782 6,900\n3,245\n8,952\n6,38\n7,645\n3,51s 1906-7\n7,424\n5,108 4,5647\n8,914\n3,254 1905-6\n97\n4,\n\"\n5\n,\n5\n67,097\n6,362\n3,2221908-9\n9,256\n4,568\n80,360\n3,709 1907-8\n4,592\n30,019\n26.32\n29-53\n70.47\n55,003 36.29\n7,860 48.23\n51-77\n41,368\n58.84\n63.71\n6,671\n6,522\n\n• Percentage of enrollment in first grade advancing 41.16\ninto each grade.\nt Percentage of enrollment in first grade withdrawing by end of each grade.\nThe data here used are taken from the official records of the Board of Education. The percentage\n73.68\nin past years of first-grade pupils\nof withdrawals is, however, without doubt, too high, due to the treatmenti>0\nand to including transfers.\n\n^u>\niiO\nWithdrawing\nbefore fourth grade\n\n7o\n\nWithdrawing\nbefore fifth grade\nWithdrawing\nbefore sixth grade\nWithdrawing\nbefore seventh grade\nWithdrawina;\nbefore eighth grade\n\nFig. 2. — Black shows percentage of all children enrolled in the first grade of the elementary schools of Cleveland for the ten years between 1892-93 and 1901-2 withdrawing\nbefore reaching the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades.\n\nTable III shows the number of withdrawals in 1909-10 in each grade\nof the elementary and in each class of the high school, the whole number\nof withdrawals in each school, and the total in all; it shows the enrollment\nand percentage of withdrawals on enrollment for each grade and class,\nalso the enrolbnent of the elementary iind the high school, the percentage\nof withdrawals in each, and the percentage of withdrawals on enrollment\nin both the elementary and the high school.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Tf\n\nSupcrintendenccl\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\n^«l\n\nRECORDS\n\n4 1\n\nlit\n\n1\n5\n\n111\n1\n\n\"\n\n^\n\n73\n\n287\n\nTf\n\n0\n\nvo\n00\n\n^tC\n0\n\n'\"t\n\nM\n00\nvt\n\nCO\n00\n\nf\n(14\n\nREPORTS\n\nvd\n\nlO\n\n00\n\ncT\n\nAND\n\nCO\n\n•\"t\n\n«o\n\n0\n\n0^\n\nto\n\nCO\n10\nr^\n\nvd\n\nS\n\n0M\n\ns\n\nM\n\nCO\n\ne\n\n1.1\n\nW\nr^\nCO\nw\n\nU.\n\nvo\n\nM\n\n0\n\nwto\n\n00\n\n00^\n\ncT\n\nvd\n\n1 S 1\n\nOv\n\n5\n\n^0\n\n■^\n\n•^\n\nN\n\nTf\nCO\n\nCO\n\nM\n\nH\n\n,13\n\nw\n\n0\nw\n10\nTj-\n\n11\n1\n\n5\n\nto\nOv\n10\n\nt^\n\nt^\n\n1§ . s\n\ni\n\n1\n0\n\n^\n\nH\n\n5?\n\n0\nw\n\n00\nvo\n\n4\n\n^\n\nN\n\nvo\n\n0\nt^\ndv\n\nM\n\nh\nT3\n\ni\n\nin\ncr\n\n-«*•\n\nw\n\n(4\n\n10\n\n00\n\nt^\n\nv§\n0\n\nH\n\nTJ\n\n(l\n\nqv\n\n00\n\nM\n\n•s!\n\nvo\"\n\n.*•\n\n1 «\n\nH\n\n:?s\n\n-•%\n'\n\n00\n\n•5c4 rt•\ntf\n\n\"\n\n00\n\n_5i\n\n1 1\n\ni\n\n1\n\nOh\n\n1 gs\n\n1'\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "28S\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Mobile\n\nTable IV shows the causes of withdrawal from the elementary and\nhigh school, the nmnber withdrawing in 1909-10 for each cause in each\nschool; the percentage of all withdrawals in each school due to each cause;\nit also shows the number of withdrawals in both schools due to each cause,\nand the percentage of all withdrawals in both schools due to each cause.\nTABLE IV\n\nFinancial condition\nhome\nIllness in family\nPersonal illness\nPhysical defects\nIncapacity\nIndifference\nFailing promotion\nLeft city\nGoing to work\nOther causes\nTotal\n\nPercentage\nNumber\nPercentage\nPercentage\ndrawals\nWithdrawals\nAll\nWithdrawals\nAU\nAU Both\nWith-8\nElementary Withdrawals Withdrawals\nElementary\nBoth\n3\nElementary High School Withdrawals Elementary\nSchool\nand\n1\n59 High School\nSchool\nand\n114\nHigh School High School\n214\nof\n15\n1.47\n28 5\n254\n4.05\n16.36\n116\n142\n3-74\n4.83\n309\n224\n49\n593\n\n,122\n2,032\n\n15.20\nS.61\n2.•41\n14\n2.90\n11.02\n76\n2.26\n30\n55.21\n\n5\n39\n3\n\n3-38\n.60\n19.20\n18.71\n4.71\n.36\n40.09\n\n88\n35\ni»454\n6\n\n4.96\n1.22\n3.07\n8.88\n.20\n2.90\n7.48\n50.83\n\n468\n37\n828\n\n3.62\n4.46\n40\n2,860\n\nTable V shows the normal age for completing\neach grade of the ele332\n46 children in 1909-10 in each grade behind\nmentary school, the number of\none, two, three, four and more years, the total retarded\nin each grade, the\n30\nenrollment in each grade, the percentage of retardation in each grade, and\nthe percentage of total enrollment retarded; it also shows the total retarded\none, two, three, four and more years, and the percentage of all retarded\nback one, two, three, four and more years.\n\nJJ\n¥\nJ- <» 7\n9\n/\nFig. 3.-Black shows percentage of all children enroUed in each grade\nof the elementary and high schools of Cleveland in 1909-10 retarded one, two, three,\nor four and more\nyears. Numbers mdicate grade of elementary and class of high\nschool.\n\nThe normal ages given in Table V for completing the work of a particu\nlar grade differ from the ages given by certain writers, notably Dr.\nThorn-\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendenccl\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\nM\n^\n\n(4\n«o\nto\nt^\n\n-si-\n\nfo\nOx\n\n00\no\n\nto\nto\n\no\n\n^\n\n00\n\n-IS\n4\n.So\n\n(^•5 a.\nsis\n\nN\n\ntc\n\na\n\no\nO\n\nto\nN\n\n^\n\n00\n00\nM\n\n«\npo\n^\n\nto\nto\nM\n\n^\n\n00\n\nt^\n\nCO\n\nto\n\nI\n\n•a-S\n\ni\n4>\n\no\n\n50)\n\nlaj\n\n3a>\n\nrt\n\ni24> B4) 3o\n\nP^\n\np4\n\nH\n\nH\n\nH H\n\n289\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "00\n\n290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[MobUe\n-^\n\nM\n\nvo\n\n\"O VO\n\nPv 4\n\n51 i\n\n00\n\n*\\\n\n^^\n\n1\n\nN\nrjOt\n\nvo\n0\nOX\n\n^9\n(2\n\n00\n10\n\n1^\n0\nt^\n\n^\nON\n«o\n\n00ON\n\nCO\ng)\n\n00\n^\n\nCS\nCO\n\ne»oTt2\n\nl^\n0\n\nM-^\n\nON\n\n0CO\nvo\n\n»0\n00\n\n^^ 00vS\ncT\n\n^\nTf\n\nOH\n\n1\n\n«•\n\nvo\n\nt^\nCO\n\n00\n\ng\n\ns\n\n1\n\ni\n\"\n\n1\n\n^\n\nH\n\n1\na\n\nrf\n»0\nM\n\n1\n\n(14\n\n2\n\n1 ;t :g <=^\nNO\n\nbe\n\n1\n\n0\n\nMTf\n\nW\n\na\n\n•§\n\n0\n\ni\n\nCO\n\n*^\n\n00\n\n0\n\ncs\n\nM\nt^\n\n«0\nc*\n\nNO\n\nto\n00t^\n\n«N\nMM\n\nrf\n10\n\n00\"\nM\n\n0^\nCM\n\nto\nt^\n\n0\n\n1\n\n•\n\nH\n\n-\n\n!t3\n\n•P\n\n^\nfe\n\n2\n•§\n\n1\n\nrvi\n\njj\n\n0\n\nvo\n\n^ vo 10\n-^ w 2\nN\nOv\n\n'rf\nlO\n10\n\np\n^\n\nw\n\nt^\n00\n\nA\n\n5\n\ns\n(S4\n\nSi\n\n*M\n\nT3\n\n>•\n\nN\n0\nt^\n\n- ^.b\n\n•-J\n\n.\n\n;? vg\n^\n00^\n°o\n\n_ 1\n\n0\nM\n\n0;\n\n(K\n\n«\n\n^\n\nH\n\nON\nt>.\n^\n\ncT\n\n::\n\n-\n\n•\n\n'3\n\n.s\n\n**\n\nON\n0\n\nii\n^\n\n1\noa\n\n«\n\nPhg\n\ng\n\n0\n\n4->\n\n§ 1\ni s\n5 w\n\n1\n\ni\n0\n\n0\n\n«\n\n1\n»\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n291\n\ndyke and Dr. Ayres. The normal ages according to Dr. Ayres are as follows:\nFirst Grade\n6 to 8 years\nSecond Grade\n7 to 9 years\nThird Grade\n8 to 10 years\nFourth Grade\n9 to 1 1 years\nFifth Grade\n10 to 1 2 years\nSixth Grade\n11 to 13 years\nSeventh Grade\n12 to 14 years\nEighth Grade\n13 to 15 years\nTable VI shows the number of non-promotions in each grade of the\nelementary and in each class of the high school, the enrollment and percentage ofnon-promotions in each grade and class; it also shows the total\nnumber of non-promotions, the enrollment, and the percentage of the\nenrollment non-promoted for the elementary and the high school; also\nthe same for both taken together.\nTable VII shows the causes of non-promotion in the elementary and\nhigh school, the number non-promoted in 1909-10 for each cause in each\nschool, the percentage of non-promotions in each school due to each cause ;\nit also shows the number of non-promotions in both schools due to each\ncause, and the percentage of non-promotions in both schools due to each\ncause.\nTABLE VII\nElementary School\nNumber\nPromotions\nNon-\n\nIrregular attendance. . .\nPhysical defects\nPersonal illness\nIncapacity\nIndifference\nOutside work\n•\nOther causes\nTotal\n\nPercentage\n20.99\nPromotions\nAll Non-\n\n1,416\n375\n128\n\n733\n\n1.90\n\n5.2-5655\n\n58-14\n10.86\n\nElementary and\nHigh School\n\nHigh School\n\nPercentage\nPercentage\n2-37\n1.59 'Promotions\nNumber\n13 .4\nNumber\n12\n4\n1\n2\n9\nPromotions Promotions\nPromotions\n159 All Non20.46\n185 All\nNon2.57\nNonNon1,471\n8.37\n557\n2.94\n29.19\n170\n12.41\n\n3,922\n172\n\n35.97\n9-50\n\n5.31\n56-36\n\n892\n4,051\n37\n\n37\n\n.52\n382\n\n6,746\n42\n\n' Table VIII shows the amount of repetition in the elementary and high\n7,188\nschool for the year 1909-10.\n442\nADJUSTING\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO ITS WORK\n\nThe school exists for the accomplishment of definite results. The\nsocial conditions determining the ends and purposes of the school undergo\nchange. These changes necessitate corresponding adjustments of the\nschool to its work.\nDETERMINING\n\nTHE LENGTM\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nYEAR\n\nThe opportunity which a municipality offers to its youth to gain an\neducation within a reasonable period of time, is determined in part by the\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "CO\nv^\n\nVO\n\n292\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNATIONAL\n\nION\nASSOCIAT\n00\n\n«o\n\n;?\n\nM\n\n10\n\nro\n\n•o\n\n3\n\n6\ng§\n00\n\n0\n\n00\n\nH\n\nCO\n\n«\n\n^\n\n§\n\n^\n\nCO\n\nrf\n\n4\n\n0\n\n1J1\nb\n\ns\n\n0\nM\n\n00\n00\nto\n\nvO\n\n0\n\n\\rt\n\n00\n\n1\n\nw\n\nN\nH\n\nt\n\nOv\nVO\nM\n\n•s\n\nVO\n\n1fe\n\n5\n\n30\n\n0\n\nM\n\n5;\n\nt\n\n^\n«\n00\nCO\n\n0\n\nM\n\nCO\n\nVO\n\n^^\n\ni\n\n0\n\n0\n\nK.\n\n00\n\n•-I\n\nM\n\n>\n\n^>\n\nrO\n\n0\n\nCO\n\nH\n\n«\n\nVO\n\n1 1 1\n\n»-\n\nt^\n\n1\n\ntC\nN\n\n00\n\n0\n\nE\n\nP»\n\n0\nC>»\n\nM\n\ntf-\n\n00\nVO\nOv\nt^\n\nOV\n\n2\n\nN\n\n•§\n\ns\n\nH\n10\n\n\"S\n\n54a\n\nM\n\n„0\n\nct\n\n2\nc^\n\nqv\n\nM\n\n^\n\n0\n\n«*\n\n00\n\nTf\n\nH\n\n•\n\n[Mobfle\n\n«0\n\n10\n\neiiJ\n\nfa\n«\n\n«\n§\niS\n\n0\n\n^\nfag\n\n.\n\nto\n\nt^\n\n1\n\n»r} t^\n\nS.H\n\nvg\n\nH\n\nno dJ\n\nS\n\nCO\n\nt>»\n\nOs\n\nJ.\n\nc»\nH\nOv\n\n5\n\nq.\n\n01\n\n§\n\n§\n\nI 1.s\n.s\n\nOv\n\ni\nja2\n\n*\n\nVO\n\nCO\n\nOv\n\n-\n\n?1\nOv\n\n2\n\n¥\n^\n\nI\n\nW0 rt\nPh\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n293\n\nlength of the school year. Without data for measuring the efficiency of\na school system in ail its various aspects, manifestly the determination of\nthe length of the school year is a mere matter of opinion, but with complete\ndata showing the efficiency of the school with respect to its holding power,\nwith respect to its abiUty to carry pupils through the several grades of the\nschool on time, and with respect to the number of non-promoted children\nand their intelligence and skill in the various branches of study, the length\nof the school year may be fixed intelligently and with reference to social\nconditions and the needs of the children. Whether or not a siunmer\nterm for non-promoted and retarded pupils is needed in a school system\nmay also be decided in view of data showing the number of such children.\nSuch data are supplied by the above and following tables.\nDETERMINING\n\nSTUDY-GRADES\n\nAND\n\nSTUDY-VALUES\n\n2S\n\nOne of the most important problems in connection with education is\nto settle in what grades of the elementary school and years\nof the high\n14\nTABLE\n\nIX\n\nGrade in WmcH\nNo.\nTeaching\nI Reading\n2 Spelling\n3 Grammar\n4 Language\nand\ncomposition\n\nI\n\nI\n\n50\n\n38\n3\n\n18\n\n1 2 Music\n\n35\n\nSO\n\nSO\n40\n\nS\n\n435\n3\n\n17\n\n34\n\nso\n\n2\nI\n\nSO\nSO\nSO\n\n46\n\nSO 4\n\n48 9\n\nSO 8\n\n9\n\nso\n\n50\n\n46\nII\n50\n\nSO\n\n39\n\nSO\n\nSO\n\nSO\n\nSO\n20\n\n50\n\n21\n\n21\n\n14 Manual training . .\n15 Cooking\n16 Sewing\n\n21\n\nSO\n\n24\n\n44\n\n20 El ementary\nscience\n\nSO\n1\n41 32 5\n32\n41\n\n46\n46\n\n21 Bookkeeping\n\nS\n\n22 Typewriting\n\nI\n\nSO 18\nSO\n\nSO\n\n48\n\n0\n\n30\n\n22ISO\n\nSO\n\n43\nSO\n\nSO\n\n28\n\n28\n2\n\nSO\n\nS2O2\n\n46\n\n24\n\nS\n\n24\n\nSO\n\n2\n\n243\n\n2SSO\n\nSO\n\nSO\n\nSO\n\n37\n\n35\n43\n\n46\n\nSO 3S\n28\n43\n\n36\n\n46\n\n46\n\n38\n\n38\n\n30\n\nSO\n\n46\n\nSO\n\n35\n\nSO\nSO 26\n\nSO S\n\n46\n\n48\n\n31\n\nSO\n\n«\n\nSO\nSO\n\n2S\n\n2S5\nSO\n\n23 SO\n\nSO\n\n3\n\n27\n\nSO\n29\n\n13\n\n46\n\n13 Drawing\n\n1 7 Physical training. .\n18 Physiology\n19 Hygiene\n\n3\n47\n\n19\n\n9 Geography\n10 History\n1 1 Civics\n\nII\n\n47\n\n«? Writing\n6 Arithmetic\n7 Algebra\n8 Geometry\n\nEach Is Taught and Number Teaching\nIN Respective Grade\nIV\nIII\nV\nVI\nVII\nVIII\n\nI\n\n46\n36\n\n46\n\nI\n\nSO\nSO\n\nS\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobfle\n\nschool given studies t,hall be taught, and to fix upon the time-value of\nthese studies in particular grades and years. Thus far tradition and personal opinion have been large factors in determining in what grades a study\nappears and the amount of time given to it. There is great need of intelligent data along these lines that administrative action may be based on\nfacts and freed from personal bias.\nTable IX shows the branches included in the elementary courses of\nstudy of fifty of the largest cities of the United States, the number teaching\neach branch; also the grades in which each is taught and the number\nteaching the given subject in the respective grade.\nTable X shows the average time in minutes per week devoted to each\nstudy in each grade in the schools of the following cities: Boston, New\n67\nYork, Philadelphia, Rochester, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Indianapolis,\n85\nSt. Louis, Chicago, Milwaukee, and San Francisco.\n189\n84\n\nTABLE X\n\n213\n259\nGrades Elkmektary School\n\n84\nII\n\nReading\n,\nSpelling\nGrammar\nLanguage and com\nposition\nArithmetic\nWriting.\nHistory\nGeography\nMusic\nDrawing\nManual Training . .\n\n437143\n100\n169\n\n491\n131\n\nIII\n\n8SIV\n\n189\n\n164\n205\n\n139\n\n120\n\n341\n\n82\n134\n\nSTANDARDIZING\n\n84\n191\n208\n75\n\n156\n\nno68\n126\n\n130\n\n45\n81\n\n66\n92\n130\n\n165Ss\n\nVI 187\n\n69\n\n134\n\n123\n\n206 1\n117 53\n82\n2175\n6\n\n85\n\nVII\n186\n\nVIII\n62\n\n114\n\n151 105\n\n103\n\n220\n\n220\n\nlOI\n60\n\n140\n\nS3\n100\n\n150\n73\n\n66\n\nno\n81\n\n73\n81\n\n91\nREQUIREMENTS\n71\n\nIN STUDIES\n\nAND\n\nDEPARTMENTS\n\nNotwithstanding the value of studies is fixed by the time alloted in\nthe daily program, study-requirements seemingly have little relation to\nthe value ascribed. Reading, for example, was given in 1909-10, 25.82\nper cent of the total time of our elementary school, spelling 5 . 99 per cent,\narithmetic 16.55 P^^ cent, and geography and history combined 9.45 per\n71\ncent, while in the first year of the high school Latin, English, algebra,\nand natural history were ascribed like value. Nevertheless, the failures\nin arithmetic were one-third greater than in reading, and those in geography\nand history combined, tho the two studies were assigned but one- third\nof the time, were threefold larger than in reading, whereas in the high\nschool, 26 per cent of the children dropped out or failed in Latin, 15.9 per\ncent in English, 30.4 per cent in algebra, and 22 per cent in natural history.\nSuch variations reveal a need of standardizing the requirements in studies\nas well as in departments.\nStandards for completing a study of great\n\n65\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRECORDS\n:\n\nUNIFORM\n\n$\n\nAND\n\ni\n-a .§\nr^\n\n00\n\nt^\n\n^\n\n^1\n;2;(^\n\nM\n00\n\ni\n\n00\nN\n\n00\n\naa\n00\n\no\n\nsi\n\n00\n\n\"<4-\n\nt>.\n00\n\nCO\n00\n\no\n\n55 fx.\n\n\"*\n\nxj-i\nM\n\n00\n\n00\n\n\\0\nt^\n\n00\nVO\nVO\n\nOn\nwi\nCO\n\nt-T o\"\nCO\n\nVO\n\nI\n^\n\nI\n\n•*\nM\nO*\n\nT?\nM\n\n■*\n\\o\nt^\n\nVO^\n\nREPORTS\n\n295\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n296\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nIMobUe\n\nvalue should be such as to actually put the emphasis on that study rather\nthan that the pressure on one study, when measured by the time allotted,\nshould be two to twenty times as great as upon another.\nTable XI shows the fundamental studies in our elementary school,\nthe enrollment and the failures in each by grades for 1909-10.\nTable XII gives the enrollment in first-year Latin, English, algebra,\nand natural history, the number dropping out and failing in each highschool class for 1909-10.\nTABLE XII\nw-|\n\nIt\n\nli\na\n\nIS\n\nhill\n\n239\n\n234\n269\n\n11\n\nLatin\nEnglish\nAlgebra\nNatural history,\n\n1,302\n1,528\n1,671\n\n17\n\n\"5\n^ a,\n243\n\nf Sit\n\n10.76\n\n349\n192\n\n17.04\n\n1,068\n1,402\n61\n\n2\n\n3-27\n\n26.80\n15-90\n22.36\n30.40\n\n3.81\nSTANDARDIZING\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n508\n\nA school, like an individual, 7acquires\na reputation. One is reputed\n6\nas being good, another poor. Quite often such opinions 1have no reality\n5\nin fact, and the school reputed poor is in truth a good school, and vice\nversa. There is also wide variation in the standards of the different\nschools of the same system. For example, in one the failures in arithmetic\nmount to as high as 25 per cent; in another, doing the same work, there\nare none. In our high school, those failing and dropping out of first-year\nLatin in 1909-10 range from 26 to 41 per cent of the enrollment, in algebra\nfrom 26 to 46 per cent, in geometry (second-year study) from 23 to 45 per\ncent. Such variations in standards in a single system are scarcely to be\ncountenanced. That schools should be rightly judged with regard to their\nwork, and that there should be reasonable uniformity in the requirements of different schools of the same system, there can be little doubt.\nYet, before this can be done, data must be collected with reference to the\nfailures in different schools; upon these city-wide standards fixed, and the\nrequirements of individual schools equalized and their work judged.\nDETERMINING\n\nMODE\n\nAND\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF PROMOTION\n\nNo one factor penetrates so deeply into the life of the school as method\nof promotion. For this involves standards of attainment and modes of\nadvancing children from grade to grade as well as from school to school.\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n297\n\nFrom a promiscuous method of promotion, prevailing even now in country\ndistricts, there has been advance to annual promotions. Certain large\ncities have, however, of late broken away from the annual plan and adopted\nsemi-annual promotions. A further step is now being advocated, that\nchildren be advanced at the end of each term of twelve or thirteen weeks.\nSuch a plan, it is argued, will go far toward reducing repetition and retardation.\nTo a very considerable extent plans of promotion have been determined\nin view of the easy organization and administration of the school, and in\nview of the pleasure of the teacher. Whether the given plan conserved\nthe best interests of the child and permitted him without undue hindrance\nto advance thru the school on time, has been little considered. The time,\nhowever, is at hand, when the efficiency of modes of promotion must be\nmeasured in view of effect upon educational waste; and a promotion plan\ndevised which will enable children as a rule to complete the elementaryschool course on the average in eight years, and the high-school course in\nfour. Such a plan must rest upon a careful study of withdrawals, retardation, and non-promotions. It must be so flexible that each child shall be\npermitted to advance thru school according to his ability. It must permit\nthe bright child to advance in less than the average required time; and\neven tho the slow child may take longer, the average, when all the children\npassing thru the school are taken into account, should not be more than\neight years for the elementary, and four years for the high school.\nData which may be used in measuring efficiency of old methods, and\ndevising new methods of promotion, are found in the above tables.\nDETERMINING\n\nAND\n\nEQUALIZING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEXPENDITURE\n\nThe growing diversity in public instruction and the increased cost of\neducation renders increasingly difficult the administration of our schools.\nThe increasing cost of education makes necessary more detailed knowledge of the results derived and more detailed knowledge of the cost of\neach type of school work, and of the different lines of instruction, to the end\nthat there may be a better weighing of needs and a more careful determination of educational values in the expenditures of public money. For in the\ndevelopment of our schools activity after activity has been added with the\nassumption that the money to carry each forward would be forthcoming.\nThe day is, however, even now here when the claims of each separate activity\nmust be set over against those of every other, and each line of work supported and advanced according to its worth in relation to all the other\n*\ninterests of the school.\nTable XIV shows the cost of instruction, the enrollment, and per capita\ncost of instruction in each type of school in the dty of Cleveland for the\nyear 1909-10.\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n298\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n205\n\n[Mobile\n\nTABLE XIV\nCost of Instruction\nNTrvrmnl\n\n$\n\nTTitrh schools\n\n18,470.00\n\n21.29\n\n288,103.72\n395,360.45\n\nAcademic High School\nTechnical High School\nHigh School of Commerce\n\n71,569.60\n37,687-13\n1,344,926.17\n1,298,977-60\n45,984-57\n8,224.64\n824.25\n\nTJep^iilar Elementarv\nSnerial Elementarv\n\nBackward School\nSchool for Blind\nBovs' School\nSchool for Cripples\nSchool for Deaf\nElementary Industrial\nSpecial Schools\n\n5,996\n1,102\n657 .\n63,164\n4,436\n458\n61,668\n1,496\n12\n237\n\n9,040.99\n650.65\n\nT^.vfninof c^chools\n\nEvening High Schools\nEvening Elementary Schools . .\nSummer Hieh School\nSummer Elementary School. . .\nGrammar School\nPrimary School\nManual Training School . .\nBovs' School\nX.inder£rarten\nPlaygrounds\nMEASURING\n\nPer Capita Cost of\nInstruction\n66.27\n13 64-94\n64-94\n$ 90.09\n\nEnrollment\n\n9,954- 39\n6,631.24\n10,622.41\n\n6,673\n97\n152\n\n69,598.22\n27,092.50\n\n5,537\n2,065\n\n68.68\n30.71\n13.76\n6.59\n50-05\n102.62\n12.56\n\n6,929.39\n288.75\n2,114.39\n4,338.75\n\n1,133\n258\n1,027\n2,431\n4,608\n\n187.50\n292.33\n\n3,968\n131\n140\n\nPROGRESS\n\n21.06\n25.07\n\n328\n\n13,617.00\n13,475-50\n9,226.79\n1,008.75\n\n996-32\n\n82.28\n\n743\n\n2.85\n2.92\n2.\n-62\n4332\n-82\n441-33\n•39\n4.06\n1-85\n1.86\n3.90\n2.20\n4.22\n\nA2TO DEVELOPMENT\n\nfor administrative\nUnder present conditions it is no longer sufficient 536\npurposes to know the total enrollment in all schools of a system, the total\nnumber of teachers, and the total expenditure for a given year. Furthermore, itis not sufficient for purposes of publicity, or for administration,\nmerely to report year by year the facts about the teaching force, about the\nenrollment, and expenditure for instruction. Nor to report year by year\nthe facts about the number of pupils per teacher, the per capita cost of\ninstruction in different types of schools, or to report the facts about retardation, withdrawals, non-promotions, failures in studies, number going to\nhigh school and to college, or the time taken on the average to complete\nthe course of a given school. There is need that these separate facts for\neach year he correlated^ and those for a series of years he hrought together and\nso arranged as to hring to view the movements and developments hoth within\nthe system as a wholcj and within each separate type of school. Only in some\nsuch way can a correct idea of growth and progress be acquired sufficiently\ndefinite for administrative purposes.\nThe following tables are illustrative of such data:\nTable XV shows cost of instruction — that is, amount paid for salaries\nof supervisors, principals, and teachers in all schools and in each type of\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n0)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nV S\n\nREPORTS\n55\n\n299\n\n%\n\n5^\n1 t^ 000\n\nM\n\nO to « «\n\n3|\n\n^1\n\nO ui O Oi 10 0> OvO\nO '^O Oi'^OvO'M\nI vo\n\nOO\n\n0> 0< 0> 10 O O f< >^00 000\nlOM OiO> t>->0 O >ot}-0*0\n\n■f+\nN\n\nM\n\nTj- loO\n\n• ro Ci «\n\nT^ looo\n\n1^00 t^ O\n\n>IOO>00\n\nQ\n0>^«•^0 t>.pit^w) ^00 •»t'*0«M^do5\"l^\nOOO^oC « r^Oi t^oo OitJ-ion ■^« t»5M >oO«0«m\n\nfe^ — « « M\n\nro <^ «^00 w ^^ 500\n\nt^MMO>00>\n\n^dOi\n\nM\n\nt^ M\n\nbiOOob\n\n«^^ 00 OioO 't r^oO >0 «\nt^« 6 w eo^oooO 0>0>\n\nto* •O*\n\n0\">-'0'00>M>0't«\n\nQ\n\nPI 0>\n\nO>oo *n to\n\nd o>oo\nrOt^fOfOWM\n\n32\n\nIll\n\n0 I/;\n\nidd>ovd«^or^Mod'*05\"^^**'Q'^\nI 0 Oi 0 t^o oiMr^oot^oovO'tMciOfO\ni00t^Oi'*O0io>il«N.r^M<>«t^w«O>«\nO 0_\n10 fO\nvo\n000t^ >0\nH *r\n't I^ iOTfTfvoO>T(-<»MdOOr>.<OMPO\n«ooO vO\n\n.nOoO\n\n•0>'0\n\n-j^t^oi\n.<r>«oi\n•« 0»0\n, xO t^OO\n\n'woo\n4*0 d M d 00 d «\n-loM • 'dHoo-t\n•toM«ioO'r«<ot-icooo«o\n»obt^oo\nt^\n• «>. 0» • • >O00 O0000it^0f«00wo00<»>\n. 00 0>\n\n• •0»t^t^OioOMOOO>Ow«\n\n%\n(00 00 lAei\n\n1^\n\n5'S8 8888888S88'S\"SS>S8\n\n8S88\n\n:S^;jS rSKSl, iSg* : :S<S'8wvo8 8Oi M??8^<2S8\nO w OOO O 2,&8\n« O O\n\n'5^?8 8 88 8888^^8|SJ?48\n\n^M \" \"^ ^\"^\n8&2,R :;g?;^'^ i\"^;^! :^'S§ : :g<8WJM•^I \"^ «*1 OP. M^ t^1.^-°^\n\nn oivO VO 00 M M 't •* «0 ^vo vOvoMM0cit^f«t^<0\nVO ■*\nw O OvO •*\n«\nvO\n•\nPO rO M\n\n'88c?8\nV o\n\n.Sl\n'SI\n\n.vq,vq_\n\n0000 tocl\n\n>OvOtoOQ\"QQQQO«QO««t^«oQQ»oQ\n»00^000>OOOOvOOM»/^\"T^«^0\"Ot~0\n\n«\n. or» to\n\n.vO_\n;28S,a8§;88\n8 8 8;8^So2;g88Sl\n« 'tW\nM 6 >o »ooo~\n\nOOOOVQ\n\n»OTtO>>Ot^\nt^OO^ 00\nMOO 00\nto\n•\nM « M\n\nVOOOOOOO\n\nM\n\nlOM\nO M\n<?:\n\n; looo\n\n»>. r» 1^ O\nt^vO 0>0\n\nQ\n\n■*00 o\n\nOOO\n00 ■<i- «•*\nHOOOOVO\n\nM\ntooo\n't\n•*vo\"\nlA d\n\nOOOOHO>8o>88oOOOOO««MOiOOOiO\n\n^?8^8\n8:8 2>8 8 8;8 8 25^R8 8SS.\nO>00\n«OvO M t«5 lo O 00 « « tOvO ^'t'^'^'^Owto\n--.-_--.-.\n,f 00\n\n•\n\nlovovo\" M lO m\"oO «)\nM N «\n\n. . O M « Q f« \"^^ 00 r^ O O\n. . ^vo r^6i^'tt^'*M >oio\n• • O to>0 vO'*0>00>WM'»lrt V) lOOX^M t 1\n\nt^\n\nlO t^ ^ to\nto « ^00\nlo^QoO\nVO\n\ntoo 2,^8\n« too\nn o O VO\n,8ts. V)8 8^8\n2'8«ff8\nt^M 4oooo\nM\n\nd t^d>\n\nTt Tf«\n\n0 o o»\n\n^ w' to t^ •\n\nlO Tt- lO Tj-\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n300\n\n[MobUe\n\nschool for the years 1906-10, the percentage of total spent on each type\nof school, and percentage of increase in 1910 over that in 1906.\nTable XVI shows the enrollment in the regular day elementary school\nfor the years 1901-10, the number of teachers in the regular day elementary\nschool, the mmiber pupils per teacher, the decrease in number pupils per\nteacher over preceding year, and the percentage of decrease in number pupils\nper teacher in 1910 over 1901.\nTABLE XVI\nEnrollment\nRegular Day\nElementary\n\nTeachers in\nRegular Day\nElementary\nSchoolt\n\nSchool*\n\nPupfls per\nTeacher in\nRegular Day\nElementary\nSchool\n\nDecrease Over\nPreceding Year\nin Number Pupib\nper\n2-Teacher\nRegular\n34^. Dayin\nElementary\nSchool\n\nPercentage of\nDecrease in\nNumber Pupils\nper Teacher\n1910\nover 1901\n\nII21.5\nI900-I90I\n1901-1902\nI 902-1 903\nI903-I904\nI904-I90S\nI905-I906\nI 906-1 907\nI907-I908\nI908-I909\n1909-19 10\n\n52,05^1\n52,870\n54,118\n55,430\n56,718\n59,072\n59,294\n58,967\n\n59,285\n61,668\n\nII34-6\n1223.0\n1232.0\n1290.0\n1378.0\n1403 0\n1514-7\n1471-0\n1515-7\n\n46.59\n46.41\n44.99\n44-25\n\n1-03\n\n.17 (increase)\n.95\n. 74 (increase)\n\n1. 10\n43 96\n42.86\n42.26\n40.08\n39-13\n\n12.34\n\n.60\n2.18\n\n1 . 55 (increase)\n\n40.68\n* Exclusive of transfers and the enrollment of all special schools other than backward schools,\nt Includes all teachers in day elementary school except those in Deaf School, Boys' School, special schools\n(Defective), and School for Cripples.\n\nTable XVII shows cost of instruction in special schools for physically\nand mentally defective children, the enrollment, per capita cost of instruc13\ntion, the number of teachers, and the average number of pupils per teacher,\nfor the years 1906-10.\nTABLE XVII\nCost of Instruction\nSpecial Schools\n1905-6\n1906-7\n1907-8\n1908-9\n1909-10\n\n$ 6,179.35\n8,625.62\n9,488.09\n9,928.31\n10,622.41\n\nNumber\nPupils\nNumber of\nCapita Cost\n16.25\nEmoUment in Per\nof Instruction Teachers Spdal\nper\nTeacher\nSpecial 213\nschools Special Schools\nSchools\nSpecial Schools\n17-75\n$47.53\n10\n8\n130\n16.15\n237\n47.53\n12\n150\n13.4\n44.54\n210\n\n47.27\n\n17.68\nSpecial schools were first organized by the Board of Education during the school year of 1904-5.\n44.82\n\nMEASURING EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION\n\nThe present-day school differs from that of two or three generations\nago. Old studies have received new content, new studies have been added,\nand methods of instruction improved; in a word, the spirit and purposes\nof the school have changed. The reasons for the differences between the\nschool of the present and that of the past not being readily understood.\n\n15\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nRECORDS\n\nAND\n\nREPORTS\n\n301\n\nthe present-day school comes in for criticism. It is affirmed that children\ndo not read as well, spell as well, or write as well as in the past, and that\nthey have not the same skill in arithmetic as formerly. Such criticism is,\nof course, the eternal protest of the old against the new. Yet for school\nmen to go on year after year denying this protest, and affirming that\npresent-day instruction is even better than in the past, will no longer\nsuffice. Public criticism must be met by facts, and the affirmations of\nschool men must rest upon positive knowledge.\nOne of the means, at least, of testing efficiency of present-day instruction is thru the giving of old examinations. In our system, fortunately,\nthere were ready to hand the questions and the results of examinations\ngiven in the schools of Cleveland five and even fifty years ago. The\nregiving of such tests has, of course, its limitations. Still only as data\nare collected and presented which are a reasonable measure of efficiency,\nwill the public be made to believe that there is increasing power in the\nimparting of knowledge, and that the schools of the present are more\neffective than those of the past.\nThe following tables are typical of the data that may be collected\nrelative to the efficiency in present-day instruction.\nTable XVIII shows the number of children taking the spelling examination of 1858 and the number taking the same examination in 1909, the\naverage number of misspelled words per pupil, and the average percentage\nof efficiency in both years.\nTABLE XVIII\n143\nPupils Examined\n\nExamination of 1858.\nSame in 1909\n,\n\nAvg. No. Misspelled\nWords per Pupil\n\nAvg. Efficiency\nPercentage of\n\n5.215\n4.307\n\n3,240\n\n78.46\n73.92\n\n<flO\nTest of 1858\n\nSame in 1909\n\n\\(S-0\n\nFig. 4. — Black shows percentage of eflSciency for spelling test given in Cleveland\nschools in 1858, and for same regiven 1909.\n\nTable XIX shows the number of pupils taking the arithmetic examination in 1856 and the number taking the same examination in 1909, the\naverage number of correct answers per pupil, and the average percentage\nof efficiency for both years.\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n302\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Mobile\n\nTABLE XIX\nAvg. No. Incorrect\nAnswers8.074\nper Pupil\n10.258\n\nPupils Examined\n162\n\nExamination of 1856. . . .\nSame in 1909\n\n48.21\n59-63\n\n3,081\n\n^0\n\nAvg. Efficiency\nPercentage of\n\n»o\nyo\n\nTo«t\n\n^mi^i ■■■■■■■\n\nSame in igog\n\nvHIIIHI\n\n■■■H\n\n1\n\ni>C\n\n^^H\n\nloo\n\n1\n\n1\n\nFig. 5 — Black shows percentage of efficiency for arithmetic test given in Cleveland\nschools 1856, and for same regiven 1909.\nENLIGHTENING\n\nTHE PUBLIC\n\nNot only are carefully collected and well-organized statistics vital to\nthe judicious administration of the school, but such data serve as the most\neffective means of enlightening the public with reference to educational\nneeds and conditions. The growing complexity of modern city life militates against parents having to any extent first-hand knowledge of the\nschool. Indeed, the average citizen knows little of the purposes, range of\nactivities, and methods of modern education. The necessity of systematic\neffort toward acquainting the public with the problems and needs of the school\nis now felt on every hand.\nIn such a campaign mere assertion, personal opinion, personal bias\nhave little weight. The public only takes seriously those presentations\nof school needs and conditions which are based upon carefully collected\nand well-interpreted facts. Only by the use of such data, set forth by means\nof tables, colored circles, curves, black-line graphs, or other graphic representations, can the people be made acquainted with the whole work of the\nschool, be made to realize where the school breaks down, be brought to\nunderstand the necessity of certain adjustments within the school, be\nbrought to appreciate the propriety of expending such large sums of public\nmoney upon education. Only by these means can the public be convinced\nthat the modern school, despite its wide range of instruction and activities, is\nmore effective than the school of the past, and is seeking as never before to serve\nall the children and all the people of the community.\n{Signed)\n\nPayson Smith, Chairman\nGeorge D. Strayer, Secretary\nWilliam H. Elson\nE. C. Warriner\nChas. M. Lamprey\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nROUND\nROUND\n\nTABLES\n\nTABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY\n\nTOPIC: A STORY OF ACHIEVEMENT\nCO-OPERATION\nTHE\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\n303\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nAND ENDEAVOR\nRURAL\n\nIN\n\nCOMMUNITIES\n\nEDITH A. LATHROP, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF CLAY COUNTY, CLAY CENTER, NEBR.\nAuthors of modem education agree that there is very little of real supervision among\nrural schools, and that the county superintendent is underpaid, unskilled, and ineflScient.\nSince these statements are true to a great degree, one might believe that the county\nsuperintendent has no story of achievement. Yet there is at work a little leaven which\nin some states has made statutory provisions for a deputy, thus making it possible for the\ncounty supervisor to promote things educational. Again, school people are universally\nbecoming agreed that the oflfice of county superintendent must be taken out of politics,\nand that there must be a higher standard of qualifications. Some states make provision\nthat a non-partisan board shall appoint the county superintendent, and even in the states\nwhere politics yet enter into the election, the spirit of the hour is to evade party lines in\nthe choice of this officer. The last decade has called more county superintendents to\nthe educational platform and to larger fields of labor in higher institutions of learning than\never before. This means that there is beginning to be an educational future for the ruralschool supervisor. Why should it not be possible for a county to call for its educational\nleader outside of its own county or even state?\nCities do this. Why not counties?\nThe country schoolhouse is no longer the social and literary center of the community\nwherein meet the spelling-schools, the literary societies, and the grange, together with the\nSunday meetings. The school interest of the rural community is dead because the school\nhas not kept pace with the general improvement. The rapid means of transit and communication brought to rural communities thru the automobile, telephone, and rural mail\nservice have centered the interest in the towns.\nThe rural school must once again be the rallying-point of the rural community, but\nit must be the modernized rural school. The building and environment must be in keeping with twentieth-century progress. The new education would make the centralized\nrural school such an educational center. Consolidation has proven good. It is the only\nway that equal educational rights can be given to both rural and city child. It has proven\nthat it increases the school term, the attendance, and that it provides better teachers and\nan enriched course of study. It is economical, because money is spent to better advantage\nand with less waste.\nConsolidation has come to but few country schools. Children will for a long time to\ncome be taught in the little red schoolhouse of the East and the box-car building of the\nWest. What is the story of endeavor for the one-roomed country school ? There are\nin these schools today more teachers who are better qualified than there were ten years\nago. Many counties in Nebraska, for instance, are fast attaining the ideal that the\ncountry teacher must at least be a graduate of a twelve-grade high school.\nThere is an improvement in the architecture of these one-roomed buildings. Many\nof the new structures are scientifically lighted and heated. Many rural schools have\nbasement furnaces.\nAesthetic culture, which has long been a part of the city-school environment, is\ncoming to the rural school. It is creating a (^sire for beautiful school grounds. The\nold time white walls, blackened by the dust of years, are being decorated by paper or\npaint. We see within these one-roomed buildings window shades, clean sash curtains,\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "304-\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobfle\n\nand freshly blackened stoves. The cheap calendar and gaudy chromo decorations are\nbeing replaced by well-framed copies of real masterpieces of art. This awakening of a\nlove of order, cleanliness, beauty of form, and harmony of color in both the exterior and\ninterior surroundings of the rural school is real education. A child nurtured in these\nsurroimdings will soon reach that degree of culture where nothing else will satisfy.\nThe only way to quench the dying interest of the rural school is to raise that school to\na higher plane and then place therein a living teacher. Next to the teacher the county\nsuperintendent is the greatest factor in rural-school progress. Where both have been\ndevoted to the betterment of rural conditions, these many points have been won for the\none-roomed country school.\nTHE\n\nSTATE\nJ. FRANK\n\nSUPERINTENDENT, THE COUNTY\nAND THE STATE NORMAL\nMARSH,\n\nASSISTANT\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT,\nCHARLESTON,\n\nW.VA.\n\nIn this discussion I wish briefly to mention two or three fimdamental principles of\nco-operation in the fields indicated by the topic under consideration and with your permission use my own state, West Virginia, to make plain what I mean by these propositions:\nI. The law governing school administration should provide for a system that is nonconflicting, simple, and strong.\nPrevious to 1908 each state institution, including the state university and six normal\nschools, in my native state had a large board to look after its peculiar interests and protect it against the encroachments or progressiveness of any other similar institutions.\nThese boards, composed of some good school men, some good politicians, and many just\nordinary \"also men,\" met many times and at many places. The law creating these nine\nboards of regents and sixteen boards of directors, aggregating 168 members, made very\nunfavorable conditions for co-operation. Our state, suffering under this load of a too\ncumbersome organization, threw off this weight \" that did so easily beset us.\" We now\nhave a bi-partisan State Board of Control composed of three high-salaried men appointed\nby the governor. This board has complete charge of the business affairs of our twentyone state institutions. They pay teachers and officers, make repairs, buy furniture and\nfood, in fact, carry on all the business from buying breakfast bacon for the reform school\nto building an agricultural hall for the state university. Besides saving the state about\n$250,000 annually, this board saves much confusion, and makes business co-operation\ncompulsory. For example, under the previous plan, when the session of the legislature\ncame there came also many members of faculties and normal-school principals demanding\nthat their respective schools and sections of the state get their share of the public money.\nThis condition brought about a kind of \"Rob Peter to pay Paul\" method of appropriating\nfor the state schools and therefore destroyed co-operation.\nUnder the Board, of Control method of supervision, the school principals and teachers\nremain at their professional posts during the legislature, feeling secure with the assurance\nthat the Board of Control with well-kept records and carefully worked-out recommendations will see that all institutions are cared for in a business-like way.\nA similar change was made for the betterment of the professional management of the\nstate schools. A bi-partisan Board of Regents, appointed by the governor with the state\nsuperintendent of schools as president, has full charge of the university and normal schools,\nas to employment of officers and teachers and the fixing of salaries. Thru this one board\nthe normal-school principals work out a unified plan in regard to courses of study, placing\nof teachers, and general policy. Under such management former irregularities and jealousies have disappeared and hearty co-operation has taken their place.\nI am aware that many states are similarly organized and am also aware that many\nstates still have laws and organizations which do not tend toward co-operation. As\nstated in my first proposition, the organization should be quite simple. Too many boards.\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBOARDS\n\n305\n\nfor this, and boards for that, and committees and subcommittees divide responsibility,\ndissipate energy, and destroy conditions for harmony. Where such a process is needed,\nthe lawmakers should draw the legislative rake thru the school system, straighten out\nthe kinks, and gather up for elimination all superfluous and conflicting organizations and\nofficials.\n2. Law and custom directing educational affairs should provide for reciprocal pull and\npush among school officials.\nFor example, lines of communication and responsibility between the state superintendent and county superintendent should be numerous and strong. If the law does not\nmake specific provision for this condition, those in authority should assume such relationships. By means of reports, conferences, campaigns, appeals, publications, and much\ncorrespondence continuous help should flow from one to the other. I believe in the people\nand local initiative, but on the other hand I believe in a strongly organized government\nfrom the head down, with every link so strong that the officials can, if necessary for the\ngeneral good, shake the uninformed people out of their boots, provided of course the boots\nare old and out of date.\n3. School officials and other school workers should he hound together hy an educational\nenthusiasm that carries them heyond the narrow limits of law.\nBeing a Methodist, I can best express my idea on this point by saying that we should\n\"get educational religion\" that will set us on fire with zeal. In my state the brethren\nhave been stirred up to good works by (a) a campaign for more professional reading\noutlined in teachers' reading circles; (6) teachers' county and district institutes; (c)\nround tables; (d) School Improvement League; (e) school federations; (/) county superintendents' conferences; (g) county mass meetings of members of township boards; (A)\nconference of institute instructors; (i) school visitation; (j) annual education conference\nat summer school of state imiversity; (k) State Education Association; (/) many field\ncampaigns carried on by co-operation of county superintendent, state superintendent and\nhis assistants, normal-school principals, and other educational leaders; and (w) extension\nschools of the College of Agriculture. The effects of these means for personal contact,\nfollowed up by an abimdance of literature, ought to be to make educational spirit as\nuniversal as ether.\nWhile these remarks are confined to state work, I am not ignorant of the fact that\neducational enthusiasm knows no state boundaries. Let every one of us, like Absalom's\nconspirators, kindle our bonfires and blow our trumpets from the hilltops when the call\ncomes from Hebron, so long as the call is worthy to be passed to others.\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nGEORGE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT AND THE GENERAL\nEDUCATION BOARDS\n\nB. COOK,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nAND\n\nLITTLE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nROCK,\n\nARK.\n\nThis subject is one that presents certain difficulties in attempting to review the relations of the General and Southern boards with the state departments of education, as\nbriefly as necessary to do on this occasion. There is the constant temptation to relate\nthe statistics, setting forth in detail just what these boards are doing in the several states.\nAgain, this is a subject with which those assembled here are generally familiar, and there\nis very little to be said that is new. Furthermore, it is scarcely fitting to bestow upon thpse\nwho are devoting their time and money so generously and so effectually to this work the\npraise they so richly merit but which they do not seek.\nThere is, however, a great object-lesson in tiie very fundamental principles which\nactuate both the General and the Southern boards.\nFirst, there is the close relation between these boards: thoro understanding of just\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^ [Mobile\n\nwhat each board is specifically doing; no overlapping of efforts or funds; no waste by\nduplication.\nAgain, both boards have taken every means to know existing conditions and needs.\nTheir preliminary investigations have been thoro and far-reaching, and upon this solid\nfoundation of fact have they builded so wisely for both the present and the future.\nThen, their eflForts are stimulative and corrective rather than purely creative. That\nis to say, these boards have taken advantage of every initiative on the part of the people\nand the states for educational advancement. They are elevating and standardizing those\nphases of educational development, and the attendant institutions, with which the people\nare acquainted and which have the support of public sentiment, ahready more or less\nclearly defined.\nAnd, finally, every gift from the General or Southern Education Board has been placed\nwithout the least affront to the self-respect of the people or the institutions receiving these\ngifts. There is no tendency to pamper or make dependent the recipients of their generosity.\nThese boards are composed of men who not only represent, but who are, the highest\ntypes of our civilization — men who have dealt with and handled successfully the larger\naffairs of life; men upon whom rests a great responsibility, and one which they realize,\na responsibility not only to the present but to future generations; and in the work of the\nGeneral and Southern boards is this great responsibility being discharged to the betterment of mankind for all time to come.\nThe men who compose these boards have associated with them other men of equal\nmerit — men who have been selected from the millions with a view solely to their peculiar\na,nd special fitness for the mighty work to be placed in their hands — ^men of acute and\nspecially trained minds and, moreover, men with pure hearts and noble motives. In the\nhands of such men have been placed the execution and administration of the affairs of\nthese boards.\nWhile these two boards are so closely cognated, their work is somewhat divergent\nbut always harmonious.\nThe General Education Board was chartered by Congress in 1903, and the original\ngift of Mr. Rockefeller of $1,000,000 in 1902 was increased by $10,000,000 in 1905, and\nby $32,000,000 in 1907.\n\nThe statement of the fund, as published in the 19 10 report of Dr. Elmer Ellsworth\nBrown, United States Commissioner of Education, shows approximately twelve and onethird millions, with an income of over one and one-quarter millions, in the special fund\nunder the direction of Mr. Rockefeller and his son; while the general fund is over thirty\nmillions, with an annual income of four and one-third millions of dollars.\nThe broad purpose of the General Education Board reads in its charter: \"The promotion of education within the United States of America, without distinction of race,\nsex, or creed.\"\nThe practical application of its beneficences is divided into three important heads:\n1. The promotion of practical farming in the southern states.\n2. The development of a system of public high schools in the southern states.\n3. The promotion of higher education thruout the United States.\n\nThe activities of the General Board, along the three lines just named, are very clearly\nset forth in the report of Dr. Brown for 19 10. This review presents to the thoughtful\nreader a most remarkable array of facts.\nAll of us are familiar with the wonderful progress toward practical farming that has\nbeen made thruout the South during the past five years — how hundreds of communities\nhave been awakened in every southern state; how 200,000, or more, farmers are working\nunder the direction of some 200 farm experts; how tens of thousands of boys have been\nenrolled in the boys' corn clubs; how nearly all of us in the South have accepted, at\ntheir proven value, the practical appUcation of scientific facts in farming and stock raising;\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendencel STATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBOARDS\n\n307\n\nhow, during this short time, the farmer who sneers at \"book farming\" has ahnost become\nthe exception, instead of being the rule.\nThis work, accomplished thru the United States Department of Agriculture under\nthe wise direction of Dr. Seaman A. Knapp — than whom none is greater in our generation— has been made possible by the unostentatious and generous contributions of the\nGeneral Education Board.\nIn view of what has been accomplished, what is now being done, and what the future\npromises, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that this one phase of the work of the General\nBoard is the basis of the most effectual industrial revolution of modern times.\nBut this is not all. In the promotion of public high schools the work is equally\nsignificant and effectual. Thruout the South, our educational systems were not in reality\nsystems at all. There was an almost impassable chasm. We were extending our elementary schools, and broadening our colleges and universities, but the weak point was our\nwant of secondary schools. This burden was placed as a millstone about our institutions\nof higher learning. They were weighted down and held back by preparatory departments.\nThe General Education Board has come to our rescue by estabhshing professorships\nof secondary education in each southern state. Approximately one thousand high schools\nhave been established and the expenditure of $7,000,000 in high-school buildings and\nequipment has been effected, and our institutions of higher learning relieved on the one\nhand, while on the other a new impetus has been given the elementary schools.\nThis brings us logically to the third phase of the work of the General Board, the\npromotion of institutions of higher learning, which reaches the entire nation.\nThe permanent endowment of colleges and universities places these institutions above\nthe temptation of commercialism, and enables them to develop along the highest lines,\nintent only upon the single purpose of their existence.\nThe direct contribution of five and one-quarter millions of dollars by the General\nEducation Board, in the eastern, western, and southern states, used as the basis for stimulating local effort, will result in a grand total of $23,000,000 in permanent endowments.\nIn order to cover fully the entire educational field, the General Board is establishing\nstate supervisors of rural and elementary schools.\nSo we have presented a comprehensive plan for material, aye, and for spiritual, uplift.\nBy promotion of practical agriculture, productiveness is increased, values enhanced, and\nthe ability to support our enlarged educational systems is given, with the sure reaction of\ngiving back to the states for life's struggles young men and women better, and ever better,\ntrained in heart, mind, and body.\nThe Southern Education Board was organized in 1901, after the Fourth Conference\nfor Education in the South. Following a preamble setting forth the importance of universal, practical education, the needs above existing conditions, and the unusual opportunities for progress presented with the beginning of the new century, this resolution was\nadopted, and serves as the basis for the activities of the Southern Board in lieu of charter,\nconstitution, and by-laws:\nResolved, That this conference proceed to organize by the appointment of an executive\nboard of seven, who shall be fully authorized and empowered to conduct:\n1. A campaign of education for free schools for all the people, by supplying literature\nto the newspapers and periodical press, by participation in educational meetings, and by\ngeneral correspondence; and,\n2. To conduct a bureau of information and advice on legislation and school organization.\nFor these purposes this board is authorized to raise funds and disburse them, to\nemploy a secretary or agent, and to do whatever may be necessary to carry out effectively\nthese measures and others that may from time to time* be found feasible and desirable.\nThe powerful influence this board has exercised in creating public sentiment and\neffecting the crystallization of this enlightened sentiment into activities and laws cannot\nbe measured.\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIMobfle\n\nThru the direct influence of the annual conferences for education in the South, and\nthe various campaigns, conducted under the auspices of the Southern Board, the very\nterm \"education\" has come to mean something very different from the older, vague,\nindefinite conception. Education has come to mean training for life's work, the upbuilding of efficient citizenship of real men and real women, equipped physically, mentally,\nand morally to live happy, healthful, helpful lives in harmony with their environment.\nIn his annual address before the Conference for Education in the South last year,\nMr. Robert C. Ogden, the president of the conference and board, whose name is called to\nall our minds whenever the Southern Board is mentioned and whose grand and noble\nlife has so largely made this great work possible, stated that during the last seven years\nthe public appropriations for education in the states under the influence of the Southern\nEducation Board have increased $16,000,000 per annum. Indeed, I am very much\ninclined to believe that during the year now nearly elapsed since Mr. Ogden made this\nvery conservative estimate, this figure has become much too small.\nYet this is only one expression of the results accomplished very largely thru this\nboard. The several state-wide campaigns for educational revival, the organization and\nsupport of education commissions, and the school improvement work have, one and all,\nbeen potent forces in arousing and directing public sentiment for public schools.\nAnd I believe that it is not entirely out of place to remark that this great campaign,\nthis new understanding of the duties of the several states to educate and equip its citizens,\nthis acceptance of education as the training for work, has done much toward the solution\nof our bi-racial problem; and our people, to a very great extent, have taken a different\nview on the question of educating the negro, for the education they are now getting is\nrapidly coming to be more carefully adapted to their needs, calculated more specifically\nto make them useful, cleanly, and industrious. This work has shown no short cut in this\nlong and difficult problem but it seems to have indicated the practical application of a\ngreat fundamental principle, long overlooked.\nClosely associated with these major activities are the Jeannes and the Slater funds\nspecifically for the education of the negro. Then, there are many foundations and funds\nfor civic, social, moral, and physical uplift, which are aiding thru every avenue but which\nare not so closely allied to the state departments of education.\nI do not feel that I should conclude these remarks without calling to mind the great\nforerunner of these beneficent enterprises, the Peabody Foundation, now so nearly to the\nclose of its active existence by name and organization. The South can never adequately\nexpress its debt of gratitude to the founder and to the administrators of this fund, which\nduring the past half-century has done so much to give to our public schools teachers\ntrained for their work and which is to have as its lasting monument a great Teacher's\nCollege as one of the priceless jewels of our Southland.\nThose who compose this Department of Superintendence know and appreciate the\ngreat work of the General and Southern Education boards and, I am sure, every member\nstands pledged to the uttermost to lend every co-operation to this noble cause of noble\nmen for humanity — this great cause that has for its purpose nothing less than enriching\na nation with material wealth and the far greater wealth of a citizenship with trained\nminds in whole bodies, directed by pure hearts.\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": ";uperintendencel\n\nUNITY\n\nGAINED\n\nFROM\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n309\n\n[round table of superintendents of smaller cities\nTOPIC:\n\nUNITY OF IDEALS AND PURPOSES\nA.\n\nALFRED\n\nAS GAINED\n\nC. THOMPSON,\n\nFROM\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nOF STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nIN TEACHERS\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBROCKPORT,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe commissioner of education of the state of New York in a recent address said:\nOf course the main educational concern of New York is that her people shall be\n[trained in common honesty.\nWhere that is accomplished, much of the other training\nikes care of itself. If it is not assured, the other training is of little avail.\nSubstitute the word \"nation\" for \"New York\" in this noble sentiment and you have\n[the keynote of all that I shall say. Unity of ideals and purposes can be promoted by\n)rofessional training if elemental honesty is the precept and practice of those who direct\nid instruct, and if it is the mainspring of all thought and action.\nThe commonest defect in oiu: social organism is that men, who would not rob a neigh)r of the loaf of bread upon which he nourishes his babes, will unhesitatingly steal all\n[of the grain in the world, from which the bread is made, even if it should mean the destrucftion of all of the babies in the world.\nWe may quibble about educational creeds and methods.\nWith equally good intenions one may seek good results in one way and another in another way. We can never\n[settle definitely the means by which teachers may secure the desired ends. David could\n[not fight in Saul's armor.\nThere can never be uniformity of method, but there may be\n[and should be unity of purpose.\nWe are dealing with the souls of men. Ideals determine the destiny of souls. HonI esty should be the essence of all ideals and purposes set up by professional training. Not\nrthe anaemic honesty that manifests itself in sentimental emotions and hysterical bursts\n[of spectacular charity — or, in other words, the kind that men have who do good Sundays\n[and \"do\" their neighbors all the rest of the week — but the kind that makes people good\nto live with and safe to do business with; the kind that gives men a broad perception and\nappreciation of the situation and interests of those remote from them in distance or\nsocial rank, whose lives their conduct influences for good or ill.\nProfessional training has much to do with creating ideals because intellectual content\nis vitally essential to the ideal since the ideal must contain the particular knowledge\nfitted to arouse thought and control action.\nNo longer than a generation ago it was the chief purpose of teachers to teach subjects\nrather than pupils. Even today in many schools it is safe to say that there is more teacherstudy by pupils than pupil-study by teachers.\nIt is undoubtedly the first duty of professional training to start the teacher on the\nright track inspired with the purpose to know and teach children and to help each child\nattain his highest possibilities.\nProfessional training must make it clear that knowledge is good, but that wisdom is\nbetter; that a learned man may be a fool and a knave, but a wise man never; that it is a\nmuch greater thing for one to be good because he wants to, than because he must;\nthat the will cannot be forced, but that it can be led; that the teacher's province is less to\ninstruct than to guide; that it is not a teacher's business to lay down precepts, but to\nteach pupils to discover them; that the quality of effort one makes is worth vastly more\nthan what he gets as the result of the effort; that ability to think and to direct one's\nefforts economically will do vastly more toward giving one a position in life than a knowledge and control of any specialized symbols of learning; and finally, that the teacher's\nresponsibility is to arouse a lifelong interest in the thftgs in which the pupil ought to be\ninterested, in order that, when the training of the school is over, the education of life may\ncontinue such training as long as life lasts.\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "3IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nOne of the purposes of a teacher should be to cultivate the spirit of thrift in himself\nand in his pupils. I do not mean thrift as it is popularly understood and practiced.\nUnder the name of thrift great masters of finance and corporations have adopted questionable methods and have devised subtle means and dishonest ways of misleading, in order to\ncompel those who must buy the commodity they control to buy at unfair and excessive\nprices, that they may wring from the helpless purchaser inordinate gains for themselves.\nThis spirit has permeated our commercial life and in some measure all classes of our people.\nI mean honest thrift which offers an honest article and demands a fair price. Is it\nnot a very proper part of professional training to set a fair estimate on its own product ?\nIt is not very long ago that the notion obtained that the only necessary qualification for\na teacher was the missionary spirit and the schools were regarded as eleemosynary institutions inconsequence.\nThe missionary spirit is most commendable, but the time has come when school work\nis not missionary work. There is nothing more vital to a nation's welfare, and its very\nexistence, than education. It is not only a nation's chief defense, but its cheap defense.\nThe most economical insurance a nation can carry is education, and the nation must not\nbe relieved of supporting education by shifting the burden onto the shoulders of\nmissionaries.\nIn my opinion, the low financial estimate put upon education by our nation is responsible in large measure for the small nimiber of men engaged in this work. Not only is the\npecuniary compensation forbidding, but a person's social standing and influence are too\noften based, not on the character of his work, but on the amount of pay that he gets for it.\nCertain it is that pedagogicus masculinus is fast disappearing in our country, and\nunless conditions change it is very likely that he will at no distant day become as extinct\nas the great auk. It is most unfortunate that the inducements to enter the teaching profession are not sufficient to lead able young men to make the sacrifice in time and preparation which the work demands, for the teaching profession will never receive the recognition\nwhich is its due until more men enter the ranks.\nI do not want this interpreted as belittling in any way the splendid work women are\ndoing, but teaching must be a man's as well as a woman's job. Children can be best\nfitted to take their places in the social organism only thru the instruction of both men and\nwomen.\nI believe that all of us will accept this without argument.\nThere are many more reasons why men do not volimtarily go into teaching. I\nbeUeve it will be germane to this discussion to introduce two or three of the most prominent\nones.\nTenure of office is very uncertain. From statistics covering quite a wide field, it\nappears that the tenure of office of men in the teaching profession is less than three years,\nand in almost all places teachers must be subjected to the humiliation of annual election,\nwhen all of their shortcomings are raked over by school officers and aired in the community.\nThis nomadic existence with its attendant worries is not likely to induce contentment and\na frame of mind suited to the best intellectual effort.\nWhen young men about to choose a life's work see school men and school women,\nthru no fault of their own, going down and out, for causes too numerous to mention, the\nprospect is not alluring.\nSchool work has not yet attained the dignity of a business. The business sense is\npretty strong in most men. They like to engage in callings whose management is dignified,\nwhere authority and responsibility are commensurate, where there are large opportimities\nand large outlooks.\nAgain, statistics show that less than 3 per cent of men teachers receive what is generally regarded as a \"living\" salary for a family. I firmly believe that the altruistic spirit\ncontrols most teachers and that very few are governed by mercenary motives, but the\nbiological end of existence, which is to perpetuate one's kind, impels a man to choose a\nlife work which is likely to afford the means of supporting a family.\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "IP\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nUNITY\n\nGAINED\n\nFROM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n311\n\nIt is my firm conviction that all of us engaged in the work of education should do all\nin our power to improve the condition of the teacher financially and otherwise. A reasonable spirit of honest thrift will not lessen the teacher's quality of effort. It will not prevent him from trying to improve his skill in teaching and to make his field of learning more\nextensive and accurate. It will not lessen his desire to perfect himself in fine manners.\nHe will seek just as earnestly to raise the standard of his character. He will be even more\nlikely to strive to make himself the desired professional teacher.\nWe may be sure that nobody will put a higher estimate on our work than we do ourselves. believe\nI\nthat to try to better our financial remuneration and general condition by\nevery honest means in our power is compatible with the highest purposes and noblest\nideals.\nUnity of ideals and purposes may do much to strengthen a public sentiment in favor\nof those methods which are best for our country's welfare. But how bring about unity ?\nUnity is not made. Like Topsy, it grows. In trees there is unity; in telegraph poles,\nuniformity. The first is one of the highest expressions of a divine power. The last is\nman's work.\nUndoubtedly, if there is to be unity it must be in that subtle something we call character in both its subjective and social phase. What, we are, pertains to the real, true\nself. What we do, has its influence on those about us.\nA young child acts under the inspiration of suggestion, and when he is older, under the\ninspiration of ideals. As the chameleon's color changes with the color of the objects\nabout it, so is the child's character acted upon by what we teachers are and by what we\ndo.\nThis faculty of being easily influenced surrenders children to the mercy of their elders;\ntherefore we, the elders, the teachers, must have the single purpose of surrounding children\nwith the influences that will lead them to aspire to the things that are honest. In all\nof our ideals and purposes, it seems to me that this should be the ultimate, the supreme\naim.\nHeavy demands are made on the several educational agencies for professional training which are endeavoring to meet the exacting requirements that are set for teachers.\nIt is most fitting that there should be among these agencies a unity of ideals and purposes,\nfor certainly the requirements asked would tax genius and divinity.\nI have made an attempt to collate from different sources some of these requirements\nfor a successful teacher. A teacher to measure up to the demands must have the learning\nof a college president, the consecration of a clergyman, the executive talents of a financier,\nthe humility of a deacon, and the craftiness of a politician. He must be an angel for temper, ademon for discipline, a chameleon for adaptation, a diplomat for tact, an optimist\nfor hope, and a hero for courage. He should have the wisdom of a serpent, and the gentleness of a dove, the grace of God, the patience of Job, and the perseverance of the devil.\nLet such teachers bring to our schools the cultures that make for a noble citizenship,\nbut let the people bring to their support the utilities that make for a material success,\nwithout which citizenship is a mockery and democracy a farce.\nB.\nE.\n\nAS GAINED\n\nC. WARRINER,\n\nFROM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSAGINAW,\n\nMICH.\n\nA short time ago, the head of the department of modem languages in one of our normal\nschools offered the following criticism on the course of study in their training school.\n\"What do you think my boy, now in the second grade, is getting ? \" he said. \"I asked\nhim the other day what he was studying in school and he replied, * Twice a week we have\nmanual training and three times a week we have pri:5itive arboreal man.' Now what do\nyou think of that ? Even if we have risen thru the cave-dwelling and the tree-dwelling\nand the man-eating stages, I'd like my child to get thru those epochs just as soon as possible\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nand get to living in the world today. I'd like my boy to have some instruction in penmanship, which he doesn't receive, and I'd hke him to read about the twentieth century\nA.D., not the twentieth century B.C.\" I confess that I sympathize freely with my friend,\nbut I believe the dawn of a better day is visible. We are nearly thru the woods. I use\nthis incident to introduce this query: How far should unity in a school organization\nextend ? Should a teacher be required to teach what does not appeal to him ? In thinking over my friend's criticism, I asked myself what should I do should I find myself in a\nteacher's position and required to teach first- and second-grade children about primitive\narboreal man ? Should the course of study be fixed or fluent, compulsory or optional ?\nMy answer to this query is, the course of study should for the most part be a fixed\nquantity, while the methods of teaching should be optional. Supervision should say what\nis to be taught — the individual teacher should determine how this subject-matter is to\nbe taught. Election of studies in the high school has gone too far in the past fifteen years,\nwith disastrous results to the mental caliber of our high-school product. By analogous\nreasoning, the elementary course of study has been poisoned with freedom of choice on the\nteacher's part, which has brought forth indefiniteness of knowledge, superficiality of\nknowledge, and lack of knowledge in pupils who have finished our elementary schools.\nThe supervising officers of a school system should not specify each day's work or each\nweek's work but they may well mark out the studies by monthly or two-monthly periods.\nLatitude must be given the teacher's judgment as to what tomorrow's lesson in arithmetic\nshall be, but the course of study should say what topics are to be taught this month.\nThis should not be left to the teacher's judgment. Perhaps the course of study may name\ntwenty stories for a three-month period from which the teacher may choose twelve to\ntell in the second grade, or the course of study may enumerate ten poems from which the\nteacher may select two. Perhaps a half-dozen third readers may be listed from which the\nteacher may choose — I say \"perhaps\" because I am not sure but that even in these matters there should be a unity which can be secured best by prescription. It is undoubtedly\ntrue in story-telling and poem-teaching, less so in reading, that a teacher will teach well\nonly what appeals to him as meaningful and forceful. If teachers are consulted, however,\nin the group, as to their choice of literature, an agreement can be reached which will be\nsatisfactory to four-fifths of them and thus a unity be given even to these subjects. In\narithmetic, geography, history, spelling, grammar, penmanship, I see no reason for giving teachers any choice as to what is to be taught. Supervisors may very wisely consult\nthe experience of the classroom teacher as to what is best fitted to the child's age, but doubtful points should be judged by the supervisor, and always the final decision should rest\nwith him. To hand over without reservation to a group of teachers the absolute and\nfinal decision as to course of study or textbooks is a dangerous policy for the welfare of the\nschools. The teaching group has the best of meaning, but they lack two things, possessed\nby the supervisor, which are essential to a determination of any important cause in any\nwalk of life, namely, responsibility and breadth of view. Unless supervisors are charged\nfirst and foremost with the duty of saying what is to be taught and unless the supervisors\nare men and women of broad training, wide experience, and keen observation which shall\nmake their judgment of value, there can be no excuse for employing them at large salaries.\nTwo factors should decide what is to be taught in school, the child's capacity and the needs\nof the times. The study of primitive arboreal man may satisfy the first requirement as\nbeing adapted to the child's stage of development, but it is so out of harmony with the\nsecond criterion, the demands of the age in which we Hve, that it should be condemned\nif it is to be considered an essential part of a curriculum. On the other hand, arithmetic\nand geography contain in themselves the subject-matter adapted to the age and capacity\nof children of different grades. There can be no choice as to what the fourth-grade child\nshould learn in arithmetic — he should learn the multiplication tables and long division.\nWhy should any option be given in the fourth year's course of study of arithmetic?\nGeography may offer wider scope for difference of opinion as to what the fourth year's\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNITY\n\nGAINED\n\nFROM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n313\n\ncourse should be, but it is the supervisor's part to say what the topics shall be for his school\nsystem. It is then the teacher's part to teach what is found in the course of study as best\nhe can. As has already been said, reading, literature, and language-study allow more\nground for freedom of choice without loss of value. Yet even here, it seems to me there is\na best choice of books to read and of stories and poems to learn. And my opinion is that\nmore satisfactory students will be brought out of our schools if the supervisor lays down a\nx;ourse of language and reading to be adhered to pretty closely. This supervisor will be\nthe superintendent for most branches of study in the smaller cities and the supervisor of\nspecial subjects in the larger cities.\nThe part of the individual classroom teacher is to instruct, to inform, to educate the\ngrowing children committed to his care, using as material for this purpose what the supervisor has laid down in the course of study. In this teaching the greatest liberty, the widest\nlatitude as to method should be granted the teacher. He should be encouraged to test\nnew methods, to plan new devices, to base his teaching upon recognized principles. The\nsupervisor, from his deeper knowledge of these principles, from his wider observation of\ngood teaching, and from his own skill in teaching, may reasonably be called upon from time\nto time to show the classroom teacher how to teach. But this is not the first nor the sec-\n\nI\n\nond function of the supervisor.' His first function is to say what shall be taught, his\nsecond to see that it is taught. The supervisor of music, for example, should decide what\nmusic is to be taught in his schools. This he should plainly outline to his teachers\nand explain it to them in teachers' meetings. He should then visit the individual\nteachers to test their schools, to learn what has been accomplished, to offer suggestions\nfor correcting and improving the results, and perhaps to give a model teaching exercise\nfor the teacher's benefit.\nModem city school systems are in great danger of oversupervision. The rural school\nis most needy from the lack of any sort of supervision. The city system has gone to the\nother extreme, with its superintendent and special supervisors of music, drawing, penmanship, manual training, primary methods, nature-study, language and reading, etc.\nNo wonder teachers are bewildered in trying to serve so many masters — no wonder hardly\na day passes without having the regular program interrupted by the visit of a \"special.\"\nWith advanced and more extensive requirements as to the training of teachers, the time\nwill perhaps come when our smaller cities can eliminate the visits of supervisors of special\nsubjects. We may look forward to the time when teachers will be so trained in drawing,\nmusic, and handwork that they will be prepared as well to carry forward the teaching of\nthese branches as of reading, writing, and arithmetic. At present the technical character\nof these subjects of study, coupled with the inadequacy of the teacher's preparation, makes\nnecessary the classroom visitation of the supervisor. But let us see to it that this visitation isnot so frequent as to become dwarfing and deadening in its effect upon the\nteacher. Weekly visits of any supervising officer, be he superintendent or special teacher,\nare too frequent. Once in two weeks, three weeks,' or four weeks is often enough — never\nshould scheduled visits of the supervisor be oftener than fortnightly. This will leave the\nteacher alone long enough to lay out a plan of teaching and to carry it into execution.\nToo frequent visitation is like the classic example of pulling up the beans to see whether\nthey have sprouted.\nHaving now pointed out that a system of schools should have imity in its purposes,\nas set forth in its course of study, it remains to speak more closely of how this unity may\nbe idealized and then carried out into living reality in the life of the school and of the community. To this the most important answer is— it can best be accomplished thru the\npersonality of the supervisor. The supervisor includes the superintendent as well as the\nsupervisors of special subjects. The ordinary means W supervision are well known and\n\n1\n\ncall for no comment here, namely, written outlines, teachers* meetings, school visitation,\nmodel lesson exercises, etc. But back of all these methods and above them lies the character of the supervisor himself. A supervisor of a special branch should be chosen first\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "3 14\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Mobile\n\nfor his knowledge of his subject. Nothing will take the place of this. He should have\nstudied the subject-matter long and thoroly, he should have studied methods of teaching\nit and then he should have taught it under circumstances similar to those under which he\nis supervising the work. Unless the supervisor has taught in the classroom he will fail to\nappreciate the difficulties of the teacher's problem. The supervisor should also be a\nconstant student. He should go on to perfection in his art. If he is a supervisor of drawing he should have continued practice in the art of drawing; he should be acquainted with\nthe history of drawing and of fine arts, both past and present; he should be familiar with\nthe theory and practice of art instruction, as carried on today in the schools of our own\nland, both public and private, as well as those of foreign lands. Besides this knowledge\nand skill the supervisor should have a sunny disposition which shall bring joy and inspiration to the teachers whenever they come in contact with him. His visits to the classroom\nshould be like a summer breeze, bringing rest and refreshment.\nNow what has been said of the supervisor may be demanded of the superintendent\na fortiori. We have truly said in the past, \"as is the teacher, so is the school.\" We may\nas truly say today, as is the superintendent, so is the school system. The true answer to\nthe question before us, how to secure unity of ideals and purposes in teachers, is thru the\npersonality of the superintendent. The ideals of the superintendent should inspire supervisors and teachers alike. In every city having no more than three or four hundred teachers, the superintendent should come closely enough in touch with the teachers to make his\npersonal influence felt. This influence should be an educational force, not merely a commercial relationship. Fifteen years ago, when considering the advisability of giving up the\nhigh-school principalship for the superintendency, I talked the matter over with one of\nmy college professors. He discouraged me from making the change, saying of the superintendency, \"It is after all only a business.\" His manner and voice indicated his estimate\nboth of the superintendent's work and of business in general. Connected with the superintendent's work are many commercial details, but they should be made as few as possible.\nHappily the tendency is to relieve the superintendent more and more of the selection of\ntablet paper and the repair of broken windows. To be sure, every part of the school\nadministration is of interest to the superintendent. He must have enough native business\nabihty and he must have given enough attention to school-board business to make his\nopinion of value to his board, but this opinion should be asked for only in emergencies.\nThe questions which the board of education should ask of the superintendent are, Can our\neighth-grade pupils write a business letter? Do our sixth-grade pupils have a legible\nhandwriting ? Superintendents should more and more train our boards of education to\nprovide some other way of looking after janitors, schoolhouses, and school supplies than\nthru the superintendent.\nGranted now that a school system should have unity, and that the superintendent is\nthe unifying agency, how is his influence to be carried into effect ? In the first place, the\nsuperintendent should have a policy, *a progressive policy, probably not too progressive,\nand an aggressive policy, certainly hot too aggressive. This policy will of course assume\ndifferent aspects in different places and at different times. It may be the improvement of\nteachers in service, the awakening in them of a professional zeal; it may be practical\neducation, making a vital connection between the school and society; this year it may be\nthe improvement of teaching reading, next year of arithmetic, next year of composition,\nand so on. But the superintendent must have a definite policy, he must himself be conscious ofwhat this policy is. and it must be recognized by the teachers. For getting before\nthe teachers large questions of purpose and policy, nothing takes the place of the general\nteachers' meeting, on Saturday morning or on an afternoon when school has been dismissed for this purpose; never after four o'clock when teachers are tired and perhaps\ncross. Respect for the superintendent is the center about which unity of ideals and purposes should cohere, and the nucleus of this respect must lie in the superintendent's policy.\nHe should be a leader, the educational leader of the community, but he should not there-\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNITY\n\nGAINED\n\nFROM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n315\n\nfore assume to know it all and resent any suggestion of school betterment. Every hint\nshould be welcomed by the superintendent, carefully considered, and judged on its merits,\nwhether it come from members of the board of education, teachers, business men, or even\nfrom the newspapers. The superintendent should keep just a little in advance of his\nboard and his teachers and his community — one or two years in advance, not ten or twenty\nyears in advance — this makes him unpractical and a dreamer, but he never should be\nbehind his constituency — not even a month — if he is, time for his retirement has come.\nHaving a policy, well defined and well known, respect for the superintendent arises\nfrom several other factors.\n1. As was said in regard to the supervisor, nothing will take the place of knowledge\nin commanding respect and even obedience. Knowledge of subject-matter is the best\ncure for nine-tenths of the classroom teacher's troubles with discipline, and so it is the\nsolvent for the superintendent when he finds a lack of loyalty among his teachers. It is\nmanifestly impossible for one man to have scientific knowledge of all or even of many of\nthe particular branches of instruction. But the nearer the superintendent approaches\nto this knowledge, the better for his standing among his teachers. Even if not familiar\nwith the latest data in all the sciences, he should at least be familiar with methods of\nteaching every subject. He should know the literature of methodology in every school\nsubject and should be able to refer teachers to the sources. Moreover he should see that\nteachers study this literature and have opinions in regard to it. For example, the superintendent should know of the Aldine and the natural methods of teaching reading, he\nshould know what topics recent writers would eliminate from arithmetic, he should know\nwhat emphasis to lay on war in teaching history, he should know why ancient history is\ntaught in the first high-school year, he should know how algebra is taught graphically,\nwhy so few pupils take physics if an option is offered, why the natural method of teaching\nGerman and modern languages is advocated, how to make botany appeal to an increasing\nnumber of students — all these topics of current interest the superintendent should be\nfamiliar with, as a means of inspiring his teachers to know them too.\n2. Respect for the superintendent grows also from a knowledge among his acquaintances that he is absolutely devoted to his profession. This devotion is of course evident\nfrom his knowledge of his subject, but it may also be judged from the time which the\nsuperintendent gives to his work and from the way he spends his time. The proper division of his time is one-half to school visitation, one-half to study. The superintendent\nneeds to spend half his time visiting schools in order to know the needs of the pupils and\nthe difficulties of the teachers, and he needs to spend the other half in study in order that\nhe may have something more than platitudes to offer to the burdened teacher when he\ndoes visit her. Further, the superintendent should spend some time each year in visiting\ncontemporary school systems. School boards are wisely learning to bear the superintendent's expenses in such visitation, but even at his own charge the superintendent\ncannot afford to pass a year without this source of information and suggestion.\n3. A third source of respect for the superintendent is his teaching abihty. The only\nadequate preparation for the superintendency is^a degree or degrees, supplemented by\nactual classroom work, preferably first in the country school, then in a graded system, and\nlast in a high school. One may be able to recognize poor teaching without having been a\nteacher himself, but one cannot show the unhappy teacher how to teach well without having taught. The classroom teacher invariably says to herself, and frequently to her nextroom neighbor, \"It's mighty easy for the superintendent to come in for twenty minutes\nonce a month and find fault because the class doesn't know more, but why doesn't he take\nhold and show me how to do it? Because he can't.\" And. too often, fellow-superintendents, this is true; we can't do it. We ought to^ry our hand at teaching, teaching\nclasses, or teaching a half-day at a time, enough to be able to show our teachers that we\ncan teach and that we do appreciate their hard places from having trod them ourselves.\nIf a superintendent's life among his teachers is such as to command the respect I\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nhave been describing, the result will be a unity of ideals and purposes because the teachers\nwill make the ideals and purposes of the superintendent their own. The wise superintendent will gather his principals and teachers about him, take them into his confidence,\nask them their opinion about everything, and, if possible, he will agree with them about\neverything. If, however, he must disagree with them, if he must ordain a course of\nstudy at variance with their wishes, the only possible way to have it taught is by teachers\nwho respect the superintendent's knowledge, devotion, sincerity, and teaching ability,\neven when disagreeing with him. If then the course of study calls for primitive arboreal\nman, the teacher must teach it, but he will put no spirit into his teaching unless there\nexists in the system that esprit de corps which gives a unity of endeavor to all the teachers,\nderived from a respect for the policy of the school, as determined by the superintendent's\nlife and character.\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge A. Works, superintendent of schools, Menomonie, Wis. — ^In the discussion\nof this topic, we are made to face the fact that the superintendent who wishes to secure\nunity of ideals and purposes in any corps of teachers, must himself be in possession of\ndefinite, clear, and rational ideals of education. These ideals are of two classes: First,\nthe broad general aims which imderlie the work of the public schools as a factor in education. These ideals should be rationally progressive, but with all so firmly anchored in\nthe best educational theory and practice that their possessor will not be swept away by\nevery wave of pedagogical reform, either of a local or country-wide character. Second,\nthe superintendent must also have clear and well-defined ideals of what constitutes highgrade classroom instruction, management, organization, and spirit. Lack in either of\nthese respects means that the school system having such supervision will not reach the\nhighest possible degree of eflficiency.\nGranted that the superintendent is well fitted for his supervisory duties so far as\ndeals are a factor, he still has important functions to perform in getting these ideals\nbefore the teachers so that they may comprehend them, desire to make them their ideals,\nand to realize them in practice, in showing teachers how to attain these ends in practice,\nin following up this work to determine the degree of success with which teachers are meeting, and giving them encouragemelit when the results will justify it and further help where\nit is needed.\nA rough classification of teachers may help in deciding upon the best methods of\nsolution for these questions. There is in every school system a small percentage of\nexceptional teachers — ^people who have a vital interest in their work, and a thoughtful\nattitude toward it. They are people who would do good work without any or even with\npoor supervision. Such teachers need little more than the encouragement and loyal\nsupport of the supervisor in order to do the very best of work. When well grounded\nin pedagogical principles, they should be allowed and encouraged to make experiments\nin educational practice so long as they do not run counter to rational doctrine. Too\nfrequently teachers of this group are held so closely by the machinery of the system that\nthey lose the vital interest in their work that is essential for the best results.\nA few words of explanation may make these last two statements more definite. In\nthe graded-school system, each teacher has certain results to accomplish that the work of\nthe grade may fit in with what has gone before and what is to follow. This may not always\nbe the subject-matter that the teacher likes best to present, but whether or not it shaW b\nused, should not be left to his determination. In general, the teacher's individuality\nbecomes an impertinence when it determines what is to be taught over any considerable\nperiod. There is ample opportunity for the exercise of the teacher's judgment in determining the method of presentation. When teachers are lacking in individuality, the\nsuperintendent must at times enter even this field and insist that his methods be used.\nUpon this basis, individuality may be developed in the teacher's work.\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nUNITY\n\nGAINED\n\nFROM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n317\n\nThe second class, which comprises the majority of teachers, are those who render a\nmedium or fairiy good quality of service. Conscientious, frequently to a fault, they fall\na little short of the first group because of lack of initiative and thoughtfulness. Such\nteachers need frequent encouragement and inspiration from the supervisor to keep them\nfrom losing faith in themselves and their work. The third and last group ard the poor\nteachers. Here is to be found the teacher of some ability, but devoid of interest in her\nduties. Frequently it is impossible for the superintendent to substitute interest in the\nschool aflfairs for the social or other extraneous interests which already occupy this teacher's\nattention. There likewise belongs to this class the teacher who is so weak in discipline\nor some other fundamental characteristic that, in spite of all the help the superintendent\nis able to give, he is not able to cope successfully with the daily problems of the schoolroom. In fairness to the pupils and these two kinds of individuals they should be dropped\nfrom the service, and unless a superintendent is free to do this he should not be held responsible for their work. In this same group are found teachers completely lacking in initiative\nbut who, by imitation of others, do passable work. The proportion of this kind that has\nto be retained in a system depends on the salary schedule. There is also in this group the\nweak teacher who is capable of considerable growth when subjected to proper stimulus.\nWith these two kinds of teachers, there is much need of frequent individual conferences\nwith the superintendent, a possibility in the small school system. There rests upon every\nsuperintendent a solemn obligation to do his best by each teacher that works under his\ndirection. When a teacher is failing badly, it is the duty of the supervisor to make the\nbest possible analysis of the failure and discuss the causes fully and frankly with him at an\nearly date. The teacher should not be permitted to go thru the year without warning and\nthen dropped unceremoniously or foisted upon an innocent superintendent in some distant\ncity. We should realize fully our opportunity for helpfulness to the weaker members of\nthe teaching staff.\nFrom this part of the discussion it is evident that we believe a great deal in the personal conference in securing proper ideals in a teaching force. But even in the small\nschool system, not all can be accomplished by this means. Further help may be secured\n\nthru the different kinds of teachers' meetings. There should be the general teachers*\nmeetings about once a month so that the superintendent may have an opportunity to\nimpress on his co-workers his views of education, to keep them in touch with the best pedagogical thought, to commend that which he has found in his visitation that may be worthy\nof commendation, and to offer constructive criticism where it is needed. When pedagogical\nliterature is made the basis of study, the results obtained will be greatly improved by placing in the hands of the teachers thought-stimulating questions when they are preparing\non the subject-matter. At these meetings the topics of discussion should be of such a\ncharacter as to appeal to all teachers, and have in them something of help to all. There\nis no virtue in teachers meeting for the sake of formality. Some of the complaints that are\nregistered against teachers' meetings come from our most conscientious and loyal co-workers\nbecause we give them stones when they ask for bread.\nIf all of our teachers belonged to the first class described, there would not be great\nneed for more than the general teachers' meetings. The large number of teachers in\ngroups two and three, however, make very necessary the meetings by grade and by subject.\nIn the first of these meetings the teachers of a given grade are brought together to consider\nquestions peculiar to their grades, and in the second the teachers working with a particular\nBubject in two or more grades meet for consideration of the subject. It is well to let the\nteachers know in advance what the topic of the meeting is to be so that they may come\nprepared to take part. Occasionally these gatherings may be devoted to a consideration\nof some of the general criticisms the superintendent lias brought together as a result of\nhis visits to classrooms. A plan that has proved very helpful is for the superintendent to\ngroup the criticisms he has to offer so that a fundamental weakness underlies any given\ngroup. A thought-stimulating question or series of questions based on each weakness\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Mobile\n\nmay then be prepared and placed in the hands of the teachers. They are required to\nanswer these questions in writing in advance of the meeting. Some of the answers may be\nread and made the basis of discussion. They are all given to the superintendent, who goes\nover them with care and indicates by notations wherein the teacher fails to grasp the\nproblem, and perhaps indicating some article or book that his wide range of reading leads\nhim to think will be helpful to the teacher. In the small school system, it is possible and\ndesirable to have these meetings partake of the nature of the conference in which the presentation of some topic or the subject-matter called for in the course of study is given\nconsideration. In these gatherings, the teachers should be made to feel perfectly free to\nexpress their opinions. The superintendent needs to guard against two things: He must\nnot mistake the criticisms offered as personal matters when they are intended only to\napply to his plan, nor must he allow the trend of discussion to get out of his control. These\nmeetings frequently give the superintendent an insight into the perverted philosophy of a\nteacher that it would be impossible for him to get in a more formal meeting, and which\nhe might not discover in several visits to the classroom. In these conferences, the superintendent will find that the teachers of the first group will be able to render material\nassistance. The number of these meetings that are handled by the superintendent in\nperson will depend on the size of the system and its organization.\nIn closing this discussion, let us again refer to the individual conference with teachers\nof which we do not make enough; These interviews may be made an opportunity for\nindicating to the teacher helpful literature to be read by him and discussed later with the\nsuperintendent. This practice gives a purpose to the teacher's reading that is frequently\nlacking in the general reading. We need to make a fuller application of the policy of\nthe successful life insurance agent who does not attempt to sell life insurance en masse.\nThese personal conferences should be made occasions for the fullest and freest of helpful\ncriticism. Too frequently we make the serious mistake of not telling teachers plainly\nwherein they are failing, and showing them how to improve. A supervisor need have no\nfear of talking with absolute frankness to teachers of their weaknesses when they realize\nth^t he intends to treat them with fairness and when they know that the interest of\nsupervisor and teacher lie in the same direction. The superintendent who because of his\nardent desire to have things running smoothly neglects to face weak teachers with their\nfaiUngs makes a serious mistake. So common an error is this on the part of the supervisors that it seems a good custom to have the supervisors of special subjects hand to the\nsuperintendent written statements regarding the work of each teacher under his supervision, so that where adequate progress is not being made by a teacher arrangements may\nbe made for a meeting of teacher, supervisor, and superintendent. Frequently this method\nresults in a marked improvement on the part of the teacher. It has a further value, in\nthat it shows the supervisor the necessity of candor in discussing work with teachers, and\nresults in a marked diminution of the occasions for the superintendent taking part in such\ncases. It is well, in case of serious failure on the part of the teacher, to have a written\nstatement by the supervisor, of the criticisms that have been offered, accompany the\ngeneral estimate of the teacher's work. At the bottom of the failure to discuss frankly\nwith teachers the respects in which they are failing lies the fear of hurting their feelings.\nThe teacher who is worth while is not only glad to receive criticisms, but seeks them when\nthey are given with candor and sincerity.\nThese methods, joined with loyal support of teachers on the part of the superintendent\nbecause the teacher who is good enough to keep in the system is good enough to support,\nwill secure unity of ideals and purposes as far as such unity is desirable, leave sufficient\nlatitude for the exercise of the teacher's originaUty, and free the school system from the\nworking at cross-purposes that sometimes characterizes it. As is readily seen, to carry out\nthis plan means that the superintendent must be free to spend much of his time in visitation\nand not attempt to supervise at long range.\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNITY GAINED\nC.\n\nMRS.\n\nSARAH\n\nAS GAINED\nE.\n\nHYRE,\n\nFROM\nFROM\n\nMEMBER\n\nSCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nSCHOOL\n\nOF THE\n\n319\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD,\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe subject which the chairman of this department has given me is so large and my\ntime so short that I shall have to confine myself strictly to the assigned subdivision.\nMy own experience and observation as a teacher, parent, and member of the Cleveland Board of Education for the past six years, during which time I have had intimate\nassociation with the teacher and public, lead me to say that the administrative work of a\nboard of education may aid in securing \"Unity of Ideals and Purposes\" in teachers in\nthe following ways:\n1. By establishing in the minds of teachers and the public this fact — that each and\nevery official act always receives thoro and just consideration by the board members,\naccording to the best information obtainable and based upon the merits of the question\nunder discussion.\n2. By giving thought to questions of public education so that legislation affecting\nthe teacher's work and welfare of the child will show intelligent study of these matters\nby board members as well as some knowledge of the great responsibility of the teacher,\nand a material appreciation of the profession of teaching, fitted to rank with other professions.\n3. By encouraging and promoting ways and means for bringing the community nearer\nto the teacher and into closer touch with the great problems of the public school.\nThe young teacher graduated from normal school, imbued and inspired by her study\nof the philosophy and history of education, carrying with her the high ideals of the profession she has chosen, believing that all the world must pay honor to her calling, is employed\nin some school system by a school board and is assigned to a building. Around her she\nsees silent, patient, plodding, faithful teachers. The principal is wise and discreet. Most\nof them had been there for years and thru those years the changes that had come led them\nto beUeve that the school boards, which had come and gone, possessed little knowledge of\nthe teacher's work and the demands upon her in the interest of the child.\nThey had observed that the places occupied by these honorable members, in many\ncases, were used as stepping-stones to higher political honors, or to some personal advantage. They had naturally concluded, after watching the combinations which for years had\nworked to the advantage of everybody else but the child and teacher, that \"pull,\" not\nmerit, that \"schemes\" as well as \"ideals\" must form a part of their service, which they\nrender for that meager salary which is generally less than that paid to the clerk or typewriter or bookkeeper in a reliable business house.\nIs it strange that teachers under these conditions lack faith in those who administer\nthe system and that they soon impart it to the new teacher ? Is it any wonder that the\nconfidence of this young teacher should be disturbed? That the faith which she had\nacquired during her normal course in her teachers, in her profession, in the splendid work\nof the public schools as she had conceived it, should have been shaken ?\nThere are grand and noble teachers whose minds and hearts are so poised that no\ninfluence, however great, can turn them from their high ideals and purposes, but most\nof them are like the rest of us, simply human, and are affected by the standards and\nexamples which those in authority set for them.\nIt is not that a board of education must enact legislation which is agreeable to the\nteacher, nor that it must canvass the views of teachers upon questions of administration,\nbut in my judgment, it is necessary and vital to a unity of ideals and purposes in teachers\nthat they shall believe that, whatever the action of their administrative board may have\nbeen, it was true to a conviction and inspired by a desire upon the part of the board members to do the best thing possible for the schools.\nA board of education must make its rules and regfHations governing groups of teachers\nimiform. There must be no discrimination. Equity must mark every official act of\nprivilege and salary, if confidence in the administrative board is to inspire the teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nI once heard an able and scholarly teacher, who was an authority upon educational\ntopics, say:\nI do not always agree with a certain member of our board. I would not always vote\nas that member does if I were in the same position, but I believe in the honesty of purpose\nof that member, and his desire to do the best thing for the schools, and such a one can\nalways be trusted to finally come to a proper solution of school problems.\nMy own experience leads me to say that teachers are reasonable, that by the nature\nof their work they are patient with those who err in judgment, so long as integrity is\nmanifest, but the ideals of the teacher are easily disturbed when confidence is shattered.\nMost boards of education do the best that they know; the trouble is that the average\nboard is not equipped to decide educational questions.\nIn some localities members are elected to the board because they are politically ambitious and deserve recognition and there is no other place where the party can locate them.\nAnd then there is another type of school board which has numbers of good people on\nit who are capable business and professional men, but are not prepared to analyze the\nserious problem of educating children. They have made a great success in their business\nor profession, but they have never given more than a passing thought to the schools. At\na state meeting of school-board members a teacher was reading a paper and referred to\n** elementary,\" \"grade,\" and \"secondary\" schools. A newly elected member turned to\nme and asked, \"What does he mean by 'elementary,' 'grade,' and 'secondary'?\"\nThe tendency of school boards is to undervalue the work of the teacher.\nIt is not a studied or intentional lack of appreciation, but simply a lack of knowledge\nas to the years of preparation a teacher must undergo, and the responsibility which said\nteacher must assume in the schoolroom.\nIf a member is an employer of labor including clerical people, he is likely to rate the\nteacher's work by the hours he puts in and the wages the employer pays his people, contrasting the hours of work for his ofl&ce force from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. with those of the teacher\nfrom 8 : 30 a.m. to 3 p.m. It is often hard for him to see why he should pay his bookkeeper\n$100 . 00 for eight hours* work for six days a week, and then vote one hundred and fifty dollars salary per month for a teacher who teaches high-school pupils from five to five and\none-half hours a day for five days a week. We ought not to be too hard upon these members. It is the commercial viewpoint, but honest as it may be, it nevertheless works\nhavoc with the \"Unity of Ideals and Purposes\" of the teaching force.\nTeachers who enter upon their work equipped for it must spend as many years of\nhard work and expend as much money as is required to prepare for law, medicine, or the\nministry, and yet the dignity of \"profession\" is denied the calling and it is looked upon as\njust \"school-teaching,\" an \"easy job.\"\nUntil men and women engaged in teaching shall combine to have their work recognized as a profession, until boards of education and the community shall look upon teaching as something more than an easy way of earning money out of the public treasury, the\nideals and purposes of teachers are bound to be a fluctuating quantity.\nI am one of those who believe that teachers place efficiency of their work before its\nmoney value, that their first concern is the child and what they can do for him, but again\nteachers are just hiiman, and must provide for the necessities of life. Many of them\nmust support families. They must dress well and must seek means of professional improvement inup-to-date methods, as no other profession requires. The teacher is not\nonly charged with the duty of imparting knowledge to the child, but is expected to fill in\nwhere the home fails. There is not an hoiu: in the day in which the successful teacher is\nnot adding to the moral, civic, and social development of the pupil.\nThe state and the nation look to the home and public school for its citizenship.\nThe home may fail to do its duty, but the public schools dare not falter in their purpose ifthis nation is to be permanent.\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNITY\n\nGAINED\n\nFROM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n321\n\nThe representatives of government at Washington, coming from all parts of the country, are not sufficiently impressed with the importance of the public schools and their\nadministration, nor the responsibility of the teacher in the making of American citizens, or\nelse they would have given before this to the National Department of Education a suitable\nbuilding and equipment and an endowment fund for research work. This act alone would\nimpress local boards of education with the dignity of teaching as a profession, thereby\nhelping the teacher to maintain the ideals which he acquired during liis years of training.\nIt reflects no discredit upon any person elected to a board of education that he is not an\nexpert upon pedagogy or is not familiar with questions of public education, but being\nelected, it is his most sacred duty to inform himself and to seek the councils of those who\nthink and write upon these subjects, in order that he may give intelligent support to the\nsuperintendent in the carrying out of his policies. If research work could be conducted\nby the National Department of Education and reports furnished free, it would place at\nthe disposal of boards everywhere statistics and facts which would keep them in touch with\neducational progress and would qualify them to enact such school legislation as would\nbest suit the needs of their respective commimities.\nIt would help them to realize, as few boards do, that the teacher's real work is the\nmaking of citizens who shall have acquired not only a certain amount of knowledge, but\nother training which will make of them trustworthy, self-sustaining members of society.\nIf we are to have unity of ideals and purposes in teachers, we must have unity of\nideals and purposes in boards of education, who will make the teacher comfortable in the\nthought that he earns every dollar that he gets and many more than the local board is\nable to pay him, and that his calling is the noblest profession of all.\nBut even if boards of education were made up of ideal members fully qualified for\ntheir responsibilities, there is still another element that must be placated — the public.\nNo board of education, nor any other board elected by the popular vote, can go much\nfaster than it can carry the people — the taxpayers — along with it.\nIf bonds are to be issued to build fireproof, modern buildings; if money is to be put\ninto remodeling and renewing old buildings in order to make then light, attractive,\nsanitary; if up-to-date seats are to supplant the badly adjusted ones; if new machinery\nfor heating and ventilating is to take the place of the old inadequate equipment, then the\ntaxpayer must be convinced that these things are necessary to the health and welfare of\nthose confined in the schoolroom.\nIf money is spent for the medical inspection of every child in the system for defects\nwhich retard his development and hinder the work of the teacher, the taxpayer must be\nmade to realize the benefits to accrue to the child from such inspection.\nIf thousands of dollars are expended each year for soap and towels in the various\nbuildings, then the taxpayer must believe in the civilizing influence of soap and water.\nIf special schools for backward and defective children, separate schools for deaf, for\nblind, for crippled and tuberculous children are maintained out of the overburdened contingent fund, then indeed must the taxpayer know not only of the benefits that will come\nto the children so afflicted, but of the relief that will come to the normal child and the\nteacher.\nIn other words, a board must not only educate itself upon these points, but it must\neducate the public as well. If the profession of teaching is ever to receive proper financial\nrecognition, commensurate with the years of preparation and responsibilities which it\nimplies, parents must know the teacher at first hand, they must understand that the\nteacher of their child is a co-partner with themselves in the making of his character and\nthe upbuilding of his manhood.\nThe Cleveland Board of Education has found tl^t there is no better way of interesting the parents in the school problems of the city than thru the use of its buildings for free\nlectures and entertainments.\nThis year, 19 10 and 191 1, more than two hundred are\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nscheduled, to which parents and patrons are invited by card. There are also about forty\nmothers' clubs in connection with the different elementary schools, to which speakers go\nupon invitation to explain any proposed innovations in school plans.\nThe use of school auditoriums for community meetings cannot help but bring the\nparent closer to the teacher. Discussions of public weKare, of patriotism and topics related\nto the home and school will arouse in any city a keener interest in school problems, and\nwill bring a heartier support to the administrative board. In conclusion I want to say\nthat it is my belief that with mutual professional confidence between boards of education\nand the teachers they employ, with closer relations between parents and teachers, with\nan intelligent understanding and co-operation between the community and its elected\nrepresentatives, there can be no doubt but that an administrative board which lives up\nto its responsibilities may be a great aid in securing \"Unity of Ideals and Purposes\" in\nthe teachers they employ.\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "FINAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE DEPARTMENT\nSUPERINTENDENCE ON A UNIVERSAL SYSTEM\nOF KEY NOTATION^\n\nOF\n\nTo the Department of Superintendence, National Education Association:\nYour committee, appointed in 1903 to invite and join with like committees from the\nModern Language Association and the American Philological Association to prepare\nand recommend a key alphabet for uniform use in indicating pronunciation in all our\ncyclopedias, dictionaries, gazetteers, text and reference books, begs leave to submit\nthis special report at this time with the privilege of adding a supplementary report at\nthe next meeting of the department.\nWe regret to be obliged to report that as yet the efforts made in accordance with\nyour instruction in response to our report of February 25, 1909, to secure if possible the\nagreement of the other two societies to a compromise on the few remaining points of\ndifference then existing between us, have not been successful. But all three conmiittees\nare in such entire accord on so large a portion of the key, and your committee is so\nfully convinced as to the forms in the disputed cases which will most satisfactorily meet\nthe practical, immediate demand for such a key, that it seems clearly best to lose no\nmore time in seeking for complete harmony, so much to be desired, but that we should\nat once recommend for your adoption the key which in our judgment is the best solution,\nall things considered, of this perplexing problem possible at this time.\nThe key which we here submit for your approval is substantially the one contained\nin the Repott of the Joint Subcommittee, which was distributed to the members of the\nDepartment at the Milwaukee meeting in 1905. This key was quite satisfactory to your\ncommittee, as we reported at that time. It had the cordial indorsement, indeed, it was\nthe product, of the representatives on the joint committee of the other two societies, men\nof the highest standing and influence as experts in their field. But when it came up\nfor approval in their societies changes were made which we could not indorse or advise\nyou to indorse. On these disputed points the key we now recommend is exactly the\nsame as in the Report of the Joint Subcommittee handed to you in 1905. However,\nduring the subsequent years of effort to compromise on these points of disagreement,\nabove referred to, your committee has become satisfied that the practical adoption and\nuse of this key would be greatly facilitated by making four changes, adopting digraphs\ncomposed of present letters instead of the more ideal and logical single signs which the\nJoint Subcommittee, tho not without some hesitation and debate, decided to recommend.\nThe practical advantage to be gained by these concessions so clearly outweighs the loss\nin theoretical consistency, in our judgment, that we do not hesitate to approve them,\nparticularly as all the experts who prepared the alphabet in the first instance concur\nwith us.\nThe key here submitted adopts the alphabet, so far as that alphabet went, recommended bythe American Philological Association in 1877, under the lead of those eminent\nphilologists Professors Whitney, March, and Haldeman,\nwhich has already gained some\n%\n•For record of appointment and work of this committee see Boston Volume of Proceedings (1903),\npp. 140-41; St. Louis Volume (1904), pp. 39, 175-76; Volume for 1905, p. 158; Los Angeles (1907) Year,\nbook, p. 60; Proceedings of 1909, p. 163, and Boston (1910) Yearbook, p. 55.\n323\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mobile\n\nheadway as a pronouncing key, and which we deem it important to adhere to. Nothing\ncould be more fatal to the success of a uniform key alphabet than to have the expert\nrecommendations of one generation overturn or discredit those of a previous generation.\nIn this matter steadiness and stability are of prime importance.\nThe other items completing this key alphabet, including the four concessions above\nreferred to, have been adopted with the full and careful consideration and approval of\nseveral of the most eminent scholars and workers in the field of linguistic science, and\nthey indorse this eclectic key as being the most happy combination of the scholarly and\nthe practical which it is possible for patience and compromise to evolve from the mass\nof mere personal opinion or prejudice that embarrasses this subject.\nThe limits of this special report permit of no explanation in detail further than to say\nthat this key provides a separate sign for each of our forty-four generally accepted sounds,\nnot one of the signs being a distinctively new letter or having a foreign look. Excepting\nthe last two supplementary letters, the added letters are so formed as to obviate criticism\non the part of the type-maker and the practical printer, as well as to be easy to write\nand to connect with preceding and following letters.\nThe experts agree that the discrimination of sounds in this alphabet is sufficiently\ndelicate and precise for all practical purposes. It should be noted that the last three\nletters are required only, and will be used only, by the lexicographers in order that they\nmay carry out their too realistic theory that it is the dictionary's function to record the\nfacts not merely of our precise, formal, more or less ideal speech, as approved by educated and cultured people regardless of their speech habits, but the literal facts of our\nordinary rapid, or careless, or incidental colloquial utterance in which precision and\ndistinctness are not thought of. It is important for the practical educator to realize\nthat the sounds which these last three letters are intended to stand for are so confessedly\nlacking in distinctive character and quality that they cannot be clearly identified or be\nnamed. No experts attempt it. They merely describe these sounds as \"obscure,\" or\n\"weak,\" or \"neutral,\" \"tending toward i in />?«\" or \"toward e in set,^' \"intermediate\nbetween a in art and a in am\" etc. Of course, such indefinite, indeterminate sounds,\nno matter how often they occur in our colloquial and hasty speech, cannot be taught\nto beginners in reading or be used in oral or syllabic spelling; nor is it necessary, and\ncertainly it is not desirable, that they should be, even if it were possible. This alphabet\nwithout these last three letters is complete and fully adequate for common everyday\nuse and for the ordinary needs of the learner and the teacher. In such use these three\nletters are needless and should be wholly ignored.\nThis key discards all diacritic marks but one, the macron, which has one invariable\nuse, viz. : to indicate the long sound of whatever letter it is used with.\nIn the main this key alphabet conforms to international usage. For the pupil who\nshould become accustomed to it the task of learning to pronounce Latin and German\nand most other European languages would be a comparatively small matter. The foreigner among us would find great help in a respelling of our words in this alphabet. It\nwould furnish the primary teacher who wishes to use the phonetic method in teaching\nbeginners to read, an authorized and complete alphabet, simple and easy for the children\nto learn to use, a tool never furnished to her before.\nIn order to have this key find its way into general use, there must, of course, be a\ncall for it. Publishers must discover that the teachers of the country, those who come\nmost directly in contact with the children, and who realize most fully the embarrassments\nand difficulties attending the use of the present diverse and complicated systems of key\nnotation, desire and would appreciate the adoption of a simple uniform key system in\nall our books, and especially in our schoolbooks. Publishers cannot be expected to\nintroduce such an improvement without feeling sure that there is a demand for it sufficient\nto justify the expense and risk involved in adopting it. It is for the teachers of the country\nto say whether such a call for a uniform key alphabet shall be clearly heard, and whether\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nFINAL\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nKEY\n\nNOTATION\n\n325\n\nthe royal seal of the National Education Association shall be placed upon the alphabet\nhere recommended so that it shall always remain common property, perfectly open and\nfree for use by all who will, and leaving no ground for business jealousy to make changes\nin it or refuse to adopt it on the claim that some rival publisher by earlier use has preempted itand thus put his private stamp upon it.\nAny request for information in regard to this alphabet or its use, and any suggestion\nthat may add to the value and helpfulness of our forthcoming final report will be welcomed and carefully considered.\nThe capitals and script forms will appear in that report.\nBoston, Mass.\nJuly 6, 1910\nTo the Department of Superintendence, National Education Association:\nLast summer at Boston at our request the Board of Directors of the National Education Association permitted your committee to file with the general secretary a special\nreport containing the key alphabet on which we had agreed, and instructed him to print\nand send it to all active members as soon as practicable, which was done. Also several\nperiodicals published the alphabet. That was an advance portion of our final report and\nis to be taken in connection with this portion as constituting that report and will be so\nprinted.\nThe mass of educated people, when they think of the matter, are agreed that one\nstandard key to pronunciation should be used in all our books. Convenience and economy\nlong since established a standard uniform gauge for our raibroad tracks, a standard uniform keyboard for our typewriting and typesetting machines, a standard thread for our\nbolts, pipes, etc. In a matter so important to the comfort and convenience of so many\nof us, particularly teachers and children, as the quick and correct apprehension of the\nsigns of pronunciation, diversity in those signs as used in any of our books should no more\nbe tolerated than would diversity in any of the products above referred to. Today any\nnut which you may chance to pick up will fit any bolt that you may find of the same diameter. A typist is at home on the universal keyboard of any of the standard typewriters,\nand the typesetting machines are adopting the same keyboard. In the same way the\npublic good demands uniformity in our system of indicating pronunciation, so that when\nwe have mastered the key in one book we shall know it in all books, whether dictionaries,\ncyclopedias, spelling books, reading books, or what not, and no matter who made them.\nProfessor George Hempl, of Leland Stanford Jr. University, formerly of Michigan\nUniversity, one of the foremost linguistic scholars and dictionary workers of the world,\nvery cogently put the case thus in discussing this very alphabet at the Louisville meeting\nof this Department in February, 1906:\nThe movement [to adopt a uniform key notation] originated in the minds of members\nof this Association, and in response to a great need felt by all practical teachers. No one\nor two dictionaries now hold the field and wield authority. The growth of scholarship\nand the development of the English-speaking world have demanded and made possible\nthe preparation and sale of many good dictionaries. These have different systems of\nindicating pronunciation. When it is necessary to look up a word and compare authorities,\nthe searcher is at once confronted by the task of deciphering and interpreting the various\nletters and diacritic marks employed, and these are so different and so differently used in\nthe various dictionaries that it is often almost impossible to find out and remember what\nthe authorities have to say on the subject. If teachers and other adult users of dictionaries find this process beset with difficulty, what must it be to the children in our schools ?\nHow serious this matter is and how real the trouble, one may estimate when he learns that\npractical dictionary workers, the men who make dictionaries and are daily employed\nupon them and who are supposed to know the different systems thoroly, constantly find\nthemselves misinterpreting and confusing the signs employed.\nProfessor Calvin Thomas, of Columbia University, chairman of the joint subcommittee which prepared the report and the alphabet distributed to you at our Milwaukee\nmeeting in February, 1905, thus stated the situation:\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[MobUe\n\nWe need, the world needs, now, without further waiting, an adequate, simple, precise,\nunambiguous, and generally accepted notation for the sounds of the English language; a\nnotation that we can teach to the young in school, thereby training their vocal organs and\nleading them to pronounce the language more accurately and more intelligently; a notation that will at the same time faciUtate our learning of foreign languages and the learning\nof English by foreigners; a notation, finally, that will enable the educated adult to consult whatever good dictionary comes to hand and find out how the word is pronoimced\nwithout referring to a special and peculiar \"key to pronunciation.\"\nIt is highly improbable that uniformity in our system of indicating pronunciation\nwould ever come about by the spontaneous agreement of rival publishers. Here is a\npractical key, based on the essential principle, one letter one sound, the product of the\nforemost language students of our country, and pronoimced by leading expert lexicographers\nto be without an equal in scholarly and working qualities. This alphabet cannot be copyrighted or claimed by any publisher and therefore will be absolutely free to all. If it\nreceives the indorsement of this body, representing the working, controlling, practical\nforce in the field of education, your committee believes that it will be adopted in due time\nby all of our publishers of dictionaries, gazetteers, cyclopedias, and textbooks. Indeed,\nupon the appearance of our special report of last July, the publishers of one of our leading\ndictionaries, then in the process of revision, who had devised an entirely new pronouncing\nkey of their own, the types for which had all been cast, threw away this new type and the\npages already set, and started in anew, using this alphabet as their key to indicate pronunciation. This in itself is a good start for this alphabetic key.\nThe attention of your committee as practical men thru these years of labor was concentrated on the practical features of the alphabet we were working for; i.e., on the\nspecific signs for the forty-four distinct and recognized elementary sounds of our speech.\nIn the July installment of this report, in order to meet the desire of experts, special letters\nwere submitted at the end of our recommended alphabet to represent the weak or obscure\nvowel sounds; but it does not seem wise to recommend alone these special letters for\nordinary use in re-spelling to show pronunciation. These weak sounds are so indefinite\nand elusive that they do not need to be taught as separate soimds, for if the beginning\nlearner is trained to place accent and emphasis properly the weakening of the unstressed\nvowel will follow naturally, if not inevitably. If there is occasion to indicate these\nneutral sounds, it may be done as well and as simply and clearly by placing the circumflex\nbeneath the letter the sound of which is obscured, the ends of the circumflex turned down\nto indicate a weakening tending toward u in hut, and turned up to indicate a weakening\ntending toward i in pit. This device was introduced by Professor March many years ago\nand has been in constant use. Its distinctive and obvious merit is that it does not conceal the proper and correct spelling of a word by substituting a sign of indefiniteness in\nplace of the regular and proper letter. The adding of this alternative mode of indicating\nthe neutral vowel, leaving each user to make his own choice, will satisfy both those who\nwish to use special symbols, and likewise those, possibly the larger number, who would\navoid adding to this simple alphabet extra or superfluous letters.\nYour committee recommends for yovir adoption the following:\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "FINAL REPORT\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nPHONETIC\n\n327\n\nON KEY NOTATION\n\nKEY\n\nALPHABET\n\nN.B. — ^The name of a vowel is its sound uttered distinctly. The systematic name\nof an explosive consonant and of h, y, and w is its sound followed by i; of any other\nconsonant, its sound preceded by e. In the case of five consonants, however, the common\nnames are submitted as optional.\nIn the digraphs dh, ^, fli, th the component letters should not be thought of or\nnamed. They are tied together expressly to indicate that the combinations are to be\nrecognized invariably as single characters, as units, a habit more easily acquired by\nchildren brought up on the new alphabet than by adults obsessed by the old. The\ncharacter dh, for instance, is not to be thought of or called c h, but as a single sign\nnamed dhi. So of the others. In the script digraphs there is the same need of the ligature; but it would necessitate an additional stroke of the pen and is therefore omitted,\nthe letters being clearly joined at the base.\nPhilologists agree that it is best to use the same letter for a short vowel and its long\nin ordinary print, distinguishing them by a diacritic only when it is especially necessary\nto indicate precision.\nThe capital letters for dh, ^, fti, til serve well in the ordinary initial position. But\nwhen the entire word is to be printed in capitals it is probable that digraphs consisting\nwholly of upper case forms will be preferred, like our present iE and (E.\nScript\nNames\nRoman\nE^-words\n\na\na\n\na\n\nQi\n\nai\n\nQu\n\na\n\nail\n\n66\n\nOy\n\nart\n\nOL\n\na.\n\nartistic\n\nCLo\n\ndA^\n\naisle, find\n\nLLuy coay\n\nout, thou\n\nd a.\n\nA\n\na\n\nA\n\na\n\nB\n\nb\n\nCh\n\ndh\n\nD\n\nd\n\nE\n\n6\n\n^\njy\nQ> ^\n\nE\n\ne\n\nG\n\nd a.\n13 I\nCA. cAy\n-ey\n\nair\nat\n\nw\n'^^\n^.-\n\nday\n\nbe\nchew\n\nprey\nmen\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJ?/\n\n328\n\nScript\n\nRoman\n\nASSOCIATION\nNames\n\nfee\n\nF\n\nf\n\nef\n\nG\n\ng\n\ngi(notji)\n\nH\n\nh\n\ni\n\nI\n\nI\n\ni\n\nIu\n\niu\n\nJ\n\ni\n\nK\n\nk\n\nL\n\n1\n\nM\n\nm\n\nN\n\nn\n\nD\n\nB\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\no\n\ne\n\ns\n\ne\n\n6\n\nei\n\nei\n\np\n\np\n\nR\n\nr\n\nS\n\n8\n\nSh\n\n^\n\nj^\n\n(Mobile\nKey-words\n\nhe\nhi\nmarine\n\no/\n\n-^ix\n\nii\n\ntin\nke)\n\nKjUcy'^^LtyC^\n\nmute\n\nje)\nki(or\nji(or\n\nkin\n\nel\n\nlet\n\n/rb ^n^yU\n\nem ei3\n\nny\n\nmet\nsing\nnet\n\nen\n\n:C ^\n\n/i^u\n\njaw\n\n♦\n\n0V ^^\n0 ^\n\nnote\n\nnor\npoetic\n\n& 3^\n&\n\ngo\n\nnot\n\n6.\n\nyyU^ o-ty\n\n1\n\noil\n\n:ar)\n■fZA\n\n.\n\nJ^ ^\n\n^^\n\n^^fdAy^^jJzy\n\ner (oi\nes\n\nratship\nset\n\ne^\n\npit\n\npi\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "P/i\\r^L REPORT ON .KEY NOT ATI ON\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nScript\n\nRoman\n\nNames\n\nt\n\nJ^\n\nIh\n\nfh\n\nMyJ^\n\nTh\n\nth\n\nT\n\n329\n\nJ\n\nU\n\nQ\n\nU\n\nu\n\nU\n\n\\j\n\nU\n\nu\n\nV\n\nV\n\nw\n\nw\n\nY\n\ny\n\nZ\n3\n\nKey-words\n\nten\n\nti\n\nefh\n\nthin\n\neth\nthat\n\no/^.^'^<^\nLO\n\n•^\n\n<>^\n\n--^^t:^\n\n?/ ^\n?/ ^\n3- ^\n\nmood\n\nurge\nhutpush\nev\nwi (or vi)\n©3\n\n%-\n\n^\n\nz\n\nJ-\n\nZ\n\n3\n\ni 7\n\nvan\nwin\n\nez (or zi)\n\nzest\n\nazure\n\nyes\n'^ subscript indicates obscuration toward the ysound\nof i in pit, as\ni\nadded, honest.\n\n/-v subscript indicates obscuration toward the sound of u in hut, as\nabout, over.\n\na\n\nAlternative Mode\n\nfor a in\n\n8\nI\n\nJ \" a *'\n1 ^' e '*\n1j ''\" ei \"\"\n\nask\nabout\nover\nhonest\nadded\n\nYour committee having completed to the best of its ability the work assigned to\nit submits this its final report and asks to be discharged.\nRespectfully submitted,\nE. O. Vaile, Chairman, Oak Park, 111.\nT. M. Balliet, New York University, New York City.\nCommittee ( H. H. Seerley, President, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, la.\nMelvil Dewey, Lake Placid Club, N.Y.\nWm. H. Maxwell, Superinte^ent of Schools, New York City.\nMobile, Ala.\nFebruary 24, 191 1\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nCONSTITUTION*\nPREAMBLE\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and to\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\nformulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational\nquestions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its\ndiscussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and\nreasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion,\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever\ngrounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the\nfreest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions. Any\nmember making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the grounds\ntherefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council. It shall\nprepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Education Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing\nbefore the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this\nreport a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part\nof the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of\nopinion among its members on such special topics as demanded the attention of the profes ion or of the public.\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty\nmembers, selected from the membership of the National Education Association. Sixty\nof the members shall be elected by the National Council of Education, and sixty by\nthe Board of Directors of the National Education Association.\nEach body shall select ten members annually, who shall serve for six years.\n2. The Council shall elect its quota of members at its regular annual meeting.\nThe Board of Directors of the National Education Association shall elect its quota\nof members at the second meeting held during the annual meeting of the National Education Association.\n3. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership. All persons who have\nbelonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership from any cause\nwhatever, except expulsion, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending\nits regular sessions and participating in its discissions. No state shall be represented\nin the Council by more than twelve members.\n* As amended at San Francisco Session, July 12, iqii (see Secretary's Minutes, p. 338).\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nARTICLE II— QUAI^IFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducation Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Coimcil held in connection with the\nDepartment of Superintendence of the National Education Association, or at such other\ntime and place as the Executive Committee of the Council may designate. There may\nbe special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the Executive Committee, but\nthe attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority of the Council\nshall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular\nor called; but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum for\nthe transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this article.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Education Association, or any\nof its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL\nAND EXPERTS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— OFFICERS\n\nThe ofl&cers of the Council shall be a president, vice-president, and secretary, each of\nwhom shall serve for three years, with terms so arranged that one officer is elected annually.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance\nand approval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting asshall realize as fvdly as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized\nand exists.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— STANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report of any investigation which may be ordered by the National Education Association orits departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies\nmay be filled every year.\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nOFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n333\n\n5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit at the next meeting a report on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey of the\nimportant movements and events in education during the preceding year is given. This\ncommittee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of ofl&ce shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled\neach year. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investagation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the Association\nfor an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal has been\nreferred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\nARTICLE\n\nVin— THE DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Education Association, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\"\ncharacter.\nARTICLE\n\nDC— AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council,\nby a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provisions may be waived at any\nregular meeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the Council.\n\nOFFICERS, STANDING\nOFFICERS\nCHARLES H. KEYES\nWILLIAM M. DAVIDSON\nROBERT J. ALEY\n\nFOR\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1911-12\n\nNew York, N.Y\nWashington. D.C\nOrono, Me\nEXECUTIVE\n\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nJoseph Swain\nJakes M. Greenwood\n\nCOMMITTEES,\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires m 191 2\nTerm expires in 1914\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe President, ex officio, chairman\nNew York, N.Y\nSwarthmore, Pa\nKansas City, Mo\n\nTerm expires in 1912\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1914\n\nCOMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP\nThe President, ex officio\nAugustus S. Downing\nCarroll G. Pearse\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nRobert J. Aley\nJames Y. Joyner\nJames M. Greeitwood, chairman\nCOMMITTEE\nJames M. Greenwood, chairman\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nElmer Ellsworth Brown\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nJohn H. Ph&lips\nEdward T. Fairchild\nElla Flagg Young\nZ. X. Snyder\n\nAlbany, N.Y\nMilwaukee, Wis\nNew York, N.. Y\nOrono, Me\nRaleigh, N.C\nKansas City, Mo\nON INVESTIGATIONS\n\nAND\n\nKansas City, Mo\nBoston, Mass\nNew York, N.Y\nAlbany, N.Y\nMenomonie, Wis\nBirmingham, At\nTopeka, Kans\nChicago, 111\nGreeley, Colo\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1912\nexpires in 1912\nexpires in 1913\nexpires in 1913\nexpires in 1914\nexpires in 1914\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\nTerm expires in 1912\nTerm expires in 1912\nTerm expires in 1912\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1913\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1914\nTerm expires in 1914\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n334\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMEMBERS\nElected by the Associaticn\n\nElected by the Council\nTERMS\n\nThomas A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.\nJohn H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nFrancis G. Blair, Springfield. 111.\nJames H. Baker, Boulder, Colo.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\n*J. A. Smith, Deland, Fla.\nCharles S. Meek, Boise, Idaho\nEdward T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans.\nE. E. ScRiBNER, Ishpeming, Mich.\n♦Walter E. Ranger, Providence, R.I.\n\nEXPIRE\n\nIN\n\n1912\n\nElla\n\nFlagg\n\nEdwin\n*W.\n\nYoung,\n\nChicago,\n\n111.\n\nS. Monroe,\n\nMuskogee,\n\nOkla.\n\nH. Elson,\n\nCleveland,\n\nOhio\n\n*JOHN W. Carr, Bayonne, N.J.\nEdward C. Elliott, Madison, Wis.\n♦Grace\n\nC. Strachan,\n\nBrooklyn,\n\nN.Y.\n\nAdelaide S. Baylor, Indianapol's, Ind.\n♦Carleton, B. Gibson, Rochester, N.Y.\n*C. G. ScHULZ,\n♦Oscar\n\nSt. Paul, Minn.\n\nT. Corson,\n\nColumbus,\n\nOhio\n\nterms expire in 1913\n♦James\n\nM.\n\nGreen,\n\n♦Augustus\n♦George\n\nTrenton,\n\nS. Downing,\nB. Cook,\n\n♦Stratton\n♦Edgar\n\nLittle Rock,\n\nD. Brooks,\n\nH. Mark,\n\n♦William\n\nN.J.\nArk.\n\nBoston,\n\n♦Andrew\nCharles\n\nMass.\n\nLouisville, Ky.\n\n♦Thomas\n\nM.\n\n♦Henry\n\nB. Brown,\n\nBalliet,\n\nNew\n\nYork,\n\n♦Frank\n\nN.Y.\n\n♦William O. Riddell, Des Moines, Iowa\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah\n\n♦W.\n\nReed\n\n♦Frank\n\nHarrisburg,\n\nNew\n\nBedford,\n\nMass.\n\nS. Draper, Albany, N.Y.\nH. Judd, Chicago, 111.\n\nE. Parlin,\n\n♦Cheesman\n\nValparaiso, Ind.\n\nB. Teitrick,\n\nE. Hatch,\n\n♦Bettie a. Button, Cleveland, Ohio\nCharles H. Keyes, New York, N.Y.\n\nAlbany,. N.Y.\n\nM.\n\nHolloway,\n\n♦Thomas\n\nPa.\n\nCambridge,\n\na. Herrick,\n\nTallahassee,\n\nC. Miller,\nB. Dyer,\n\nMass.\n\nPhiladelphia,\n\nPa.\n\nFla.\n\nShepherdstown,\n\nW.Va.\n\nCincinnati, Ohio\n\nterms expire in 1914\nW.\n\nE. Harmon,\n\nDavid\n\nFelmley,\n\nJohn\n\nR. Kirk,\n\nHelena,\n\nMont.\n\nNormal,\n\nHI.\n\nWilliam\n\nKirksville, Mo.\n\nHarlan\n\n♦David\n\nB. Johnson,\n\n♦Wales\nEdnah\n\nC. Martindale. Detroit, Mich.\na. Rich, Santa Barbara, Cal.\n\nArthur\n\nH. Chamberlain,\n\nM.\n\nBates\n\nRock\n\nStephens,\n\nJacob\n\nA. Shawan,\n\nJames\n\nW.\n\nHill, S.C.\n\nPasadena,\n\nAnnapolis,\n\nColumbus,\n\nCrabtree,\n\nM.\n\nDavidson,\n\nWashington,\n\nD.C.\n\n♦M. G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa.\nP. P. Claxton, Washington, D.C.\nUpdegraff,\n\nO. S. Westcott,\n\nCal.\n\nMd.\n\nD.C\n\n♦Julia Richman, New York, N.Y.\nMrs. James M. Greenwood, Kansas\n♦Frank\n\nOhio\n\nWashington,\n\nChicago, HI.\n\nStrong,\n\nLawrence,\n\nCity, Mo.\n\nKans.\n\n♦C. P. Gary, Madison, Wis.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\n\nLincoln, Nebr.\n\nteems expire in 1915\nJohn MacDonald, Topeka, Kans.\nH. B. Wilson, Decatur, 111.\nC. O. Merica, Laramie, Wyo.\nS. L. Heeter, St. Paul, Minn.\nLaura D. Gill, Boston, Mass.\nDavid Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal.\nW. R. SiDERS, Pocatello, Idaho\nE. C. Thorndike, New York, N.Y.\n♦E. G. CoOLEY, LaGrange, 111.\nF. E. Bolton, Iowa City, Iowa\n\n♦Miss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nLewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\n♦Elmer Ellsworth Brown, New York, N.Y.\n♦W1LLLA.M H. Black, Marshall, Mo.\nHenry Suzzallo, New York, N.Y.\nLuther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich.\n♦George M. Philips, Westchester, Pa.\n♦Edmund A. Jones, Westerville, Ohio\n♦Ernest E. Balcomb, Greensboro, N.C.\n♦J. E. BoRKE, Boston, Mass.\n\nTERMS expire IN 19x6\n♦John W. Cook. DeKalb, 111.\nW. A. Brandenburg, Oklahoma\n♦Lorenzo\n\nD. Harvey,\n\nCity, Okla.\n\nMenomonie,\n\nWis.\n\nThomas H. Harris, Bato'fi Rouge, La.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\nC. N. Kendall,\nElla\n\nTrenton,\n\nC. Sullivan,\n\nN.J.\n\nChicago,\n\n111.\n\nSpaulding,\n\nMontclair,\n\nN.J.\n\n♦George\n\nB. Strayer,\n\nNew\n\nN.Y.\n\nB. Cooper,\n\n♦James\nJames\n\nYork,\n\nSeattle, Wash.\n\n♦Not present at annual meeting, 1911.\n\nD.C.\n\nH. Van Sickle, Springfield, Mass.\nA. Barr, Stockton, Cal.\n\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Me.\n♦Charles\n\n♦Randall\n♦Frank\n\n♦Anna Tolman Smith, Washington.\nPayson Smtih, Augusta, Me.\n\nE. Chadsey,\n\nDenver,\n\n♦David Snedden, Boston, Mass.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\nA. E. Winshtp,\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\nColo.\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHONORARY\n\nMEMBERS\nINElected\n1917 by the Council\n\nElected by the Association\nTERMS\n\nEXPIRE\n\n•William H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam B. Owen, Chicago, 111.\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\n*Mrs. Estelle Reel Meyer, Washington, D.C.\nA. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz.\n*JuLius I. FousT, Greensboro, N.C.\n*W. T. Carrington, Springfield, Mo.\n*William p. Burris, Cincmnati, Ohio\n\nHONORARY\nJane Addams, Chicago, 111.\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va.\nSarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass.\nJames B. Aswell, Natchitoches, La.\nBrown Ayres, Knoxville, Tenn.\nClifford W. Barnes, Lake Forest, 111.\nEarl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlfred Bayliss, Macomb, 111.\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D.C.\nD. Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\n•\nIda C. Bender, Buffalo, N.Y.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R.l.\nAlma L. Binzel, Winona, Minn.\nRichard G. Boone, Los Angeles, Cal.\nDavid R. Boyd, Norman, Okla.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N.Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Me.\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio\nO. J. Craig, Missoula, Mont.\nEdwin B. Craighead, New Orleans, La.\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N.Y.\nRobert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn.\nJohn Dewey, New York, N.Y.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S.C.\nKatharine E. Dopp, Chicago, 111.\nJohn J. Doyne, Little Rock, Ark.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr.\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.\nR. B. Fulton, Miller School P.O., Va.\nCharles B. Gilbert, Englewood, N.J.\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo.\nLewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nMrs. Edwin C. Grice, Philadelphia, Pa.\nW. N. Hailmann, Cleveland, Ohio\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N.Y.\n* Not present at annual meeting, 191Z\n\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore.\n•Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\n•Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\n•Ben Blewett, St. Louis, Mo.\n•Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\n•John W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.\nE. C. Moore, New Haven, Conn.\nG. W. A. LocKEY Lincoln, Nebr.\n•John A. Wood, South Bend, Ind.\n•D. B. Parkinson, Carbondale, 111.\n\nMEMBERS\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nJames H. Hoose, Los Angeles, Cal.\nGeorge H. Howison, Berkeley, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N.Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Champaign, HI.\nR. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn.\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\nE. S. JOYNES, Columbia, S.C\nDavid L. Kiehle, Portland, Ore.\nWilliam F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N.Y.\nLivingston C. Lobuj, Charleston, III.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJames A. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N.Y.\nCharles McKenny, Milwaukee, Wis.\nCharles A. McMx^iray, DeKalb, 111.\nI. C. McNeill, Harrisburg, Pa.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nHenry C. Morrison, Concord, N.H.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn W. Olsen, St. Paul, Minn.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nWarren D. Parker, Pasadena, Cal.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio\nJosiAH L. PiCKARD, Cu^rtino, Cal.\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJames R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Danville, Ky.\nMrs. Ellor C. Ripley, Boston, Mass.\nH. J. Rogers, Albany, N.Y.\nWilliam D. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\nJames E. Russell, New York, N.Y.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa\nJ. G. ScHURMAN, Ithaca, N.Y.\nH. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nCharles R. Skinner, New York, N.Y.\nEuLER B. Smith, LaGrange, Ga.\nHtkRY Snyder, Jersey City, N.J.\nJ. Lancaster Spalding, Peoria, III.\nEdwin E. Sparks, State College, Pa.\n\n335\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\n33^\nHomer D. Spraoue, Newton, Mass.\nLucia Stickney, Cleveland, Ohio\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Nebr.\nWilliam S. Sution, Austin, Tex.\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nA. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111.\nW. R. Thiopen, Savannah, Ga.\nJohn G. Thompson, Fitchburg, Mass.\nL. S. Thobipson, Jersey City, N.J.\nWixuAM O. Thompson, Columbus, Ohio\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio\n\nB. W. ToRREYSON, Little Rock, Ark.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nCharles C. Van Liew, Moscow, Idaho\nJasper N. Wilkinson, Muskogee, Okla.\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio\nJohn W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo.\nLiGHTNER WnMER, Philadelphia, Pa.\nHarry K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Nebr.\nL. E. Wolfe, Memphis, Tenn.\nCalvin M. Woodwaiud, St. Louis Mo.\n\nDECEASED\nRobert Allen\n1894\nIsrael W. Andrews\n1888\nJoseph Baldwin\n189Q\nHenry Barnard\n1900\nWilliam N. Barringer. . .1907\nNewton Bateman\n1897\nWilliam C. Bates\n1909\nRextoen S. Bingham\n1902\nGeorge P. Brown\n1910\nJohn T. Buchanan\n1908\nJ. E. Burke\n1910\nNorman A. Calkins\n1895\nJames H. Canpield\nAaron L. Chapin\nClara Conway\nJ. L. M. Curry\nN. R. H. Dawson\nJohn W. Dickinson\nLarkin Dunion\nJohn Eaton\nW. R. Garrett\nDaniel C. Oilman\nSamuel S. Greene\nJohn M. Gregory\nGeorge T. Fairchild\nDaniel B. Hagar\nR. H. Halsey\nJohn Hancock\n\n1909'\n1892\n1904\n1902\n1895\n1901\n1890\n1906\n1903\n1909\n1883\n1898\n1901\n1896\n1907\n1891\n\nMEMBERS\n\nWilliam R. Harper\nWilliam T. Harris\nWilliam D. Henkle\nEdwin C. Hewitt\nElnathan E. Higbee\nFrank A. Hill\n\n1906\n1909\n1882\n1905\n1889\n1903\n\nBurke\nA. Hinsdale\nIra\nC. Hoitt\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N. James\nH. S. Jones\nThomas Kirkland\nAlbert G. Lane\nMerrick Lyon\nAlbert P. Marble\nJames McCosh\nCharles D. McIver\nThomas J. Morgan\nLemuel Moss\nM. A. Newell\nBiRDSEY G. Northrop\nTheodore B. Noss\nEdward Olney\nGustavus J. Oiui\nFrancis W. Parker\nS. S. Parr\nW. H. Payne\n\n1900'\n1905\n1892\n1901\n1901\n1900\n1898\n1906\n1888\n1906\n1894\n1906\n1902\n1905\n189^\n1898\n1909\n1886\n1888\n1902\n..1900\n..1907\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSelim H. Peabody\nWilliam F. Phelps\n\n1902\n1907\n\nJohn D. Philbrick\n1885\nM. S. Cooper Poucher. . .1900\nWilliam B. Powell\n1904\nEllen H. Richards\n1911\nZalmon Richards\n1890\nAndrew J. Rickofp\n1899\nCharles C. Rounds\n1901\nAlbert Salisbury\n1911\nEdward R. Shaw\n1903\nWilliam E. Sheldon\nEdgar A. Singer\n\n1900\n1909\n\nJames A. Smart\nF. Louis Soldan\nJ. W. Stearns\nR. W. Stevenson\n\n1900\n1908\n1909\n1893\n\nThomas B. Stockwell\nEli T. Tappan\nHorace S. Tarbell\nCharles O. Thompson..\nH. S. Thompson\nArnold Tompkins\nEmerson E. White\nJames P. Wickersham\nS. G. WiLUAMS\nJ. Ormond Wilson\n\n1906\n1908\n1904\n.1885\n1904\n1906\n1902\n1891\n1900\n1911\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Charles H. Keyes, executive secretary ot the Committee on\nSafety of the city of New York\nVice-President — ^William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools\nSecretary — Robert J. Aley, president of the University of Maine\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nWashington, D.C.\nOrono, Me.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Saturday Forenoon, July 8, 191 1\nThe Council met in the Colonial Ballroom, Hotel St. Francis, San Francisco, Cal.,\nand was called to order at 9 :30 a.m. by President Charles H. Keyes.\nJohn W. Carr, secretary of the Council, being absent, Robert J. Aley, Orono, Me.,\nwas appointed to fill the vacancy.\nPresident Keyes made the introductory address, in which he outUned a policy for\nthe future of the Council. His address and recommendations were referred to the following committee:\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU\\\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n337\n\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, III.\nE. T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans.\nJohn R. Kirk, KirksviUe, Mo.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee,Wis.\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Me.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., presented the \"Report of the Committee\non Moral Education. \"\nThe report was discussed by John MacDonald, Topeka, Kans.; Thomas A. Mott,\nRichmond, Ind.; J. W. Crabtree, Lincoln, Nebr.; Mrs. L. K. Burke, San Francisco,\nCal.; A. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah; J. F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal.; M. P. E.\nGroszmann, Plainfield, N.J.; Charity Dye, Indianapolis, Ind.; Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass.; Frank H. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.; George A. Coe, New York,\nN.Y., and Cree T. Work, Fort Morgan, Colo.\nE. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of public instruction of Kansas, presented to\nthe Council the impress of an expert study of the problems of. rural education. He\nmoved that a committee of eleven be appointed to investigate the present condition of\nrural schools and make recommendations for their improvement. The movement received the unanimous vote of the members of the Council. The Chair appointed the\nfollowing committee:\nEdward T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans. .\nL. H. Bailey, Ithaca, N.Y.\nHenry C. Morrison, Concord, N.H.\nA. C. Nelson, Salt Lake City, Utah\nEdward C. Elliott, Madison, Wis.\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind.\nSECOND\n\nThomas H. Harris, Baton Rouge, La.\nJohn R. Kirk, KirksviUe, Mo.\nEdward Hyatt, Sacramento, Cal.\nLuther L. Wright, Lansing, Mich.\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.\n*Charles H. Keyes, New York, N.Y.\n\nSESSION— Saturday Afternoon, July 8, 191 1\n\nThe general topic for this session was, \"The Improvement of Teachers in Service\nin City Schools. \" The discussion of this topic was opened by Harlan UpdegraflF, specialist in school administration. Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. The general\ndiscussion was participated in by Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. ; Edwin S. Monroe,\nMuskogee, Okla.; John R. Kirk, KirksviUe, Mo.; William M. Davidson, Washington,\nD.C; and James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Saturday Evening, July 8, 19 11\n\nChairman J. Stanley Brown, of the Committee on the President's Address, reported\nas follows:\nYour committee concurs in the recommendation of the President of the Council,\nand recommends the appointment of a committee of five to study and report upon tests\nof standards of eflSciency in schools and school systems.\nYour committee further recommends that the constitution of the Council be so\nchanged as to provide for the annual meeting of the Council at the time and place of the\nmeeting of the Department of Superintendence, or some other time and place fixed by the\nExecutive Committee of the Council.\nThis report was unanimously adopted, and the same committee was asked to report\nthe proper changes in the constitution.\nThis session of the Council was a joint meeting with the Religious Education\nAssociation, and was devoted to a further discussion of the moral phases of public education. Addresses were made by George A. Coe, professor in the Union Theological\nSeminary, New York City; David Starr Jordan, president of Leland Stanford Junior\nUniversity, and Charles E. Rugh, associate professor of education, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nUpon proper motion, the report of the Comn^ttee on Moral Education was adopted\nand ordered printed, together with the addresses and papers given at the morning and\nevening sessions.\n♦ Added to the Committee by vote of the Council.\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nFOURTH SESSION— Monday Forenoon, July io, 191 i\nThe President appointed Francis G. Blair, of Springfield, 111., to act for Elmer\nEllsworth Brown, and S. L. Heeter, of St. Paul, Minn., to act for Augustus S. Downing\non the Committee on Membership.\nThe general topic for the session was, \"High-School Preparation of Candidates\nfor Normal-School Training. \"\nThe discussion was opened by David Felmley, president of the State Normal University, Normal, 111., and John R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville,\nMo. The general discussion was entered into by John H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.;\nW. E. Harmon, Helena, Mont.; Mrs. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.; Jacob A.\nShawan, Columbus, Ohio; Homer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa; J. Stanley Brown, Joliet,\n111.; T. L. Heaton, San Francisco, Cal.; John Shoup, Chicago, 111., and Charles H.\nKeyes, New York, N.Y.\nUpon motion it was decided that the topic \"High-School Preparation of Candidates\nfor Normal-School Training\" was worthy of further study. Vice-President William M.\nDavidson was asked to name a committee for this purpose. He named the following\npersons:\nDavid Felmley, Normal, 111.\nJacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio\nJohn H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\n* William M. Davidson, Washington, D.C.\nDr. W. A. Evans, of Chicago, representing the American Medical Association, presented a resolution from that body asking that the Council appoint a committee to act\nwith the American Medical Association for the consideration and study of problems\nrelating to public health.\nUpon motion, it was decided to appoint such a committee, and the following persons\nwere named by the Chair:\nThomas D. Wood, New York, N.Y., Chairman\nDavid Starr Jordan, Stanford UniWilliam H. Burnham, Worcester, Mass.\nversity, Cal.\nClark W. Hetherington, Chicago, 111.\nJacob A. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio\nP. P. Claxton, Washington, D.C.\nJohn F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo.\nA. E. Winship, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam H. AUen, New York, N.Y.\nFIFTH SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 12, 1911\nBy unanimous vote the Council adopted the constitution as printed just preceding\nthese minutes.\nThe following report of the Committee on Membership was adopted:\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Me., Secretary\nTerm expires 1914\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., Executive Committee. . . .Term expires 1914\nJames Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C., Committee on Membership\nTerm expires 1914\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo., Committee on Membership . Term expires 1914\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo., Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations\nTerm expires 1914\nElla Flagg Young, Chicago, 111., Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations\nTerm expires 1914\nEdward T. Fairchild, Topeka, Kans., Committee on Investigations and Appropriations\nTerm expires 1914\nMEMBERS\nterms to expire in 191 7\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore., to succeed himself.\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa., to succeed himself.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa., to succeed himself.\nBen Blewett, St. Louis, Mo., to succeed himself.\n• Added by vote of the CouncU.\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n339\n\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo., to succeed himself.\nJohn W. Abercrombie, University, Ala., to succeed himself.\nE. C. Moore, New Haven, Conn., to succeed B. W. Torreyson, Little Rock, Ark.\nG. W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Nebr., to succeed himself.\nJohn A. Wood, South Bend, Ind., to succeed himself.\nD. B. Parkinson, Carbondale, 111., to succeed himself.\nTERMS\n\nTO EXPIRE IN\n\n1912\n\nE. C. Elliott, Madison, Wis., to succeed Albert SaUsbury, Whitewater, Wis. (deceased).\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis., to succeed Charles C. Van Liew, Chico, Cal.\nCharles S. Meek, Boise, Idaho, to succeed James A. MacLean, Moscow, Idaho.\nE. E. Scribner, Ishpeming, Mich., to succeed Alfred Bayhss, Macomb, 111.\nTERM\n\nTO EXPIRE IN\n\nI913\n\nCharles H. Judd, Chicago, 111., to succeed Clififord W. Barnes, Lake Forest, 111.\nTERMS\n\nTO EXPIRE IN\n\n1914\n\nP. P. Claxton, Washington, D.C., to succeed L. E. Wolfe, Memphis, Tenn.\nEdnah A. Rich, Santa Barbara, Cal., to succeed Ellen H. Richards, Boston, Mass.\n(deceased) .\nTERMS\n\nTO\n\nEXPIRE IN\n\nIQIS\n\nHenry Suzzallo, New York, N.Y., to succeed Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N.Y.\nH. B. Wilson, Decatur, III., to succeed Alma L. Binzel, Winona, Minn. '\nLaura D. Gill, Boston, Mass., to succeed Charles McKenny, Milwaukee, Wis.\nE. C. Thorndike, New York, N.Y., to succeed William H. Maxwell, New York, N.Y.\nE. F. Bolton, Iowa City, Iowa, to succeed H. J. Rogers, Albany, N.Y.\nTERMS\n\nTO EXPIRE IN\n\nI916\n\nPayson Smith, Augusta, Me., to succeed William S. Sutton, Austin, Tex.\nJames A. Barr, Stockton, Cal., to succeed Thomas Bailey, Memphis, Tenn.\nA. E. Winship, Boston, Mass., to succeed R. L. Jones, Nashville, Tenn.\nW. A. Brandenburg, Oklahoma City, Okla., to succeed D. R. Boyd, Norman, Okla.\nT. H. Harris, Baton Rouge, La., to succeed E. B. Craighead, New Orleans, La.\nC. N. Kendall, Trenton, N.J., to succeed Henry Snyder, Jersey City, N.J.\n\"Needed Adjustment of Relations between Secondary Schools and Colleges\" was\nthe general subject for the morning session. The subject was presented by Robert J.\nAley, Orono, Me.; G, W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Nebr., and Otis W. Caldwell, Chicago\n111. Clarence D. Kingsley, New York, N.Y.; Harvey N. Davis, Cambridge, Mass.;\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Berkeley, Cal.; Adelaide Steele Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind.;\nW. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore.; H. E. Slaught, Chicago, 111.; J. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.,\nand Charles H. Keyes, New York, N.Y., made valuable contributions to the general\ndiscussion.\nUpon motion, the Council voted that the Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations recommend to the Board of Directors that the sum of $500 be appropriated to Chairman James H. Baker and his Committee on Economy of Time in Education.\nThe chairman appointed the following Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency inSchools and School Systems:\nHenry\nSuzzallo,Madison,\nNew York,\n\"NY., Chair man\nE. C. Elliott,\nWis.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N.Y.\nThe Council adjourned at 12:45 p.m.\n\nJames\nSickle,. Springfield,\nEdward H. L.Van\nThorndike,\nNew York, Mass.\nN.Y.\nJ. E. Cubberly, Stanford University, Cal.\nRobert J. Aley, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nINTRODUCTORY\nCHARLES\n\nH. KEYES,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSTATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT\nTHE COUNCIL\n\nEXECUTIVE SECRETARY, COMMITTEE ON\nCITY OF NEW YORK, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nSAFETY\n\nOF\nOF THE\n\nWith the final disposition of the report of the Committee on Moral\nEducation at this session the way is clear to take up a new piece of work.\nThe President begs to suggest to the Council a service for which there is a\nvery pressing demand. In every department of commercial and industrial\nenterprise the successful owners and managers are addressing themselves\nto the task of scientifically determining the efliciency of their materials,\nprocesses, and agents. The elasticity of steel, the crushing resistance of\nstone, the fire resistance of cement, the color persistence in silk, the financial\neconomy of a machine, the absence of waste motions in operatives: all\nthese are being subjected to scientific testing.\nIn the field of social service we have entered upon the business of determining rationally the efficiency of the agents and methods we employ.\nFinancial costs, time economies, mortahty rates, health conditions, water\npurity, restriction of contagion: all these are being rationally measured\nby standards which have been scientifically determined and generally\naccepted.\nIn education we have made a feeble beginning. We have seen a few\nendeavors to \"expert\" school systems when hostile criticism arises. In\nthe East the investigations in Montclair, in Baltimore, and in New York\nCity are examples. It is important to note the procedure and how radically\nit differs from the efficiency testing of commercial and industrial enterprises. Itamounts simply to bringing in one or more doctors of education\nfrom the outside, whose long experience, strong scholarship, and high\nstanding are supposed to qualify them as experts to pass upon the work of\nthe doctor of education in charge of the system, who is also accredited with\nbeing an expert. The result is valuable as an expression of expert opinion,\nespecially when the three or four experts are agreed. But the educational\nexpert proceeds without any scientifically estabhshed or professionally\naccepted standards. In the other fields we have physical, chemical,\nbiological, and economic standards. It has been found necessary to have\nthem. But in education we have hardly begun scientifically to measure\nefficiency. To the question, \" What constitutes an efficient school or system\nof schools ?\" we have many more or less convincing rhetorical responses,\nbut few scientffically proven answers. It is time to begin the work of\nestablishing scientific standards of educational efficiency. I beg to suggest that the Council at once constitute or authorize the appointment of a\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "[councU]\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nSTATEMENT\n\n341\n\ncommittee to begin work on the subject of Tests and Standards of the\nEfficiency of Schools and School Systems. Such a committee should, in the\njudgment of the chair, be requested to prepare a prehminary report for the\nnext meeting of the Council and to endeavor to submit a finished report\nwithin two years.\nTo do this effectively will require not simply a carefully chosen committee with interest in this particular field of study and skill in its pursuit.\nFor the perfection and justification of their findings the widest publicity\nand most thoro and critical discussion will be necessary. To this end their\ntentative and prehminary reports, as well as the final findings, should come\nbefore sessions of the Council with large attendance and generous time\nprovision. This consideration prompts the President to call attention\nto a peculiar condition now confronting the Council. This is briefly set\nforth in a letter heretofore addressed to every member of this body and\nwhich ran as follows:\nNew York City, N.Y.\nJune 21, 191 1\nDear sir: In preparing the present program of the National Council the President\nwrote personal letters urging attendance upon the San Francisco meeting upon every\nactive member of the Council. The responses reinforce a conviction that has been growing\nupon the writer during years of service on the Committee on Membership.\nThe enforced absence of many valuable members is on the increase. We have to\nreckon with a new and rapidly spreading institution — the summer term in normal school,\ncollege, and university. These sessions make a call that amounts to a sunmions to professional duty with many of the men and women whom the Council cannot afford to spare\nfrom its deliberations and activities.\nIt has been suggested that the only remedy is to be found in modification of the Bylaws of the National Council of Education so as to provide for a midwinter meeting of the\nCouncil, immediately preceding the session of the Department of Superintendence.\nThis step can be taken on the affirmative vote of a majority of the members of the Council.\nIt would be unwise, in the judgment of the writer, to take such action without the quite\ngeneral approval not only of the members of the National Council, but also of the members\nof the Board of Directors of the National Education Association.\nI accordingly beg to ask you to advise me whether you favor or oppose the plan to\nhold a session in connection with, or just in advance of, the Department of Superintendence.\nBear in mind that the adoption of this plan would not involve the necessary abandonment of the simimer meeting of the Council.\nAwaiting your advice, I am,\nSincerely yours,\nCharles H. Keyes,\nPresident\n\n414 W. 1 1 8th Street\n\nIn response to these 164 letters of inquiry the chair has received\n134 replies. Every one of these signify their approval of the proposition\nto hold a winter session of the Council. Nearly all indicate that in theif\njudgment it would give us a more deHberative meeting and insure a very\nmuch larger attendance than is possible in the summer, when demands of\ninstitutions and the desire for study, as well as travel abroad, deprive\nus of many whose best thought we need in working out this problem. I\naccordingly recommend that a committee ]^ appointed to submit at this\nmeeting the necessary changes in the By-laws to enable us to provide for\na meeting of the Council during the coming winter.\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nTENTATIVE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON A SYSTEM\nTEACHING MORALS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nEXPLANATORY\n\nOF\n\nNOTE\n\nAt the Los Angeles meeting of the National Council of the National Education\nAssociation a resolution was adopted appropriating the sum of five hundred dollars, or so\nmuch thereof as might be necessary, to defray the expenses of a committee to be appointed\nby the president of the Council to investigate and submit a \"Tentative Report on a\nSystem of Teaching Morals in the Public Schools of the United States.\" Some months\nlater Joseph Swain, president of the Council, appointed the following committee :\n\n111.\n\nJames M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo., Chairman.\nMartin G. Brumbaugh, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJohn W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Bayonne, N.J.\nWilliam Lowe Bryan, president of Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.\nClifford W. Barnes, chairman, International Committee on Moral Training, Chicago,\nAt the Washington meeting of the Department of Superintendence, 1908, three members of the committee. Superintendents Greenwood, Brumbaugh, and Carr, met and outlined the general scope of the report, assigning to each member a part as follows:\n\n1. \"Moral Education: The Problem Stated,\" Martin G, Brumbaugh.\n2. \"Moral Education thru the Agency of the Public Schools,\" John W. Carr.\n3. \"The Home and School Life,\" James M. Greenwood.\n4. \"The Relation of Moral and Religious Training, also the Status of Moral Training\nin the Public Schools,\" Clifford W. Parnes.\nA part was also assigned to President Bryan, but, owing to ill health, he declined to\naccept the assignment. It was also agreed that Dr. Barnes should edit the whole report\nafter the different parts had been prepared.\nThe committee had scarcely begun its work when, at the Cleveland meeting of the\nNational Education Association in 1908, the appropriation of $500 was withdrawn, leaving the committee entirely without funds. The individual members were obliged to pay\nall expenses, even those of postage and typewriting. This greatly hampered the work\nof the committee and, as the members were widely scattered, made a meeting of the entire\ncommittee impracticable. So the report on the special topics which is submitted was\nprepared by the individual members.\nA preUminary report was submitted to the Council by Chairman James M. Greenwood at the Denver meeting in 1909 in which it was stated that much work had been done .\nby individual members of the committee and that arrangements would be made for the\npublication of these results and distribution to the members of the Council. On motion,\nthe committee was continued with instructions to make a report at the next meeting in\nform suitable for publication in the volume of proceedings.\nThe individual reports were turned over by Chairman Greenwood to Dr. Barnes\nwho was to edit the same and submit the report in final form at the Boston Meeting, 19 10.\nAbout the middle of April, 1910, Chairman Greenwood wrote Superintendent Carr stating\nthat Dr. Barnes had been unexpectedly called upon to assume political obligations of an\nimportant character and that, on account of this, it would be impossible for him to edit\nthe reports in time for the Boston convention. Mr. Carr was then asked to edit the report\nand to have it ready in time to be pubHshed before the meeting of the Council, July 2,\n19 10. He accepted the responsibility but did not receive the different reports until the\nlast of April.\nOwing to numerous official duties it has been impossible for the editor to do more than\nwrite a brief introduction and to arrange the different parts of the report as they came from\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nA SYSTEM\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nMORALS\n\n343\n\nthe hands of the individual members of the committee.\nThe general divisions of the\nreport follow:\n1. Introduction and Recommendations.\n2. The Problem Stated, Martin G. Brumbaugh.\n3. Moral Education thru the Agency of the Public Schools, embracing a course\nof moral instruction and suggestions for moral training, John W. Carr.\n4. The Home and School Life, James M. Greenwood.\n5. The Relation of Moral and Religious Training, Clifford W. Barnes.\n6. The Status of Moral Training in the Public Schools, Clifford W. Barnes.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nAND\n\nRECOMMENDATIONS\n\nThe nineteenth century was the marvel of the ages in the number and\nutility of mechanical inventions, in the progress of physical sciences and\ntheir application to the industries, and especially in the accumulation of\nwealth and the capitalistic centralization of the control of the output and\ndistribution of the comforts and necessaries of life. The chief problem of\nthe twentieth century is to control these gigantic energies, to bring them\nunder the reign of law, to make them ministering servants.\nOut of these new social and economic conditions arise new moral problems of great importance — ^problems of public health, food adulteration,\nindividual responsibility for corporate action, exploitation of labor by\ncapital, accidents on account of the use of high explosives and dangerous\nmachinery, public corporations and individual rights, the boycott, the\nlockout, the strike, the freedom of contract, the right to labor without\nmolestation, and many others of serious import. In addition to these\nnew moral and social problems, there is a superabundance of old-time vice\nand crime — vagrancy, pauperism, drunkenness, gambUng, licentiousness,\ndivorce, fraud, theft, arson, assault, murder, and other crimes against property and persons. Disregard for law is fast becoming an American characteristic. Witness the pernicious practice of giving rebates and discriminating against shippers; the prevalence of graft, boodling, and bribery;\nthe white-slave traffic; the circumvention and defiance of law by many\ncorporations and other organizations; the numerous mobs, riots, whitecappings, and lynchings in different parts of the nation. These are the\nmoral cankers, the deadly virus which, if allowed to go unchecked, poisons and destroys nations.\nThe chief problems of trade, government, and society as well as of\nindividual character are ethical problems — questions of right and wrong,\njustice and injustice, truth and falsehood, honesty and dishonesty. The\ngreat need of the times is not so much for men with brains and money, but\nfor men who possess common morality. We need electors who can read\ntheir ballots and officials who are capable of managing official affairs; but\nthe greatest need is for men who will not prostitute their talents by buying\nthe poor man's vote, bribing the weak official, or corrupting courts of justice.\nMuch vice and crime are still due to ignorance and inefficiency, but learning and skill alone will not solve our most important economic, social, and\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\npolitical problems. Along with these must be the awakening of the moral\nconscience, the development of moral judgment, the disposition to be guided\nby moral principles, and especially to apply ethical principles to the practical\naffairs of life.\nThe subject of moral education is a World-problem and is engaging the\nattention of all the leading nations. An epoch-making change was effected\nin France when according to the law of 1882 instruction in morals and civics\nwas made compulsory in all the elementary schools of the republic. Japanese education has been practically remade since the imperial rescript of 1890.\nIn the autumn of 1906 a number of persons met in private conference in\nLondon \"to consider whether more might not be done by means of moral\ninstruction and training in schools to impart higher ideals of conduct, to\nstrengthen character, and to promote readiness to work together for social\nends.\" The outcome of this meeting was the appointment of an International Committee which has investigated the subject of moral education in most civilized nations and which in 1908 submitted an elaborate\nreport.\nIn the United States moral education is also receiving special /ittention.\nAn American auxiliary to the International Committee on Moral Education\nwas appointed with Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler and Dr. Clifford W. Barnes\nas president and secretary respectively. At the Los Angeles meeting of the\nNational Education Association this committee was appointed to investigate the practical aspect of moral education in the United States and to\nreport a feasible course for use in the public schools. The Character\nDevelopment League is an organization which has recently been incorporated with headquarters in the city of New York. The purpose of this organization isto furnish without charge a series of character lessons for use\nin the pubHc schools. The Religious Education Association is a national\norganization which has for one of its aims the improvement of moral\ninstruction in the public schools. Moral education has frequently \"been\ndiscussed in educational meetings, has been treated in magazine articles\nand books, and is rapidly finding a place in the course of study in the most\nprogressive pubhc schools. These things are but shght indications of the\nnational interest already manifested in this subject. The time has arrived\nfor a general forward movement.\nIf we would have strong and beautiful characters in adult life, certain\nelemental virtues must be inculcated in childhood and youth. These the\nteachers should have as definitely in mind as they do the nouns and verbs\nin grammar or fractions in arithmetic. They must know, not only what\nvirtues they would implant, but how they would develop them. Among\nthese elemental virtues we would include those which are generally accepted\nas forming the very basis of character, such as obedience, kindness, honor,\ntruthfulness, cleanliness, cheerfulness, honesty, respect for self and for\nothers, helpfulness, industry, economy, power of initiative, justice, useful-\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nA SYSTEM\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nMORALS\n\n345\n\nness, patriotism, courage, self-control, prudence, benevolence, system,\nneatness, politeness, fortitude, heroism, perseverance, sympathy, consecration to duty, unselfishness, comradeship, patience, temperance, hopefulness,\ndetermination, and fidelity. Pupils should not only have some idea of the\nmeaning of these virtues but they should be trained in the practice of them\nuntil they become fixed habits.\nMoral education in the public schools should include a knowledge of\ncertain duties that each child should perform. He should be taught that he\nowes certain things to himself, such as cleanliness, not only of person but of\nthought and speech; that it is his duty to take proper care of his body so\nthat it may be healthy and grow to be large and active and strong. He\nshould be taught that he owes it to his mind to cultivate it, to store it with\nknowledge, and beautiful thoughts, and to train it so that he may think\naccurately and act discreetly. Many of the misfortunes of life result from\nlack of proper thought. He should be taught that he owes much to others —\nhence his duties to brothers and sister^, to playmates and classmates, to\nteachers and other friends, to the sick and aged, to neighbors and even to\nstrangers. As time goes on he should be taught what he owes the school,\nthe state, and society in general and that it is his duty to begin even while\na child to discharge some of these duties by obeying the rules and regulations\nof the school and the laws of the municipality, the state, and the nation.\nProper regard for law and properly constituted authority should be\ninculcated in the child from the time he enters the public school, to the end\nthat, when he leaves it, he will continue to respect and obey the law and\nendeavor to have others do likewise. The public school which fails to\ninculcate proper regard for law and order has failed in one of its chief\nduties.\nIn order that moral instruction may not be left to chance, which frequently means neglected altogether, a tentative course is submitted as\npart of this report. It is recommended that such modification of this\ncourse be made as may be found necessary to meet the needs of different\nlocalities and that definite instructions be given from time to time. Such\nmoral instruction has proven highly beneficial in France, Japan, and in\nalmost every country where it has been tried under favorable conditions.\nMany teachers in this country favor such a course and moral instruction is\nrecommended as a vital part of moral education by the International\nCommittee appointed by Great Britain. In order that this instruction may\nbe vital and effective, it is recommended that committees of teachers collect\nand collate suitable material from history, literature, daily life, and other\nsources to illustrate and enforce these lessons and that means be provided\nfor publishing and distributing this material.\nBut instruction alone is not suflScient.* Every school should be so organized and so conducted as to furnish numerous opportunities for moral training daily. The course of study, methods of discipline, the recitation, the\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nstudy period, the playground, the social Ufe of the school should each furnish\nmeans for training and testing pupils in right habits of conduct. A moral\natmosphere should pervade the entire school. The surroundings should be\nclean, attractive, and wholesome; the relation between teacher and pupils\nfrank, kind, and considerate; the spirit of industry, loyalty, friendship, and\nhelpfulness should pervade the entire school. Under such conditions moral\ngrowth on the part of the pupils is rapid and certain.\nIn order that there may be wholesome physical, social, and moral\nenvironment and the best examples of true manhood and true womanhood\nset before the children, it is imperative that the management of public\nschools be freed from petty personal and party politics to the end that\nthe best persons may be selected to manage and govern the public schools.\nSuch management will secure honest, progressive, and efficient administration and result in the employment and retention of the best teachers\navailable.\nAll authorities agree that the one most potent influence for the moral\neducation of children in the public schools is the personality of the teacher.\nGiven a great teacher of moral power, good results will follow. Whatever the environment, the course of study, the opportunities for moral\ntraining, it is the teacher who makes the vital connection between these\nthings and the lives of the children. It is the teacher who by patience, skill,\nlove, and the example of a noble life is the most effective school influence\nin molding the character of children. In order that teachers may do their\nwork most effectively they should be not only persons of excellent character\nand ability, but they should also be carefully trained, so that they may\nexercise their teaching powers most effectively in molding the lives of their\npupils.\nProper laws for the protection of childhood are also necessary. We\nmost heartily approve of those laws which have recently been enacted in\nmany states for the protection of children and we urge their rigid enforcement. Among these laws we would especially commend the compulsory\nschool attendance laws; laws prohibiting the employment of children in\ncertain dangerous occupations and regulating their employment in many\nothers; laws prohibiting the sale of liquor and cigarettes to minors; laws\nestablishing juvenile courts, parental homes, and reform schools; contributory negligence laws which provide for the punishment of parents for\nthe misconduct of their children. In many states the scope of these and\nsimilar laws needs to be extended and more adequate means provided for\ntheir enforcement. In most states more stringent laws should be enacted\nfor the protection of female children, and for the punishment of crimes\nagainst them.\nWhile the school can perform an important part, yet various other\ninstitutions and agencies must be employed in the moral education of\nchildren.\nOf these, the home must play the chief part. The home is the\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n347\n\nnursery of childhood, and fortunate the children who have good homes.\nParents are primarily responsible for the moral training of their children.\nOf the thousands of unfortunates who find their way annually into police\ncourts and reform schools, practically all of them come from homes in which,\nfor various reasons, the children are neglected. The church has an important work to do also, not only in the training of children but in educating\nthe whole people in moraUty and rehgion. The pubUc press, that great\nengine for good or evil, has its duties and responsibilities; Ukewise the business man, the public oflScial — indeed each agency of society must play its\npart in setting up and maintaining moral standards.\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nMartin G. Brumbaugh\nWilliam Lowe Bryan\nJohn W. Carr\nCllfford W. Barnes\nCommittee\n\nMORAL\nM.\n\nEDUCATION:\n\nG. BRUMBAUGH,\n\nTHE PROBLEM\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSTATED\n\nOF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nIt is the spirit and purpose of our American institutions to omit the\nimpartation of formal rehgious instruction in the public schools. This was\nthe inevitable concomitant of the separation of church and state and the\nattendant placing of the schools under state control. But it does not follow\nthat this secularization of the school makes it other than an essentially moral\nand spiritual force. While we agree that formal religious dogma is a matter\napart from the school, we do not wish the school to be restrained from\nimparting in the most effective way that sum of virtues which we concede\nto lie within the domain of morality and religion. We want our pupils\ntaught to be right as well as to think aright. Character and conduct are as\nessentially a product of the public school as is knowledge.\nWe have, in a general way, assumed that right organization of the school\nand splendid character in our teacher life would secure the desired result\nin the moral and ethical code and career of the pupil. And these agencies\nare most potent. They have done, and are doing now, a tremendous good.\nThere is, perhaps, no equal group in society that makes more powerfully for\nright living than do the teachers in our schools. They are not only required\nby law to be persons of high moral character, but the nature of the service\nthey render is such as to attract and conserve the finest characters society\ncan produce. The moral character of the teaching body is so far above\ncriticism that it is made the subject of Emulation and eulogy by rightminded persons. Moreover, when, as is rare, any teacher is even charged\nwith an immoral act the shock to the community reveals the deep-seated\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "34^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand abiding confidence and afifection of the people in the integrity of our\nteaching body. It is a hopeful sign that this high standard not only exists\nbut is constantly increasing. Our teaching body is a source of gratification\nand of pride to our civilization.\nMoreover, the school is so organized that it is essentially ethical in its\nentire spirit and operation. The pupil in the public school is under a system of activities that promotes not only his intellectual but also his moral\nand his spiritual well-being. From the moment the pupil enters the school\nuntil he completes its routine of duties he is impressed with the importance\nof punctuaUty, promptness, regularity, industry, neatness, accuracy, and\nkindred virtues of the moral life. He is also given to understand the importance of kindness, courtesy, conscientiousness, respect for others and for\nlaw, fair play among his fellows, and devotion to clean and noble ideals.\nThese quaUties are constructively wrought into his daily life, and, by the\ndiscipUne of the school, any violation thereof is promptly and adequately\npimished. The entire spirit of any rightly organized school makes for a\nsane and splendid spiritual self.\nIf the school be so organized and administered as to cause these virtues\nto become habits; if the sanction in each case be within the spirit of the\npupil and not an external force imposed upon the pupil unwillingly, the\nresult is in every way commendable. The goal in this, as in all things, is\nself-directed conduct on the highest plane of spiritual excellence. When\nthe pupil of his own will chooses to do and does the right thing, the work of\nthe school has justified itself in the most direct way.\nIf, as many believe, some sanction other than its own is essential to\nright moral discipUne, one is not obliged to choose the sanction of reHgion,\npotent as that sanction is in enforcing moral ideals and in determining moral\naction. To choose this sanction is to raise with many persons the question\nof the right of the school to use religious sanctions, altho, personally, I\ncan see no vaUd objections thereto. But the school is an agency of the state,\nand the sanction of the state may without criticism be used to enforce moral\ninstruction. While this sanction is less potent than that of religion, it is\nnevertheless of greater potency than many reahze.\nMoreover, it is obvious to the student of civics that there is great need\nnow of a revival of civic integrity. If the ideals of the state are made\ndominant in the enforcement of moral virtues, both the state and the individual will be directly helped.\nBut right organization and spiritual excellence in teachers will not alone\naccompHsh in the domain of conduct all that one visions in the spiritual\nupUft of childhood. Example and environment are potent but not allembracing forces in the organization of soul-growth for the worthiest ends.\nThe influence of environment and of example are ahke conditioned upon\nestablishing in the soul of the child an ideal or standard of excellence toward\nwhich all objective influences must trend. Guidance is effective only when\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n349\n\na goal is visioned. Until the child builds clearly in his own soul a standard\nof the manhood visioned as good by the best of his race, the point and purpose of external forces are alike negatived and wasted. For this reason it\nis necessary to construct in the soul of a child a standard of moral and\nspiritual excellence toward which all objective forces at work upon the child\nmay move.\nIt is difficult to determine what, if any, formal moral content should\nenter the curriculum of the school; and, if admitted, how it shall be interpreted. It seems quite evident, judging from the experiences of other\nnations, that it is not wise to add moral data as a new and separate element\nin the course of study. To omit all reference to the formal presentation of\nmoral and ethical ideals is likewise unwise. To leave the matter to the\noption of the teacher at favorable moments is largely to ignore it.\nUnder the conditions it seems best to make some inquiry into the scope\nof the problem, and then to set forth in some logical order the specific virtue\nof the higher life that the school can and should develop.\nI submit the following tentative statement of the problem. This study\nis in part based upon Hegel's analysis of moral discipline and concludes with\na question of great significance. It will be of interest to note how far along\nthis line of analysis educators will willingly go. I make the prophecy that\nbefore a decade we shall have settled this question by including all this in\nthe scope save only the final formal steps in absolute training in the domain\nof formal religion.\nI wish especially to insist that the method here indicated is not only\npedagogically wise but also easily achieved.\nTHE SCOPE AND METHOD\n\nOF MORAL\n\nAND RELIGIOUS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nA. The Scope — ^To determine the limits of the problem.\nI. Related Essentials. To furnish the soul with the elements of the problem.\n1. The virtue of Civilization, which is politeness or courtesy.\nThe problem of civilization is to secure conduct on the plane of social demand.\n2. The virtue of Morality, which is conscientiousness or dependableness.\nThe problem of morality is to secure conduct on the plane of thought, whence\narises the function of conscience.\nII. Religious Education Proper.\n1. The virtue of Religion, which is humility.\nThe problem of religion is to secure a recognition of the inadequacy of himian\nguidance for conduct and to follow implicitly the guidance of the Divine.\n2. Its aspects.\n(i) The theoretical training in the religious life.\na) Nutrition of feeling — Problem of Elementary Education.\nb) Nutrition of definition — Problem of Secondary Education.\nc) Nutrition of insight — Problem* of Higher Education.\n(2) The practical training.\na) Consecration of self to one's ideals.\nb) Reconciliation of the individual with his lot.\nc) Selection of a viewpoint in life.\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "350\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfNational\n\n(3) The absolute training.\na) Conformity to law.\nh) Investigation of the activities of the race in its effort to achieve the\nhigher hfe.\nc) Selection of a creed or confession of faith.\nB. The Method — ^To determine the process of instruction.\n1. Tell it— To solicit thought — Intellectual phase.\n2. Rhyme it— ^To solicit feeling — Emotional phase.\n3. Formulate it— ^To soUcit guidance — ^Volitional phase.\nThe question or problem: How much of all this may be taught in the public\nschools ?\n\nFrom the analysis of the problem it seems possible to frame a course of\nlessons that any teacher can give. These lessons need not assume the form\nof special didactic exercises if only the teacher be wise enough to permeate\nthe whole curriculum with the spirit of moral virtues. Whatever formal\nlessons are visioned as necessary may and should be given as part of the\nopening exercises of the school. I am strongly of the opinion that these\nopening minutes should give color and character to all the work of the day.\nTo that end they should be full of the spirit of cheer, reverence, and goodwill. Iwf)uld recommend that a pamphlet be prepared with great care\nby the Department of Superintendence and a committee of teachers in\neach school system. This pamphlet may be formally considered by the\nboard, and, if approved, be authorized for use in all the schools of the\ndistrict.\nAs an outhne of suggestions, governing the preparation of such a bulletin,\nI would commend the working-out in detail of the problems set herein,\nand conforming substantially to the following guiding principles:\n1. Such material should not take the form of fault-finding or caprice.\n2. It should not be a body of precepts, maxims, moral sentiments, or didactic mottoes.\n3. It should not be negative but positive, pointing out not what to avoid so much as\nwhat to practice.\n4. It should not encourage or point to morbid introspection.\n5. It should not be narrow and pedantic. Its scope should reach beyond the virtues\nthat have commercial value.\n6. It must not devote itself to philosophical and theological sanctions that are either\ntoo abstract to be of value or too near the domain of prohibitive material to be admitted.\n7. It should include an interesting exposition of the facts of the moral life, lajdng\nstress upon the social results of right action.\n8. It should, in the more advanced grades, train the Judgment by judicious questioning and personal appeal.\n9. Its data should be drawn from all ages and from all nations, to the end that the\nmoral principles may be seen to carry race-wide application.\n10. It should draw its data from an unrestricted variety of sources, e.g., from the\nBible, from the religious poetry of the ancients, from history, from biography, from poetry,\nfrom art, from legends and folk-lore, from current events, from science, from personal\nexperience, and particularly from the daily life of the school.\n\nWith these guidances it is possible and desirable to formulate a list of\nmoral and religious virtues and so to present the same to the pupils in our\nschools as to produce results of the greatest value.\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "B\n\nCouncfl] •\n\nMORAL\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJOHN\n\nI. MORAL\n\nW.\n\nCARR,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTHE AGENCY\nSCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nINSTRUCTION\nA.\n\nTHRU\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTHE\n\nBAYONNE,\n\n351\n\nPUBLIC\nNJ.\n\nIN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS— A TENTATIVE COURSE BY GRADES\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nUNDERLYING\n\nMORAL\n\nGROWTH\n\nBefore attempting to outline a course in morals by grades, let us consider the psychological principles underlying moral growth, first giving\nquotations from eminent authorities.\n\"The depicting of worthy character, the imitating of noble example tend to make one\nnoble. Did you never observe how imitation, beginning in early youth, at last sinks into\nthe constitution and becomes a second nature of body, voice, and mind ? \"'\n\"Refuse to express a passion and it dies. Count ten before venting your anger, and\nits occasion seems ridiculous. Whistling to keep up courage is no mere figure of speech.\nOn the other hand sit all day in a moping posture, sigh and reply to everything in a dismal\nvoice, and your melancholy lingers. There is no more valuable precept in moral education\nthan this, as all who have had experience knoW; if we wish to conquer undesirable emotional tendencies in ourselves, we must assiduously, and in the first instance cold bloodedly,\ngo through the outward movements of those contrary dispositions which we prefer to\ncultivate. The reward of persistency will infallibly come in the fading out of the sullenness or depression, and the advent of real cheerfulness and kindliness in their stead.\"'\n\"Repression is not enough. A virtue must take the place of vice\nDevelopment and repression are not two things but one; all genuine development already carries\nin it repression of much.\"'\n\"The law of physical development is true of moral development. Our souls, like\nour bodies, grow into the modes in which they are exercised. It is by striving to act that\nour desires come to a fuller, more persistent and more definite development\nIt is\nby repetition of action that the corresponding desires are organized into habits. \"<\n\"The formation of habits requires time. Time for action and time for rest. The\npersevering youth may wake up some fine morning to find himself one of the capable ones\nof his generation or in the strong grip of some stealthy vice.\"s\n\"It is not by warnings, however well meant, which suggest that they are capable of\nevil that we can best help the young.\nIt is by persuading them that they are capable of\ngood that we can hope to make them good in reality\nThe best moral antidote\nlies not in warnings however particular, but in that positive nurture of character which\nis the real source of strength in the hour of temptation.\"*\n\"It is not enough to hate our failings or our vices with a perfect hatred. We must\nlove something else. We must contrive to open mind and heart to tenants in whose\npresence, unwelcome intruders, unable to find a home, will torment us only for a season\nand at last take their departure\nOne way is to practice a moral hygiene by guiding\nour lives into places of moral health.\nThere are social circles in which malicious feelings\nwither, energetic pursuits in which contact with a larger life swamps petty irritabilities,\nnatural scenes of peace where we can no longer anchor by one gloomy thought\nA\nfavorite haunt, a tried friend, a congenial business, a well-loved book, perhaps even a\nchosen pastime — they are enough.\"^\n%\n« Plato, Republic, Bk. Ill, p. 269.\n•James, Psychology, II, p. 463.\n» MacCunn, Making of Character, p. 35.\n*Ibid., p. 40.\n\n» Ibid., p. 45.\n*Ibid., p. 164.\n''Ibid., pp. 215-16.\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\n\"If we wish to subjugate an appetite, it is not enough simply to check it. All the\nlocks and bolts of mere repression will not suffice. Rather must we seek until we can find\nand foster some other desire in the presence of which the obnoxious appetite may find it\nhard to live\nIf once heart and mind be filled with strong positive interests, the\nrest will come of itself. For these wholesome incentives will, ever increasingly, occupy\nthe soul, and if they be skillfully fostered, will strike up alliances with one another, till\nthe promptings we wish to get rid of will be ousted from their squalid and knavish tendency.\"'\n\"Any conditions which compel the teacher to take note of failures rather than healthy\ngrowth, put the emphasis in the wrong place and result in distortion and perversion.\nAttending to wrongdoing ought to be an incident rather than the important phase\nInterest in the community welfare is the ultimate ethical habit to which all the special\nschool habits must be related if they are to be animated by the breath of moral life.\"'\n\"In true education which aims at training up honorable men and women there must\nbe the kindling of faith in an ideal\nWill power must go along with it, if delicate\nand intelligent feeling is to lead to prompt and vigorous action. Will power is strengthened\nby wise training of the body, and by the habit of working with others and for others. But\nif its power is to be rightly used, it needs the curb of principle and to be trained by liberty\nfor the right use of Uberty\nThe highest task of the school is to bear its part in the\nformation of character and in the imparting of a moral and spiritual ideal, \"a\n\nThe chief underlying principles of moral growth deduced from the above\nquotations and other authorities may be summarized as follows:\n1. Direct the fundamental instincts of children into proper channels. Those of most\nimportance in moral development are curiosity, play instinct, constructive instinct, imitation instinct, social instinct.\n2. Allow harmful impulses, instincts, and interests to die for lack of stimulus, or from\nrepression, or by substituting better ones for them. Some instincts are transitory and may\nearly be aborted or outgrown. The best antidote for evil is the substitution of good. The\nmind once occupied with good, it is difficult for evil to find lodgment.\n3. Cultivate desirable emotions such as joy and sympathy and repress evil emotions such\nas anger, hatred, and envy. Simulating an emotion tends to produce it whether it be joy,\nsorrow, or what not. To be most effective this simulation should be whole hearted. Some\nof the ways for repressing a passion or undesirable emotion such as anger are to take\ntime to reflect, to gain the mastery over the body (self-control), to occupy the mind with\nsomething else.\n4. Exercise in any virtue or desirable trait of character is necessary for its development.\nThe time element is also very important. There must be time for action and time for\nrest.\nMere exhortation is not enough; there must be practice.\n5. Habits are largely acquired by imitation and suggestion. Hence the necessity of\ngood examples — examples furnished by parents, teachers, companies, and people in general— examples found in history and literature.\n6. Noble ideals are a potent inspiration in the formation of character. Hence the value\nof biography, literature, and worthy examples of everyday life. By constantly striving\nto realize his ideal, Ernest came to resemble the Great Stone Face in benignity of countenance and supposed nobility of soul.\n\n7. A clean, healthy, well-developed, well-nourished body under good control is a powerful\naid to moral development. So important is this that all reformatories begin the work of\n» MacCunn, Making of Character, pp. 34, 35.\n» Dewey, Ethical Principles Underlying Education, p. 15.\n* M. E. Sadler, Moral Instruction and Moral Training, I, p. zvil.\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n353\n\nreform by first getting the body in proper condition. Hence the necessity for play, work,\nphysical training, proper nourishment, and proper care of the body.\n8. Knowledge of what things are helpful and what are harmful is important. Moral\ntraining should constitute the greater part of moral education, but along with this should\ngo a certain amount of moral instruction. Ignorance is one of the chief sources of wrongdoing.\n9. Strong, positive, abiding interest in things worth while is one of the effective means of\ndeveloping moral character. Being occupied with things worth while is one of the best way?\nto keep out of mischief. The child or adult who acquires a genuine interest in nature,\nmusic, art, literature, or religion — yes even in athletics, or making a kite or learning a\ntrade or conducting a business — has something that is or may be of genuine worth in developing character. \"Interest in the community welfare,\" says Dr. Dewey, \"is the\nultimate ethical habit.\"\n10. Training for efficiency wards of many temptations as well as leads to the development\nof much that is good. Wholesome labor employs the mind, exercises the body, and may\nbe one of the best ways to ennoble the soul. One's occupation and his attitude toward his\nwork are among the chief factors which make or mar his character. The person out of\nemployment, or who thru inefficiency is unable to care for and support himself and those\ndependent upon him, is constantly tempted to do that which is wrong. Hence the importance from a moral standpoint for giving such vocational training as will aid women to\ncare for the home properly and men to make an honest living.\n\nB.\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND PRIMARY GRADES\n\nIn suggesting a course of morals by grades, it is not expected to cover all\nthat should be done in the way of moral instruction and certainly not in the\nway of moral training. Opportunities occur in every school when a particular moral lesson can be taught more effectively than in a set lesson.\nThat is the time for that particular lesson. The time for moral training is\nall the time J and a school fails to fulfill its highest mission if it does not\ncontribute each day to the moral development of the children.\nOf such importance is this subject that every school should be so organized and conducted as to contribute something positive and definite each\nday to the moral development of the children.\nThe chief purpose of this course is twofold:\n1. To point out to teachers certain definite traits of character to be emphasized, certain\nhabits which children should be helped to form.\n2. To suggest a variety of ways in which moral instruction may be given.\n\nThe time and manner of giving instruction in morals should vary not\nonly in the different grades but in the same grade at different times. The\nperiod for opening exercises lends itself best for most of these lessons.\nSuch lessons give definiteness to these exercises and afford an opportunity\nfor pupils to take part.\nSometimes the lesson will consist of an appropriate story told by the\nteacher, as \"The Pig Brother,\" if the topic is cleanliness. This may be\nsupplemented by explanatory remarks by the teachers and appropriate\nquotations by the pupils. At other tildes, in the upper grades especially,\nthe pupils will read or relate incidents from the lives of eminent Americans,\nor read appropriate selections from literature, illustrating the topic under\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\n35 \\.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nconsideration. Or there may be discussions in which teachers and pupils\ncohtribute something relative to the meaning and practical application of\nth(e topic. At other times, there will be special programs on festival and\nholiday occasions or in honor of the birth of some celebrated person, in\n/Which topics of morality and patriotism will receive consideration.\nTeachers may find diflSculty in securing proper material to illustrate these\nlessons. This can be obviated to some extent by carefully planning lessons\nand collecting and classifying material found in their general and professional reading.*\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n1. Obedience. — (Training) In following directions relative to conduct; also relative\nto games, marches, and other exercises.\n2. Co-operation. — (Training) Songs, games, marches, etc.\n3. Helpfulness. — (Training) Passing materials, putting on wraps, helping to serve\nluncheons, etc.\n4. Attention. — (Training) To stories told, directions given, work to be done, part in\ngames, etc.\n5. Motor control. — (Training) Games, marches, paper folding, paper cutting, standing,\nsitting, motion songs, and free play.\n6. Kindness. — (Instruction) Kindness to parents, teacher, and to each other. (Training) By being kind to each other and to pets.\n7. Cheerfulness. — (Training) Singing, games, marches, other school exercises, and\nfree play.\n8. Sociability. — (Training) Luncheons, games, free play.\n9. Manners. — (Instruction) How to act in their games and other exercises; how to\nanswer persons; table manners. (Training) Luncheons, regular school exercises, free\nplay.\nNotes. — ^A. Instruction given chiefly by means of stories, memory gems, and by\nexplanations and directions given by the teachers. Teachers should remember that\nshowing is more effective than telling.\nB. The marches, songs, games, luncheons, free play, and much of the constructive\nwork furnish excellent means for social training and should be fully utilized.\nFIRST\n\nGRADE\n\n1. Follow directions. — (Training) Marching; passing to and from seats, into and out\nof the room; removing and putting on wraps; passing and collecting materials; use of\nbusy work, etc.\nNote. — From the very first children should be taught how to follow directions and\nthen trained in doing so until it becomes habit.\n2. Obedience. — (Instruction) Obedience to parents and teachers. (Training) Obeying directions given in reference to conduct and school work.\n3. Cleanliness. — (Instruction) Relative to cleanliness of body and clothing. (Training) Keep hands, face, and clothing clean.\n\n4. Kindness. — (Instruction) To parents, brothers and sisters, teachers, playmates.\n(Training) Kindness to schoolmates and teacher.\n5. Unselfishness. — (Training) Sharing things which belong to the children with each\nother; giving way for others to take part in games and sports.\n'The Character Development League, 31 East Twenty-second Street, New York, has prepared a series\nof \"Character Lessons\" which contains exceptionally valuable material and helpful suggestions. These\n\"Character\nLessons\" are furnished /rcc to any principal or teacher who will put them into use in his school\nor class.\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n355\n\n6. Helpfulness. — (Instruction) How pupils may help at home and at school. (Training) Help in leading lines; in games and sports; passing and collecting materials; erasing\nboards; help each other put on wraps.\n7. Self-control. — (Training) Keeping quiet, busy work, standing [n lines, sitting,\nmarching.\n8. Motor control. — (Training) Writing, talking, reading, phonics, gymnastics, free\nplay.\n9. Cheerfulness. — (Training) Stories, singing, marching, free play. The aim should\nbe for teachers and pupils alike to be cheerful in all their work as well as play.\n10. Love of parents. — (Instruction.)\n11. Good manners. — (Instruction) Relative to school manners; manners at table;\nuse of good language. (Training) School manners, reciting, speaking to the teacher,\ntreatment of each other in the schoolroom and on playground.\nNotes. — A. Instruction to be given chiefly by explanations, directions, stories,\nmemory gems. Showing pupils what to do and how to act is more eflfective than telling.\nTrain leaders among the pupils themselves. Much greater emphasis should be put on\nmoral training than on moral instruction.\nB. While the opportunities are not so great for social training as in the kindergarten,\nyet teachers should avail, themselves of every means to give pupils social training. Songs,\nmarches, games, constructive work (make things for parents or friends), the festivals,\nparents' day, special celebrations, and luncheons should be utilized for social training.\nC. The teacher should make a careful selection of stories, incidents, and quotations\nk propos of the topic presented.\nSECOND\n\nGRADE\n\n1. Follow directions. — (Training) Study, busy work, copying, silence, games, marches,\npassing and collecting materials.\n2. Obedience. — (Instruction) Obedience to parents, to rules of schools, to teachers.\n(Training) Obeying rules and regulations of schools; directions of teacher relative to\nconduct, school work, manner of sitting, standing, passing to and 'from seats. Prompt\nand cheerful obedience should be required of each pupil.\n3. Cleanliness. — (Instruction) Person, desk, floor, speech. (Training) Clothing,\nhands, face, shoes; desk and surroundings; speech.\n4. Truthfulness. — (Instruction) Meaning of truthfulness; ways persons can tell\ntruth or falsehood. (Training) Correct statements; measuring to find out truth; not\nguessing at answers to questions; teachers should make it easy for children to tell the\ntruth.\n5. Helpfulness. — (Instruction) How children may be helpful at home and at school.\nHow they may help to keep the city clean. (Training) Remove paper from floor and\nyard; not throw things on floor or yard or street; not mark on furniture or fences or\nbuildings. Help janitor by folding seats; erase blackboards; pass and collect materials, etc.\n6. Love of home. — (Instruction.)\n7. Self-control. — (Training) Keep quiet; refrain from crying, fighting, and use of\nbad language; application to study.\n8. Motor control. — (Training) Free play, writing, drawing, sitting, standing, marching,\nphonics, speech.\n9. Kindness. — (Instruction) To one another; to brothers and sisters; to parents;\nto animals. (Training) Kindness to each other at school. If possible each child should\nhave some pet or animal at home to care for. Country children have a great advantage\nin this respect. Every child that has younger brothers or sisters should care for them part\nof the time. Sense of responsibility is developed in this way as well as the social qualities\nof kindness and helpfulness.\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n10. Manners. — (Instruction) School manners— reciting, asking and answering questions; on the playground; street manners; table manners; good manners toward older\npersons; good language; pleasant tone'fe of voice. (Training) Practice good manners in\nschoolroom and on playground.\n11. Unselfishness. — (Training and Instruction.)\n12. Patriotism. — (Training) Flag salute, patriotic songs; celebration of special holidays— ^Thanksgiving, Lincoln's and Washington's birthdays; Memorial Day.\nNote. — ^The story continues to be one of the chief means of moral instruction. See\nnotes under First Grade.\nTHIRD\n\nGRADE\n\nWhile the chief emphasis is still placed on moral training, yet as pupils\ngrow older moral instruction should receive greater consideration. It is\ntaken for granted that the school will train pupils daily in promptness,\nindustry, obedience, kindness, cheerfulness, truthfulness, honesty, neatness,\nmotor control, and comradeship.\n1. Honesty and some of its rewards.\n2. Respect for others, parents, teachers, officials, older persons, strangers.\n3. Cheerfulness. — Advantage to self, to others. Humor hafc its place in the school\nand shoidd be cultivated within certain bounds as one means of promoting cheerfulness.\n4. Responsibility. — Each pupil should be held responsible for his conduct, for the\ncare of his books and supplies, for the preparation of lessons assigned. If possible each\npupil should have some home responsibilities. Certain pupils whom the teacher designates should be responsible for care of plants and the performance of some minor duties.\n5. Care of body. — Eating, drinking, bathing, avoidance of drafts when overheated.\n6. Kindness to animals. — (\"Character Lessons\" furnish excellent material.)\n7. Patriotism. — Flag salute, patriotic songs, special celebrations.\n8. Civics. — ^Who own the schools, streets, roads, bridges, parks. Our part in caring\nfor them — should not. throw paper, or trash of any kind in streets, parks or on playground;\nshould not destroy flowers, shrubs, or trees; should not mark or deface public or private\nproperty.\nNotes. — ^A. Pupils should begin to read for themselves as well as to have stories\nread to them relative to topics suggested above.\nB. Associations may be formed among children of this grade, such as \"Bands of\nMercy\" to protect birds, care for dumb animals, and civic bands to help keep streets and\nschool grounds clean. See notes to First Grade.\nFOURTH grade\n\nDaily moral training should be given in obedience, industry, truthfulness,\npoliteness, kindness, cheerfulness, honesty, neatness, motor control, helpfulness, sense of responsibility, comradeship.\n1. Self respect. — Qualities one must have if he would respect himself; ways one should\nshow self-respect.\n2. Self-reliance. — Meaning.\nHow we may learn self-reliance.\n3. Habits. — ^How formed; strength of habit. Some we should form. Kinds we\nshould not form.\n4. Some rights and privileges of children.\n5. Respect for rights and privileges of others.\n6. Courtesy. — ^How it may be shown to each other at school. Politeness on streets;\nin the presence of company.\n7. Care of the body. — EyeS, teeth, ears. Some rules to observe in order to keep well.\nHow to prevent spread of contagious diseases.\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\n357\n\n8. Civics. — Rules and regulation of schools, why made? Why should they be\nobeyed? Compulsory school laws. Health laws. Ways in which children may help\nin enforcing these laws.\nC.\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nAND\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nGRADES\n\nIt is taken for granted that in each intermediate and grammar-school\ngrade moral training will be given daily in industry, obedience, cheerfulness,\ntruthfulness, self-reliance, courtesy, motor control, cleanliness, helpfulness,\nand comradeship.\nI have adopted the general plan and method of treatment of the different\ntopics followed in \" Character Lessons.\" In this report a suggestive outline\nis given for only one topic in each grade, showing the method of treatment.\nTeachers desiring fuller treatment of these topics will find the same in\n** Character Lessons\" which will be sent free to any teacher on request.\nAddress Character Development League, 31 West Twenty-second Street,\nNew York.\nFIFTH GRADE\n\nT. Industry.\n2. Honesty.\n3. Patience.\n4. Usefulness.\n\n$. Unselfishness.\n6. Truthfulness,\n7. Obedience.\n\n8. Civic patriotism. — Some things one owes to his country. — Obedience to its laws;\nthe service of citizenship; defense in time of danger.\nNote. — Civic clubs should be formed for caring for school premises. Pupils should\nbe encouraged to take interest in the care and beauty of their own homes. Improvement\nassociations have been formed in some cities which give premiums to children for the best\nkept lawn, most beautiful flower bed, etc. The aim should be to enlist the co-operation\nof the children in making \"The school beautiful,\" \"The home beautiful,\" \"The city\nbeautiful,\" and \"The country beautiful.\"\nSuggestive Outline\nIndustry:\n1. Explanatory.\n2. Quotations:\n\" Genius is the capacity for hard work.\" — ^Matthew Arnold.\n\"Some people are always grumbling because roses have thorns; I am thankful that\nthorns have roses.\" — ^A. Karr.\n\"The heights by great men reached and kept\nWere not attained by sudden flight.\nBut they, while their companions slept,\nWere toiling upward in the night.\"\n— Longfellow.\n\" If a man would eat, he must work. A life of elegant leisure is the life of an unworthy\ncitizen. Pleasure comes through toil and not by self-indulgence and indolence. When\none gets to love his work, his life is a happy one.\" — Andrew Carnegie.\n3. Biographical examples:\n*\nJohn Wanamaker (merchant) ; Thomas A. Edison (inventor) ; Horace Mann (educator); Luther Burbank (naturalist); Alexander Graham Bell (inventor); Henry C.\nFrick (manufacturer).\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "3S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. Examples of industry found in the community.\n$. Literature:\n\"The Village Blacksmith.\"— Longfellow.\n\"The Forging of the Anchor.\" — S. Ferguson.\n\"To Labor Is to Pray.\"— F. S. Osgood.\n\"The Mowers.\"— M. B. Benton.\n\"The Miller of the Dee.\"— Charles McKay.\n6. Discussion:\na) Health, happiness, and work.\nh) Responsibility of ownership.\nc) Getting something for nothing — evils of gambling.\nd) At the George Junior Republic no one gets anything to eat unless he works. Is\nthis right ?\n7. Application:\na) School studies — work well done every day.\nh) Home duties.\nc) Formation of habits of industry.\nSIXTH\n\n*\n\nGRADE\n\n1. Courage.\n2. Fortitude.\n3. Self-respect.\n4. Perseverance.\n5. Self-control.\n\n.\n\n6. Economy.\n7. Amiability.\n8. Contentment.\n9. Civic rights and duties.\n\nLiberty of the individual — to labor; to form associations; of conscience; guaranty\nof security of life and property.\nDuty to pay taxes; to cast a disinterested, intelligent vote; duty to serve the state\nas honest oflScials; duty to obey the laws and assist in their enforcement.\nNote. — Relative to civic clubs, see Fourth Grade.\nCourage:\n1. Explanation.\n2. Quotations:\n\nSuggestive Outline\n\n\"Courage in danger is half the battle.\" — Plautus.\n\"Falsehood is cowardice — truth is courage.\" — Lowell.\n\"They can conquer who believe they can.\" — Emerson.\n\" Cowards die many time before their death;\nThe Valiant never taste of death but once.\"\n— Shakespeare.\n\n3. Biographical examples: Ethan Allen, Paul Jones, Elisha Kent Kane, Henry M.\nStanley, Richmond P. Hobson, Theodore Roosevelt, David S. Farragut, Philip Sheridan.\n4. Notable examples in the community.\n$. Literature:\n\"John Maynard.\"— John B. Gough.\n\"Tom Brown Saying His Prayers\" from School Days at Rugby.— 'Rughes.\n\"Ham Peggotty,\" from the shipwreck in David Copperfield.—Bickens.\n\"Virginia Dare.\" — Heroic Deeds.\n\"Kane.\"— Fitz James O'Brien.\n\"David and Goliath.\"— Bible.\n6. Application:\na) Courage to tell the truth.\nb) Courage to do right — moral courage.\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n359\n\nc) Courage to withstand the bully or to protect the weak and innocent.\nd) Courage to protect oneself or property.\nSEVENTH\n\n1. Comradeship.\n2. Self-reliance.\n3. Fidelity.\n4. Hopefulness.\n\nGRADE\n\n5. Temperance.\n6. Justice.\n7. Patriotism.\n8. Habits.\n\n9. Character study in connection with history. — The way in which this is to be conducted will be explained in a later section.\n10. Vocational training. — The school should not only aid in the formation of ideals\nbut it should give such training as will aid the children in making an honest living.\nNote. — In reference to civic leagues. See Fifth Grade.\nSuggestive Outline\nComradeship:\n1. Explanation and Interpretation.\n2. Quotations:\n\"The ornaments of a house are the friends who frequent it.\" — Anon.\n\"Owe no man anything but to love one another; he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law.\"— St. Paul.\n\"Every one can have a friend who knows how to be a friend.\" — ^Thoreau.\n\"Happiness unshared can scarcely be called happiness; it has no taste.\" — Charlotte\nBronte.\n\"Teach me, O Saadi, how to make\nMy life as beautiful as thine; —\nLike thee, to live for others' sake\nAnd share with all, my oil and wine!\nTeach me, in lavish alms, like thee,\nMy heart to spend!\nNayl\nNay!\nNo virtue is in me, —\n\n'\n\n/ had a friend.\"\n—James T. White.\n3. Biographical examples: Oliver W. Holmes, Josiah G. Holland, Washington Irving,\nAbraham Lincoln, Samuel L. Clemens, Henry T. Tuckerman, Thomas G. Appleton.\n4. Notable examples in the community.\n5. Literature:\n\"David and Jonathan.\"— Bible.\n\"My Royal Guest.\"— Julia Ward Howe.\n\"My Playmate.\"— J. G. Whittier.\n\" Friendship.\" — Emerson.\n6. Discussion and application:\na) Choice of friends.\nb) Duty toward our friends.\nc) Influence of our comrades upon our character.\nd) Co-operation between individuals.\ne) Co-operation and friendship among nations relative to war, commerce, learning.\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADE\n\n1. Determination. 6. Consecration to duty.\n2. Ambition.\ny ^Heroism.\n3. Courtesy.\n8. Character.\n4. Purity.\n9. Character study in history.\n5. Imagination. 10. Vocational training.\nNote. — Relative to civic leagues among pupils, see Fifth Grade.\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "36o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nSuggestive OuUine\nDetermination:\n1. Explanation and Interpretation.\n2. Quotations:\n\nLet me never hear that foolish word again.\"— Mirabeau.\n\"Impossible!\n\"First say to yoxirself what you will be; and then do what you have to do.\"—\nEpictetus.\n\"Decision of character is the one bright, golden apple which eveiy yoimg man should\nstrive in the beginning to pluck from the tree of life.\" — ^John Foster.\n\"Many men owe the grandeur of their lives to their tremendous difficulties.\" —\nSpurgeon.\n\"So near Almighty is our dust,\nSuch fire is in us still.\nWe have when duty bids, *Thou must'\nThe power to say, *I will.' \"\n—James T. White.\n3. Biographical examples: Andrew Jackson, Oliver P. Morton, Nathaniel Greene,\nPatrick Henry, Edwin M. Stanton, John Sherman, U. S. Grant, John A. Logan, Theodore\nRoosevelt, Samuel Houston.\n4. Examples in the community.\n$. Literature:\n\"Sheridan's Ride.\"\n6. Practical:\na) A training of the will.\nb) Find out what is right, then go ahead.\nc) Danger of mental and moral sloth.\nd) Dedication of oneself to play a manly part in the service of the community.\nD.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nGRADES\n\nNo other period of the child's school life is so important as the highschool period. This is the time of new ideas, new impulses, new interests,\nand new desires. These come in rapid succession and with almost resistless\nforce. \"This is the time,\" says Percival Chubb, \"when literature, music,\nart, nature, solitude, religion, humanitarian enterprise, adventure, make\nappeal to the sensitive nature.\" The question is what appeal shall be\nheard and heeded? What appeals excluded? This is the time of life\nwhen passion is born which must be restrained and guided aright or it\nconsumes soul and body. It is the time when social instincts and social\ninterests are dominant and when social ideals are formed.\nHitherto, the course in moral instruction has dealt chiefly with the moral\nlife of the child as an individual; now the chief concern is the development\nof the moral life of the individual as a member of society. Three means\nwill be used in presenting the moral life in its social relation:\n1. The life and activities of the school including the influence of the teacher.\n2. Character study in history and literature.\n3. An outline for the discussion of the moral relations of the individual to some of the\nchief social institutions.\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nFIRST\n\nHIGH\n\nYEAR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n361\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe Individual as a Member of Society\n1. The different relations of individuals to each other.\na) Illustration by referring to family, school, business, church, etc.\n(These are social relations.)\n2. Some social relations of a merchant.\na) Persons with whom he has dealings.\n(i) The manufacturers who make goods.\n(2) The railroad men who transport them.\n(3) The drayman who delivers them.\n(4) The clerk who sells them.\n(5) The customers who buy them.\n(6) Show how he may have relations with the farmer, teacher, doctor, lawyer,\nbanker, barber, plumber, carpenter, insurance agent, minister, etc.\nb) Institutions and corporations with which he has dealings or is dependent upon in\nsome way — government for mail, money, telegraph company, telephone company,\ngas company, fire department, police, etc. (Note the. complex social relations.)\nc) What ones can he choose for himself ? What ones must he have deaUngs with or\nbe dependent upon whether he wishes to do so or not ?\n(Think how he would be affected if any one of these failed him, e.g., the bank.)\nd) How should he treat the different persons with whom he has dealings, as for\nexample his clerks, in relation to:\n(i) Wages — time of payment, amount, manner of payment.\n(2) Labor — ^hours, place where he works, holidays, etc.\n(3) Personal relation — ^while on duty; while off duty.\n(Should he be interested in the clerk's family ? The kind of house in which he\nlives ? His personal habits ? The company he keeps ? Why ?)\ne) How should the different persons with whom the merchant has dealings treat him ?\ne.g., his clerks in relation to:\n(i) The way in which they do their work.\n(2) Way in which they treat customers.\n(3) Way in which they keep their stock.\n(4) Personal honesty.\n(5) Personal relations while off duty as well as while on duty.\n/) In a similar way take up the relations between the merchant and some others with\nwhom he has dealings.\n3. Show how certain habits of conduct of individuals would be helpful or harmful and\nwho would be benefited or harmed.\na) For example take courtesy on part of clerk. It is beneficial,\n(i) To merchant because it brings trade-.\n(2) To the clerk himself — better wages, more steady employment.\n(3) To customers — adds to their enjoyment while doing business.\n(4) Is anybody harmed?\n6) In similar way take honesty, industry, truthfulness, and their opposites.\n(Should a clerk misrepresent his goods in order to make a sale ?)\n4. Deduce certain principles to guide in conduct, as\na) Honesty is or is not best policy.\nb) Courtesy is a valuable asset.\nc) Industry brings a reward, etc. •\n5. In society the relations of individuals may be grouped under three heads:\na) Relation of superiors to inferiors.\nb) Relation of inferiors to superiors.\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nc) Relation of equals to equals.\n(Show examples of all three of these relations in reference to the merchant and those\nwith whom he has dealings.)\n6. The school as an example of the different relations of individuals.\na) What should be the relations of teachers to pupils in reference to:\n(i) Discipline.\n(2) Regular school work.\n(3) Athletics and school activities not part of regular school work.\n(4) Social intercourse in school and elsewhere.\nh) What should be the relations of pupils to teachers in reference to each of the above ?\nc) What should be the relations of pupils to each other relative to each of the above ?\nd) In the relations between teachers and pupils wherein would the following qualities\nbe helpful or harmful and who would be helped or harmed ?— Sympathy, studiousness, reliability, self-control, self-reliance, sarcasm, negligence, helpfulness, confidence, etc.\ne) What qualities and habits of pupils would be helpful to each other ? Name some\nthat would be harmful.\n/) Formulate some principles that would serve as a guide in making rules for the\nschool.\n7. Problems.\na) Suppose the public opinion of a high school was poor as shown by the fact that the\npupils were disorderly, gossipy, not studious, inclined to take advantage of every\noccasion for mischief. Who is to blame, the superintendent, principal, teachers,\npupils, patrons? State some things the principal and teachers may do to help\nimprove conditions.\nSome ways in which pupils may help.\nb) Which is more important to the pupils of a high school, to win a football game by\nfoul means or to play a fair game and lose ? Who or what would be benefited or\ninjured in either case ?\nc) In case of some flagrant violation of some rule or regulation by a pupil, should his\nfellows shield him ? In what ways may this be harmful or helpful to the school ?\nTo the teachers ? To the pupils ?\nd) Whose business is it to protect the good name of the school ? Name some ways in\nwhich this can be done?\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe Family, the Foundation of Society\n1. Purpose and necessity of the family.\n2. Duties of parents to children.\na) Exposure of children (an old-time barbaric custom).\nh) Laws relative to abandonment of family.\nc) Laws relative to education of children.\nd) Ideals of family discipline.\n3. Duties of children to parents.\n4. Duties of children to each other.\n5. Home economics.\na) Husband as a provider.\nh) Wife as caretaker of the home.\nc) Duty to avoid debt and to accumulate property.\nd) Kind of education each needs to fit for the home.\n6. Home as the center of social and moral influence.\na) Part of the family in social life.\nh) Home comfort and home joys.\n7. Good homes the foundation of society and the chief support of the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n363\n\n8. Formulate some general principles that should act as a guide relative to family life.\n9. Problems:\na) Two men were recently brought into court in New York for non-support of their\nmother who was old, feeble, and poor. What should have been done with them ?\nb) Leckey, an English historian, says that one of the chief causes of drunkenness is\nbad cooking. If that is so what kind of education do you think girls need most ?\nTHIRD YEAR HIGH SCHOOL\n\nThe Individual in Relation to a Vocation\n1. Necessity for choosing a vocation.\n2. Range of desirable vocations.\na) What constitutes a desirable vocation ?\nb) What principles should guide us in choosing a vocation ? (Remuneration, fitness,\nhealth, competition, etc.)\nc) What vocations are open to free choice of anyone ? What ones are not ? (Can\nanybody who wishes to do so become a plumber, a teacher, a manufacturer ?)\nd) Who should determine whether or not a person should enter a certain vocation?\nWliat moral principles are involved ?\ne) When should a person choose his vocation ?\n3. A vocation as a means of intellectual and moral development or the reverse.\na) Some occupations highly conducive to intellectual development — ^professions,\ncertain kinds of business.\nb) Some occupations not conducive to intellectual development.\nc) Occupations conducive to moral development (teaching, ministry, etc.).\nd) Occupations which hinder moral development.\n4. The right personal and ofl&cial relations.\na) Between employer and employee.\nb) Among employees.\nc) For suggestions see course for First Year High School.\n5. What habits should a person have in order to succeed well in a vocation ? What kind\nof eflSciency?\n(In discussing this take certain occupations and consider what particular habits one\nshould have in order to succeed well. Likewise relative to eflSciency.)\n6. Part played in successful career by each of the following : Industry, honesty, friendship.\n7. Chief reasons why men are not employed.\na) Financial reasons.\nb) Industrial reasons.\nc) Personal reasons — make list of personal reasons such as inefficiency, dishonesty,\ndrunkenness, disagreeableness, irregularity, unreliability. Note the ones that\nhave moral significance.\n8. Why are some classes of men seldom or never out of employment ?\na) Have business or profession of their own.\nb) Are efficient, trustworthy, and loyal to their work.\n9. Under what conditions should persons work?\na) Relative to hours of employment.\nb) Relative to hygienic conditions.\n(Mine and factory inspection laws.\nAre they necessary ?)\nc) Relative to high explosives, dangerous machinery, and hazardous undertakings.\n(Safety appliances; responsibility in case of accidents.)\n10. Remuneration received from one's vocation — what should it be?\na) In the professions — teaching, law, medicine, the ministry, etc.\n(i) Amount invested in way of time and money.\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n(2) Period of life of productivity.\n(3) Hazards, personal and financial.\n(4) Remunerations in the way of health, social standing, political prestige, opportunities tobe at home, etc.\n(s) Chance for promotion.\n(Each of these points needs to be considered before determining what \\sjust\nin the way of remuneration.)\nh) In a similar way consider the farmer and business man, skilled and unskilled laborer.\nII. Problems.\na) For what reasons if any should an employee be discharged ? Is he entitled to know\nthe reasons?\nh) Does an employer have any moral right to \"black list\" a man after he has been\ndischarged ? Give reasons.\nc) The promoters of a railroad invest $1,000,000 actual cash and issue $5,000,000\nstock which they sell for $3,000,000. Are they entitled to the $2,000,000 ? Should\nthere be laws relative to such transactions ? What kind ?\nd) Two men, A and B, engaged in same business in the same city. By secret arrangement A was enabled to get better freight rates than B. What effect would it have\non the business of each? What laws on this subject? Is any moral principle\ninvolved ?\ne) Suppose A not only gets a better freight rate but suppose that the railroad companies pay him part of freight paid by B. What effect will that have on the business\nof each ? Have the morals of the situation changed ?\n/) A foreman in a factory was authorized to buy machinery for his department.\nHe\nreceived from a firm having machinery to sell $1,000 to recommend the purchase\nof their engines and machines.\nWhat is the moral principle involved ? Supposing\nthe machinery was in his judgment the best offered, then what ?\nNote. — I am aware of the difficulties raised in considering this subject, and the great\ndifference of opinion and still greater difference in practice. It is expected that the\nquestions will be discussed in an impartial manner.\nThe fact that pupils must face these\nand similar problems as soon as they leave school is why they are presented.\n\nFOURTH\n\nYEAR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe Individual in Relation to the State\n(By the state is meant any form of government, municipal, state, or national)\nSome rights of the individual guaranteed by the state.\na) To live.\nh) To own property.\nc) To work and enjoy the rewards of one's own labor.\n<f) Freedom of contract.\ne) To travel from place to place.\n/) To marry.\n(What limitations?)\ng) Freedom of speech.\n(Can a person say what he chooses without being held\nresponsible ?)\nh) Freedom from arrest without due process of law.\ni) Right of speedy trial before an impartial jury.\nSpecial rights of children,\na) Not only right to live but to be cared for, protected, and supported.\n(i) Abandonment of children — ^who is responsible ?\n(Orphanages, etc.)\n\nHow cared for by the state ?\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)b)\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n365\n\nRight to be educated,\nc)\n(i) Truancy laws.\n(2) Child labor laws.\nRight to inherit property,\n(i) Guardians — laws relative to same.\nProblems:\nShould a child have the right to play? If so, where, when, and under what conditions ?\nShould a child be allowed to work ? If so, at what age ? Under what conditions ?\n3. Protection of the individual against assault,\na) Some different kinds of assaults.\nCharacter and habits of persons most likely to commit assault.\n(Ill-tempered,\nlacking in self-control, passionate, quarrelsome, drunken, profane, etc.)\nCharacter and habits and conditions of persons most likely to be assaulted.\nCarrjdng concealed weapons — why imlawful?\nSome criminal laws relative to assault.\nAccidents and individual responsibility.\na) Different kinds of accidents — unavoidable, committed thru ignorance, on account\nof negligence or carelessness,\n(i) Who is responsible in each instance?\nb) Accidents resulting from use of high explosives, dangerous machinery, defects in\ntrack, or lack of safety appliances in railroading.\n(Who is responsible ?)\nc) Accidents resulting from certain pleasures, sports, and recreations.\nd) Habits and character of persons most likely to be the cause of accidents.\ne) Character, condition, and habits of persons most likely to be the victims of\naccidents.\n/) Some laws for prevention of accidents.\n(i) Safety appliances in railroading, navigation, manufacturing, mining, etc.\nGive some examples.\nWhat is the moral principle back of such laws ?\n(2) Laws relative to automobiling, fast driving, etc. Are these founded on sound\nmoral principles ?\nThe state as a protector of property.\na) Different kinds of assaults on property. (Fraud, theft, arson, burglary, etc.)\nNote that each is a crime.\nb) What relation does each of the following bear toward the above crimes: ignorance,\npoverty, extravagance, gambling, laziness, cupidity, speculation, drunkenness,\nbad associates, love of fine clothes?\nc) Laws and punishments for each of the above crimes.\nd) How are these laws enforced and punishments inflicted ?\nThe state as a protector of character.\na) Forms of assault against character — flying, slander, libel, insinuation, innuendo,\netc.\nb) Wherein is the moral baseness of each ?\nc) What relation does each of the following traits of character bear to any of the\nabove: envy, jealousy, hatred, thoughtlessness, anger, friendship, considerateness,\ntruthfulness, ignorance, love?\nd) What laws, if any, against the defamation of character ?\ne) What moral principles should guide one relative to the character of others ?\nThe state as a protector of health,\na) Contagious diseases.\n•\n(i) Individual responsibility. What moral principle is involved ?\n(2) Laws relative to contagious diseases.\n(3) Duty of co-operation with health authorities.\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Nationa\n\nb) The fight against tuberculosis.\n(i) Necessity and duty of public co-operation.\n(2) Laws to prevent the spread of tuberculosis.\nc) Pure food and health.\n(i) Food and drug adulteration — the danger to health and life.\n(2) The moral principles involved — deception, fraud, secret assault on health,\nperhaps life.\n(3) Pure food laws and the necessity for their enforcement.\nd) Pure water necessary for health.\n(i) Water supply for cities. For the country.\n(2) Pollution of water supply and the spread of disease — typhoid.\n(3) Laws relative to the pollution of streams and other water supplies. (Should\nthe department of public health inspect water supply in the country as well as\nin the cities ?)\ne) Plenty of fresh air necessary to health.\n(i) Moral responsibility for proper ventilation of schoolrooms, shops, storerooms,\nfactories, mines, and private residences.\n(2) Tenement house laws and necessity for their enforcement.\n/) Necessity for sanitary laws and their proper enforcement.\n(i) Moral responsibility resting upon officials for the enforcement of sanitary laws.\n(2) Moral responsibility of the individual to obey the law.\ng) Pure milk and infant mortality.\n(i) Fight that is being made for pure milk in cities.\n(2) Sanitary regulations necessary to insure pure milk.\n(3) Moral responsibility of public officials and the people of the community as\nwell as dairymen and dealers for providing pure milk.\n8. The patriotism of peace.\na) Duty of public officials.\nb) Duty of voters.\nc) Duties of citizens in general.\n9. Problems,\na) A child dies on account of being fed impure (adulterated) milk. Is this murder ?\nIf so, who is responsible — the parents who gave the milk to the child, the dealer\nwho sold it, the dairyman, the milk inspector, or the people of the community ?\nb) A family moves into a poorly lighted, ill- ventilated, dirty tenement house in which\nsome previous occupants had died of tuberculosis. Some of the members of the\nfamily take the disease and die. Who is responsible ?\nc) A boy smokes cigarettes until his health is broken — perhaps he dies. Who is\nresponsible, the boy himself, the parents, the dealers who sold him the cigars, or\nsociety, or nobody ?\nd) An automobile running at a high rate of speed along \"a crowded street kills a child.\nWho is morally responsible, the chauffeur, the owner, the child, the parents, the\npolice, the people of the commimity, or nobody ? How would you go about it to\nprevent such accidents?\ne) A farmer's family drinks surface water from the old well and some of them die of\ntyphoid fever. Who is responsible, the farmer, the person that drank the water,\nth# family doctor, the teacher, the health officer, or nobody? How would you\ngo about it to prevent other persons contracting the disease ?\n/) A mine explosion occurs and himdreds of miners are killed. How would you go\nabout it to fix responsibility ?\ng) A man drinks liquor till his health, money, job, self-respect, and honor are all gone.\nWho is responsible — the man himself, the saloon-keeper, spciety, or nobody ?\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nII.\n\nOF MORAL\n\nMEANS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nTRAINING AFFORDED\nSCHOOLS\n\nBY THE\n\n367\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSo far in this report the chief emphasis has been placed on moral instruction with only incidental reference to moral training. We now come to\nthe consideration of the school as a social organization for the training of\nchildren in the formation of right habits of conduct which constitute the\nvery foundation of the moral life. Thru its varied activities the school\nfurnishes so many opportunities for moral training that we can enumerate\nbut a few of them, commenting only on the most important. Those chosen\nfor consideration are as follows:\n1. The influence of environment.\n2. The social life of the school.\n3. School discipline and routine work of the school.\n4. Content and use of the course of study.\n5. The personality of the teacher.\n\nIn treating this subject, we do not attempt to present anything new.\nThe chief aim is to present only that which has been thoroly tested and\nwhich experience has demonstrated to be of vital importance. The very\nfact that most of it seems so commonplace is one reason why it should be\nemphasized, lest in our effort to meet the greatest educational demand of\nthe age — the development of a higher type of character — ^we should neglect\nor minimize the most effective means at our command to do so.\nI. THE INFLUENCE\n\nOF ENVIRONMENT\n\nA suitable physical environment is of great importance in the moral\ntraining of children. The building and surroundings should be clean,\nattractive, and wholesome. If the building is old and dilapidated; if\npatches of plaster have fallen from the ceiling and the walls are dark and\ndingy; if the seats are marked and carved and the floors and windows\ndirty; if there are no window shades, no walks, no flowers, no shrubs, no\ntrees; if the outhouses are an abomination of foulness and vulgarity — if\nsuch physical conditions exist, be assured that the moral effect is bad, and\nthat in so far as the physical environment can affect the lives of the children,\nwe have immoral and not moral training. In a case like this something\nmore practical is needed than memory gems, beautiful stories, and even the\nstudy of noble characters. There should be a general house-cleaning with\nsoap and water, paint and plaster. This is necessary not only from the\nstandpoint of health and comfort, but from the standpoint of morals as well.\nThe late Dr. Canfield relates an interesting story relative to the first\nspontaneous movement toward art decoration at Aurora, Illinois. \"The\ndarkest, meanest room,\" says he, \"in tfce darkest, meanest schoolhouse was\nchosen. The floors were cleaned, the walls tinted, and the place made\ngenerally brighter. When the children came back on the first day after the\nreopening, they stopped at the door, hesitated about going in, and for the\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfirst week walked on tip toe and whispered when they spoke to each other.\nThe classroom had suddenly become sacred to them.\" The movement for\nschoolroom decoration and the beautifying of school grounds has ali:ieady\ndone much for moral as well as aesthetic culture.\nBeautify the school grounds; bring plants and flowers into the schoolrooms; adorn the walls with beautiful pictures and copies of the sculptor's\nart; let these things be arranged in accordance with the canons of good taste,\nand thru the power of suggestion, we have silent teachers of neatness, orderliness, cleanUness, self-respect, purity of thought, and nobihty of action.\nThe Moral Influence of Social Environment\nBut more potent still for good, or evil, is the influence of social environment and the moral \"atmosphere\" of the school. Children are creatures\nof imitation and acquire their habits chiefly from what they see others do.\nHence the necessity for honest school administration and the practice of\ntrue courtesy and right living on the part of school oflScials and all persons\nm any way connected with the schools.\nThink of what it means to the children, if the members of the board of\neducation do not stand well in the community, or are quarreHng among\nthemselves; or there are charges of favoritism, chicanery, grafting, or\nmismanagement of any kind. Or suppose teachers, principals, and school\nofficers treat each other with disrespect and contempt — all these things are\nobserved by pupils and cannot fail to have a bad influence on them. As\nthey grow older, the tendency is for them to become cynical, skeptical of\ngood, and incHned toward evil.\nOn the other hand, if the whole administration is clean and wholesome,\nif members of the board of education stand well in the community, if the\nattitude of teachers, principals, and school officials is that of mutual confidence and esteem, if the rectitude of the lives of those concerned with the\nmanagement of the schools is unquestioned, if there is also a wholesome\nschool sentiment in the community, then there is a social moral environment\nin which goodness is contagious and in which every child receives a moral\nuplift.\nProper School Spirit\nOf equal, and sometimes of even greater importance in the development\nof character is the spirit among the pupils themselves. While they are\ninfluenced by the examples of adults, yet they are also greatly influenced\nby the examples, ideals, and habits of one another and the traditions of the\nschool. Some years ago in a high school in the Middle West there was an\norganization known as the \"Never Studies.\" If a member was caught\nstudying he was reprimanded; if he made a good recitation in class he was\nfined; if he failed to get into mischief for a week he was expelled. If the\nspirit of the members of that organization had become general, the usefulness ofthat high school would have been at an end. Habits of industry,\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\n369\n\nobedience, truthfulness, manliness, self-respect, and even common honesty\ndo not thrive where such a spirit prevails.\nOn the other hand, if pupils refer to the school as \"our school,\" if they\nare jealous of its good name and seek to promote its best interests; if they\nare studious, loyal, and well behaved — trying to do something themselves\nand striving to help others — wherever such a spirit exists, the school becomes\na veritable nursery for the production of moral character.\n2.\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL LIFE OF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAs a means of moral training, the social life of the school is usually\nunderrated. Here children of all classes meet and commingle. They\ntalk with each other, play together, share each other's joys and sorrows.\nThey form clubs, cliques, and gangs for all sorts of purposes, good and bad —\nathletics, debating, predatory excursions, offensive and defensive warfare.\nThis is democratic society in the making.\nBut who can estimate the value of such social intercourse? It is in\nthis way that friendships are formed and tested. It is a training school in\ncourage, honor, fair play, manliness, and leadership. Here every boy and\ngirl is tried out and learns the meaning and requirements of social fellowship. The things most needed relative to the social life of the school are\nproper guidance and ample opportunities for development in the way of\nfree play, athletics, and school organizations of various kinds.\nFree play is necessary not only for health and physical development\nbut also for moral and social growth. It aids in the development of selfcontrol, self-reliance, cheerfulness, agreeableness, and good fellowship.\nIt develops leadership and gives opportunity for training in initiative.\nPlay is the natural outlet for the superabundance of energy and animal\nspirits. \"Play in a boy,\" says Jacob Riis, \"is like steam and superheated\nsteam at that. You can sit on the safety valve of the steam boiler but it is\nrisky business. You must give the boy a chance to blow off his steam.\"\nAll games which require team work have especial social value. The\nindividual learns to co-operate with his fellows — to subordinate self to the\ninterest of the group. He learns the value of rules and the necessity of\nobedience to them. Every athletic contest is a contest in courage, fair\nplay, self-control, manliness, loyalty, and good fellowship as well as skill,\nendurance, and ability to play the game. So important are group games\nfrom a social and moral standpoint, that means should be devised whereby\nall pupils would have an opportunity to take part.\nIf properly directed the various school organizations, such as literary\nsocieties, musical and journalistic clubs, and art associations, furnish additional means for social and moral trailing. These interest the children\nin things worth while, afford opportunities for training in initiative, cooperation, self-reliance, tact, patience, persistency, and discretion. They\nalso develop the sense of responsibility and the necessity for self-restraint.\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThese qualities are of prime importance in the affairs of active life, and training in them fits one for the larger responsibilities of citizen, church member,\nemployer, and parent.\nBut all these social activities must be properly directed and supervised\nor they become sources of mischief rather than agencies for good. They\nmust be wisely directed so as not to interfere with other school work, nor\ncall for too great an expense of time or money. The director should suggest\nand teach suitable games, coach in athletics, debating, journalistic, and\nliterary work. Proper standards of conduct and business methods should\nbe inaugurated and maintained. Each pupil should be helped to find a\npart suited to his talents and agreeable to his tastes, and then encouraged\nto do his best. There should be freedom of action under necessary rules;\neach pupil should do those things which will be most helpful to others as\nwell as beneficial to himself. The director of the social activities of a school,\nwhether teacher, minister, or some other public-spirited citizen, has almost\nunlimited opportunities for doing good.\nIf the social activities of the school are properly directed, there will not\nbe much supervising to do. Yet there must be someone in authority who\nwill see to it that the playground and the athletic field are clean and wholesome places; that profanity, vulgarity, gambling, quarrehng, fighting, and\nall other forms of hoodlumism are prohibited. Supervision is also needed\nin order to insure the proper organization and conduct of school clubs, and\nthat reasonable rules relative to hours and conduct are enforced at all times.\n3.\n\nTHE DISCIPLINE AND ROUTINE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE SCHOOL\n\nThe discipline and routine work of the school furnish many excellent\nopportunities for moral training. In the best public schools, this means is\nmore fully utilized than any other. If the school is well organized and well\ndisciplined, if lessons are carefully assigned and carefully prepared, if recitations are properly conducted, if the right spirit is shown by teacher and pupils\ntoward their work and toward one another, then the school becomes a veritable\nnursery for training in many of the elemental virtues — ^promptness, regularity,\nobedience, industry, cheerfulness, self-control, self-direction, perseverance,\nself-reUance, initiative, poHteness, helpfulness, honor, honesty, diUgence, justice, and responsibility. These things are not taught in any perfunctory way,\nbut children are trained daily in the practice of them: promptness in obeying signals, directions, and commands; regularity in school attendance and\npreparation of lessons; obedience to the requirements of the teacher and\nthe rules and regulations of the school; industry, perseverance, and diligence in the preparation of lessons and doing other school work; politeness\nto the teacher and to each other; helpfulness in keeping order, passing and\ncollecting materials, and in many other ways; neatness and orderUness in\nthe preparation of written work and care of desks; cleanUness of person,\nclothing, and speech; responsibility for the preparation of work assigned.\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n371\n\nfor the care of books and supplies, and for conduct. \" Self-respect is engendered when a child does his best at tasks that are worth while and within\nhis power to do well.\"^ A child is drilled in telling the truth when he makes\ncareful observations and accurate statements, but the reverse when careless answers and distorted truths are accepted in the recitation. Honor\nand honesty are taught when pupils are trusted — trusted relative to matters\nof conduct, the performance of a task, or the discharge of a duty. Trust\na child and let him know that you trust him and he will soon trust himself.\nThe discipline of the school should be similar to that of a well-regulated\nhome. The teacher should understand his pupils; know what is worth\nwhile and what is of little importance; understand the force of suggestion,\nthe influence of a gentle voice, and the power of sympathy. He should\nalso understand that humor and common-sense have a place in school\ndiscipHne and that cheerfulness is contagious. The discipline should be\nreasonable and carried out with regularity, kindness, and firmness. Pupils\nshould learn the meaning of justice by seeing it applied — not stern justice\nbut justice tempered with mercy.\nEach specific case of discipline furnishes a special opportunity for\nimpressing a moral lesson, if we are only wise enough and skillful enough\nto use it aright. When a child is brought face to face with his act, when he\nsees that wrongdoing results in shame and suffering, that is the opportune\nmoment to teach the lesson of self-control, self-restraint, and responsibility\nfor his own conduct. That is the time of times to extend the helping hand,\nto assure him, that, altho he has made a mistake, yet you still trust him, that\nhe is capable of doing better, and that you will help him to be stronger and\nto do better in the future.\nChildren should have a part in the government of the school and this\npart should increase as they grow in years and discretion. Even in the\nprimary grades they should be taught responsibility for their own conduct,\ntaught not to hinder but how to help their neighbors. As they grow older\nand wiser and more discreet; as they learn self-control, self-direction, and\nself-restraint; as the spirit of co-operation and helpfulness increases, pupils\nshould have greater freedom, greater opportunities to take a part in directing the activities and in molding the sentiment of the school. Just as wise\nparents confer with their older children relative to the management of the\naffairs of the home, and rely upon them not only to conduct themselves\nproperly, but also to help in the care and training of the younger members\nof the family, just so teachers should do relative to the management and\ndiscipline of the school. Parents do not abdicate, neither do they pretend\nto transfer their authority to the children while in reality they still retain\nit. What they do do, is to counsel with the older children, to enlist their\nco-operation and support. This is far more beneficial to all parties concerned than if parents had made a real or pretended transfer of authority.\n» Course of study for city of New York.\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSelf-government can never be conferred; it can only be achieved.\nis true in the school as well as in the home and in society in general.\n4.\n\nTHE COURSE\n\n[NaUonal\n\nThis\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIgnorance, according to Dr. Edward T. Devine, is still the greatest cause\nof human misery. This conclusion he reaches after spending ten years\nas secretary of the Charity Organization Society of the city of New York\nand after he had employed all the best methods of investigation known to\nmodern science. Ignorance of one kind or another leads all other causes\nin producing accidents, sickness, loss of employment, poverty, drunkenness,\nvice, and crime. \"We can save babies from milk poisoning,\" says Dr.\nDevine, \"we can save children from the permanent disabilities resulting\nfrom the neglect of their childish ailments; we can save young girls from\nthe dangers and the injuries attendant upon their employment in factories,\nand department stores and elsewhere; we can save boys from loss of their\nmanhood and fit them better by vocational training for normal life; we\ncan save the women from overwork; we can save the men from industrial\naccidents, from death by tuberculosis and typhoid; and we can save them,\nI beUeve, at last, from the terrible curse of alcoholism, which is half a\ndisease and half a crime, and altogether the greatest foe of health and vigor\nthat we have.\" Of course his \"plan of salvation\" includes many things;\nbut knowledge of the proper sort is the foundation of it all. \" Ye shall know\nthe truth and the truth shall make you free.\"\nThe content of the course of study furnishes the chief mqans of moral\ninstruction in the public schools, and its proper use one of the important\nmeans of moral training. The body of knowledge, therefore, constituting\nthe course of study is a matter of the highest importance from the standpoint of character development. The old dogma, \"It matters little what\nyou teach a child provided it is well taught,\" is giving way to a saner\ndoctrine, \"What you teach is of prime importance; how it is taught is\nsecondary.\"\nThe content of the course of study is largely traditional and chiefly\nfor cultural purposes. But much more than \"culture\" is needed if the\nchild when grown up is to meet the economic, social, and moral demands\nof the times. During the last quarter of a century, the course of study has\nundergone great changes, chiefly by way of accretions. It seems destined\nto undergo still greater changes in ways that are structural and fundamental.\nPhysical Education\nThere is need of better physical education in that broad sense which is\ncalculated to produce strong, healthy, vigorous, active bodies with great\npower of endurance. Only persons with such bodies can stand the strain\nof modern life. Besides, ill-health is the most constant attendant of poverty\nwith its train of vice, crime, and misery. There should be not only physical\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n373\n\ntraining by means of gymnastics, organized and free play, but there should\nbe definite and ample instruction relative to food, clothing, exercise, rest,\nheating and ventilation, sanitation, water supply, food adulteration,\nsewerage systems, contagious and infectious diseases, and the evil effects\nof the use of alcohol and other narcotics. The \"conspiracy of silence\"\nshould no longer be maintained which preveiV:s children from being taught\nwhat they ought to know relative to sex. Such knowledge imparted at the\nright time, in the right manner, and by the right person would be of inestimable value to children morally as well as physically — ^would save souls\nas well as bodies.^\nVocational Training\n\" Bad cooking,\" says Lecky, \"is responsible for much of the drunkenness\nof the world.\" He might have added that bad housekeeping in general is\nresponsible for many divorces, business failures, and the wrecking of family\nhfe in general. . The \"bread line\" in New York City, the never-ending\nprocession of tramps, the great army of unemployed, are composed chiefly\nof men who are inefficient — \"not on to their jobs\" when they have any and\nsoon out of jobs altogether. The connection between immorality and\nindustrial inefficiency is too close to require elaboration. The breakdown\nof the apprentice system, the migration of vast numbers to the great cities,\nthe rapid changes of industrial and economic conditions leave large numbers\nof persons inadequately prepared for meeting the common everyday requirements of hfe.\nThe movement relative to vocational training thru a change of curriculum in the public schools seems to be based on necessity — and destined to\naffect not only public-school education but the life of the people industrially,\nsocially, morally. Girls of all classes should have the opportunity to learn\ndomestic art, domestic economy, the nurture and care of children — in\nshort, how to be home-keepers. Every boy should have an opportunity,\nat least, to begin the preparation for some kind of a vocation by which. he\ncan become a producer of something society needs and which will enable him\nto support a family. How the problem of vocational training is to be solved\ncannot be foreseen at this time, but that it must be solved in some way is\napparent. Its proper solution will affect for the better the moral hfe of\nthe people.\nThe other subjects of the curriculum which contribute most to moral\neducation are science, civics, history, and literature. The teaching of\ntruth is the special contribution of science to the schools. \"The habit of\naccurate observation,\" says Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, \"and exact\ndescription, and the setting up of standards of action which have accuracy\nas a basis is a habit of accuracy which afbottom is a habit of truth.\"\n» Every parent and teacher should be familiar with the Eighth Yearbook of the National Society for the\nScientific Study of Education — \"Education in Reference to Sex\" (the University of Chicago Press); also\nA Song of Life by Margaret Warner Morley (A. C. McClurg & Co.).\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nCivics\nWhile civics as taught at present is generally unsatisfactory, yet when\nit is rewritten and its contents enlarged so as to include part of social economy, it is likely to become the subject which will contribute most to the\ndevelopment of that form of civic patriotism which finds expression in\nobedience to law and the faithful discharge of public duty. We must\nrely on the right teaching of this subject to enable the people to understand the complexities of pubUc administration so as to be able to fix\nresponsibiUty and apply the proper remedy in case of wrongdoing. The\nchief enemies of the republic are not in foreign lands, neither are their\nweapons the bludgeon, the dagger, nor the machine gun. Our most dangerous enemies are in our very midst, and their most powerful weapons are\nsecrecy, guile, intimidation, bribery, and treachery. We need to teach in\nthe pubHc schools a kind of civics which will enable the people to know who\ntheir public enemies are, and which will enable them to bring to light their\ncrooked and nefarious methods. If this can only be done, the people will\nrise in righteous indignation and drive the miscreants from power, brand\nthem with infamy, and clothe some of them in stripes.\nHistory\nThe study of history and particularly biography is especially valuable\nin the development of moral character. Parable is always more effective\nthan precept. So when we wish to bring home to the children a lesson in\ncourage, fidehty, justice, or magnanimity we have only to point to the deed\nof some noble man or woman and say, \"Lo, there it is.\" By this means\nconcrete examples of every trait of character may be presented. In this\nway we may study not only the acts of men but the motives that prompted\nto action, view the real characters back of the masks, see the shortsightedness and folly of wickedness and the final triumph of truth and justice.\nIn the study of history we see that the rich, the proud, and the mighty are\neither soon forgotten or only remembered to be execrated, while the fame\nof the noble and the good survives dungeons and crosses and even time.\nIn this way nobility of character is presented not only as something worth\nwhile for the moment, but as the only thing of real value.\nLiterature\nBut the moral content of literature surpasses that of any other school\nsubject. Its concreteness, its sensuousness, its simplicity, its great variety\nof forms and themes, its universaHty make it the most nearly perfect means\nfor the portrayal of the human soul. So important is the reading and study\nof good literature that it should be begun in the primary grades and continued to the end of the last year of the high school — yes, thruout life.\n\"The love of good Uterature,\" says McCunn, \"will do tenfold more to oust\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHRU\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n375\n\nthe tales of scandal, frivolity and crime than a thousand repressive *thou\nshall nots.^'^\nIn giving a brief synopsis of the scope of hterature by grades and its\nmoral content, we cannot do better than to quote with approval Dr. Percival\nChubb who has made a lifelong study of the subject.'\n\"The aim of literary and linguistic training is the formation of character.\nOf what avail to have read Shakespeare, Milton, Emerson, and Lowell,\nif the intercourse has not provided a lifelong thirst for helpful and inspiring\ncommunion with them and other great spirits?\"\nReading for the primary grades. — \"It must be varied with gentle emphasis\nupon those interests which are found to be dominant in each period of\ngrowth. Always, however, these interests must be regarded as means or\nopportunities whereby we may quicken and nourish those faculties of admiration, hope and love, of courage and loyalty, which are the roots of worthy\ncharacter and the sources of noble delight.\n\"As to ethical characteristics, we must have literature that celebrates\nthe duties and privileges of early childhood; love and compassion for all\ngentle things — ^for the meanest flower that blows and for the weakest\ncreature that breathes; the domestic virtues, filial love and obedience,\nbrotherly and sisterly love, respect for elders and teachers, good-will and\njustice toward playmates and equals, veneration for the great and for the\ncommonwealth.\"\nTypes of literature for grammar grades. — \"Adventure and romance,\nheroism and daring, the wonders and excitement of travel and exploration,\nthe march and siege — upon these we may feed the children; and upon these,\nas sure foundations of the superstructure to be raised in later years, we may\nbuild. Above all, we shall surround them with a cloud of witnesses to\nthe glory of courage and nobility; we shall give them the companionship\nof the great and the friendship of the tried and true, to win them to their\nHkeness.\n\"The lyric impulse too will persist and deepen; and it is thru lyric\npoetry that we shall work for the chastening idealization of those primitive\npassions of anger, hate, devotion, and love into their higher forms of courage,\nloyalty, obedience, and reverence.\"\nHumor as a moral tonic. — \"Let the tonic breeze of genuine mirth sweep\nacross our solemnity at times. Besides, our boys and girls need education\nin humor; failing it, they feed upon cheap smartness or questionable jest,\nand their sense of fun narrows to horse play and the practical joking that\ndisgraces our college life — disfigurement of public monuments and the like.\nSo let us admit some of Mark Twain and Holmes and Saxe, Hood, Stockton,\nand Kipling.\"\n' The quotations which in a few instances are paraphrases are from The Te<iching of English in tht\nElementary and Secondary Schools, by Percival Chubb (the Macmillan Co.) .\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nHigh-school literature — cultural and vocational. — Space will not admit of\nany lengthy discussion relative to literature for the high school. In general\nit should be:\n1. Literature that will meet the characteristics, the needs, and the\ninterests of the adolescent period.\n2. Such as meets the social and vocational demands made upon highschool education.\n\"The two requirements must be kept in mind: general culture, or education for a t)^ical ideal manhood and womanhood; and preparation to meet\nthe actual demands of life and a specific kind of environment.''\n5.\n\nTHE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER\n\nThe most important of all school agencies in the development of moral\ncharacter in pupils is the teacher. We would not minimize the value of a\ngood course in morals, of wholesome environment, of proper school spirit,\nof good discipUne and a good course of study, yet it is the teacher who makes\nthe vital connection between these things and the lives of the children.\nIt is the teacher who sets the example in neatness, orderliness, politeness,\ncheerfulness, and kindness. It is the teacher who furnishes, or should\nfurnish, a constant example of poise, self-control, self-reliance, and true\ndignity. It is the teacher who teaches the children industry and the right\nspirit toward their work by helping them plan their work and by doing\nhis own work with fidelity and zeal. It is the teacher who makes justice\na vital thing by exemplifying it daily in the school. It is the teacher who\nmolds pubHc sentiment in the school, who gives timely advice, who encourages, comforts, restrains, guides, and controls the children, and whose\nevery look, tone, and gesture help make or mar human souls.\nThe influence of a true teacher as a moral force is exhibited in manifold\nways. It is constantly felt in the schoolroom. It is potent on the playground and on the athletic field. It pervades every school club, every\nsocial gathering in which the children participate. It serves as a guide\nin the choice of books, playmates, and friends. It is shown in conduct on\nthe street and in the home. It is the precious thing that lives in memory\nand abides in character after lessons have been forgotten.\nUnder the direction of Dr. G. Stanley Hall, about a thousand adult\npersons — men and women — were interviewed as to what qualities in their\nteachers they still most prized or most disliked. A summary of their\nanswers follows. It sets forth clearly and in striking contrast the qualities\nof teachers most appreciated and despised, not by pupils while still in school\nbut by men and women after reaching maturity.\n'■What seems to be most appreciated in teachers,\" says Dr. Hall, \"is the\ngiving of purpose, arousing of ideals, kindling of ambition to be something,\nto do something and so giving an object in life, encouragement to over-\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\n377\n\ncome circumstances, and, in general, inspiring self-confidence and giving\ndirection. Next come personal sympathy and interest, kindness, confidence,\na little praise being understood; and next, special help in lessons, or timely\nand kindly advice, while stabiHty and poise of character, purity, the absence\nof hypocrisy, independence, personal beauty, athleticism, and vigor are\nprominent.\"\nIn striking contrast to the above, \"the qualities that inspire most dislike are malevolence, sarcasm, unjust punishment, suspicion, severity,\nsternness, absence of laughing and smiUng, indifference, threats and broken\nvows, excessive scolding and 'roasting,' and fondness for inflicting blows.\"\nOnly the true teacher exercises a strong, positive, beneficent, and lasting\nmoral influence over his pupils.\nThe qualities and training that a teacher must possess in order to wield\nthe greatest moral influence over pupils are so many and varied that they\ncannot be even enumerated here. He must have a knowledge of child\nlife, know its needs and possibilities. He must know the subjects he would\nteach and be acquainted with social conditions which the pupils must enter.\nHe must know his art — know what to do and how and when to do it. He\nmust be willing to work and have the power of endurance that will enable\nhim to work a long time effectively. He must have insight, and tact and\nhumor, and common-sense and discretion, and enthusiasm and sympathy.\nHe must have a personality that attracts and force of character that commands esteem and confidence. He must live a life which exemplifies the\nvirtues he would teach.\nThe influence of such teachers is the most potent agency the school\npossesses for moral training. The procuring of enough such teachers to fill\nthe schools is the greatest educational need of the times. Only by setting\napart and dedicating the best of the nation to train the children of the nation\nwill this educational need be met.\n\nTHE HOME\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD,\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSCHOOL\nOF\n\nLIFE\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nKANSAS\n\nCITY,\n\nMO.\n\nEach exact science is based on certain elementary or primary principles.\nIt is thru the mastery of a few definite fundamental truths that the learner\ncomes to a clear and unquestioning recognition of the abstract principles\nwhich constitute the foundation of the mathematical, physical, biological,\nand other exact sciences, and these principles are applicable to all spheres\nof mental activity among civilized peoples. In the special sciences of\nphysics, chemistry, biology, geology, and astronomy, by the observation of\nindividual facts, general laws were discov^ed and universal conclusions\nestablished as the groundwork of these sciences, and what is true of these\nsciences is equally true of all other departments of exact human knowledge.\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nObserved at first as facts, grouped and classified according to principles in\nwhich uniformities and dissimilarities can be detected, sciences are created,\nand the laws governing them as such are formulated.\nIn the moral sphere, the child at first has no intuitions of the abstract\nprinciples of right and wrong, but as he grows in stature and knowledge, the\ntime is reached that when he witnesses an act he feels it to be one of love,\nkindness, faithfulness, or of gratitude, or its opposite, and he further decides\nthat it is a good or a bad act, and it is then that the moral idea is gaining a\nfoothold in his mind. Thus by degrees he arrives at the conclusion that\none act is good and another is bad. It is from this norm, branching out in\ntwo different directions, that the child makes his first crude generalizations\non moral questions. By comparing an act with the standard that is being\nbuilt up in his own mind, whether this particular act concerns himself or\nothers, is the method of moral development. As a result of this kind of\nmental thinking, a philosophy of 'conduct is established that is as valid to\nhim as are the axioms of mathematics or the verities of philosophy to the\nanalyst or the logician. With such mental conceptions firmly fixed in the\nlearner's mind concerning his thoughts, feelings, and actions, the basic\nprinciples of morality are as valid to him in his modes of thinking as any\nother group of notions he can possible have.\nBehind every act there should be clear knowledge and a definite purpose,\nand the more complete the knowledge, the stronger is the tendency to act\nup to the fullest measure of light one has. A constant repetition of virtuous\nacts grows into habit, habit develops into character, character makes conduct, and conduct is the greatest part of active life in conformity to one's\nnature.\nThe real problem of moral training from its theoretical aspect is to\ninvestigate the laws or forces which control people in groups, and to teach\nthem how to live together in complex societies so that each will be guided by\nrighteousness and justice in his relations with others.\nAs a practical science moral education, or ethics, relates to all kinds of\ndeeds and habits of doing which concern one in relation to others, whether\nin small or large groups. One may conduct himself in such a manner as to\nobstruct the wishes and actions of his fellows, or render their efforts void,\naccording to his power and skill in setting his will over against theirs, or by\ndividing or nullifying their counsel; on the other hand, one may think and\nact in such a manner as to assist and reinforce their efforts and bring comfort and satisfaction to large masses of people. The implication is that there\nare rational methods of action that can be pursued by individuals for the\nbenefit of others, and that peaceful combinations of men may be formed to\novercome the forces of nature to the end that each individual may participate in the triumphs of all, and that in this process of contribution and\nparticipation lies the real source of power in practical ethics which of itself\nadvances civiUzation by giving each a chance to share in the joint contri-\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\n379\n\nbution of the whole. The help that each contributes returns to the giver\nmany times multiplied. This is a reservoir of power and it can be indefinitelyincreased only by adopting and adhering to ethical action as a habit of\ndoing, thus leading to a continuous growth in ethical insight, by one's\nbecoming intimately acquainted with himself. Human achievement consists in getting control of the forces of nature and of human nature, and by\nusing them intelligently and skillfully. Under this view, ethics belongs to\nthe will, because it relates directly to the manner and purposes of doing.\nThere are certain habits of thinking and doing and out of these comes the\nsaying that \"good behavior is a bundle of habits.\" All habits that facilitate one's combining and acting in concert with others in matters of\ngeneral interest belong to the mind in willing rather than to the mind in\nthinking.\nUnder such a conception, behavior at home and in school becomes a\nmatter of the very highest importance in training children into right habits\nof doing, and in school it makes classwork possible, which is altogether a\nhigher form of activity than mere individual study under a teacher or tutor,\nor capricious actions at home. In individual work the learner cannot see\nhimself doing as he can see his classmates at work and observe their successes\nand failures which he can use as a standard to measure his own attainments.\nHe discovers, also, by observing his own classmates, different ways of looking at the same subject in the lessons assigned, recited, and elucidated,\nand he thus acquires information from them which gives him a better insight\ninto the work that he is to do. His mind works in two directions at the\nsame time — one end of his mind is with his classmates, and the other end is\nin his interest in the subject as it is understood and directed by himself.\nHe gains insight into the workings of other minds while mastering his own\nthoughts thru self-activity. Self-activity is doubly reinforced, because the\nlearner sees others pursuing the same Unes of work as himself, and yet achieving success by other methods of industry and persistence. It is in the school\nalso that the pupil assumes a different attitude from the home circle where\nhis caprice is not curbed and subordinated to the influences of others working under similar conditions. The school from its nature must conserve\nthe interest of each individual thru the mediation of the whole school,\nand this mediation is effected thru certain ethical school habits usually\ndesignated as school virtues, which are most potent factors in character\nformation.\nThe stimulus arising from concert of action when all are at work and\nintent on doing the same thing within a stated time, gives confidence to\neach one in his not being engaged alone in his tasks, and the alertness that\nhe observes in others begets alertness in himself, a quality that produces\norderly and regular action in preparation and recitation work. To work\nsilently tends to repress disorder, impulsive and explosive action by eliminating frivohty, and putting checks on nervous explosions so that one may\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "380\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa'\n\nget control of his body and mind. It is thru self-restraint that the verbal\nimpulse to chatter may be reduced to within moderate Umits. The outcome of this species of self-repression consists in the cultivation of mental\nconcentration, whether the learner is engaged in his own work or attending\nto that of his fellows or of his teacher. Unless this habit is cultivated\nsuccessfully, there will always be a lack of steadfastness in one's character\nwhose modes of thinking and acting will be dominated by all sorts of distractions. Consequently, the activity of each after his own inclinations\nand without regard to the concentrated activity of the whole, nuUifies the\nhighest purpose of the school as a place in which to learn self-control, silence,\nindustry, and non-interference with others. Silence is the proper corrective\nfor those who are afficted with the morbid desire to attract attention to\nthemselves. The stress that is properly laid on these fundamental school\nvirtues is designed to fit each to do his full share of the world's work and to\nbe able to take care of himself. This is the chief reason why regular tasks\nor lessons are assigned from day to day for individual absorption, assimilation, reproduction, retention, and their relation to what has preceded and\nwhat ought to follow under the most favorable conditions of the learner's\nenvironment. By retrospective and relational processes, the learner\nstrives, particularly in the higher stages of his advancement, to get a deeper\ninsight and to seize upon and to master the essentials of the subjects he\nstudies. As he moves onward and upward, he discards in his thinking the\nmore superficial phases of each subject which he first had for the underlying\nprinciples that he may build up a logical and consistent scheme of knowledge\nin each branch he pursues. The learner thus becomes absorbed in his own\nhnes of work, yet he seldom loses interest in what his classmates are doing.\nEach member of the class is in one sense an investigator and he contributes\nhis mite to the sum total in order that he may enjoy his share of the labors of\nall the others. Here, again, it is seen that ethical habits can be acquired,\nand it is therefore evident that the very essence of school disciphne is a most\npotent factor in building up good habits of co-operation with one's classmates which may be easily carried over later into the larger spheres of private and pubhc activities. Rightly, then, do teachers insist on promptness\nin the performance of every duty, regularity in being present at appointed\ntimes in keeping engagements, combined with and reinforced by punctuahty. The habit of working silently in the schoolroom is an acquirement\nof no mean order, because it cultivates individual attention and concentration which, in later years, amid great confusion, enables its possessor to\npursue his own Une of thought uninterruptedly. The pupil also learns that\nrights and duties are correlatives, and that while he may insist on his\nrights, there are also duties to be performed by him, and that others have\nrights and corresponding duties imposed on them, and that he has no more\nright to interfere with the rights of others than they have to interfere with\nhis rights; hence, non-interference with the legitimate work of others is\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOl\n\nLIFE\n\n381\n\nset down as a cardinal virtue. In common speech, it is the attention to\none's own business. Unless the habit of industry has become a sort of\nsecond nature, a disposition to be doing something that has a definite\nobject and not merely frittering time away in an aimless, dreamy fashion,\nthe strongest personal element of character has not been developed into\nhabit. Habits should sink somewhat below the plane of consciousness so\nthat one acts automatically, and in the right direction as the result of physical and mental control. This is the abihty that one possesses to get hold\nand to keep command of himself, and out of which will come eventually a\nwider view of ethical relations to one's fellows, and to the conception of\nan orderly arrangement of the world-process. When one has reached this\nstage, he has formed the habit of looking at each action rationally by making\na direct appeal in each case to his standard of duty. This is the outcome of a\ngradual system of moral training from following mechanically at first school\nrequirements, and by ridding one of his own whims in readjusting himself\nto new conditions and more unselfish ideals. Each must get hold of the\nunderlying principles of ethical conduct for himself, altho he may follow\nmechanically the standards that he finds the world has already fixed without\nbeing able to give an intelligible explanation of them, while lacking that\nclear insight which depends ultimately on a vivid comprehension of fundamental principles.\nEach one will, however, by such an investigation of principles, arrive\nat a theory upon which his practice is based, but it is very desirable that\none should accustom himself to look for the basis of his actions on strictly\nmoral grounds. It is to be regretted that only a few teachers take pains to\ninform themselves not only as to the traditions upon which our manners\nand customs have become the molding influences of our daily life, but fail to\nget hold of the underlying principles of this great conservative force. In\nsuch matters teachers ought to be the molders of public opinion, and exert\na positive influence upon the life and character of each child for the\ntwofold purpose of understanding and applying the principles of school\ndiscipline intelligently and unconsciously leading the pupil into the habits\nand practices of good breeding. If the teacher knows what the highest\nethical principles are and how to bring them to young and struggling minds\nso that they may free themselves wisely and in the presence of conflicting\nduties, then ethical teaching has accomplished its purpose. Training pupils\nto discriminate carefully in reference to motives that determine conduct in\nthe practical settlement of cases, whether they arise in school or outside, is\nof vast importance in giving an insight into all duties which have human\nnature in any form as an elemental factor to be considered.\nIn fact, as soon as the pupil steps over his narrow boundary into literature, biography, history, agriculture, commerce, manufactures, governmental sciences, philosqphy, and religion, he is making moral judgments\nat every step of his progress and in all his walks in life.\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNA TIONAf EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\nHOW\n\nSHALL MORALS\n\n[National\n\nBE TAUGHT?\n\nOn this point, the divergence of opinions is great. Shall the instruction\nbe positive, direct, formal, and definite according to a fixed program; or\nshall it be incidental, rather sharply emphasized early in school life, lightened\nduring the intermediate period, and deepened and intensified the last year\nor two of school attendance ? If the first position is assumed, then should\nthe instruction take into consideration the age and the natural aptitudes\nof each child, or should the pupils be taught en masse as in other branches ?\nEach will answer these questions according to his own way of looking at\nthe problem and whether he thinks the plan of attack should be by a flank\nmovement, or by a front assault. It will not be contended, I apprehend,\nthat such training can be taken up and be presented as a formal study that\nis sharply defined in its scope and character and that admits of logical\ntreatment. The child as the recipient must be regarded as being full of\nactivity and that it will behave itself in some fashion. This activity is impulsive and it needs guidance and control so that it responds to certain\nstimuli, and that only other stimuli should be minimized or inhibited in\norder to insure action along right lines of behavior.\nThe entire training of a child begins with the observance of certain\nrules. At first it knows no rules for its guidance, and it is kept from hurting\nitself by others who are older and abler to take care of it. This state lasts\ncomparatively a little while. Soon rules of conduct come to be acted upon,\nand from this time onward the child is never beyond the pale where rules\ndo not apply. Properly, then, the very first lesson the child must learn\nis that of obedience. This lies behind and beneath all other lessons. When\nthe lesson of obedience is learned all other lessons are comparatively easy.\nThis does not imply that the child must be governed by hard and cruel rules.\nObedience obtained in this way is imnatural. All animals are best trained\nby kind and gentle restraints. Only strict rules should be employed in\ncontrolling the vicious when more humane measures have failed. The\nmanly boy is the one who obeys; disobedience is childishness.\nThe first steps in this process came from obedience at home. Obedience\nas such is a consequence of limitations, and \"limitations\" as a term implies\nfixed boundaries beyond which one cannot pass with impunity. We say\nin general terms that a man is free to walk the earth and breathe the air,\nfree to acquire, hold, and transfer property, free to control his own thoughts\nand bodily actions, yet the word freedom is only a relative one in its application. His freedom consists in his obedience to laws which he cannot change.\nFor instance, the thief as a free, responsible man may take what belongs\nto another, and thus by this very act steal his own freedom, and yet this is\nthe result of his own folly — namely, stealing to punish himself. Man,\ntherefore, Hves his best life by obedience, and so does the child. Obedience\nsignifies that one yields to society, and consequently to the welfare of others,\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\n383\n\nwhat is required of him. He simply complies with demands which are made\nupon all.\nThe home is the place where quiet, cheerful obedience should be taught.\nParents themselves are subject to rules and laws. They must do certain\nthings at stated times. All the work of the day should be done between\nfixed periods, and the time for one kind of work ought not to lap over the\ntime for another. Every exercise has its duty. On the other hand, should\nthe parent do certain irregular things now and then, the other members of\nthe family becoine dissatisfied, and rightly so. If the mere whim or pleasure\nof the individual should be the only rule and guide thru life, disappointments\nand vexations would characterize every undertaking. In as simple a matter\nas the running of the street cars there are laws which must be obeyed. Should\nthose whose duty it is to manage and control them decide that the cars\nshould run one or two days only during the week, there would be a general\nuprising of all the citizens, if not a destruction of the property itself. The\nlaw of duty, which is the obligation to do right and from which one never\nescapes, is as pressing and persistent as the law that holds the planets in\ntheir places. Obedience marks the difference between a civiUzed people\nand savages. Obedience prepares the way for sympathy and usefulness. It\nis an outward act, while sympathy constitutes the inner bond that binds\none to all and all to one. To be thoughtful of others, to watch and care\nfor their interests, to preserve their reputations, to have a sacred regard for\ntheir feehngs, are some of the evidences which distinguish the kind-hearted\nfrom the cruel and selfish. Society is bound together by the three ties of\nobedience, sympathy, and usefulness. These virtues should be cultivated\nin the formation or every character. To these are added truthfulness and\nhonesty as opposed to lying and stealing in various forms. The home life\nshould be Uke a building which stands firm and strong when its foundation\nis composed of good material. A rotten piece of timber or stone endangers\nthe whole structure and the same is true of a family, if only one member\nis lacking in truthfulness and honesty. The dishonest man or boy is a\npiece of rotten timber that society cannot trust. It is on this principle that\nparents should insist that their children must be obedient, s)nnpathetic,\nuseful, truthful, and honest. These positive virtues are as so many elements\nin the structure of human character. Each has a significant value.\nISSUES FROM\n\nTHE HOME\n\nWhatever is good and pure and clean, or whatever is bad and impure\nand vile in the life of the individual, has its rise in the home Hfe. Wherever\nthe home hfe is pure and wholesome, tho it may be the home of the poor\nand lowly, or of the multi-miUionaire, there the Uves of the children are\nnourished under virtuous conditions. It is in the home Hfe where the children are pampered and spoiled and are made shirks and Uars and thieves;\nor they become honest, sincere, truthful, industrious boys and girls. The\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nboy or girl that has fallen by the wayside is seldom found who has been\nproperly trained at home in the noblest virtues. But those boys and girls\nwho have been spoiled, petted, and mismanaged at home, or whose fathers\nand mothers have neglected them, or handed them over to nurses, or turned\nthem out on the streets, or sent them into the back alleys, only by a miracle\nwill they become useful and honorable members of any community. What\nhas thus far been said refers to those homes in which the father and mother\nwork together, or neglect their children; but there is another phase of home\nlife that is frequently encountered, and that is when one parent wants the\nchildren to conduct themselves properly and the other parent obstructs every\nattempt thus made. Such dissensions react disastrously on the children.\nThe child thus nurtured becomes self-willed, disobedient, deceitful, and\nuntrustworthy. When parents neglect to see or to correct the faults of\ntheir children, there is sure to come a day of reckoning which will bring\nsorrow and wretchedness to the parental roof, because the soul should be\ntaught the duty to keep under control envy, greed, jealousy, and hypocrisy.\nTHE RELATION\n\nOF PARENT\n\nAND\n\nCHILD\n\nThe relation of parent and child is one of such tenderness and dependence\nthat both parents should always seek to ennoble and elevate the character\nof their offspring. The child should be taught to hate meanness in every\nform and to love the true and right, and to practice them in thought and\nact every day. Owing to diversity of the mental make-up of children, some\nare naturally quick, restless, enthusiastic, and impulsive; others are always\nin the sunshine, or far behind a dark shadow, and others, again, are bold,\ndaring, venturesome, always active, wilHng to let consequences take care\nof themselves. There are also the slow, plodding, sturdy children, and\nothers along with them who explode on the slightest provocation, while\nothers are so fragile as to have a very slender hold on Hfe. Even in the\nvery same family may be found children of widely different temperamental\nconditions. Children of all these divergent types enter the schools^ and\nseveral of these most pronounced types may even be found in the same\nroom.\n\nHonesty with children always counts. The parent who practices deception either covertly or openly, or plays sharp tricks, or induces his child to\nengage in practices that will not bear the severest scrutiny— if such a person\ncan be labeled parent— is false to the sacred trust committed to his care,\nno matter what his pretensions may be. Children know the difference\nbetween a true character and a deceitful one; between honesty and dishonesty. Oftentimes children pass judgment on shady transactions whether\nthe parent or another person is the actor. The old adage, \"Honesty is the\nbest policy,\" is as true today as it was a thousand years ago. The one who\nscorns to do a mean act, whether in the glare of sunhght or in the darkest\nhour of midnight gloom, is worthy of the very highest respect.\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nHABITS\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nTHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBE TAUGHT\n\nLIFE\n\nTO\n\n385\n\nCHILDREN\n\nMany subjects need to be presented to the child mind with the consequences most likely to flow from them. Among these may be enumerated\nthe following: (i) shirking honest work; (2) avoiding responsibility; (3)\ngaining ends by dishonest means.\nThese tendencies are partly social, partly industrial, and partly ethical.\nThey involve the practical duties of life. Affecting the child's mind permanently ishis attitude toward certain lines of thought and action which\ndepend on sensory ideals and motor reactions that tighten into character.\nThere is undoubtedly a very close connection existing between the intelligence, the honesty, and the industry of the nation, and its social and\neconomic conditions. No large ideas originate in ignorant minds. A wide\nexpanse of deep thought is the only sure method that will enable one to go\nto the bottom of things, and to be inspired to aim at the best in all\nthings in thinking and doing.\nI. Work is not relished by most people. The history of the human\nrace has always been a contest between those who directed work, those\nwho avoided it, and those who tried to avoid it. Most people work because\nthey cannot get along without it, realizing that work is a decree pronounced\nupon man by the course and constitution of his environment. In this must\nbe recognized the activity of play, the activity of work, and the activity of\ndrudgery. To work or to starve are alternate propositions. To heed the\none is Hfe; to accept the opposite is physical and spiritual death. Everything depends here upon the right choice. Home habits have more to do\nwith work than the school. All that the school can do is to train pupils\ninto habits of industry, punctuality, silence, strict attention to business,\nand the reaUzing of higher ideals thru sacrifice.\nII. In the life of each person come critical periods — crises, so to speak —\nwhen important decisions have to be made. Upon a single issue at such\na moment one's success in Ufe may depend. Everything now depends upon\nhow one thinks, resolves, and acts at the supreme moment. Responsibility\nhas to be shouldered, not shifted. A firm, vigorous character, such a one as\naccepts issues as they arise, estimating them at their true worth, is of more\nvalue to a community or a nation than thousands whose wills are unstable\nas water and can be swerved by every breath of hasty public opinion that\nblows. To watch and help a human soul to grow is one of the grandest\nand most sublime sights that one can behold in connection with the family\nlife. For such lofty ideals and the successful execution of such work, clearsightedness, promptitude, ready resources, quick and vigorous conceptions,\ncool self-possession, and a commanding self-survey of the whole situation\ninvolved, are prerequisites for success. These sterling qualities should be\nnurtured and developed to their utmost limit in the home life.\nIII. The boy that will lie and cheat on the playground in order to win\na game, or to get the better of a schoolmate in a trade, or will tell Hes on the\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ngirls, will do all these things in a greatly aggravated form when he grows up\nto manhood. A boy that will slip up to a farmer's wagon and steal apples\nor peaches, or will pick up things at the door of a grocery store when the\nproprietor is not looking, is taking rapid lessons for admission to the penitentiary. Parents should always strive to inculcate good habits and upright\nthe minds of their children, and never shift this work to others.\nin\nconduct\nLet the important lesson of ''mine and thine\" be insisted on a thousand\nfold more than it is. This fact, too, should always be borne in mindthat the descent into the realm of crime is always by easy steps, and never\nby a single bound.\nMAKING\n\nCHILDREN\n\nOVER\n\nThere is a meeting-point in the child's Uf e when it comes under formative\ninfluences, and that is when it is placed under the charge of the teacher, this\nbeing a supplementary force to that of the home environment. This is\nthe proper relation that should exist between these two controlUng forces.\nThe teacher, however, has to take children as they come to school from the\nhomes in which they live. At the beginning, the thoughtful teacher is\nconfronted with the old, old questions: \"Can a man make himself over?\nCan a leopard change his spots, or the Ethiopian his skin ? \" What answer\ndoes education give to this question ? Is there a strong typical resemblance\namong educated people of all kindred nationalities, as there is said to be\namong the thieves of Europe and America ? If there be those who need\nremodeling, can they be materially and spiritually changed by the aid of\neducational surgery? All these questions, when stripped of superfluous\nverbiage, simply mean that if we would produce a better class of people than\nany now existing as a nation, there must be insinuated into some hereditary\ndispositions nobler aspirations that will counteract and reinforce some transmitted traits. To upUf t the lower strata of human nature, is to substitute\nhigher motives for lower ones in order that the social mind may be moved\nthru the feeUngs to higher intellectual and moral conceptions of life and\nduties. Under whatever name this work is to be undertaken, it is teaching.\nTeachers must accept the material sent to them in its crude state, and if\nsome of it be faulty, they endeavor to improve it by the application of\nsuch influences as they control. That general vagueness called humanity\nhas transmitted with the life of each individual both good and bad traits.\nIn the composition of each one's mental and physical equipment, the accumulated inheritance both of mechanism and function imposes on education a\ndual process — a destroying going hand in hand with an up-building process.\nUnless the forces of education be moved in the right direction, the pvpil may\nbe injured, when the aim is to help him. The child must be docile, that\nis, in the right frame of mind, susceptible to the learning influence; and if\nnot, then the teacher must bring about the necessary changes thru the\nmedium of skill and patience. Two possible variations may arise: the\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\n387\n\nteacher becomes impatient, or the pupil grows intractable. Either is\nfatal unless the cause be removed. A keen analyst can hardly tell which is\nmore dangerous to the child. Occasionally heroic treatment is demanded\nfor the intractable pupil, in order to bring into active co-operation a better\nattitude of mind. Should the pupil be deficient in receptive power, whether\nof discipline or instruction, the teacher must first bring to bear such an\ninfluence as will, if possible, produce the desired result. Great is the\nteacher who reads human nature as it is. Youngsters may be sent to\nschool perfectly docile, or as untamed as young tigers, but the solvent\nkindness will tame the ferocious hyena, as well as the more kindly disposed\nanimals. Unless the physical and mental deficiencies are extremely abnormal, the savage nature of the most refractory pupil will yield to the same\nsubtle influences. What is herein indicated may not reach every case,\nbut it will win most of them, leaving a small remnant — the incorrigible —\nto suffer the consequences of their own folly.\nNo provision, it may be argued, is left for those sudden explosions of\ntemper which sometimes burst forth without a moment's warning, crimes\nas it were, without malice aforethought, that need immediate attention.\nSuch ebullitions of passion are exceedingly rare, and are not serious unless\nthey lead to manslaughter, or the brandishing of dangerous weapons. It is\nbetter, in applying remedial agents, to proceed at a very moderate pace.\nUniversal experience is that one heated by passion will probably act rashly.\nBy slow degrees, then, the character may be largely modified by neglecting\nor suppressing certain traits and stimulating others. In this sense pupils\nmay be remodelled. To indicate the path of action is as much as can be\ndone to encourage and inspire the thoughtful teacher. Each case requires\ndifferent treatment since there is no universal science of human nature.\nBy nature a very large preponderance of pupils in any school are inclined\nto study and to be obedient, while only a few, comparatively, will be disposed to annoy the teacher or disturb other pupils. The troublesome pupil\nsoon finds out that he can annoy his teacher incessantly. She, if nervous\nand irritable, in turn scolds, threatens, corrects him every hour of the day.\nStill the very fact that he is capable of annoying her affords him infinite\nsatisfaction, and so the struggle goes on growing more and more acute each\nday. The end is approaching — one result — the pupil is suspended. The\nsuspension may have been necessary to preserve the discipline of the room.\nIf the suspension is so used as to teach the pupil that he brought disaster\nupon himself in consequence of his disobedience then he will have learned a\nwholesome lesson by facing his own deeds. It is at this point that his mental attitude may be of incalculable benefit to himself or an irreparable injury.\nMany questions involving the gravest consequences confront American\nsociety. The stability of an institution depends upon the strength, the\nintention, the coolness, the firmness of each active unit. If the central\nforces in each individual unit be properly adjusted and regulated, no great\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nupheavals, unless founded upon the eternal principles of justice, can ever\nshake or rupture what has been wrought out in the interest of humanity.\nFalse notions and erroneous views must be eliminated and more wholesome\nones substituted. To set each subject as well as each action in its proper\nlight is the duty of parents and of teachers. The place of beginning this\ngreat work is in the home and around the fireside and then continued in\nthe schools.\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\nAs a rule the pubHc-school teachers cannot have direct physical and\nspiritual control over the pupils to exceed eight hours each day and then\nnot to exceed two hundred days out of the three hundred and sixty-five days\nof the year; that is, the teacher may possibly have direct supervision of the\nchild 1, 600 hours a year, while he is under the influence of the home 7,166\nhours each year, and this ratio exists only while the child is in school and is in\nregular attendance each day. This is a fair statement of the question of\ncontrol, which carries with it the placing of responsibility where it belongs.\nchildren's school habits\nIt is assumed that when a child starts to school he is sent there for certain definite purposes, and the primary essentials to be obtained by him in\nhis development lie in three directions, namely, character building, physical\nexercise, culture and book learning. In all these directions the child's life\nacts and reacts upon himself, society, and on his natural surroundings.\nThese complex relations arise out of the pre-existing conditions of the family,\nof society, and the aspects of nature.\nThese Uttle things which make the individual life a unity in all his\ndeaUngs and relations with others are called character, and by this he is\njudged.\nThe universal judgment of all fair-minded men and women is against\nselfishness; yet there is a great deal of selfishness everywhere. The selfish\nman is the one who acts chiefly on his own account, and acts as if other\npeople exist only to gratify his desires.\nIn a tolerably apt sense the school represents society. There are\ngrouped in a school all kinds of minds; plastic it may be that some of them\nare, yet the miniature aggregation of men and women may be taken as\nfair types of what active life really is in the outside world.\nThere is in the school, as there is in the community, a common life\nwhich is felt in many ways. When a man so far forgets himself as to commit a crime, the act shocks the community in which he lives and perhaps\nsends a thrill of horror thruout the state or nation, owing to the magnitude\nof the offense. When it assumes this latter phase, the crime is of a heinous\ncharacter. Should the crime be a mild one, and the punishment of the\noffender unduly severe, there is reaction in public sentiment in favor of\nthe one who is unjustly dealt with. So, in whatever sense an offense is\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTEE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\n389\n\nviewed, it comes directly in contact with the ideal right in the public mind.\nChildren, also, whose notions of right and wrong have not been perverted\nat home before they entered school, will unanimously pass a fair and just\ndecision in regard to the acts of their classmates or of their teacher concerning the affairs of the school. They are just and fair judges, unusually just\nto themselves as well as to others.\nSince the school is the pupil's place of business, he should attend to\nbusiness there. This means that he should be regular in attendance, and\nquick and willing to do whatever is required of him. He has no more right\nto waste the time that belongs to others than to waste his own time. To be\nat school on time is his duty. Besides, he should be neat and clean. Water\nand soap are cheap in this country. A dirty person ought to clean himself\nup before he goes among others, but if a child is too small to prepare itself\nproperly for the schoolroom, then the mother should prepare it.\nThe school, too, is essentially a place for work, incidentally for play and\nthe inculcation of good habits. It is designed to touch the child on four\nsides of his nature — to take care of his body, to develop and expand the\nthe intellect, to control the emotions, and to regulate the will; because it is\nthe self-governing as well as the self-regulating power, and our entire theory\nof government is based on intelligent self-control. The citizen must be\nable to control himself and be subject to law. He is further fashioned on\nthe side of his moral nature thru his emotions, affections, and desires. He\nmust be taught to respect the rights of others, their privileges, duties,\nobligations, and responsibilities. Here, incidentally, should be spread out\nbefore the child all these nobler traits of character which the good value\nmost highly. Added to these ^re those great intellectual achievements\nwhich come from the study of books and in coming in contact with men\nengaged in the practical affairs of Hfe. As one has forcibly expressed it:\n\"Man possesses the power to know, the power to do, and the power to feel.\nThe highest mode of man as a power to know is— Science; the highest mode\nof man as power to do is— Government; and the highest mode of man as\npower to feel is— Religion. To know the world, to wield the world, to\nexperience infinite satisfaction that comes from doing good in the world —\nthese combined form the truest type of human greatness.\"\nGood teaching itself is a moral force. Paraphrasing the remarks of a\nnoted American divine : \" To have teaching judgment, to have a good teaching head and heart, to have a deep interest in teaching, to have a deep\nenthusiasm in the highest and best kind of teaching, are the quahties that\nwill develop the good in the children.\" A good teacher must have a strong,\nbut not a harsh will, and must be a lively worker; the judgment to perceive,\nthe enthusiasm to inspire, the will to^resolve, and the resolution to act.\nTo these high qualifications there must be added the power of analysis, the\nabihty to simplify a complex subject, and to show clearly, distinctly, and\nseparately all its component parts, and to get them together as syste-\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmatically as they were taken apart; otherwise the attempted work of\nteaching is as uninspiring as that of moles in their miderground passages.\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nWhile the entire theory of our national and state governments rests\nupon the distinct separation of civil and religious doctrines, yet ethical\ninstruction, or the essentials of the science of moraUty, should be inculcated\nby precept and example in every school and among all grades of pupils.\nSuch instruction does not interfere with the religious convictions of anyone.\nHistorians inform us that in the very earliest accounts of Egyptian\nhistory, the supreme justice wore at all times a badge which meant \"truth,\"\nso highly did this nation value sincerity and honesty in all their deaUngs.\nTeachers often have a strong, up-hill pull, not that the school children\nare in general untruthful, but that too many children have learned the\nart of deception long before they enter school. There are so many other\nways of acting an imtruth than in saying it that children, almost imconsdously, drop into deceitful practices by imitating their parents. They\nare, too, reinforced and confirmed by some of their teachers whose imaginations are too swift for their memories and judgment.\nAgain, let it be emphasized that the pupil should be honest in school, and\nthis applies with still greater force to the teacher. A dishonest, deceitful\nteacher should never be permitted to come in contact with children. There\nare many little ways in which one's acts may squint toward dishonesty, such\nas false excuses for absence, or failures in class-standing, borrowing articles\nand never returning them; besides, a species of neglect in regard to care of\npublic property is entirely too prevalent in this country, and this disregard\nleads to still greater evils. Teachers can do much to correct public sentiment on this point. An enlightened conscience is the highest ideal for the\nguidance of thought and action.\nHOW\n\nTO TRAIN PUPILS\n\nThe following examples are designed as illustrative lessons in moral\ntraining as distinguished from moral instruction, drawn from the schoolroom, the home, and the state, and to point in the direction that such\ninstruction may take.\nRights and duties must be treated in practical training as correlatives\nin order that the pupils may perceive unmistakably that where a right\nexists, an obligation to perform a certain duty is an invariable concomitant,\nand that both are equally binding on the individual. Some of these correlatives will be illustrated by concrete examples:\nI. A Fight and How It Was Settled\n\nTwo schoolboys, each about twelve years old, engaged in a fight one day\nat noon on the playground.\nOne of these boys was red-headed, named\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nUPE\n\n391\n\nRuf us Parcells, and the other was black-headed, named Randall KJtt. They\nwere not quarrelsome, they learned their lessons well, and were boys of\nspirit. A dispute arose over an incident that occurred in a game which\nthey were playing, and Randall called Rufus a liar, and the fight began at\nonce. The writer and other boys separated them. The teacher was a\nsturdy character, an excellent instructor, and a good disciplinarian. After\nschool was taken up, and all the pupils were seated, the teacher called these\ntwo boys before him. They took their places on the floor, each having a\ndetermined look in his eyes. They admitted that they had fought, and\nneither showed any sign that he was sorry for what he had done. No pupils\nwere examined, because these two boys told what had occurred. The\nteacher asked them if they would fight each other again if they had an opp>ortunity. Each boy said \"yes.\" After a moment's reflection the teacher\nsaid, \"Randall, will you agree never to mention this subject unless Rufus\nfirst mentions it to you?\" Randall replied, \"Yes, sir, but I will lick him\ngood if he ever does.\" He then asked Rufus the same question to which he\nreplied, \"I will not start it, but if Randall does, I'll whip him.\"\nThe teacher then said: \"Boys, I shall depend upon your keeping your\nword as honorable, truthful boys, and now I state the question myself so\nthat there shall be no misimderstanding,\" and they agreed to the statement\nas being just and fair.\n\" Now,\" he said, \" Rufus, you take Randall by the hand and tell him that\nyou will never mention this subject unless he first speaks of it, but if he\ndoes that you will lick him.\" The boys joined hands, Rufus told it over\nto Randall, and then Randall rep>eated the same to Rufus, each agreeing\nnever to mention the matter, and the solemnity with which this proceeding was conducted all the way thru made such a deep impression on the\nother pupils that- they felt it to be too sacred a thing between the two boys\nto be mentioned.\nA few years later the Civil War came. Randall went into the Union\nArmy and served thru that terrible strife of carnage and death. Rufus\nwas on the other side. Both were then young men, and so it happened that\nafter peace came, they were both students in the same state normal school,\nand their former teacher was a professor in that school. They met now as\nmen. Their compact had been sacredly kept. They were as firm friends\nas Jonathan and David, or as Damon and Pythias. It was deUghtful to\nsee these two men and their friend, the professor, laugh over the incident,\nand they complimented him on his skill in settling the affair in such a manner as to bind them so closely together in all after-life, and they volimteered\nthe suggestion that if our statesmen had known better how to manage\npeople, a great war might have been av^ed.\nHere wels a lesson in courage, honor, obedience, fidehty, and self-control.\nThe case was investigated, the compact prop>osed, agreed to, and ratified\nin ten or fifteen minutes.\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe teacher wisely refrained from delivering a lecture on the evils of\nfighting. He let the matter rest with the pupils to think it over, and for\neach one to apply it to his own case.\nIf one looks more closely into this case, which is such a one as is Ukely\nto occur in any school at the present time, the virtues that stand out most\nprominently in the character of these boys were courage and honor.\nEach virtue has its opposite defect or vice, and as opportunity arises\nfrom an occurrence or incident, the teacher can illustrate and enforce, at\nthe right moment, in a few well-directed sentences, the essential points with\nthe virtue involved. Both boys had manly courage in abundance. The\nopposite defect — cowardice — was absent.\nTo give point to this incident, there is a lesson in an old second reader,\nentitled \"True Courage,\" which represents three boys on a cold winter's\nday passing by a schoolhouse. The eldest boy was a mischievous fellow\nwho was always in trouble, or trying to get others into trouble. The youngest, George, was a good boy, but lacked moral courage. The story recites\nhow Harry and James bantered George till finally he threw a snowball\nagainst the schoolhouse door, and then later received a whipping as he\nrichly deserved. The lesson here taught is that one must act up to his\nhighest convictions of duty, irrespective of the flattery or censure ot others.\n2. At the Battle of Fredericksburg\nAn incident is related to this effect that during the afternoon of the\nterrible and bloody repulse of the Union soldiers in trying to drive back\nthe Confederate soldiers at the stone fence and on Marye Heights, after one of\nthe most bloody charges, and the recoil of the Union soldiers, a Confederate\nsoldier, a mere boy, leaped over the stone fence without a gun in his hand\nand ran quickly to where a wounded Union soldier lay who was piteously\ncalUng for water. As soon as this young boy jumped over the wall, guns\nwere leveled on him, but no one fired. But when he knelt down beside the\nwounded man, and raised his head and held his own canteen to the wounded\nman's lips, a shout from the men on both sides rent the air.\nThis noble youth when asked later why he had taken such a risk where\nthe balls from the Union muskets could sweep over every foot of that\nmeadow, simply replied: \"I could not bear to hear that poor wounded\nsoldier, tho an enemy, calling so piteously for water, without relieving his\nsuffering.\"\nThe incident related of Sir Philip Sidney and the dying soldier at the\nBattle of Zutphen is not so touching and heroic as is the one of this young\nConfederate of Lee's army.\n3. A Duty to Work\n\nEven small children understand how it is that every man Uves upon the\nfruit of his own labor or upon the fruit of the labor of others.\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\n393\n\nA good illustration of this truth is given in one of the popular school\nreaders, under the title \"The Good Boy Whose Parents Are Poor.\" This\nlittle boy rises early in the morning, and he helps his father and mother as\nmuch as he can before he goes to school. When he goes to school he walks\nquickly and does not lose any time on the way. He is glad that he can\nwork, and when he is in school he learns all his lessons well.\nLet the teacher contrast this little boy's conduct with the one who is\nlazy and shirks every duty. It is by drawing such pictures in strong contrast that the pupils are trained to do certain things and to eschew\nothers. Place beside each other on the blackboard, the virtue and its\nvice, or defect, so that they can be analyzed and properly classified by the\npupils in the room. Take work, and its opposite, laziness^ put them on the\nboard before the pupils when some incident has occurred to give a background to the setting. No Hfe has so little in it as the idle life, and especially\nthe idle life of the rich man or woman. The idle rich man gives Uttle to\nthe world and gets much from it. The able-bodied man gives the world\nas much or more than he consumes. It is industry that conquers in this\nworld. The industrious man or woman will do thoro, honest work, and give\nto the world value received for what he or she consumes, besides adding\nsomething to the world's capital stock. The result of such a man's work\nis wealth under one or another of its diverse forms. It may be the most\nvaluable kind of wealth — ^intellectual or spiritual wealth.\nLaziness is the worst sort of vice, because it sacrifices the higher self\nto the lower self — ^it places temporary indulgence for the remote permanent\ninterest. Laziness is the open gateway to poverty in its most hideous and\ndegrading forms. Where industry is wanting, poverty and wretchedness\nare sure to be found.\nLet the lesson be brought home to the child so that he will never be\nashamed to work. Boys as well as girls in the cities should learn to do some\nkind of housework. A boy will feel better if he takes care of his own bedroom, and makes it look a little neater and tidier than it had been before. It\nis far better for a boy or girl to live on plain wholesome food and work some\neach day, to learn habits of industry, than to spend his days in the back\nalleys where contamination grows most luxuriantly. Work as a Duty, as\nVirtue, has its Reward; its opposite. Laziness, as a Vice, has its Penalty.\nThen as each virtue is brought into the school incidentally, it should be presented inboth lights as previously indicated, the pupils leading in working\nout the outline from such material as they can command. The spirit of\nself-help is indeed the mainspring of all genuine worth.\n4. Constancy\nThere is not on earth a spectacle more worthy of the regard of good men\nthan to see a great mind superior to its sufferings. The following classic\nstory is an excellent example of this statement:\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n\"After the Carthaginians had defeated the Roman army, and taken\nRegulus, that illustrious commander, prisoner, they met with such a series\nof misfortunes as induced them to think of putting an end to so destructive\na war by a speedy peace. With this in view they began to soften the rigor\nof Regulus' confinement; and endeavored to engage him to go to Rome with\ntheir ambassadors and to use his influence to bring about a peace upon\nmoderate terms, or at least an exchange of prisoners. Regulus obeyed his\nmasters, and embarked for Rome, after having bound himself upon a\nsolemn oath to return to his chains if the negotiations did not succeed. The\nCarthaginian ship arrived in Italy; but when Regulus came to the gate of\nthe city, he refused to enter it. 'My misfortunes,' he said, *have made me\na slave to the Carthaginians; I am no longer a Roman citizen. The Senate\nalways gives audience to foreigners without the gates.' His wife, Marcia,\nwent out to meet him, and presented to him his two children; but he, only\ncasting a mild look on them, fixed his eyes on the ground, as if he thought\nhimself imworthy of the embraces of his wife and the caresses of his children.\n\" When the senators assembled in the suburbs, with the view of receiving\nhim, he was introduced to them with the Carthaginian ambassadors; and,\ntogether with them, made the two proposals wherewith he was charged:\n* Conscript Father,' said he, * being now a slave to the Carthaginians, I\nam come to treat with you concerning peace, and an exchange of prisoners.'\nHaving uttered these words he began to withdraw, and follow the ambassadors, who were not allowed to be present at the deliberations and disputes\nof the Conscript Fathers. In vain the Senate pressed him to stay. He\ngave his opinion as an old senator and counsel, and refused to continue in\nthe assembly imtil his African masters ordered him; and then the illustrious\nslave took his place among the Fathers, but continued silent with his eyes\nfixed on the ground, while the more ancient senators spoke. When it came\nhis turn to deHver his opinion, he addressed himself to the Conscript Fathers\nin the following words: 'Though I am a slave at Carthage, I am free at\nRome; and will, therefore, declare my sentiments with freedom. Romans!\nIt is not for your interest to grant the Carthaginians a peace, or to make an\nexchange of prisoners with them. Carthage is extremely exhausted; and\nthe only reason she sues for peace is because she is not in a condition to\ncontinue the war. You have been vanquished but once, and that by my\nfault; a fault which Metullus has repaired by a signal victory. But now\nthe Carthaginians have been so overcome, that they have not the courage\nto look Rome in the face. Your alUes continue peaceable, and serve you\nwith zeal. But your enemies' troops consist only of mercenaries, who have\nno other tie than that of interest, and will soon be discharged by the republic\nthey serve; Carthage being already quite destitute of money to pay them.\nNo, Romans, peace with Carthage does not by any means suit your interest,\nconsidering the condition to which the Carthaginians are reduced; I, therefore, advise you to pursue the war with greater vigor than ever. As for\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIFE\n\n395\n\nthe exchange of prisoners, you have among the Carthaginian captives\nseveral officers of distinction, who are young and may one day command the\nenemies' armies; but as for me, I am advanced in years and my misfortunes\nhave made me useless. Besides, what can you expect from soldiers who have\nbeen vanquished and made slaves? Such men, like timorous deer that\nescaped out of the hunter's toils, will ever be upon the alarm and ready to\nfly.' The Senate, greatly affected with his disinterestedness, magnanimity,\nand contempt of life, would willingly have preserved him, and continued\nthe war in Africa. Some were of the opinion that in Rome he was not\nobliged to keep an oath which had been extorted from him in an enemy's\ncountry. The Pontifex Maximus himself, being consulted on the case, declared that Regulus might continue at Rome without being guilty of perjury.\nBut the notable captive, highly offended at this decision, as if his honor and\ncourage were called in question, declared to the Senate, who trembled to\nhear him speak, that he well knew what torments were reserved for him at\nCarthage; that he had had so much of the true spirit of a Roman, as to\ndread less the tortures of a cruel rack than the shame of a dishonorable\naction, which would follow him to the grave. *It is my duty,* said he, 'to\nreturn to Carthage; let the gods take care of the rest.' This intrepidity\nmade the Senate still more desirous of saving such a hero. All means were\nmade use of to make him stay, both by the people and by the Senate. He\nwould not even see his wife, nor suffer his children to take leave of him.\nAmidst the lamentations and tears of the whole city, he embarked with\nthe Carthaginian ambassadors, to return to the place of slavery, with as\nserene and cheerful a countenance as if he had been going to a countryseat for his diversion.\"\nTeaching by Contrast\nThere is a wide difference between the description of an act and an explanation ofit. The best training in morals consists in using both methods\n— describing an act and explaining it. The highest outcome of all teaching\nresults in character formation without which there is nothing great in man.\nProfessor C. C. Everett, in speaking of the internal traits of Fichte as a\nman, said: \"This was made up by an energy that could hardly be surpassed,\nof a power of love that was his inspiration, and of a passion for truth and\nfor righteousness that pressed toward absolute satisfaction.\"\nThe theory of all moral training is based on two simple principles: (a)\narousing the feelings so that the child will pass judgment upon the moral\nquality of the action; and (b) the determination of the child to put his\ndecision into the thing that ought to be done. These two underlying principles may be briefly expressed thus :% Judgment and feeling combined,\nfollowed by doing. Unless the decision which arouses the feelings results\nin doing, moral training is abortive.\nIn developing the right notions in the minds of children, concrete\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nexamples that have fallen directly under their experience, or such as may\nbe brought within their sphere of comprehension, will serve the purpose best.\nThe reading lessons will furnish sufficient material for the inculcation of\ngood habits and their opposites. Perhaps the most striking illustration\ntouching obedience is the reply that Mrs. Washington, the mother of General\nWashington, gave to the French officers at the banquet given to the aUied\nofficers soon after the surrender of Lord Cornwallis. A distinguished French\nofficer asked Mrs. Washington, on that occasion, how she managed to raise\nsuch a splendid man? Her simple reply was: \"/ taught George to ohey.''\nWould that every American mother would practice the same method now!\nTHE CHOICE\n\nOF A SPECIAL CALLING\n\nThat a child from mere impulse should choose early in life what vocation\nhe will follow and stick to his choice permanently, is not to be expected\nexcept in very rare cases, and yet after a choice in due time has been made,\nit ought to act as a moral support on the character amid the din and strife\nof confficting influences. It is vital that one ought not to be severed from his\nparticular Une of duty. The sense of personal honor, family traditions,\nand many other subtle influences have a strong tendency to strengthen\nmoral character, if the proper setting has been given to the pupil's bent of\nmind.\nWith the active and conscientious teacher the main question in the\nfield of ethical instruction is how to present living issues within the experience\nof girls and boys in the elementary and in the secondary schools, issues which\nthese pupils have already begun to discuss, but which they rarely carry out\nto a finaUty. The best material should arise out of concrete cases which in\nsome manner connect themselves with some familiar aspects of everyday\nlife. To widen and deepen the sympathies of the pupils from personal\nexperience, biographical and Hterary readings, interspersed with illustrations\nfrom various sources not given as lectures \"on being good,\" but full of such\nmeaning as can be put into some part of the incident, is worth more to the\npupils than any overwrought discussion, however finely spoken.\nTo lead a class out into an open field, definite questions, before a subject\nis formally presented, are of incalculable value acting as a starting-point\nabout which principles will definitely cluster. Such a method will cultivate\nthe scientific habit of gathering and weighing facts as to their relative importance in awakening a cautious attitude of investigation before jumping at\nconclusions, based on inadequate evidence. To think out problems of conduct in a broad, sympathetic, and rational manner, and to act in conformity\nthereto, is the essence of all ethical training. As the pupils advance in\ntheir studies from lower to higher grades, they ought to grow more alert\nin finding out the truth in each case, whether it be a real or hypothetical case,\nand strive to convince their classmates and teacher of the soundness of\ntheir decisions, and to be open-minded on all questions upon which differ-\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nAND\n\nRELIGIOUS\n\nTRAINING\n\n397\n\nences of opinions have existed. All ethical lessons ought to be lessons along\nthe lines of moral thinking and acting. A character can only become strong\nand fixed in its struggles and conquests over temptation, and not by acting\ngood all the time. One must also find his place on all burning questions in\nthe ranks of those who know where, when, and how to take their places in\nthe community, state, or nation, at the right time. When one has found\nhis place of work for life, it is his duty to adhere to it, otherwise life is meaningless. Loyalty to one's chosen work contains all the elements out of\nwhich one's Hfe must manifest itself. This is the permanent interest that\neach should have to stimulate him thru life's journey.\nRELATION\nCLIFFORD\n\nW.\n\nOF MORAL\n\nAND\n\nRELIGIOUS\n\nTRAINING\n\nBARNES, EXECUTIVE\nCHAIRMAN,\nINTERNATIONAL\nON MORAL TRAINING, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe discussion of this subject invites us to sweep the whole gamut of\nphilosophical thought, both ancient and modern, to discourse wisely on\nnatural and revealed religion, and to enlarge upon the meaning of the categorical imperative, in a manner that would have delighted the soul of Immanuel Kant. But let it suffice for our purpose to say that, judged from\nthe standpoint of abstract philosophy, the relation between morals and religion isvery close, and whether we arrive at our knowledge of God thru a\nrecognition of duty or recognize duty thru a knowledge of God, there is\nsomething in the moral imperative that links the human with the divine,\nsomething in rehgion which must find expression in moral action, and in\nmoral action which finds its chief dynamic in religion.\nLeaving, therefore, the academic for the practical discussion of the\nproblem, especially as it pertains to education, we find that the closest\nrelation has always existed between moral and religious training. In the\nearly days of our own country the summum bonum of education was a course\nin biblical literature and theology that would do credit to a modern church\nseminary; the spelling-book, the reader, and even the arithmetic obtaining\na large proportion of their contents from the Sacred Scriptures. Moral\ntraining was not intentionally neglected, but it was considered such a\nnatural and inevitable resultant of religion that it received Uttle attention.\nOur own system of education was but the counterpart of that which\nexisted in Europe at that time, and which, indeed, has existed in much\nthe same form for many generations. Speaking in general, it may be said\nthat all civilized and even the so-called barbarous nations have always made\nreligion the rock foundation and the most pervasive force in education,\nwhile moral action has ever been considered its true expression in the lives\nof good citizens. Of recent years, in the more progressive of European countries, there has been a steadily growing feeUng of dissatisfaction with the\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nresults of religious training. Somehow the Bible stories have not always\nbeen transmuted into ethical principles, active in the lives of pupils, and\nthere has seemed to be a dangerous gap between precept and practice in\nthe routine of daily affairs. During the past year, in many of the schools\nof England the scriptural lessons have been so arranged as to constitute a\nsystematic course of moral instruction; and in Germany a league has been\nformed to make religious teaching -more ethical.\nBut, however you look at the problem, in the abstract or the concrete,\nthru the eyes of philosophy or the records of history, moral training and\nreligious training have ever gone hand in hand, maintaining the closest\nrelation to each other, finding strength in union and weakness in separation.\nIt is unnecessary to recall to your minds those changes in our national\nlife which have gradually ehminated all religious instruction from the public\nschools, and made our system of education nominally secular. That system is here to stay, and it is our duty to accept it gladly, as a part of God's\nwise providence, and do our level best to make it most effective in the training of the young. There is, of course, no question as to the propriety or\ndesirabiUty of so arranging this system of education as to give the first\nplace to moral training, for in the very nature of things all else should be\nsecondary. But, in the light of that which has gone before, how are we going\nto have a vital morality without the introduction of that religious instruction which is forbidden ? or, stated somewhat differently, what relation can\nbe estabHshed, in the pubUc schools of America, between these two essentially complementary factors — religion and morality? Briefly answering\nthis question, I would say:\n1. In teaching morals one should yield to the philosophical requirements\nof the situation and acknowledge the religious basis on which morality rests.\nSurely we may be permitted in this country to speak with greater freedom\nconcerning the general subject of religion, than they who live in that land\nof reUgious controversy, sometimes called \"Godless France.\" Yet that\ngovernment, in its official program, urges upon its teachers to show the\nrelation between the moral and divine law, to inculcate in their pupils a\nreverence for God and reUgion, and to be attentively respectful at any service of the church.\n2. As one makes use of that best medium for the teaching of a moral\nlesson, i.e., the biography of a good man, it can properly be shown how large\na part reHgion played in the development of character and in the winning of\nsuccess. There need be nothing here of dogmatism or theology, but a\nsimple recognition of the historical fact that one of the mighty influences in\nthe Ufe of any man is his reHgion, be he Protestant, CathoUc, or Jew.\n3. Formal worship once a day should be the universal practice in the\nschools of America. If at the basis of all moral teaching we come in touch\nwith the divine, and if the chief aim of education is to promote moral training, surely we are illogical and foolish beyond measure to prohibit the recog-\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nCouncill\n\nMORAL\n\nAND\n\nRELIGIOUS\n\nTRAINING\n\n399\n\nnition in some formal way of that first great underlying Cause, whom some\ncall \"Lord,\" \"Our God,\" and \"Heavenly Father.\" When the juror, and\nthe witness, and the client before a notary are no longer asked to swear\ntheir affirmation in God's name; when our judges, and our congressmen,\nand other public servants, are permitted to assume their solemn obligation\nwithout taking oath of office on the Word of God; when the President of\nthese United States refuses to issue a Thanksgiving proclamation in acknowledgment ofthe blessings of Almighty God; when Congress, by deliberate\nchoice, refuses to elect a chaplain, or be led in prayer, and strikes from our\ncoin \"In God we trust\"; and when the laws of the land so change their\ncharacter as to give no recognition to God's holy day and divine authority,\nthen, and not till then, will the public schools of America be justified in\nomitting all forms of daily worship. It is needless to enter here upon the\ndiscussion of this much-mooted question, but I cannot refrain from saying\nhow monstrously absurd and sinfully dangerous I consider it to be for any\norganization controlling the educational force of a great sin-burdened city\nto dehberately refuse official recognition to the greatest power in all the\nworld which makes for righteousness.\n4. The atmosphere of the school may be a mediimi for the introduction\nof religion. This will require no stating of creed, no expression of belief,\nnothing that might be called pietistic or sanctimonious, but only a pervasive\nspirit of Hght and joy and happiness, a sort of general understanding that\nlife is a great and beautiful gift of God, not to be used for sordid purposes,\nbut rather as a means of serving others to the limit of one's ability. This\nwill be religion, pure and undefiled, admitting of no sectarian controversy,\nbut exerting a tremendously vitalizing influence on every effort at moral\ntraining. The source of this religious atmosphere is not the school in which\nwe find it, but the church and the neighborhood. A score or more of antagonistic denominations will help to make it, a thousand different faiths will\nenter into it, the Bible story, the pastor's prayer, the mother's counsel, the\nfather's command, these all will do their part, while underneath there runs\na steady current of religious conviction, sweeping down from the days of\nour ancestors, to keep the hearts of the children strong and true. This\nis not some strange illusion of an idle dreamer, for here and there one finds\na school whose life and spirit answer well to this description, and the reHgious\nelement which pervades it in this atmospheric manner is a powerful reaUty\nworking mightily for good. The church and the home may well feel a new\nsense of responsibility, as it thus becomes clear that the correlation of\nrehgion and morality in our system of education is so largely dependent\nupon them. Religion in the individual is good; but it becomes a better\nand greater thing when, multipUed a thousand fold, it gives the spirit of\nreligion to the town, the school, and the nation.\n5. The teacher, thru his personality, should bring rehgion to the aid\nof morahty.\nConsidering my words very carefully, I have no hesitation\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin affirming that an irreligious person has no right to teach in a public\nschool.\nDo not understand me to mean by \"irreligious\" a person who lacks\nmembership in some one of our many churches. I mean by \"irreligious\" a\nperson who fails to perceive any relation between the finite and the infinite,\nwho recognizes no supreme good in the universe, who has no consciousness\n\"of a power not himself that makes for righteousness.\" Such men are\noften caught by the tide of wholesome life which surrounds them on every\nside, and are carried on to the achievement of a noble career. But as\nteachers of the young they lack in the spirit of reverence, in the discernment\nof true values, in the power to quicken high ideals, and in that love for\nself-sacrifice which the Great Teacher taught his disciples. I know there\nare some whose faith has been twisted and dwarfed by the blows of misfortune until its form is strange beyond words to describe; and there are\nsome who by nature and training can only bow the knee, like the Greeks\nof old, before an altar inscribed \"Agnosto Theo\" (to the unknown God).\nBut such men are not irreligious, for with patient hope they look forward to\na day of clearer vision, and with glad sacrifice they lend a helping hand to\nothers as they walk the road toward the better life. Religion, even such\nreligion, expressing itself in the person of one who is honored and loved,\nis worth ten thousand homilies on theology, or as many chapters learned by\nrote from the Holy Book.\nSumming it all up, very briefly, we beheve that moral training should\nbe increasingly emphasized in our system of education. To be most effective it should never be divorced from the element of*reUgion with which it\nhas always been closely related by the theories of philosophy and the history\nof events. Under the conditions which exist in our country today, it lies\nwithin the power of our educational authorities to develop an increasingly\nstrong and vital connection between these two important agencies, by a\nclear statement of their mutual dependence, a fair portrayal of their joint\ninfluence on the lives of men, the observance each day of some public worship, the wise use of potential and pervasive religious atmosphere, and last,\nbut not least, by the life and character of the honored teacher, who himself\nis sincerely religious.\nSTATUS\nCLIFFORD\n\nW.\n\nOF MORAL\nBARNES,\nON\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN THE PUBLIC\n\nEXECUTIVE\nCHAIRMAN,\nINTERNATIONAL\nMORAL TRAINING, CHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nSCHOOLS\nCOMMITTEE\n\nUnless the signs all fail us, we are nearing the dawn of a new era which\nbids fair to form a better setting to the song of the Herald Angels than any\nwhich has gone before. It will form no rival to the Victorian Age with\nits development of arts and letters, and industrialism will point to other\neras for her most wonderful achievements, but it will win a glory greater\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n401\n\nthan these and far more lasting, for the hearts of an eager people will beat\nin sympathy with that of the Christ when he took little children in his arms\nand blest them, and said: \"For of such is the kingdom of heaven, and\nwhosoever shall offend one of these little ones, it were better that a millstone were hung about his neck and that he were drowned in the depth of\nthe sea.\" Perhaps, as the dawn grows brighter, someone will call it \"the\nChildren's Age.\"\nOne of the significant signs of the times is the marked attention which\nscience is giving to the lifting of some of the burdens so long and patiently\nborne by the children of the poor. Helpless infants are kept from the\nblindness which follows improper attention; the lame are taught to walk,\nand the weak to become strong; the spread of contagious diseases is prevented, and the awful law of heredity is stripped of half its terror by the\nwise use of training and environment.\nThe city of Glasgow has just completed a careful series of experiments\nwhich go to prove that children of bad parentage, if removed from vicious\nsurroundings and carefully trained, can be made into upright citizens, with\nonly a small percentage of failure; and the Bernardo homes for slum children in London are collecting ample statistics corroborating the same\nfact.\nMunicipalities are awakening to a new sense of their responsibility\ntoward the right development of child life, and in addition to the large gifts\nmade for public education, they are generously establishing playgrounds,\ngymnasiums, bathing-beaches, bathhouses, and other agencies which\nafford pleasure and recreation, as well as juvenile courts and such associations as promise protection for the weak and the ignorant. Child labor\nlaws are receiving the attention of state and national legislators to a remarkable degree, and woe betide that corporation which attempts to withstand\nthe strong tide of public opinion demanding not only fair play, but\ngenerous consideration for the children who have to toil.\nBut most significant of all the signs which herald the coming of this new\nera is the earnest effort being made by educational authorities to increase\nthe eflSciency of the public schools as an agency for the development of\ncharacter. The schools have always aimed at this high ideal, and that\nwhich most stirs our hearts as we read the lives of the great teachers is their\nsplendid struggle to attain this end. But, tho much has been done in the\npast, there is a deepening sense that our schools should become more\neffective along these lines, and that there are special conditions of ominous\nportent which make this demand doubly imperative at the present time.\nCriminologists who have examined most carefully into the facts relating\nto juvenile delinquency speak in a rather discouraging way of the influence\nexerted by our pubHc schools in the prevention of crime. The various\nchurch organizations to which we look for spiritual leadership and religious\neducation do not hesitate to reveal an unfortunate state of affairs. The\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION ASSOCIATION\n\nINational\n\nattendance at Sunday services and mid-week meetings is growing steadily\nless. The Sunday schools fail to reach as many of the children in proportion\nto the population as they did in former days, and the scholars remain under\ntheir care a shorter time. The authority of pastors and religious teachers\nis not what it used to be, and as the result of historical research and higher\ncriticism only partially understood, many old beUefs have been swept\naway and even the Bible, for some at least, has lost much of its wholesome\ninfluence.\nThe homes themselves, the very nurseries of our childhood, seem to be\nundergoing a silent process of deterioration, in which one of the prominent\nsymptoms is the disinclination to undertake a careful and systematic training of the young, and, instead, a willingness to intrust it all to the schools.\nLay it, if you will, to a growing lack of parental authority, to the excessive\ndemands made by our modern commercial and social life upon the heads of\nthe family, or to the passing away of those good old Puritan customs, such\nas morning and evening prayers; whatever the cause, the fact remains, and\nthe school is becoming more and more in loco parentis both as regards the\nsoul and the mind of its pupils.\nThus, from far- and near, the cry is being raised to make the school a\ngreater safeguard of the nation's virtue, to increase its efficiency as an\nagency for moral training and the development of character, and to our joy\nwe find that the appeal is meeting with noble response both in our own\nand foreign countries.\nFrom such great leaders as President Stanley Hall, Professor John\nDewey, Dr. Felix Adler, Professor Michael Sadler, and a score of others\nwho might be mentioned, there have come volumes and essays and inspiring addresses bearing upon this topic. Various governments have appointed\nspecial conmiissions to deal with the problem in its more complicated forms,\nand in two or three of the European countries the fate of national parties\nhas been largely determined by their attitude toward this all-important\nquestion.\nThe measures adopted by different educational authorities to attain the\nhigh aim we have under consideration have varied almost beyond number,\nbut with every passing year there has come a clearer understanding of the\nnumerous factors which enter into the problem, and we may confidently\npredict that its correct solution in accordance with the peculiar needs of\neach individual nation, will not long be delayed.\nIt was my privilege to have some part in a recent international investigation which served to show the methods used or approved by a majority\nof the educational authorities of Europe, and I venture to present here a\nbrief summary of certain portions of that inquiry.\nIn regard to the much debated question as to the ethical value of different studies, it was found that a vast majority of the teachers in the preparatory schools were inclined to believe \"that there is ethical value in all\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n4^5\n\nschool work which calls for concentration and efifort — 'the blessedness of\ndrudgery/ doing to the best of one's ability 'whatever the hand findeth to\ndo,' but that history and literature (including Bible lessons) lent themselves\nmore especially to moral instruction.\" As a whole, they were \"strongly\nopposed to systematic moral instruction according to syllabus, as being\ntoo much in the air.\" They urged that the end to be kept in mind is not\nstocking of the \"brain with moral tags, but the formation of moral habits,\nand habits can only be formed by getting the will to assert itself in action.\"\nSpeaking from personal investigation, carried on in many schools thruout\nGreat Britain, I can say that no teacher in my hearing ^er spoke slightingly of the Bible lessons, but, on the contrary, all were unanimous in\npraising their ethical value, testifying to the satisfaction which they found\nin teaching this subject.\nIn one of the largest cities of Scotland, a Roman Catholic priest, who\nwas a member of the school board, expressed to me his most hearty approval\nof these Bible lessons, saying they were the only religious and moral instruction which many of the children of his own denomination received, so\ncareless were their parents, but, he added, that he would be glad to have\nthe Westminster Catechism dropped from the school curriculum.\nAnother investigator reporting on elementary schools in England stated\nthat it was the unanimous opinion of the teachers, that the \"root of all\nmoraUty lies in religion, and that to divorce the one from the other is\nimpossible.\"\nIn the opinion of nearly all, the secularization of the schools would be a\nmenace to the national life. One head mistress has recently published \"a\nsuggestive scheme in which moral teaching based on rehgion is woven into\nevery fiber of the curriculum.\" This report goes on to say that\nit is the atmosphere of their schools, the influence of their own personalities, the children's\nstrong instinct of imitation and keen desire to please upon which most teachers rely in\nearly moral training, tho they also welcome openings for giving more direct teaching\nas the moral sense of the children gradually develops.\n\nTake it as a whole, however, there is a strong opposition to what may\nbe called the French system of direct moral instruction, one of the leading\nmasters of Great Britain calling it not only \"useless\" but \"really pernicious.\"\nHe says:\nOne of the principal moral faults that a teacher has to fight, and one which is fostered\nby the class system, is the want of truth. By this I mean not merely lying, but use of\nthe teacher's ideas as the boy's own. He says not what he thinks, but what he thinks the\nteacher would like him to say, and the average teacher is blinded into thinking that the\nboy actually feels what he says. There is thus a double evil, and at the close of a moral\nlesson, one can well imagine the boy's answers, which, having the appearance of moral\nprogress, are only the result of mental effort on tl^E part of the boy.\n\nMy own investigation in the schools of France led me to feel that systematic moral instruction was fairly well done, and productive of good\nresults. I saw classes taught in this subject from the primary grades to\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthose in the lycee, and certainly there was no lack of interest on the part of\neither teacher or scholar. Indeed, most of the teachers in the public schools\nfelt, as one expressed himself to me, \"that the church is lost to the state and\nthat the future welfare of the nation depends on the moral training afforded\nby the- pubhc schools.\" For them, this kind of training centers largely on\nmoral instruction, and they, therefore, teach this subject with nothing less\nthan religious zeal.\nIt is only fair to add, however, that one of the EngHsh investigators\nwho later followed in my footsteps, reported thus:\nIt may be objected to all these lessons that on the one hand they are in danger of\nproducing moral priggishness, or even hypocrisy as serious as the rehgious hypocrisy of\nformer days, and that on the other hand the attempt to analyze motives and to examine\ninto hypothetical exceptions to the general rules laid down may produce a mental attitude\nnot far removed from that of a pupil of a seventeenth-century casuist.\n\nIn my judgment, this whole matter has been well summed up by still\nanother who had a part in this same inquiry:\nIt would seem, then, as a result of this examination of the French system, that direct\nmoral instruction appealing through the intellect, is unable to stand alone or to take\nthe place of moral training. But, where moral atmosphere can be produced, direct\ninstruction would then be useful in defining, strengthening, and controlling the impression\nmade, and in helping the mental outlook.\n\nAs a result of our investigation in Germany, it was found that the\nteachers, with few exceptions, do not favor separate moral instruction.\nThey contend that\nany attempt to teach morality in special lessons will defeat its purpose; that morality\ncannot be taught; and that the aim of influencing children ethically can be achieved\nmuch better through the whole spirit of the school, and through ethical teaching in connection with the various subjects.\n\nIt will, of course, be remembered that in all the schools of Germany religious\nlessons are given on a denominational basis, and that great importance is\nattached to this special instruction.\nReligious lessons are given in most of the schools of Switzerland, but\nsystematic moral instruction in only the primary departments. There\nseems to be a strong indisposition on the part of the teachers to introduce\nsystematic moral instruction in the higher grades.\nOne experienced teacher urged that moral teaching must be the natural outflow of\nthe teacher's personality. Very careful selection of the school staff seemed to him the\nvital point.\n\nFor lack of time, however, I must turn from foreign shores, and give you\na brief summary of another inquiry in which I had a somewhat larger part,\nand which was carried on much nearer home. It is of interest to note,\nhowever, that one of the immediate results of this European investigation\nwas the gathering in London, of the first International Moral Educational Congress, with oflScial delegates from almost every civilized country\non the globe.\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n405\n\nFor some time past, a committee of the National Council of this Association has been at work prosecuting an inquiry on lines similar to those which\nwere followed in Europe, and speaking on behalf of this committee, I want\nto express our sense of gratitude at the generous assistance which has been\nextended by teachers, principals, and superintendents of public schools\ncovering a territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Lakes to\nthe Gulf. Not less than one thousand schools have been brought within\nthe scope of this investigation.\nIn reply to the question as to the comparative ethical value of different\nschool studies, 58 per cent give the first place to the group comprising\nhistory and literature, history being somewhat the favorite. As an\nexample of the testimony in respect to these studies, I would quote the\nfollowing:\n1. \"Perhaps the best discipline for strengthening moral motives within the minds and\ncharacter of developing children is the study of history, at least it can be made such.\nThere is no subject better adapted to the ethical aim and none so valuable in adding\ninterest and life to the merely formal labors in reading, spelling, and grammar. Factors\nmaking for the development of character in young children are the dramatic, picturesque,\npersonal, heroic. While much depends upon the manner of presentation, yet, if all other\nthings are equal, history should have the greatest ethical value among the school studies.\"\n2. \"No other study in the elementary school compares in ethical value to the study\nof literature, because human duty, right character and conduct are therein presented with\ngreater detail and analysis than even conduct in the concrete presents. By means of\nreading, dramatization, memorization, conversation, and the drama, high standards of\nright in conduct and aims are worked into ideals of life.\"\n\nTwenty per cent of the teachers considered that the ethical value of\nstudies differed so slightly and that the method of teaching was so all important that they refused to make any special selection. As examples of\nthis position, I quote the following:\n1. \"All exact knowledge and thorough study has in itself a moral value and a moral\neffect on the student. I deem it important, therefore, that all study should be conducted\nwith accuracy and thoroughness to get the best moral results. Loose, slipshod work\nhas an immoral effect on the student. I would, therefore, urge that we seek the best\nmoral results in all our schools directly in line of each day's work, and of each pupil's\nstudies.\"\n2. \"The value of studies varies with individuals and the preference should, I think,\nbe given in any instance to that study in which the individuality of the student counts\nmost. That study is best for any pupil, morally considered, which quickens most his\nintellectual interest and inspires him to put forth his most earnest effort in the direction\nof worthy objects to the exclusion of indolence, dissipation of energy, or indulgence in\nfrivoHty.\"\n3. \"The ethical value of a school study is the moral force of the teacher presenting\nthe subject. The subjects usually referred to as ethical, history and literature, are frequently ofless apparent ethical value to a class than scientific or mathematical subjects\npresented by a teacher of sincerity and moral eaAestness.\"\n4. \"The ethical results of school subjects depend as much, if not more, upon the\nmethod of handling them, as they do upon the subject-matter. Of course, each subject\nhas its own method in so far as it determines the way the learner's mind must move.\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nTwo third-grade teachers in arithmetic, using same text in the same school, all conditions\nand circumstances similar, save the one of different teachers, got quite different results,\nnot only in arithmetic, but in character.\n\"A\n\nB\n\nCompleted assignment in i6 weeks\nNeat in board work\n\n35 weeks\nCareless\n\nSystematic on paper\nAccurate in processes\nRapid in processes\nEnjoyed the work\nWanted to show what they could do\nAshamed of mistakes\n\nProblems scattered over paper\nLess accurate\nSlower\nIndifferent\nIndifferent\nTook it as a matter of course\n\nConscious of power and self-control\n\nConscious of inability\n\n\"These same differences appeared in all work. I have illustrated by arithmetic\nbecause it is easier to measure the objective results. These differences in ethical results\nare due chiefly to the teaching power of the two women.\"\n\nA small percentage spoke strongly in favor of manual in combination\nwith mental work. As, for instance:\nWithout doubt the highest ethical value lies in those subjects combining mental and\nmanual effort — moral training — drawing — domestic art and science — laboratory work —\nbusiness training, etc. I am of the opinion that much of the ethical value of such subjects\nlies in the fact that they bring the teacher and pupil into closer personal relations because of\ntheir demand for individual help.\n\nIn reply to the question as to how far, under existing conditions, systematic moral instruction and training were given, 21 per cent denied that\nanything systematic along this line was being done. Sixty per cent affirmed\nthat the work was insignificant and perfunctory, while 19 per cent were\nwilling to consider it as fair. There were absolutely none who felt satisfied\nwith present conditions along these lines.\nAs an example of the testimony received concerning the general work of\nmoral training, I quote as follows:\nSystematic moral training is given in nearly every public school worthy the name,\nand the emphasis is placed on punctuality, industry, truthfulness, total abstinence from\nalcohol and tobacco. In some 50 per cent of the schools or more, some attention is given\nto personal cleanliness, kindness to others, and kindness to animals.\n\nIn regard to the instruction received thru religious exercise, an example\nof the testimony received is as follows :\nSuch instruction is received only through opening exercises held three mornings of\nthe week. The time used is fifteen minutes, sometimes more. The exercises comprise\nthe presentation of moral and religious questions thru readings from the Bible and other\nreligious and ethical works, and brief talks growing out of the life and concrete needs of\nthe school. An attempt is made to unify and solidify the feeling of the school over questions ofright and wrong in manners and morals, with fair success. We close with a hymn.\nWe believe those exercises to be of very great value; and, therefore, they have been continued with the growing power that comes from reverent tradition for thirty years.\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n407\n\nConcerning systematic moral instruction at present carried on, I quote\nas follows:\n1. \"The lower grades of the elementary schools have definite daily instruction\ngiven in conduct and morals, the lessons being based upon the stories and fables told\nor read to the children and upon concrete example found in everyday life.\"\n2. \"One period per week (half-hour) should be set aside for lessons on conduct.\nThe thoughts of the child should early be directed to ideas of the proper conduct of life.\nHe should learn the word duty, have his sense of moral obligation arOused. The aim\nis not intellectual knowledge of some ethical system, but rather that the children should\ngain appreciation and admiration of great and noble actions and should conceive a disapproval and dislike for what is morally wrong or low. The essential ethical element of a\nstory (the story is suggested) * is developed through questions which appeal to the moral\nsentiment and judgment of the child and impress the idea that doing right regardless of\nthe personal comfort or advantage is a duty and the measure of human worth.'\n\"Conduct is divided into 'Duties toward self and duties toward others' with several\nsubtopics.\n\"'Helps and Hindrances' are named. The work is carried on during the special\nperiod, chiefly through special reading lessons which are assigned with the ethical element\nsuggested.\"\n\nA question which elicited lengthy and interested responses was as\nfollows:\nDo you think that, in addition to the influence exerted on the pupils by the tone of\nthe school, by the organization of its work and play, and by the personality of the teachers,\nmore should be done to provide systematic moral instruction and training as part of\neducation? If so, should it be (a) tho systematic in plan, almost entirely indirect\nin method, e.g., given thru the teaching of literature and history; or {b) arranged as\npart of the religious exercise of the school; or (c) planned in the form of regular lessons\nmaking a graded course of moral instruction on non-theological lines; or is some combination of these methods the more efficacious?\n\nForty-seven per cent of those who replied considered that the personality\nof the teacher and the tone of the school were together so important in providing moral instruction and training that, at most, there would only be\nrequired in addition some indirect method of moral instruction. I quote\nthe following opinions on the subject:\n1. \"The personality of the teacher is paramount in instilling moral tone into her\npupils. Her influence, her organization and administration of her school leave a marked\nimpression.\"\n2. \"It is emphatically true, with respect to the earlier years of school life, that everything depends upon the personality of the teacher; in innumerable ways that can never\nbe reduced to formal statements, the teacher may impart to the eager minds of children\nimpressions as to their family, social — in a word — their moral relations, which never will\nbe effaced. Whether this intuitive instruction will take place or not, depends entirely\nupon the teacher. It cannot be brought about by any system of formal preparation or\ndecided by any examinations.\"\n3. \"Most emphatically and unreservedly, I must say that the ethical and moral\ntraining of public-school pupils should be imparted altogether indirectly through:\ni) \"The tone of the school.\n2) \"The organization of its work and play.\n%\n3) \"The personality of the teacher, who should stand for everything that is true,\nhonest, just, pure, lovely, and of good report.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. \"In catching fish, bait is as important as the hook.\"\n5. \"Personally it seems to me that the best moral instruction is given when it\nis least obtrusive. Pupils begin to regard ethics systematically taught as part of their\nschool curriculum as something artificial, something good enough for the classroom and\nfor discussions with the teacher, but entirely unnecessary on the playground or in after\nlife.\"\n\nOnly 13 per cent spoke in favor of a religious exercise. As an example,\nother than that quoted under another heading, I might give the following:\nThe lack of reverence is a crying evil of the day. It seems to me highly proper that\nthere should be some recognition of a Supreme Being in our schools. Even Congress is\nopened with prayer, and I see nothing inconsistent with public-school methods in having\nthe day sessions opened with prayer.\n\nOnly 18 per cent came out strongly in favor of a graded course of moral\ninstruction on non-theological lines. As examples:\n1. \"I must think that some form of regular lessons in a graded course of moral\ninstruction on non-theological lines would be valuable, provided the teacher is perfectly\nin sympathy with the children and interested in her subject.\"\n2. \"As a result of experience and observation, both as an individual teacher and also\nas principal of a city high school, I am convinced that systematic moral instruction and\ntraining should be made a part of education in the public schools.\n\"This work should be direct as well as indirect. It should include rational, nonsectarian religious exercises, the relation of incidents from life, the discussion of wholesome\nliterary and historical themes, and also definite, formal, positive, direct teaching of those\nprecepts and practices and cultivation of those sentiments and emotions that tend toward\nthe refinement of character and the elevation of manhood.\"\n\nIt might be of interest to quote here one of the numerous statements\nin opposition to religious education, as for instance:\nReligious exercises, even if non-sectarian, should not be conducted in the public\nschools at any time or season. The danger is near that non-sectarian instruction will\nbecome at all times distinctly sectarian. Even by the indirect method of moral instruction through reading, stories, literature, music, art, history, and geography, the teacher\nis apt to impart this or that religious notion peculiar to her belief.\n\nIn opposition to systematic moral instruction, I quote the following:\n1. \"Regular lessons in a graded course would be productive of much more harm\nthan good. I do not believe moral or religious growth can be arranged on schedule.\nIt must be clinched when the occasion is ripe for it. A child should have systematic\nreligious instruction, but the public schools cannot give it.\"\n2. \"A graded course of moral instruction would gradually be given by most teachers\nin a perfunctory way and thus fail in the very object to be accompHshed.\"\n\nThere were 16 per cent of the replies in favor of combining all of tlie\nmethods mentioned, viz., the indirect, the systematic and direct, and the\nreligious exercise.\nA very small number, hardly a fraction of a per cent, favored a scheme of\ndenominational instruction, as for instance:\n1. \"Give a period each week to the different religious denominations to give direct\ndogmatic religious instruction.\"\n2. \"Let the state and churches unite in an effort to hold 'services' or 'meetings'\nin other places than the school building. This might require a readjustment of the time\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "409\nCouncil]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nfor the opening of the daily sessions of the schools; it would also require more 'open\nchurches' but such a compromise would not be doing even a 'little wrong* to do a great\nright.\"\n\nReplying to the question as to how far the schools succeeded in cultivating a sense of civic responsibility and of duty to the state, 52 per cent\nconsidered that the schools were fairly successful, while 48 per cent felt\nthat the results were far from satisfactory. As examples of these positions,\ntake the following:\n1. \"As civic pride is the basis of civic duty, I had my teachers, by familiar talks,\ncall the attention of their pupils to the places and buildings made sacred by the struggle\nfor liberty, and to have their pupils visit these buildings and write occasional essays upon\nthe events with which these buildings were associated. Much interest was aroused\nin this respect as Philadelphia is especially rich in historic associations.\"\n2. \"Teachers were instructed to require their pupils to commit and recite passages\nof prose and poetry, containing the expression of patriotic sentiments. A list of such\nextracts was appended to the course of study in civil government, many of them classic\nin thought and judgment.\n\"In 1893 I introduced the observance of Flag Day into the public schools, which\nattracted such wide attention that the custom has spread from city to city and from\nstate to state until it has now become well-nigh universal.\n\"I also introduced the observance of the anniversary of the landing of William Penn\nwhich is now an annual custom.\"\n3. \"I fear we have not had much success in cultivating civic responsibility. In\nmy own school I try always to make the children feel the power of their togetherness, to\nfeel a loyalty to the school, and we use all memorial days — by whatever name — to arouse\nand deepen love of country. I feel strongly tKat it is a mistake to have the flag floating\nall the time. The children carelessly do not see it, and have no feeling about it. It\nseems to me better to float it on occasions and recognize it each time.\"\n4. \"I think, under careful guidance, that civic responsibility and duty to the state\ncan be taught by making the school a community itself, and by emphasizing the duty of\neach one of the pupils in this community. Then, when they get into the world, they\nwill see in the life about them something which their school life has fitted them to take\npart in.\"\n\nReplying to the question: \"What success has attended efforts to interest\nthe elder pupils in social or charitable work?\" 60 per cent reported that\nHttle or nothing had been done along this line, while 40 per cent told of\nvarious kinds of effort that seemed successful.\nIn regard to hindrances to the work of the schools in the formation of\ncharacter, there was a surprising unanimity of expression as to the failure of\nthe home to fulfill its obligations along this line. Ninety-six per cent\nreported as finding difficulty in the development of character by reason of\nimproper home training. As for instance:\n1. \"We find it a constant struggle in our school work to inculcate feelings of obedience\nto parents and yet at the same time to help children to rise above a condition of home life\nand social environment which is most deplorable.\"\n2. \"A large percentage of moral failures in school results from bad home influences\nfoimd alike in the homes of the rich, the poor, and^he well-to-do.\"\n3. \"The conditions of home life, especially for the pupils who are brought up in\nwealthy surroundings, are most imfortimate for the development of the young people of\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "4IO\ntoday.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nToo much is done for our young people if they are to develop a proper sense of\n\nresponsibility to the community life and a self-reliant spirit — a spirit of initiative.\"\n4. \"The conditions of home life and social environment hinder much of the work of\nthe school in the formation of character. The homes of the lower tier, where drunkenness,\nprofanity, licentiousness, vice of every kind is common, where starvation and neglect\nare not infrequent; such homes are acting in opposition to every good work of the school.\nBut on the other hand, the homes of the well-to-do and the refined are not all the very\nbest for the formation of noble and strong characters. There is too much of the nambypamby discipline in such homes. The children act at their own pleasure, and place\nthemselves on the same level as their parents. They have their clubs, their social affairs,\ntheir dances:\n\nthey woo sweet pleasure when they ought to be in dreamland.\"\n\nEven the 4 per cent who seemed to be fairly well satisfied, could not\nalways speak without some qualifications, as for instance:\nThe conditions of home life in this school are as a rule helpful. The patrons are\nhome owners of the middle class. There is one exception: abnormal attendance at cheap\ntheaters.\n\nThe replies indicate that all of the teachers are keenly alive to the effect\nof physical conditions in reference to the formation of character, and some\nexcellent reports were received as to the work being done along this line;\nas for instance:\nI. \"For four months of the present school year we had medical inspection, altho we\ncalled it sanitary inspection, by a thoroly trained nurse. This inspection accomplished\ngreat good in securing the co-operation of parents toward improving sight and hearing\nby various operations. It also decreased contagious diseases; in every way contributed\nmuch toward the warding-off of diseases and providing better sanitary conditions. To\nshow the character of the work done under sanitary inspection the following is the report\nsubmitted for the month of September.\n(Our total enrollment is about 6,000.)\n\"report of sanitary inspector of schools\nfor the month of september, 1907\n\nDefects of vision\n49\nAcute trachoma\ni\nConjunctivitis\ni\nBlepharitis\n2\nAdenoids\n15\nChronic bronchitis\ni\nTuberculosis\n2\nSuppurating ears\n2\nTyphoid fever\ni\nScarlet fever\ni\nPediculosis\n17\nEczema\n7\nCold sores\ni\nPruritus\ni\nImpetigo\nIJ\nImperfect hearing\n7\nSkin cases without diagnosis\n10\nMentally deficient, and application made to the School\nfor the Feeble-Minded\ni\nRecommended for transfer to the School for the Deaf. . . i\nNumber of pupils recommended for treatment\n194\nNumber of pupils treated\n129\"\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n4\"\n\n2. A superintendent reports: \"In several schools I have found that nearly every\nhabitual truant had some physical defect.\"\n\nAsked -concerning the size of classes and consequent lack of individual\nteaching, 90 per cent of the replies indicated dissatisfaction with the size\nof the classes, and the amount of clerical work required of the teachers.\nAs, for instance:\n1. \"This is a serious drawback. We have attempted to reduce its pernicious effects\nby decreasing the amount of class instruction and increasing the amount of individual\ninstruction.\"\n2. \"Unless some organization (such as the Parents' Association) is formed between\nthe home and the school, it is impossible for the teachers to keep any hold of former or\neven of present pupils. Too much technical and clerical work required of teachers of\ntoday.\nToo much centralization of management.\"\n3. \"Over-pressure of clerical and routine work on principals and teachers shuts out\nthe opportunity to follow up the influence gained in the classroom by continuance of\ninterest and friendship. It seems sometimes as though the days were spent in 'paying\ntithes of mint and anise and cummin and omitting the weightier matters of the law,'\njudgment, mercy, and faith.\"\n4. \"Either time should be given to teachers, or special agencies formed to keep up\nconnection between schools and parents.\"\n5. \"A clerk should be employed in each large building. My experience is that if\nI keep my clerical work up I must neglect visiting my pupils.\"\n\nLess than 10 per cent signified anything like satisfaction concerning the\nmatter.\nThe question was asked whether it would strengthen the moral influence\nof the school to give more responsibility to the elder pupils in the maintenance ofdiscipline, and to this question 65 per cent answered in the affirmative and 35 per cent in the negative.\nWith almost no exception there was an expression of earnest desire to\nbeautify the school surroundings and to emphasize in every possible way\nrecreation and school games.\nAs to the value of formal addresses to pupils by teachers and others,\n81 per cent were in favor of this method of inspiring higher ideals, and\n19 per cent were opposed.\nAsked as to what encouragement should be given parents to take a\npersonal interest in the school, with a view to closer relations between the\nschool and home, 83 per cent expressed themselves strongly in favor of\nparental associations or some such organizations, while 17 per cent doubted\ntheir value, or told of unfortunate experiences in connection with them.\nThere was no opposition on the part of anyone to the organization of\nschool journeys, visits to places of educational interest, vacation schools,\nand holiday camps, when these undertakings could be successfully carried\nout.\n^\nRegarding the organization of old scholars' clubs, alumni associations,\nand the like, 75 per cent spoke in their favor, and 25 per cent felt that they\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\nwere not productive of much good, or else were beyond the range of possibility for the ordinary teacher.\nThe following question was not generally answered, but seemed to\nbe considered important by a number:\nShould steps be taken to make the continuation classes and night schools more effective in their training for citizenship ?\n\nIn regard to this I quote as follows:\nSuch courses would not only fit them better for the work they are to do, thus enabling\nthem to earn better wages and to raise the standard of life, but it would also be a benefit\nto the conmiunity as they would have a greater earning capacity. In a moral way it\nwould be of benefit, because it would take these young people away from the streets in\nthe evenings where they learn all kinds of evil and get into lazy and vicious habits, which\nhurt them all their lives. I believe our present laws should be so amended as to require\npupils who leave school before the age of sixteen to take a certain amount of evening\nwork each week up to the age of sixteen in public or private schools.\n\nAs we sum up these reports, taking into our range of vision the schools\nof this and foreign countries, we note certain facts which stand out boldly\nand are full of significance.\nFirst. The deep interest which teachers the world over are taking in the problem\nof moral training thru the agency of the public school.\nSecond. The almost universal opinion that the strongest influence in the development of character is to be found in the personality of the teacher.\nThird. The agreement on the part of the large majority that every study and every\nschool duty, including the organization of the student body, should be effective in the work\nof moral training.\nFourth. The hesitation and distrust shown toward systematic moral instruction,\nbased upon a syllabus, wherever this plan has not been tried. (This applies to the greater\npart of the schools.) On the other hand, the universally favorable attitude of those\nteachers who have had experience in this method of instruction.\nFifth. The general agreement that direct moral instruction, if it be timely and wise,\nis of great ethical value.\nSixth. The high regard shown for Bible lessons and religious exercises by those\nwho make use of them, and the intense opposition expressed by those who are unaccustomed to their use.\nSeventh. As a corollary of the preceding, the marked tendency on the part of all\nteachers to be conservative; to believe in their own methods and to doubt the value of\nanything different.\nEighth. The general condemnation of our American home life as a hindrance to\nthe teacher in the development of student character.\n\nWhat, then, should be our conclusion of the whole matter? This,\nperhaps:\nThe all-important and far-reaching problem of moral education demands for its wise solution an awakened church, inspiring with religious\nideals the souls of its youth; unselfish homes, consecrated to their Godgiven mission of caring for the children; and last, but not least, the\never-present public school, whose corporate life, courses of study,\nstudent organizations, and physical surroundings shall each and all\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "413\nCouncU)\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nplay their silent tho well-planned part in the development of character,\nand whose teaching force, with minds open to conviction, shall serve\nin love, in justice, in faith in things unseen, in reverent devotion to their\nhigh calling, and, in conscious recognition of the tremendous power for\nmoral training which is ever active thru the personality of the teacher.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss N. Cropsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. — All\nwho have seen the mural decorations in the Library of Congress at Washington must\nhave been impressed with the artist's conception of man's progress, and the remarkable\nexpression of it by Labor, Religion, and The Book. Here we have the method of education placed before us by an artist's skill in seizing the essential things to be considered\nin a long and complex process.\nManual labor, for a purpose, is a necessary means of growth in the early stages of\ndevelopment, intellectual and moral.\nReligion is the spirit of reverence for that which is above us and around us: it should\nteach the child the spirit in which labor is to be performed. In public schools, religion\ncannot be taught by the study of a creed, but must be the result of an effort to produce\na religious attitude of mind. All the constructive habits of life formed in a good school\ncommunity (habits of obedience, industry, and honesty), the personal influence of the\nteacher, the story of the \"way of life\" thru art and literature, including such portions\nof the Bible as are of universal significance, are essentials in the process of moral and\nreligious development. In The Book we have \"the revelation of man to men,\" on the\nplane of practical wisdom and also on the plane of spiritual insight.\nChildren in the primary and elementary schools are dependent upon the individual\nleader and guide in the person of the teacher and the parent for the adaptation of this\ncurriculum to their needs.\nThe conditions for moral development have not been provided in these schools,\nbecause the number of pupils under the charge of one teacher makes individual knowledge\nof the pupil, and individual guidance, an impossibility.\nThe greatest advance that could be made at this time in elementary and primary\neducation would be to make the nimibers such that each child could be regarded as an\nindividual. Moral development means the development of personality.\nRemarkable work has been done in all these schools to advance moral standards\nand to form habits of good behavior, but the task of moral education assigned to us is\ntoo great for accomplishment under present conditions. The inadequate provision for\nreal education makes the necessity for supplementary schools of various kinds; mostly\nreformatory in their character.\nThe word \"moral\" is a very large word, very inclusive, very comprehensive. We are\naccustomed to define moral development as that process by which the individual adjusts\nhis conduct to the ideals of the community; this is true and well said. Tho it may seem\nto be a simple process, it is very complex, for even an outward conformity to custom\nrequires some inner adjustment on the part of the individual: and complete harmony\nwith the highest ideals of civilization means such an experience as results in free moral\naction.\nWhen we are so far advanced in knowledge and insight as to see the connection of\nthis elementary education with all after success or failure, we shall consider a large expenditure of time and effort and money a most economical investment.\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nJohn W. Cook, president, Northern Illinois State Nonnal School, DeKalb, 111.—\nMr. President, it is a far cry from the children in the schools to the men and women who\nare responsible for the management of the social institutions of our modern civilization,\nyet what we have to say to the latter must be said to the former, and we must content\nourselves with the hope that it will reach its ultimate goal. There will be much to interfere with it and to warp it quite beyond recognition, perhaps, but it is the best that we\ncan do.\nMoral conduct is determined in at least two ways: by the formation of what may be\ncalled moral habits, and by inducing moral judgments. The school offers opportunity\nto promote the former thru its own routine and the latter thru that personal contact\nof teacher and pupil which must always be the main reliance of the school in accomplishing that end.\nThe teacher should have the keenest sensitiveness to moral situations and should\nalways be on the lookout for a moral content in all of the school life of the child. He\nshould note and tabulate mentally or otherwise the disposition to observe scrupulously the\nschool virtues of punctuality, silence, industry, cleanliness, and all of the rest of those\nqualities of conduct that we call moral because they make for the best conditions in our\ncommon life.\nBut especially should the teacher cultivate such a moral consciousness in the child as\nwill respond in the estimation of possible lines of conduct from the standpoint of the good.\nIt is easy to conceive of a child whose external deeds might conform to a high standard,\nand yet in whom there might be a substantial absence of moral judgments. There\nshould be real deUberation in the presence of a genuine conduct problem, and I do not see\nhow such a disposition can be secured as a permanent mental attitude without frequent\ndiscussions of matters that actually arise and that should be passed upon by the school.\nThe final determinations of the moral life will mainly rest upon moral habits whose\nmeaning becomes apparent and whose significance becomes luminous thru moral judgments.\nWm. H. Black, president, Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo. — There is a vast\ndifference between ethics and morals, as there is a difference between the spirit of the\nGreek peoples and the formality and imitativeness of the Roman peoples. Ethics is\na matter of character. Morals is a matter of conventionaUty.\nThe thing to be aimed at when we talk about moral education is really ethical education, that is, morality robbed of its Roman meaning and filled with modern life and\nreligion. There is plenty of conventionality, mere observance of rule, external conformance to precept in our state prisons where the lock step is the perfection of order.\nIt is also found in the military training of the soldier whose life is a life of order regardless of character. What we want in our education is not its formal conformity to\nprecept but the vital principle in the soul, genuine character.\nFrom the earUest days, teachers' institutes and leading educators have been insisting\nthat character is the chief end of education, but character is not so much what a man\ndoes as what he is. Now the National Education Association is composed mainly of\npeople who believe in the Bible and in the church and in the Christian rehgion. None\nof us as Christians would think of a character as good apart from regeneration or the\nNew Birth. All our Christian teaching, whether Catholic or Protestant or Jewish,\ninsists on the importance of the divinely created clean heart, and the divinely renewed\nright spirit within.\nIf our education is to attain its real end of character formation, then the things which\nreally are fundamental in character must be insisted on.\nThese are three:\nFirst. A behef in God to whom all are responsible and who is active in the government of the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n41$\n\nSecond. The immortality of the soul; that this life does not end all, and that in\nthat future toward which we haste everyone must give an account of himself, and of his\ndeeds.\nThird. That the one textbook of these great principles is the Bible. I do not see\nthe possibility of character formation apart from these great facts. They are the teacher's\nmaterials for the building of character. Without them, the teacher can conventionalize,\nbut he cannot produce character.\nD. B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill,\nS.C. — I believe the world is getting better, not worse. This great movement for moral\neducation in the schools, with other great philanthropic movements of the day, is both\nan evidence and a result of the world's moral growth.\nThere are yet those who insist that moral and religious training should be left to the\nhome and the church; that the schools have all they can do properly to teach the three\nR's — to attend to the intellectual development of their pupils; that there are too many\n\"frills\" and \"fads\" now in the schools to think of adding another on \"moral training.\"\nBut the home and the church do not seem to be able to do this work alone — the home\noften is not dominated by right ideals, is not equipped for moral training, and the church\nreaches a very small proportion of the people.\nThe state must rest for its safety and stability upon the character of its citizens as\nwell as upon their intelligence and skill, and hence the necessity for the state, for its own\nwelfare, to make provision for moral training in the public schools as well as for intellectual and physical training — hence the duty of the state's schools to train for good\ncitizenship. This seems to be the view now of the enlightened leaders of thought in all\ncivilized countries.\nThe National Education Association has stood for it for some years. The strength\nand universality of the demand for moral education in the public schools is shown in many\nways, but in no way more convincingly than in the International Moral Education\nCongress held in London in the fall of 1908.\nIt is pretty generally conceded now that all education must take account of the\nthree H's, the head, the hand, and the heart, as well as the three R's. \"The whole child\ngoes to school\" and the whole child must be ministered unto. Moral training is not\nanother fad, nor will it add to the already overburdened curriculum. It can be given\nin the regular management and in the teaching of the regular studies to the great improvement in the management and the teaching. . \" Character is not something apart from\nknowledge and skill.\" Obedience, honesty, thoroness, truth, fairness, order, punctuality,\nperseverance, self-reliance, courtesy, self-control, courage, the spirit of service, love of\nthe good, the beautiful, and the true should be the fruits of the management and instruction of every good school.\nSome advocates of moral training in the schools contend that it should be given\nsystematically in accordance with an outline or textbook or syllabus similar to the French\nsystem. Others, and the great majority, hold that it should be given indirectly and\nincidentally — that more harm than good results from a didactic teaching of morals.\nThe injunction \"Be good\" does not accomplish much by itself. Children get more\nfrom what they overhear than from what they hear. The story of George Washington\nand the cherry tree, tho perhaps a myth, has done more to secure truthfulness in children\nthan all the admonitions to be truthful.\nPrecept and example must go together, however.\nAfter all is said and done the most important agency for securing moral training\nin the public schools is the personality of the high-minded, devoted teacher. Actions\nspeak louder than words to everybody, but especially to children. Gladstone has well\nsaid, \"One example is worth a thousand arguments.4'\nTo secure moral training for the schools we must secure teachers of the highest\ncharacter for them. In selecting teachers we must consider first character, then teaching\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nINational\n\nability, and then scholarship. We must see to it that our best men and women teach,\nand, to this end, that the social position and rewards for the teacher are equal, to say the\nleast, to those of other calUngs and professions. The normal schools must train and inspire\ntheir students for moral training. It was once said of our greatest Teacher that \"The\nWord was made flesh and dwelt among us.\"\nAs a result of the great awakening in this country to the vital importance of moral\ntraining for our children in the public schools, I look forward confidently to a prouder\nand more glorious celebration of that proud and glorious day, the anniversary of the birth\nof this great republic.\nJohn R. Kirk, president. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.— Children in the\nfourth grade make some generalizations; those in the eighth grade, more generalizations;\nthose in the high school, still more. Some college men feed their students largely on\npredigested generalizations. Even committees of this Council would fill us with platitudinous generahzations, while we long for something better.\nBut some of us live more largely among concrete realities. We see that the best\nmoral education is in the kindergarten. The best conduct is there. Kindergarten children are taught to be on their best behavior; to have the best thoughts; to do the best\ndeeds; to aspire to the noblest ways of living and acting. It is example, precept, conduct,\npermanent purpose, habit.\nMy friend. President Black, suggests re-generation, but my plea is for the avoidance\nof de-generation. The advanced grammar grades are marked by much relaxation from\nthe moral standards of the kindergarten and primary grades. In the high school those\nearlier moral standards come to be deemed unworthy if not ridiculous. Frolicsome\nhigh-school girls regard the cautions and injunctions of their mothers superfluous.\nSlim-legged high-school boys, with rolled up trousers and spreading coat tails, vehemently\ndeclare their creeds of freedom from discipline.\nDuring the fall and spring of the year we meet numerous self-directed crowds of\nhigh-school boys on railway trains and in hotels as they are crossing over from school to\nschool in order to participate in their various interscholastic contests. These roving\ngroups of heedless and irresponsible persons are often loud and boisterous. Quite commonly they smoke and swagger and secure much public notice. Just when the waves of\nadolescent storm run highest, school education unlooses the rudder and lets young life\nbe swept by its own whims and fluctuations and by the relentless tide of events at large.\nThe higher we go in education, the more we see of relaxation from good moral standards and good conduct. Yesterday this Council heard with patience the president of\na university expatiating upon the necessity for absolute freedom in and about a university. All moral standards, customs, creeds, and beliefs would seem to be so nearly of\nequal value that each individual around a university may be trusted to follow his own\nsweet will and pleasure. Each one in and about the campus may have his own standards\nand his own doctrines which he may publicly practice and inculcate. The university\nis the world boiled down. \"It is cosmopoUtan; it must be free I\" This is what we are\ntold. Hence the high-grade but necessarily narrow and sometimes bigoted specialist,\nquite out of touch with the world and out of sympathy with its activities, must be left free\nto teach and to do what he will. Almost any poorly taught, swelling youngster choosing\nto call himself a university student must be tolerated in all his eccentricities. The\nneglected and self-inflated Sophomore becomes the ideal for the incoming Freshmen;\nand the Freshman for the high-school boys who look to him when seeking an ideal.\nBut the high-school boy is the ideal for the grammar-grade boy; the latter in turn, for\nthe primary-school boy. Each higher-grade boy is inclined to look upon a well-behaved\nlower-grade fellow as something of a \"sissy.\"\nIt is high time that the Council of the National Education Association take this\nmatter under serious consideration.\nI reiterate simple facts which most of you know\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "417\nCouncil]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\ntN PUBLIC\n\nSCffOOLS\n\nand all may learn. They are concrete facts; not platitudes and not pleasing generalizations. Ibelieve the men \"higher up\" ought to come down among the realities and get\nbusy trying to rectify their own creed and conduct.\nJohn MacDonald, editor Western School Journal^ Topcka, Kans. — ^There are threq\nmethods by which moral teaching may occur: absorption, direct teaching, or a combination ofthe two. The most effective teaching that the world has had was that given\nby the Great Teacher. He combined his personality with direct instruction. No teacher\nhas personality enough to meet the requirements of the schoolroom. However good a\nteacher may be, his example should be supplemented by formal instruction.\nThomas A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind. — ^This report is rich\nin truth and suggestions for all earnestly studying the subject. I heartily agree with the\nstatements of fundamental principles, and in the main its suggestions are based on the\nhighest philosophy of education. The essential element of true education for real efl5ciency\nis moral character. The principal categories of moral education are the ideas of duty,\nvirtue, and conscience. Nothing in the realm of true education is of more absolute\nvalue than the development of the moral will. As Rosencranz says, \"Will guided by\nthe principle of right is seen by the inner self.\"\nI wish to emphasize the potency of the true school in developing in the pupil the\nreal moral will, the habits of basing his actions on the ideas of right and duty rather than\nthose of expediency and desire. Character is not something apart from knowledge and\nskill, but is knowledge and skill guided by the moral will, directed by conscience. In the\nideal -school the highest virtues are those which are necessary for the moral citizen. In\nthe true school every rule of management, every regulation, every method of procedure\nare such as to lead the pupil to right action, and to give him the habit of directing his\nown will along the lines of duty and truth.\nIn the teaching of the three R's,in the study of the humanities as well as the sciences,\nin the work of the gymnasium, laboratory, shop, and playground, there are the greatest\nopportunities for moral development.\nThe school virtues, industry, honesty, obedience, thoroness, truth, silence, order,\nfairness, punctuality, self-reliance, courtesy, self-control, courage, and the spirit of service\nto others, the love of the beautiful, the true, and the good, are the fruits of good management and true method. These are the virtues of good character and ideal citizenship.\nIf the school is immoral in its tendencies, or the method of the school as a whole does not\ndevelop in the child the moral will, its method and spirit are wrong.\nThe method in school, the method in teaching each branch of study, should call\nout in the child motives of unselfishness and inspire in him highest effort based on a love\nof truth and the accomplishment of duty. The true method never seeks to have the\npupil base his effort on motives of pride and rivalry, or the securing of high percentages.\nTrue method will insure better teaching of the subjects themselves and also develop in\nthe pupils habits of moral action.\nSuccess is not the highest moral end. Truth and duty should always stand first.\nThe beauty of the school grounds and buildings, the cleanliness and purity of surroundings and buildings themselves, the decoration of rooms and halls with examples or copies\nof the world's best art, will lead pupils to a high appreciation of and a love for the beautiful. The love of the beautiful and pure, next to the love of God, is the greatest safeguard in life from habits of sin and grossness.\nThe school whose aesthetic environment is the highest, will, all other things being\nequal, stand in the life of the children as a mighty force for high moral standards. The\nschool environment marked by harmony in color and form, and the presence in the school\nof a few real works of art, tends always to a moral uplift, and takes no time from the graded\nprogram of the so-called \"necessary\" studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn the true school the most vital force for moral training will be the presence of a\nmoral spirit and high ideals, accompanied by right methods and an enriched course of\nstudy.\n\nJames W. Crabtree, state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Nebr.—\nNo virtue ever has great strength except by practice. The school can render good\nservice to the youth of the land by giving them greater opportunities for exercise in\nneeded virtues. Most young people will profit greatly by self-examination. The school\nshould encourage them in this practice.\nMrs. L. K. Burke, San Francisco, Cal.— We do not put enough responsibiUty upon\nthe home. We allow the home and the commimity to shirk their duty in the matter of\nmoral education. We need to become teachers of the people. Until we have the cooperation ofthe home and the commimity we cannot do all we should in the matter of\nteaching truthfvdness, honesty, promptness, and obedience.\nA. C. Nelson, state superintendent of public instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah. —\nThere are three things that can be taught in the public schools: the Fatherhood of God,\nthe Leadership of Jesus, and the Brotherhood of Man. The school is the best agency\nexisting today for the proper teaching of these three ideas. When these most fundamental ideas are taught we will have gone a long way toward proper moral education.\nJ. F. MiLLSPAUGH, president State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal. — ^We have\nfailed to produce the kind of results desired in moral education thru our inability to get\nself-activity in our pupils. When one does a thing because he must, he derives but little\nstrength from it. We should try to make our pupils desire to do certain things becaiise of\nthe moral uplift that will come from them.\nM. P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J. — It is a mistake to teach morals so that yoimg\npeople will become self-conscious prigs. It is also a mistake to assume that moral instruction isthe same for all ages and stages of development. The teacher should hold up an\nidea and lead the pupil toward it. No teacher is able to be an example equal to the ideas\nhe desires his pupils to follow. If the teacher is generous and fair in all his dealings, he\nwill exert a wholesome influence.\nCharity Dye, Indianapolis, Ind. — ^It is a significant thing that the dominant note\nof the twentieth-century education is immoral. The great increase in the number of\nyoung people at our correctional institutions proves that there is need of more direct\nteaching in morals. We need to teach ideas of conduct and citizenship. Biography may\nbe made the center of direct moral teaching in the schools.\n\nMrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, secretary American School Peace League, Boston,\nMass.^The Peace League is greatly interested in the teaching of morals in the public\nschools. It has prepared a series of pamphlets for the different grades dealing with the\ngeneral subject of good-will. This plan includes a book designed for direct teaching\nin each grade.\n\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass. — I am not in accord with the notion that\neverything is retrograding. I am an optimist. I know that the young people of today are\nmuch better than were the young people when I was a boy. I know that the schools of\ntoday are greatly improved over the schools of my day. The school and the home by\ntheir example and practice produce passive morality. It is the inertia of these instructions that produce truthfulness, punctuality, responsibility, and honesty. Active\nmorality is brought about by love of family, church, city, and nation.\n\nGeorge A. Coe, Union Theological Seminary, New York, N.Y.— The general plan of\nmoral instruction prepared by Secretary Carr has proven the report under discussion is\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\n.\n\nVIRTUE\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nVIRTUES\n\n419\n\nnoteworthy because no mention of religion occurs in it. Religious instruction belongs\nto the church and the home.\nNo part of it should be given by the school.\nCree T. Work, Fort Morgan, Colo. — ^The English Bible, the best-known book of\nmoral instruction, should be used in the schools. In the teaching of history, the pupils\nshould be led to make definite moral conclusions. The need of truth and honesty in\ncivic and state afifairs should be taught with all the force necessary.\n\nThe following three addresses were submitted at the evening session of\nthe National Council by members of The Religious Education Association,\nwhich society had been invited to join in discussion of the foregoing report:\nVIRTUE\n\nAND\n\nGEORGE\n\nTHE\n\nA. COE,\n\nVIRTUES: A STUDY OF METHOD\nTEACHING OF MORALS\nPROFESSOR\nNEW\n\nIN UNION THEOLOGICAL\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nIN THE\n\nSEMINARY,\n\nAltho my topic concerns the method of moral instruction and training\nrather than the philosophy of education, it may be well, for the sake of\npreventing misunderstanding, to state at the outset some of the assumptions that underlie the practical suggestions that I shall offer. I assume,\nfor example, that moral character is altogether a matter of a man's relations to society. Religion thinks of society in a peculiarly broad way,\nmaking it include God and our dead, as well as all the living. Concerning\nreligion our state schools are not permitted, and should not be permitted,\nto give instruction. This limitation must be rigidly maintained in the\ninterest ahke of reHgious liberty and of political equality. I do not desire\nany recognition of the religious basis of morals. What I hope for is a\nrecognition that life, as far as it is truly successful, is social thru and thru.\nI put no stress whatever upon the desirability of an increased use of the\nBible or of worship. We must rely first of all upon the right organization\nand conduct of the school, and upon the teacher's personality, but in addition we should have a definite, systematic, carefully graded scheme forleading pupils, in morals as in everything else, to see just what they are\nabout. This means instruction in morals, but instruction in morals can\nhave its proper effect upon character only when the ideas that are to be\ncommunicated develop in the pupil's mind as a phase of his own reaction\nto a concrete social situation. The problem that I propose to myself is,\nHow can this unity of moral idea and moral reaction be effected in the\n'\nschool ?\nThe reason why we have not made more rapid progress toward a satisfactory method is, in my opinion, that we have given inadequate scrutiny\nto the content of the proposed instruction. We have given too much\nattention to the virtues and too little to ^rtue. I question whether a\nsatisfactory method can be had as long as the basis of the curriculum is a\ncatalog of virtues.\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe ancients, as well as the moderns, offer us lists of cardinal or essential virtues. ''Prudence, courage, temperance, and justice\" is a list that\nhas come down to us all the way from Plato. But what are these cardinal\nvirtues in the concrete ? We know that a Sophist as well as a Socrates\ncould lay claim to every one of them. Prudence requires nothing but\nsufficient wisdom to get what you are after, no matter what this is. So,\ntoo, one can have courage in executing any design, good or bad. Nor does\ntemperance or self-control imply anything as to a man's central purpose.\nThat even the concept of justice depends for its meaning upon an antecedent conception of humanity is shown by the fact that the greatest of the\nancient philosophers regarded slavery as inherently in accord with human\nnature, and therefore just.\nWhen we come to modern schedules intended as a basis for a curriculum\nof instruction in morals, we find certain inequalities that are not recognized\nin the schemes themselves. The chief part of these lists consists ordinarily\nof virtues Uke these: Industry, patience, obedience, courage, self-respect,\nperseverance, self-control, economy, amiabihty, contentment, comradeship, fideHty. How much is really impHed in such terms ? Is industry\ngood per se, or does its goodness depend upon the end for which one works ?\nClearly patience is good only when it is the shortest way to a good end;\notherwise impatience is better. Courage on behalf of a good cause is good;\notherwise it is bad. Self-respect is good only to the extent that one is\nworthy of respect. Economy is good only that one's savings may be used\nfor something worth while. Amiability must be of the kind that distinguishes between good and bad men before we can approve it. There are\ntimes when contentment is out of order; and there are conditions in which\nobedience only prolongs unjust authority, and creates a craven spirit in\nhim who obeys. Even fidelity, as with the poUtical trickster who always\n\"stands by his friends,\" may imply evasion of the larger good. In short,\nall these virtues can exist, either singly or in combination, in a character\nthat every one of us would call bad.\nCertain of the virtues that appear in these lists, however, are less ambiguous. Thus kindness, unselfishness, helpfulness, and truthfulness point\nwith a fair degree of definiteness to a social end. When we come, finally,\nto love of parents, we have before us an end that is always unambiguously\nsocial. The difference between a virtue Hke love of parents and a virtue\nlike perseverance Hes in two things: Love of parents expresses a social\npurpose, and it indicates the persons toward whom it is directed, while\nperseverance does neither of these things.\nNow, our first concern in the teaching of morals should be to secure\ngenuine discrimination between social and imsocial ends or purposes, not\nbetween abstract or formal virtues. The question to be raised in the\npupil's mind concerning an act or a course of action is not. Is it industrious,\ncourageous, persevering ? but. What persons does it affect, and how does\nit affect them ?\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nVIRTUE\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nVIRTUES\n\n421\n\nThe trouble with formal moral instruction as it has been understood\nlies deeper than most of its critics have realized. Times without number\nwe have insisted that a pupil who understands the virtues may not practice\nthem. Yes, but the incurably radical fault of such instruction is its lack\nof truth. For it has falsely assumed that a pupil who does practice the\nvirtues of the schedule will attain to virtue. There are two reasons why\nthis is untrue. The first is that most of the virtues in the catalog are\nabstract qualities of will, not concrete social purposes; they describe\nsome of the conditions of an efficient will, but they leave out the social\nmark of a good will. The second reason is that moral character is represented as made up of a combination of qualities or virtues. Socrates\ndeclared truly that virtue is one and indivisible, not a collection of virtues.\nNow, the unity of a good character consists in holding to a social end or\npurpose thru a period of time, and making the details of conduct all contribute to this end.\nIt follows that the material for moral instruction is the functions of men\nand of institutions in society. Let us stop studying virtues, and study\ninstead what actual men do, and why they do it. What does a policeman\ndo, and why does he do it ? What does the health commissioner do, and\nwhy does he do it ? What does a judge, a lawyer, an alderman, a grocer,\na hod-carrier, a mother, a father, a son, a daughter do, and why ? What\ndoes a public library, an art museum, a newspaper, a nickel theater, a billboard, a railroad, a university do? Here is the material upon which\nchildren are actually forming their characters anyway, whether we will or\nno. It has always been so, and it always will be so. The lives with which\nthe child is in contact constitute the primary material for his moral growth.\nAll that the school can possibly do i^ to improve the use that he makes of it,\npartly by calHng his attention to what would otherwise be overlooked;\npartly by extending, thru literature and history, the range of cases upon\n-which he reacts; partly by reinforcing social incentives; partly by forming\nthe school into a little society which carries on a directed experiment in\nliving.\nI am tempted to pause here to remark that the transformation of curriculum and method thus indicated is only a part of the reform that is sometimes called the \"new education.\" The old scheme of merely general culture\nbroke down because it taught processes but neglected functions. It insisted\nthat a child must know arithmetic, but it never called his attention to the\nfunction of a grocer in society. It was punctiHous of linguistic propriety,\nbut it had nothing to say about the health of a community, how it is to be\npreserved, and who is responsible. It taught historical genealogies, but\nnothing concerning a favorable birth for the next generation of babies.\nMany years ago, when the first threshing machine appeared in a certain\nrural community, several boys were punished because their desire to see it\nwork caused them to be tardy at school.\nSo far was the old-fashioned\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION ASSOCIATION\n\ntNational\n\nschool from reality. Nor are we ourselves beyond the danger of perpetuating this separation. To teach qualities of character, but not the functions\nof men and women and children, is to perpetuate it.\nExamples of what is now needed are not lacking in Superintendent\nCarr's proposals, especially for the first, second, and fourth high-school\nyears. Here he bases moral instruction directly upon the structure and\nfunctions of a mercantile house, the family, the state. In a measure he\nemploys the same method in his proposals for the kindergarten and the\nfirst four grades. Even such abstract heads as helpfulness, kindness,\nsociability, seem in several cases to cover the idea of fimction rather than\nquaHty. Yet the old wineskins are still in evidence under many of the\ncaptions.\nIn his proposals for grades five to eight, Mr. Carr seems to me less happy\nin his conception of material and method. White's \"Character Lessons,\"\nwhich are here followed, tho they contain material which teachers can use,\nare constructed upon an inverted method. First come definitions or explanations of a virtue, then illustrations, and finally applications. What is\nthis if not precisely the teaching about virtues that has brought formal\nmoral instruction into disrepute ? Let us begin a lesson in morals just as\nwe begin one in nature-study, with a concrete case that is at least partly\nwithin the pupil's experience. Let the pupil be led to analyze it himself,\nand to make discovery for himself of the breadth or the narrowness, the social\nconstructiveness or destructiveness, of the conduct involved in it. As for\nthe appUcation — well, we who are in the work of Sunday-school reform\ndirected one of our first and fiercest attacks against the old way of making\nthe application, that is, separating the \"lesson\" of the lesson from the lesson\nitself. An examination of the newly adopted graded lesson systems will show\na decided improvement in this respect. Yet here we find a public school\nlesson on Industry that starts out with an explanation of what industry\nis, then gives examples of industrious merchants, manufacturers, inventors,\nand naturaUsts, and ends with an appHcation, not to store-keeping,\nmanufacturing, etc., but to school studies! Does anyone really believe\nthat Willie Green of the fifth grade will study his lessons because John\nWanamaker, Thomas A. Edison, and Luther Burbank work hard in their\nrespective occupations? Willie is engaged with functions which to him\nare different from those of merchant, inventor, and naturalist. At some\npoint in his course it will, perhaps, be worth while for him to study the\ncareer of Mr. Wanamaker in order to see what a merchant does for society\nand how he does it; Mr. Edison's career, to see what an inventor does for\nsociety and how he does it; and Mr. Burbank's career, to see how the\nbreeds of plants and of animals can be improved, and why they should be\nimproved; but if you wish to make eleven-year-old Willie Green enjoy hard\nstudy you must find your leverage in something that he can recognize as\nA teacher who cannot teach arithmetic so that it\nhis own present good.\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nVIRTUE\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nVIRTUES\n\n423\n\nseems to Willie to be included in his very own job will scarcely induce\nmathematical zeal by telling how many hours a day Mr. Edison spends in\nhis laboratory!\nThe first requirement for an effective system for teaching morals, then,\nis the frank abandonment of the virtues as the subject-matter of the curriculum, and the substitution therefor of the functions of men and women\nand children in society. The adoption thus of concrete material will open\nwide the way to a solution of three troublesome problems, namely, how to\nsecure a truly developmental order of topics from grade to grade; how to\nawaken a sense of obHgation within a scheme of free individual growth,\nand how to co-ordinate morals with the other subjects of the curriculum.\nCurricula based upon \"the virtues\" are inherently incapable of obeying a geniunely developmental principle. If we have thirty or forty virtues\nto teach, with only eight grades in which to teach them, we must distribute\nthe virtues pigeon-hole fashion, with only partial regard for the order of\ngrowth in the pupil's personaHty. We inevitably distribute the virtues\nthru the eight years in a serial order that is artificial. Mr. Carr has done\nabout as well as anybody can do with such a scheme, yet his plan shows\nmany misadjustments hke these: Obedience is a second-grade subject only,\ntho the hardest struggle to obey comes later ; truthfulness and honesty appear\nin the second and fifth grades only; cheerfulness appears nowhere above the\nthird grade, and justice in the seventh only. Now, in the life of the child\nthere is no such serial order of moral issues. Justice, cheerfulness, unselfishness, honesty, truthfulness are appropriate and needful at every stage of\ngrowth. The fact is that we have here two incommensurables, a set of\nabstract moral qualities and a growing child, with a repetition of the\nancient fallacy of attempting to fit the child to the curriculum rather than\nthe curriculum to the child.\nThat a way out of the difficulty can be found by building the curriculum\nupon the social functions ot human beings appears from three considerations.\nFirst, these functions can be arranged in an ascending order ot complexity,\nfrom washing our faces and saying \"please,\" to managing a factory, or\nadministering the laws of a nation. Second, the ascending order of complexity issubstantially an ascending order of sociality. Not that family\naffection with which the child begins is ever to be outgrown, but that\nsocial feeling, motive, and purpose increase in both breadth and depth as\nsocial funtions radiate normally from the hearth to the larger and more\ncomplex organizations of men. Third, this ascending order of functions\nand motives coincides in general with the child's increasing contact with\npersons and institutions, and with his increasing assumption of responsibihty.\nThe order of topics thus impHed has ^^3 its first member the daily life\nof the household and what each member of it (father, mother, children,\nhired helpers) contributes to it. The concluding topics of the series will\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "4^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntNatlonal\n\nconcern social life in its widest aspects (the economic order, poverty, vice,\ncrime, immigration, wealth, marriage and divorce, world peace, for example),\nwith such analysis of causes and effects as to locate responsibilities. Between these two extremes will appear the persons who minister to the household from outside it (the butcher, the baker, the grocer, the milkman, the\nletter-carrier) ; then the persons and institutions that the child encounters\nwhen he begins to go to school and to execute errands for father and mother\n(the teacher, playmates, the street railroad, the fire department, the poHceman) ; then the industries of the community, whether agricultural, manufacturing, or commercial; then the social institutions of the community\n(schools, libraries, churches, the local government); then the activities of\nthe county, state, and federal government; then institutions Hke railroads,\nwater and light companies, banks, newspapers, theaters; at last the specialized professional and technical occupations. Here is a genuinely progressive order that coincides substantially with the growth of the child's\nsocial experience from the kindergarten to the end of the high-school course.\nIn addition, there will be woven into these topics the social aspects of health\nand disease, sexual hygiene, and preparation for marriage.\nLet us see, now, whether this material is appropriate for awakening a\nsense of obligation within free individual growth. Under exceptional\ncircumstances you may evoke effective moral emotions by sharply defining\na virtue or a fault and adducing biographical examples of it. But the only\ngenerally valid method consists in causing the child to define to himself his\nown purpose in situations that he actually experiences. When I ask myself\nwhat I am really after and why, I compare and contrast one purpose with\nanother, and inevitably I begin to estimate values and to approve and\ncondemn. Now, the curriculum that I have sketched is based upon the\nchanging social contacts and reactions of the pupil. Lead him to ask.\nWhat does a street railroad do for the community ? and then. What do I\ndo in this situation ? and he will almost inevitably appreciate the obligation to pay his fare. A boy was throwing stones at a street lamp. A\npasser-by said, \"Why do you wish to break your father's lamp?\" \"It\nisn't my father's lamp,\" replied the boy. \"Who pays for street lamps,\nthen?\" was the rejoinder. A not less pointed example of the effect of\ndefining one's purpose to one's self is this: Get a boy to tell you what he\nreally wants in the next game of baseball that he plays, and you will draw\nout of him the right material for awakening indignation and scorn, admiration, and social purpose. I woidd have in the curriculum the subjects of\ndoll play and other make-believe plays; marbles, tops, mumblety peg,\nand jackstones; tag, leap frog, and baseball; running races, tournaments,\npicnics — not as applications of principles brought from who-knows-where,\nbut as living tissue of morals. Just so the entire series of the child's\nextending social contacts can be so used as to awaken intelHgent approvals\nand condemnations, and analysis of one's own conduct.\nIs it not evident, finally, that here is the solution of the problem of\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n425\n\nco-ordinating moral instruction with other subjects ? Many of our teachers,\nperhaps most, doubt the wisdom of a specific course on morals. It is likely,\nthey think, to become abstract. Besides, is not every subject that is well\ntaught a moral discipline? Does not arithmetic, because it requires\naccuracy, train to truthfulness ? And so on. Now, it is true that everything in the school can be made serviceable to character. But it is easy\nto overestimate the value of merely formal discipHne. With our lips we all\nprofess that the pupil's interest and motive for study should be found in the\nthing studied. Yet the asserted moral value of mathematics resides not in\nthe content, but in the way it is studied — in the mere form of the act, not\nthe content of it. The assertion that such merely formal training in mathematics appreciably conduces to truthfulness is open to the gravest doubt.\nYou lose most of the moral value of anything when you separate it from the\nfunctions in which it has its origin. Scoring a baseball game accurately or\nkeeping an accurate expense account does train to truthfulness, however,\nbecause here form is not separated from content. Why, now, should\nteachers longer consent that arithmetic or any school subject whatever\nshall be abstracted from the social functions to which it belongs in real\nlife ? Why should the school not recognize that arithmetic is a phase of\nbuying and selling, planting and harvesting, building a house, cooking,\ntrimming a gown, even playing the games of boys and girls ? Now, give\nus really vital material thruout the school, and the course in morals that I\nhave outlined will not seem to be lugged in. It will deal with the primary\nphase of all the material of all the subjects; that is, with the co-operative\npurposes and functions of men in subduing nature and in enriching social\nexistence. Language-study, number-study, earth science, history, Hterature — these exist at all because they minister to the ends of a rational will.\nStudy of the ends of a rational will is the study of morals. Therefore the\nstudy of morals is not only not foreign to the other school studies, it is the\nmost natural introduction to every one of them, and it alone can lend to\nthem the complete concreteness that modern educational theory demands.\nHere, then, is the principle requisite for the co-ordination of morals with\nother subjects. The study of morals presents the material of education\nin its wholeness as human experience in a purposeful social life; the other .\nstudies have to do with parts or phases of this material.\nMORAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nSTUDENTS\n\nDAVID STARR JORDAN, PRESIDENT OF LELAND STANFORD\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\n\n(Synopsis)\nWe have troubled ourselves a great ^eal because college students did\nnot want what the college offers. Under the old curriculum some students\nfound just what they wanted to receive — a high degree of culture thru the\nstudy of the classics.\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWhen the great discoveries in science were made and the wonderful\ndevelopments of this new field were organized into matter for study, the\ncollege curriculum was made into a sort of patchwork, samples of all\nknowledge were put into it, and it was assumed that the educated man\nwas one who knew a little of everything. It was soon discovered that\nthis plan had little value, because nothing could be done thoroly. The\nold classical curriculum was much better because it had continuity.\nThe next change in the curriculum was the introduction of the elective\nsystem. By this system it was the object to offer every student something\nthat he desired, which operation had the effect of greatly increasing college\nattendance.\nIn the enlarged college new problems developed. Because of the new\nproblems some colleges threatened to go back to the old fixed curriculum.\nIt is found that in large institutions about one-third of the students\nstudy because they like it; one- third study because they see some vocational end; one- third are in attendance because of the various affairs connected with the college, such as the social life, fraternities, and athletics.\nWith this last third little can be done.\nThe college student should study some one thing long enough and\ndeeply enough to master it. This special study subject should become the\nbackbone of his intellectual equipment. He should have at all times in\nhis college work competent and expert advice. No one is better able to\ngive this advice than the professor in charge of the subject which is the\nstudent's specialty.\nThe moral problems of the college center around the third who do not\ncome for any real purpose. Many of the faculty members do not care\nenough for the individual student. . They assume that the college student\nis old enough to know his own business and that he should be allowed a\nfree range. This attitude is not right. The faculty must not bow to the\nmorals of the student body nor the morals of any individual student. If\nindividual help and advice fails to induce the student to right action he\nshould be sent away from the institution and not allowed to menace the\nwelfare of the other students.\nSOME INSTINCTIVE ROOTS UPON WHICH THE TEACHING\nOF MORALS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS MA Y BE GRAFTED\nCHARLES\n\nE.\n\nRUGH,\n\nASSOCIATE\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nOF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY,\n\nEDUCATION,\nCAL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe invitation to the conference of the Religious Education Association\nto discuss this excellent report has caused me no little embarrassment.\nThe material prepared in the hope of helping promote the special interests\nof that Association was not foreign to the special interests of this Council,\nand was in perfect harmony with the spirit of this report, but after reading\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "427\nCouncil]\n\nMORALS\n\nIN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nthe report it seemed best to continue the discussion from the standpoint\nof the public school's immediate problem. Accordingly I celebrated the\nanniversary of our American independence by preparing another paper.\nIt was my first intention to spend the time commending some of the excellent features and recommendations of this report, but the spirit of the day\nseemed to give an independent turn to the discussion.\nThe American Declaration of Independence was founded upon what\nwere beHeved to be inalienable, inherent rights. The declaration of intellectual independence in Emerson's American Scholar calls upon us to do\nour own thinking, and to work out our own solutions to our own American\nproblems. Let us hope for a new Jefferson or a new Emerson who may\narouse us to the achievement of moral independence. In the moral life\nslavish imitation is suicide. The universe is a moral order. There are\neternal principles of morality, as true and imperative in Germany and\nFrance as in America, but one of these principles is the fact that each social\ngroup makes special demands upon the individual members. There is a\nlocal, temporal aspect to the problem of moral adjustment.\nI trust it is with due respect to Hegel and with due apologies to Dr.\nBrumbaugh that I make bold to suggest another analysis for the solution\nof the problem of teaching morals in the public schools. This analysis\nis not at variance with that of Hegel, but it looks in another direction. It\nlooks to the child's instinctive life and the social order in which it must\nlive, as sources of immediate suggestion of ways and means of moral\neducation.\nThe problem of moral education is to graft social forms and achievements upon the child's native tendencies. If this be the problem, the\nthree analyses required are: first, the individual child's native tendencies.\nHere we may now get some guidance from the achievements of genetic\npsychology. Second, an analysis of the present social order. In this\nfield history, social psychology and sociology are pointing out social requirements and social demands. Third, an analysis of the processes of developing self- and social control. For this analysis we must frankly admit that\nall the knowledge of the world has not yet yielded satisfactory guidance.\nThis last is the supreme problem of teaching and social reform.\nThis report does a great service to the cause of education by assuming\nthat the question whether morals be taught in the public schools is settled\nand that the problem now upon us is that of the system. I take it that\nthe descriptive term \"tentative\" applies only to the system, the means,\nand methods suggested. Here, too, I find myself in active disagreement\nwith some of the recommendations of the report. In paragraph 2, page 31,\noccurs the statement that the **old dogma, 'it matters little what you teach\na child provided it is well taught,' is giving way to a saner doctrine, 'what\nyou teach is of prime importance; how it is taught is secondary.'\" In\nmoral education the ''how\" a thing is taught is one of the chief factors in\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe \" what.\" The fallacy in the doctrine announced in this paragraph grows\nout of the monistic disease of making correlatives alternative. Probably\nthis disease comes from the focal nature of consciousness. When we speak of\nschool education, often when we think of it, we emphasize either the content\nof the curriculum or the method of employing it. But these are not alternatives, neither are they identical. Their relation is organic; neither can\nbe subsituted for the other; neither can be secondary. Moral education\nmust make both the \"what\" and the \"how\" the best — the only kind good\nenough for a child.\nThis statement is probably only a way of emphasizing the need of\nreorganizing \"the body of knowledge .... constituting the course\nof study.\" But we must remind ourselves at once that the \"how\" in\nteaching is the Ufe principle organizing and using this body of knowledge.\nWe may excuse this method of emphasizing the content of the curriculum\nsince in the next paragraph the report says that the \"still greater changes\"\nare not by \"accretions\" but in ways that are \"structural and fundamental.\"\nNow the structural and fundamental changes in education produce their\nresults immediately thru changes in the teacher's teaching consciousness.\nThe immediate problem of education, then, is to awaken the individual\nteacher to the consciousness of the responsibihty, the possibihty, the glorious\nopportunities for the moral development of each child. This responsibility and\npossibihty is upon the teacher without a single amendment to the constitution\nor by-laws, without a single new statute, without another resolution from\nthe board of education, without a new announcement from the superintendent or principal, without an addition to the curriculum, or without\nanother period in the program. Let this not be misunderstood. All these\nthings may aid in the movement, but they cannot cause it. When each\nteacher consciously and with determined purpose sets up good moral\ncharacter as the inspiring and directing aim in all her work, then there will\noften be another and different period in the program. Such a teacher\nmight keep the pupil in, not after school, without the principal charging\nher with \"failure to dismiss promptly.\" If principals and superintendents\nknew and felt their teachers working under such an impelling motive there\nwould be new kinds of announcements and resolutions of confidence and\napproval from boards, and new statutes and amendments. But in the last\nanalysis, these means can only be efficient thru their effect upon the individual teacher. Immediate improvement Hes in two directions:\n\nFirst, the \"supers\" — the superintendents and supervisors, including\nprincipals — ^must hold up and emphasize the super aims of education, and\nnot \"supervise teachers to death\" by prescriptions and regulations emphasizing details that crush out much of the personality of the teacher. In\nshort, school administration must become democratic in fact as well as\ntheory from the playground up to and including the superintendent's office.\nThe present demand for tangible, measurable results puts a fearful stress\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nMORALS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n429\n\nupon superintendents, supervisors, and principals, and they seem to satisfy\nthese demands easier by a kind of benevolent despotism, than by educational leadership. The difficulties are multiplied, and the prompting to\ndespotism increased by the fact that the subjects, that is, the children,\nare young, weak, and ignorant. In the presence of these immature children\nthe instinctive passion for rule and for bossing sooner or later — mostly\nsooner, gets the best of most of the teachers and principals. In the case\nof superintendents the school systems are increasing in size so rapidly and\nremoving the superintendent so far from the children that they are either\ndeveloping into the spiritual leaders of the teaching force or degenerating\ninto financial agents, or worse — ^poUtical agents.\nIn the main we must look to principals and teachers for the social\natmosphere in which the moral life of the pupil develops. The most\nimmediate Hne of improvement, then, is in the development of that insight\non the part of principals and teachers that will guide every aspect of the\nschool toward efficient production of moral character. The hopeful signs\nof the times are the eagerness and promptness with which principals and\nteachers apply solutions for this fundamental problem.\nA TENTATIVE\n\nSOLUTION\n\nFormal education may be described as grafting social achievements\nupon instinctive roots. . The primary, the strongest, and the longest continuing instincts are those serving to preserve our integrity, our wholeness,\nour holiness. In our bodies these tendencies favor health and growth;\nin our minds they work for sanity and development; in our social life they\naid morality and personality; in the soul they are the instincts for righteousness and immortality. We have instinctive longings for all these good\nthings, but the achievement of these *' goods\" cannot be trusted to instinct.\nHunger can be trusted to bring about the struggle for food, but the helplessness and ignorance of the child along with the increasing number of\nfoods makes it necessary for the mother to feed the child. A child's physical\nHfe and well-being is developed and insured by its being trained in correct\nhabits of eating and developing right principles of selection of foods.\nCuriosity is a kind of instinctive mind hunger. It can be trusted to drive\nthe child to seek information and knowledge, but in the complexity of\nthings and persons, curiosity cannot be trusted to select the best information and knowledge. Sanity and right-mindedness must be developed by\ntraining and instructing the child in ways of right thinking.\nThe child is a developing personahty because it has the social instinct\nfor fellowship and comradeship. We can trust this instinct to drive the\nchild to seek comradeship, pla3miates, and later a mate, but modern social\nlife is so complex, so cosmopolitan, that ^his instinct cannot be trusted to\nmake right selections and continue right social relations. The child's\nsocial well-being and morality is subject to the law of social development.\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nt^^tional\n\nPersons and institutions must select, exhibit, and enforce customs, standards,\nand values. The fundamental law here is that the grafting of social customs\nand standards must use buds of conduct thru development of right motives.\nBurbank does not graft fruit into the old stock, but a pollen grain or a bud.\nThe greatest fallacy in moral education has been the attempt to use adult\nstandards and customs as means of moral development.\nThe greatest single instrument in education is language. This fundamental law of socially implanting standards and this great fallacy of\nemploying adult forms is well illustrated by a child's education in language.\nA normal child is bom with the language instinct. It has the physiological\nand psychic powers and mechanism for language, but society must graft\nits achievements in language upon these powers. The child does not congenitally inherit French or German or EngKsh. He does not congenitally\ninherit pure or vulgar language. The forms of language and its purity or\nvulgarity are socially implanted. The good teacher of language takes into\naccount, first, the native tendencies of the child to self-expression; second,\nthe empirical accumulation of both good and bad content and form in\nlanguage; and third, the good teacher of language is inspired and guided\nin her own speech and instruction by the social standards of clearness,\nforce, and elegance.\nProbably the most general superstition in education is the belief that\nwords communicate ideas, and that if a child can finger or mouth a word\nin a sentence or definition, that the appropriate mind processes accompany\nthese mechanical processes. The extren^e form of this superstition is the\nbelief that if we teach children moral maxims formulated in good language\nthat these will somehow induce moral conduct. The child may use the\nword \"honesty\" correctly, may have committed to memory the maxim,\n\"Honesty is the best policy,\" and understand it in a literary sense, and still\nuse all the devices at his command to cheat in an examination. If words\ndo not communicate ideas, do not even express ideas, even when combined\nin sentences, what do they do ? The teacher who can answer this question\nhas the guiding insight for giving moral instruction. Consciousness is\nfocal. Ideas are the psychic aspect of this focus. Most of the ideas in\nthe child's mind are strung on a string of time in a serial order. Words are\nsigns of ideas. They can bring this idea into the focus of consciousness,\nso that language is the unique social instrument for formulating or organizing the child's experience after the form common inteUigence uses.\nWe have in language-teaching, then, a fine analogy for the processes of\nteaching morals, and also a fine example of the common fallacy of teaching\nthe \"letter that killeth\" and missing \"the spirit that maketh alive.\" But\nwe must come nearer to the problem of the means and methods for moral\neducation than an analogy. Superintendent Carr well states the chief\nunderlying principle of moral growth to be: \"to direct the fundamental\ninstincts of children in proper channels.\"\nHe has given a good list of\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nMORALS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n431\n\nfundamental instincts. Let me venture to supplement the report at this\npoint by an analysis of the last-named, that is, the social instinct, into three\nmore primitive forms, and indicate how they get moral significance and\nwhy they are indispensable means of moral education.\nFear, respect, and affection are three aspects of the social instinct. It\nis true that children fear other things than persons, but they usually personify the feared object, and even ascribe purpose and evil intentions to\nthe frightening cause. Respect is a polar correlative of fear, and is aroused\nby a sense of power and worth in another, but the sense of a power not\nlikely to cause pain or destruction. Affection is an instinctive, emotional\nbond between self and respected persons. Prophets and seers, Socrates,\nJesus, Wundt, and others announce these as fundamental moral instincts,\nbut when we look for concrete examples of these reactions or compare their\noccurrence in children of today with that of the children of former times?\nor with children of other nations, we cannot escape the impression that\nthe development of these fundamental instincts is on the decline. Of\nwhat is an American boy afraid, and what does he respect ? One of the\nmost enlightening processes is the examination of the cause of this change\nor seeming decline in the development of these elemental forms of social\ncontrol. The decline in the development of the fear reaction in children\nis because many of the things to be feared have disappeared — ^wild beasts,\nwild men, hostile races. Scientific knowledge and the general growth of\nintelligence is dispersing superstition. In general, knowledge of the\nparalyzing power of fear has caused it largely to disappear as a means of\ncontrol. Corporal punishment and pain as a deterrent is dying out. The\nsupposed doctrine of a horned devil and a fiery hell is being replaced by the\nreal gospel of the meek and lowly Prince of Peace.\nRespect instinctively looks to power and skill in others. It gets its\ndevelopment by contemplating these qualities in others. When children\nlived and worked with their parents, the parents exhibited knowledge,\npower, and skill that the children did not. All this contributed to the\nchild's comfort and helped satisfy his curiosity. These qualities were then\nthe foundations of respect of children for parents. In the present differentiated form of industry and efficient school systems, children soon\ncome to excel their parents in certain forms of knowledge, and soon are\nable to do things the parents cannot. In short, the basis, the stimulus\nwhich in more primitive times, in pioneer days, aroused this instinctive\nprocess, is gone, and if respect for parents is to be developed, it must be\ntoward other qualities found in the parents, and if parents do not exhibit\npower and skill of some kind, respect for them is impossible. The physiological basis of affection are changes in heart-beats, circulation, respiration, and general organic resonance. Th^primary causes are the physical\ncontact of the mother's body with the child's body, comfort and pleasure\naroused thru feeding, thru care, thru fellowship.\nIn short, physical,\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\npersonal presence is the prime condition of developing the instinctive phase\nof affection. The new economic order, social unrest, and present-day\nsocial life separates the mother and the child early and often. The common stimulus for discharging the instinctive, affectionate responses is often\nlacking. Affection on this basis is declining. The most important process\nin moral development is the transformation of these egoistic instincts into\nsocializing processes. The seeming decline favors this transformation.\nBy exercising the fear instinct a child develops the physiological and psychic\nmeans of fear and becomes conscious of how it feels to be afraid. This\nconsciousness becomes a check to action, a means of evaluating conduct\ntoward others. Conduct inhibited by fear of pain caused by persons with\npower to punish may be transformed by \"renewing of the mind\" into\nconduct controlled not by fear of pain to self, but by the idea of causing\npain to some person respected or loved. This altruistic or social fear\nbecomes a great moralizing force. Fear and respect are polar correlatives\nand something like an opposite process takes place in the transformation\nof respect into self-respect and reverence. The esteem for persons due to\ntheir power or worth to the self respecting them, comes to be transformed\ninto self-respect thru the consciousness of kind, and becomes the direct\nmeans of the child's developing the powers and skill respected in another;\nand self-respect is the foundation of moral control. The change and\nseeming decline of the development of fear, respect, and affection may be\nof great advantage provided we are wise enough to set about transforming\nthem into their moral forms. Indeed, the decline favors the transformation. The paralyzing, superstitious fear cannot be transformed into filial\nfear, but there is enough of the fear instinct left in all normal children to\nbe used as the basis of right respect and moral obedience. But moral\nobedience is only possible in a spiritual democracy.\nFormal respect gotten by fear of punishment can never be the basis\nof moral self-respect, because if the punisher is absent or the agent can\nescape detection, the fear disappears. Formal respect gotten by official\ndemand cannot be the base of moral respect because we cannot all be\nofficials. Moral respect must be based upon powers and values common\nand possible to all, so that the seeming decline of respect on the part of\nAmerican youths for persons, for officials, and for the law may be looked\nupon as giving great promise for a new democracy, provided we are wise\nenough to transform this instinct to respect power and worth into intelligent\nrespect for real power and eternal values. There is plenty of the instinct\nto respect power and skill in others left in every normal child to be used\nas the basis for this transformation. The stimuli for discharging these\ninstincts in former and pioneer days were largely found in the material\naspect of the family struggle for existence. The rising tide of life, due\nlargely to an era of surplus, has removed many of the causes of this stimulation. The new moral order will consist in stimulating these instinctive\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN\n\nCITY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n433\n\nprocesses thru intellectual and spiritual valuation. This must come thru\nfellowship of parents and teachers with children, not in producing and\nconsuming food, clothing, and shelter, but in producing and employing\nthe pleasures and values of social and spiritual life. The importance of\nthe development of fear, respect, and affection is due to the fact that\ntheir development is an indispensable condition for producing the social\natmosphere in which the moral life develops. Their development is\nindispensable for the development of intellect as well. The school subjects\nin the social form now presented to children are so formal as to require\nthe personal element to make them do their work. The multipUcation\ntable has neither form nor comeliness that children should desire it, but let\nit be the means of communion and fellowship with a teacher respected and\nloved, and somehow the respect for the teacher gives a new and even\npersonal value to the table. If, in addition, this respected teacher shows\nas she ought, respect for, and enthusiasm in, this great social achievement,\nand she leads the child to discover that by learning this table he comes\ninto the company of all intelligent people, because intelligent people know\nand use this table, then this formal multiplication table becomes a socializing agent, and may be used as one of the means in developing respect for\nthe truth. Still more are these social instincts the basis for teaching moral\nmaxims and rules of conduct and respect for law. The possibility of concrete application, the moral force and significance of formulated moraHty\ncomes not from the formulas, important as they are, but from the personal\nrespect and affection the learner has for the persons who practice and\nteach them. This is why the personality of the teacher is the most potent\nfactor in moral education. If a teacher is not moral it is unfortunate that\npupils respect her. The greatest single lever for raising the morality of\nthe youth of the land is to raise the respect of parents and the public generally for teachers. This probably means that teachers must be more\nrespectable in the sense that they must exhibit more knowledge, more\npower, more skill, and more enthusiasm. This requires more professional\nfreedom and vocational independence. This requires better salaries, longer\nand better training. All these must be brought about by better acquaintance and better understanding between teachers, parents, ofl&cials, and\nstudents. In short, spiritual co-operation is the indispensable condition\nfor the moral atmosphere in which all formal instruction must be done,\nwhether this be the alphabet or moral maxims.\nTHE\n\nIMPROVEMENT\nHARLAN\n\nUPDEGRAFF,\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\nSCHOOLS\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF\n\nIN SERVICE\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nIN CITY\nD.C.\n\nWhile this subject has been presented and discussed from different\npoints of yiew by some of the most able members of the National Education\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nAssociation during the past thirty years, it has never been considered in the\nNational Council. The improvement of teachers in service is now, and\nwill continue to be for some years, one of the most important problems\nconnected with the administration of city-school systems. During the past\nquarter of a century, a large body of experience has been gathered and a\nvast number of individual opinions, more or less haphazard and unrelated,\nhave been formed. Under any circumstances, it would be worth while to\nassemble these experiences and opinions, to secure as definite and accurate\ndata in connection therewith as is possible, to obtain an analysis of this\nmaterial by a competent body of men and women, and to present the results\nof such procedure for the guidance and help of all who are interested.\nThe writer of this paper does not presume to add anything to the body of\nknowledge or opinion upon the subject; if this paper has any virtue, it is\nbecause it describes in a general way the present situation from the point\nof view of the need for a thoro investigation of the entire subject, or of\nparts of it, by this National Council of Education.\nThe topic will be presented under three different heads: (i) general\nconsiderations; (2) existing agencies for improvement of teachers in\nservice; (3) incentives and related topics.\nThe justification for improvement of teachers in service rests upon two\ngroups of facts from which are deduced two fundamental principles.\nFirfet: The principles and practices, the theory and the art of education,\nare constantly undergoing, in common with all other phases of civiHzation,\nmodification and development. Likewise the field of knowledge in which\ninstruction is given, and the habits which education seeks to form, are\nalways changing. It is necessary, therefore, if the institution of education\nis to render its full service to humanity, if the pubhc schools are to perform\ntheir full duty in the promotion of civiHzation, that every teacher, in so\nfar as within his power lies, shall keep abreast of this development and\nchange. No matter what the initial equipment of a teacher may be, he\nshould be progressively efficient during his entire period of service. This\nmeans not that he should grow merely in those ways which are inseparably\nconnected with his own individual experience, but rather that he should\nprofit by the experience of the race in so far as it affects his own work.\nSecond: Many teachers are not adequately prepared when they enter\nthe calHng. Not a sufficient number of persons are attracted by the salaries\nand other advantages to furnish a sufficient supply of adequately trained\nteachers to fill the schools or to warrant adequate preparation being made\nfor the work. Furthermore, it does not appear to a large part of the public\nthat any particular preparation is necessary or that such service requires\nHberal compensation. We are in a transition stage in the development\nof a teaching profession, and consequently, in the training of teachers.\nTeachers who are not adequately prepared at the beginning of their period\nof service have a handicap to overcome.\nThey should, in justice to that\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN CITY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n435\n\nportion of the world's work which they are striving to do, remedy their\nlack of sufficient preparation, and in addition keep abreast of the current\nof advancement in educational thought and practices in so far as is possible.\nThird : If the improvement of teachers in service may be justified upon\ngrounds hke the above, it follows on the one hand that the state has a right\nto expect and to require reasonable professional advancement in all whom\nit employs in its pubUc schools; and on the other hand, that all teachers\nwho have a proper conception of their duty to the state will endeavor to\nreahze this reasonable improvement irrespective of whether the state requires\nit or not. The state and the profession should work hand in hand. The\nstate needs the expert advice of the professional teachers in conducting\nits educational system; the profession needs the state to furnish those\neducational agencies by means of which its members may be brought to a\nhigh standard of attainment.\nFourth: Under our form of government the central or state officers\nexercise relatively little authority in matters affecting the improvement\nof teachers in service except in the matter of certification, and most larger\ncities are freed from their control in this respect. The states do, however,\ncommonly provide universities and normal schools and other educational\ninstitutions which teachers, active or prospective, may attend. The\nresponsibiUty of securing protection against inefficient teaching, and of\nbuilding up those teachers who are inadequately prepared and of keeping\nthe entire corps in a healthy and progressive condition- is placed in our\nform of government upon local boards of education. The mutual obligations of the profession to the state and of the state to the profession must be\nworked out between the people of the community as represented in its board\nof education and the members of the educational body employed by it.\nFifth: As is true in every profession, the leaders have been most prominent in advocating and supporting among the teachers the things that would\nadvance all the members of the teaching body. Naturally, also the most\nprominent of these leaders in each city, has been the city superintendent\nof schools. On the one hand, it has been his advice as the chief educational\nexpert in its employ and as its trusted chief executive officer in educational\naffairs, that the board of education has largely followed in taking action upon\nsuch matters. Thus the superintendent has a double function, as a member of the profession, working among its members for their improvement,\nand as the expert agent of the state in recommending such regulations as\nwill best promote such an end. In other words, he has two influences\nwhich he can bring to bear to secure the improvement of teachers in his\ncorps, both of which are equally justifiable: first, as leader in a profession,\na democratic relationship; second, as an officer of the state, an official\nrelationship.\n^\nSixth: With a view to raising the dignity of the vocation of teaching\nso that persons of superior abilities would enter it and so that those already\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin the calling would be more fully warranted in improving themselves,\nlaws have been passed in recent years giving to teachers in certain cities,\npractically a life tenure and taking away the embarrassments connected\nwith recertification. Both of these classes of laws have removed certain\nstimuli that worked upon these teachers who do not have sufficient professional spirit to cause them to maintain progressive efficiency, or to remedy\ndeficiencies in professional preparation.\nSeventh: Following the movement for improving the teaching profession by removing some of its limitations in regard to tenure and certification,\ncame the movement of furnishing an incentive to teachers to improve their\nprofessional status in the form of increased compensation. Salary increases\nwere made dependent in part upon satisfying supervisory offices by examination or otherwise that certain amounts of professional or academic study\nhad been successfully accomplished. This movement in fact characterizes\nthe past decade in the history of improvement of teachers in service in\ncity schools. While not adopted in any considerable number of our cities,\nit exists in some of our best systems. In some cities, it has met and succumbed to the opposition of the people as influenced by the teachers who\ndid not favor it. I fear that thru this connection of improvement in service\nand of salary increase, just at the time when the cost of Hving was advancing\nso rapidly, has together with the creation of life tenure and of permanent\ncertification, worked against the development of right professional ideals\nin teachers who have, for one reason or another, become prejudiced against\nthose in legislative and executive control of the various school systems. A\nthoro, impartial study of the entire question just at the present time\nwould, in my judgment, operate to reheve this situation and at the same\ntime would greatly promote interest in the improvement of teachers in\nservice as well as increase the efficiency of the agencies used for that purpose.\nEighth: As the teaching body becomes increasingly professional in\ncharacter, more and more weight should be given the views of teachers\nin matters pertaining to their professional status and work. A careful\nconsideration of the opinion of teachers relating to improvement in service is\nmuch to be desired at the present time, and particularly the views of those\nwho are in fact professional in ability, in spirit, and in breadth of view.\nFor our present purposes the agencies now in use for the improvement\nof teachers may be divided into three classes: first, those that center in\nthe supervisory officers; second, higher educational institutions; and\nthird, voluntary co-operation among teachers.\nTo the first class of agencies belong the individual assistance given\nteachers by supervisors; the various types of teachers' meetings — grade,\nbuilding, and general; and \\dsitation. As regards the extent of our\nknowledge relating to the assistance given teachers by supervisors, all\nagree that the devices employed differ according to the knowledge, experience, and temperament of the supervisors and teachers concerned in each\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN CITY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n437\n\nindividual case. An attempt has been made to differentiate teachers into\nclasses from the point of view of the character of supervision required for\neach class. I refer to the classification of Mr. J. H. Van Sickle as given in\nthe Southern Educational Review.^ We need to know whether the classification thus made is applicable to city systems generally, and if not, what is\nthe best classification. We need also a similar classification of supervisors,\nbased upon inquiry and an authoritative statement regarding what each\nclass may generally undertake with each class of teachers in the way of\nindividual direction.\nAmong devices that are used by supervisors we know in a general way of\nterm plans, daily lesson plans, plan books, conferences, demonstration\nlessons, suggested readings, but it can hardly be said that the experiences\nof all those that know how to use these devices best have been brought\ntogether and conclusions based upon them for the guidance of those not\nso well quahfied to speak. We need also to know the best for each t)rpe\nof school system — for the large system with its large number of well-trained\nsupervisors, and for the smaller system with supervisors of less number\nand these more poorly trained; and, to obtain this knowledge, we must\nknow of the experience of these smaller cities in this particular.\nMuch that has been said regarding the individual assistance of teachers\n• Teachers in actual service and more or less in need of after-training may be considered in groups which\nomitting minor differences, are somewhat as follows:\n1. Superior teachers who need no stimulation other than their own ideals of excellence. By the fine\nstandard of work which they maintain and by their student-like habits they might, under favorable conditions,\nset the pace for the less efficient. With this group, supervision is chiefly concerned in gaining their cooperation inworking out problems and in making their skill serviceable to other teachers.\n2. Teachers possessing a good degree of executive ability and adequate scholarship of the book-learning\nvariety, who resist change because they honestly believe the old ways are better. They are patriotic defenders\nof the views and traditions and practices in which they were reared. The greater number of these will as\nstrongly support the new when fully convinced of its advantages; but in the absence of positive orders they\nresist proposed changes until absolutely conclusive demonstration is furnished in a concrete way. Supervision\nmust confidently accept these conditions and furnish the demonstration.\n3. Teachers lacking adequate scholarship or practical skill, or both, self-conscious and timid, because\nunacquainted with standards of work and valid guiding principles, desirous of avoiding observation, doing their\nwork in a more or less perfimctory and fortuitous way. Supervision needs to give these teachers courage by an\nexhibition of standards plainly within their reach and by personal work in their own schoolrooms.\n4. Tgachers lacking adequate scholarship or practical skill or both, but not conscious of this lack and\ntherefore imaware of any need of assistance. Some form of positive direction is here necessary in the first\nstages of supervision.\n5. Teachers yet in the early years of their service. They have, as a rule, had some professional training\nand from it they have gained one thing at least of value beyond all else: namely, a professional attitude toward\nthe work of teaching. Supervision should be able to concern itself chiefly in keeping these teachers in Class i\nso far as their professional attitude is concerned. There will, of course, always be differences among them in\nscholarship and personal power, but all should have guidance in kind and quantity adapted to prevent any of\nthem, even the weakest, from developing the characteristics of Class 2, Class 3, or Class 4. If these new\nrecruits are to be able to lead children to be open-minded, to hold opinions tentatively, to be sure but not too\nsure, to be willing to give both sides of a question a hearing before reaching a final conclusion, they must keep\nthemselves open-minded. To aid them in doing this, supervision will keep itself free from dogmatism even\nin dealing with the youngest teachers.\nTeachers of Class i, Class 2, and Class 5 are willing to have their work seen and valued by competent\nand trusted supervisors. People who know how to do a thing, or who sincerely think they know how, or who\nsincerely wish to learn how, are neither afraid nor reluctant to have their work seen by any fair-minded person.\nSupervisors must be both skillful and fair-minded, and their wolk must prove that supervision means help.\nHow shall the help be rendered ? The need to be met has been thus aptly stated by a skillful supervisor. —\nSouthern Educational Review, IV (February, 1907, to January, 1908), 225-26.\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nby supervisors is equally applicable to teachers' meetings. Should there\nnot be different types of teachers' meeting for different classes of teachers ?\nIn what ways may the abilities of superior teachers be made to contribute\nmost to other teachers in meetings in which teachers of varying abihties\ncome together? What kinds of teachers' meetings may supervisors of\nvarious types of ability rightfully attempt to conduct ? What is the value\nof each type of teachers' meeting for cities of various groups according to\npopulation? Should meetings be regular? Should they be compulsory\nfor all teachers, for certain classes, or for none? Upon these questions\nthere is a vast mass of individual opinion, written andunwritten, expressed\nand unexpressed, of supervisors and of teachers, but these have never been\nassembled, critically reviewed, and conclusions drawn therefrom as the\nconsensus of professional opinion.\nAs to visitation we know that there is a somewhat general practice of\ngiving teachers from one to four or more days per year for observing the\nwork of other teachers; that in some cities it is wholly voluntary, in others\ncompulsory to a degree, and that it is more or less closely supervised. A\ndefinite knowledge of the exact methods which prevail in cities of various\nsizes and of the results of those methods would be of considerable assistance\nto all engaged in the administration of schools.\nAmong the educational institutions which contribute to the improvement of teachers in service are the institute, the summer school and the\nsummer sessions of universities, colleges, and normal schools, extension\nclasses of such institutions, and correspondence courses. As the first two\nare attended almost entirely by rural teachers or those who hope to become\nsuch, consideration of them may be set aside in this paper. The following\nstatistics, showing the extent to which the other agencies exist at the present\ntime, are taken from the page-proof of a number of the Bulletin of the\nUnited States Bureau of Education, soon to be published upon \"Agencies\nfor the Improvement of Teachers in Service,\" by Dr. W. C. Ruediger,\nprofessor of Educational Psychology in the Teachers College of George\nWashington University. Dr. Ruediger reached the conclusion frpm an\nexamination of the catalogs on file in the Bureau of Education, that between\n25 and 30 per cent of the state normal schools have summer sessions continuing from five to thirteen weeks. The Hst includes schools in 26 states.\nThe most frequent length of session was six weeks. Presumably all who\nattended were actual or prospective teachers, but no statistics were available as regards even the number who attended.\nWe need to know: (i) whether they were urban or rural teachers;\n(2) their experience; (3) previous preparation; and (4) courses pursued.\nDr. Ruediger was able to secure very satisfactory statistics relating\nto the summer sessions of colleges and universities, altho his data are far\nfrom complete. In 1908, according to reports made to the Bureau of Education, 97 colleges and universities maintained summer schools, an average of\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN CITY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n439\n\ntwo to each state. In order to ascertain the percentage and classification\nof teachers in these schools, an inquiry was sent to 20 institutions, from\nwhich fourteen replies (all of them from prominent schools) were received.\nThe tabulation of these figures shows that 50 per cent of the summerschool enrollment was composed of teachers. Of the teachers, 7 per cent\nwere college teachers; 6 per cent normal teachers; 42 per cent high-school\nteachers, principals and superintendents; 41 per cent elementary teachers\nand principals, and 4 per cent rural teachers. Fifty-seven per cent of the\nsummer-school enrollment were working for degrees; the percentage of\nteachers that were studying for this mark of advancement is not given.\nThese statistics need to be extended both as to number of details and\nto number of institutions. One of the most important things to ascertain\nis what proportion of the teachers return to the same school system and,\nanticipating a subsequent topic, what modification of tenure and salary\nresulted from taking such courses. We need to know also certain fundamental things about the individual teachers who attended — to what class\nof teachers mentioned above does the teacher belong, previous experience,\nprevious preparation, course pursued, and if possible, the effect upon the\nteaching power in individual cases.\nSummer sessions of city normal schools are held in St. Louis and Chicago.\nThese are examples of city training schools which are accomplishing much\nfor the improvement of teachers already in service. The entire subject\nof the position of the normal school in relation to these teachers requires\ncareful consideration. It is not altogether improbable that the best solution of many of the problems relating to this subject can be reached thru\nthe city training-school when placed in proper relations to the other parts\nof the school system.\nExtension classes and correspondence courses of colleges. Universities,\nand normal schools are in many respects like the summer sessions from the\nstandpoint of the present discussion and may be investigated in a similar\nmanner. It seems that correspondence courses as a means of improving\nteachers are developing rapidly, and it is quite possible that if rightly\nmanaged they may be made of great benefit in this direction. Dr. Ruediger mentions thirteen colleges and universities and five normal schools as\noffering correspondence courses which would serve as agencies for improvement of teachers. In addition, there is the work of the private correspondence schools, concerning which very little is known.\nVoluntary co-operation among teachers in the formation of clubs for\nstudy- and reading-circles is common, but no careful study has been made\nof their plans of work and of the results obtained. Opinions differ as to\ntheir effectiveness as compared with the teachers' meetings directed by\nschool supervisors. The state reading-circjes are conducted primarily\nfor the benefit of teachers in the rural districts and towns, and except in a\nfew states the teachers in cities do not follow the readings laid down by\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntNational\n\nreading-circle work to the needs of cityof adapting\nquestion\nthem. The\nteachers\ndeserves\ncareful\nconsideration.\nAmong the incentives that are used to promote improvement of teachers\nin service are: (i) system of certification; (2) merit system of determining\nincreases in salary and elevation in position; (3) sabbatical years; (4) special\nfunds to aid teachers in promoting their efficiency.\nThe essential elements in a system of certification which promote\nimprovement of teachers in service are: first, the Hmitation of duration\nof certificates and of the number of times which a certificate of the same\ngrade may be granted; and second, making the additional requirements\nof each higher grade of certificate such that the teacher will have to improve\nin her professional and academic ability in order to secure it. A large\nnumber of states have incorporated this feature in some part — ^most frequently the lowest — of their systems of certification, but there are but\nfew cities which make use of their system of licensing teachers to bring\nabout this improvement. This plan has the advantage of making it clear\nto teachers that tenure of position is not conditioned only upon rendering\nefficient service upon the same plane upon which it was begun, but that\nthere are also certain advanced stages which must be met in due time.\nThe incentive thus becomes not a question of salary increase, primarily,\nbut of tenure of position. It is quite probable that one or more model\nplans of certification could be worked out, based upon experience of states\nand cities, which would work hardship in a minimum number of cases and\nat the same time greatly promote increased efficiency in the teaching corps.\nThe entire subject' furnishes a fruitful field for investigation.\nThe merit system of determining either in whole or in part increases in\nsalaries of teachers involves two features: (i) efficiency markings or success grades based on work in the classroom; (2) examinations to test\ngrowth in professional or academic knowledge. The strong, and in some\ncases the successful, opposition to each of these plans that has been met by\nthose who have had placed upon them the responsibihty for the conduct\nof schools — the school boards and their chief executive agents, the superintendents and district superintendents — makes it highly desirable that the\nuse of such means for promoting the improvement of teachers be studied\nwith the greatest care by an authoritative body.\nWith this question that of tenure of teachers is closely associated.\nLong tenure and permanent certification have been advocated as necessary\nprerequisites for the establishment of the profession of teaching. Recent\ndevelopments raise the question Whether in our zeal to give dignity to our\ncalling we have not advanced too rapidly. Would it not have been better\nfor those possessing the professional requirements to have endured certain\nso-called \"indignities\" in the form of re-examination and re-election than to\ngive opportunity for those whose professional ideals are relatively low to\ncheck the development of professional ideals and professional spirit? If\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN CITY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n441\n\na reasonable system of incentive and rewards fails to accomplish its object,\nmust we not of necessity return to the lower level of temporary certification and tenure in order to insure improvement ? This is in fact the crux\nof the present difficulty in certain cities, and it deserves our thoughtful\nconsideration.\nSabbatical years are allowed teachers in three Massachusetts cities —\nBoston, Cambridge, and Newton. The methods followed and results of\nthe use of this incentive in these three cities should be made known to city\nboards of education and the teaching profession thruout the country.\nLikewise the improvement of teachers in service that has resulted from the\nadministration of the Gregg bequest and other funds in Indianapolis, the\nSchmidlapp fund in Cincinnati, and the $250,000 fund in Pittsburgh\nintrusted to Dr. John P. Brashear, should be studied in order that those\nwho may be interested may have an authoritative source to consult regarding it.\nThe methods followed in the pursuit of such studies as have been indicated and of others connected with the general subject, should be worked\nout with the greatest care. In so far as is practicable the facts should be\ngathered in such form as to make them susceptible of scientific measurement.\nDISCUSSION\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — A city school\nsystem is in most cases like any other large plant — it must find and employ its help from\nthe sources whence these offer themselves. Having passed the minimum requirements or\nbecome legally certificated, they present themselves for assignment to duty.\nSome of them come with normal training and experience; some with only scholastic\ntraining and experience; some with only normal training; rarely with only scholastic\nknowledge. The beginner with \"professional training\" has yet to learn that actual,\nresponsible schoolroom teaching, coupled with the management of a class, is as different\nfrom \"normal practice\" as swimming in deep water is from going thru the swimming\nmotions lying on a table; the teacher of experience may have pulled the laboring oar in\na country school, in a village classroom where the conditions were more difficult and harassing, in a graded system where standards were low or where distorted ideas of values or\na poorly balanced curriculum had resulted in the formation of bad habits or left the candidate unable to do many of the things done by the teachers in a well-ordered system of\nschools. This product the management of a city school system must take and from it\nmust be fashioned, if the schools are to prosper as they should, a force of intelligent,\nindustrious, capable workers, able to do, in craftsman-like way, the labor of a journeyman\nteacher, and able to get on comfortably with the others working to accomplish the ends\nset for attainment in the system.\nWe shall make a mistake and shall be unreasonable if we expect teachers to be consiuned with zeal for improvement. They are, at bottom, human and much like other\npeople. It is only your true missionary, with the crusader's spirit, who is eternally\ndriven by the inner fires, whether he or she be preacher or physician, or housekeeper and\nmother, or teacher. Teachers are of a rather higher cl^ss, and of more culture, but the\njoys of life and its normal and proper comforts and relaxations appeal to them, much as\nthey do to the superintendent of schools or to the housewife or the mechanic or the\nmerchant.\nThey are generally willing; their employment is one which, by its oppor-\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ntunities and its contact with fresh young souls, is rather more likely than the usual to\ntouch their spirits with altruism. And yet they want their work made comfortable for\nthem; they do not want it to rest as an incubus from day to day. They like to have\nthe things to be done and the expected quality of performance made plain; if there is a\nbetter way than they know about, they like to have it pointed out; and if they do not\nseem to be able to follow the suggestion, they hke to have some one show them how.\nEvery school ^stem should, and, it is assumed, will have in it a large proportion of\nteachers experienced in its service, familiar with its aims and requirements and trained\nin putting these into execution. What school has not in it the teacher, or more than\none, who has the genius for teaching, who is an inspiration to the pupils, a restful friend\nto her fellow-craftsmen, to both \"as the shadow of a great rock in a weary land\" ? But\nthere comes every year into a school system of any size an influx of new help, indififerently\ntrained, or differently trained, whose methods and performance need a good deal of shaping\nup before the results are what they should be. And so, not only for these, but also because of the fact that new lines of work, more or less unfamiliar to all teachers, are now\nand then introduced and new and supposedly better methods given a trial from time to\ntime, the improvement of those already in service becomes a real and very present problem for every administrator of city schools.\nStructures rise upon foundations; the foundations upon which the structure of\nimproved work by teachers must rise is a thoro knowledge of the conditions of the work,\nboth in the system in general and in the rooms of individual teachers. No system of schools\ncan be administered or greatly improved from the oflSce or by means of bulletins and\ncirculars. ^ Where the city is so large that the responsible head of the system cannot himself visit and inspect frequently enough to know with substantial correctness what kind\nof work is being done every day in every schoolroom in every lesson, some one who represents him, and is charged with responsibility for the success of a part of the work, must\nknow these things for him. Teachers must not be visited or inspected so often as to hinder\nor embarrass them; but some one must know, and where suggestions or help are needed,\nthe suggestions or the help must be forthcoming.\nEnough general supervision will be required to cover the teacher's discipline and\ngeneral management, to see that ideals and standards are comprehended, that the relative\nimportance of studies and of portions thereof are regarded, and that the common subjects,\nwhich all teachers are supposed to be versed in and able to teach, if properly directed, are\nattended to.\nIn any large city system the special work of the primary grades and the number of\ninexperienced or inexpert teachers often placed in the upper classes of the primary grades\nbecause the difficulty of maintaining good order in the class is less, are likely to warrant\nthe employment of a supervisor for the special primary work and the training of these\nnew or unskillful teachers. At least until such time as practically all of our teachers\ncome to us as well versed in music, drawing, gymnastics, elementary manual training,\nand sewing, and such new subjects as there are now in arithmetic, reading, and the\nother common branches, it will be necessary to have special supervisors for these\nsubjects, as a matter of fixing standards, showing the way and training the inexpert\nteacher.\nSupervision by principals is an important link. We find many of these who are\nin the positions seemingly by accident, with no special quality to recommend them for\nit beyond a modicum of confidence and a sort of executive and perhaps disciplinary ability;\non the other hand, we have some who seem to have every grace of knowledge and skill\nand leadership, who can see and understand, show and train, lead and inspire their assistants, not only capable to be their guides and helpers in the commoner work, but in the\nspecial subjects as well. It is too much to hope or expect all or a majority of principals to\nbe of this latter class. Few have the talent or the training to give the skill of the special-\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nIN CITY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n443\n\nist in all of the lines of school work. As schools grow larger, numbering hundreds, sometimes thousands of pupils, the executive duties of the principal become so large that it is\nimpossible to follow out all the special work and its performance and the instruction of\nteachers in it, even if the ability were to be expected. So the principal may, without\nhumiliation or impropriety, depend much upon the various supervisory oflScers for the\ndetailed criticism and assistance of teachers. This much, however, the principal may be\nexpected to do: to become famihar with the general scope and plan of all the work in all\nsubjects in all the grades in his school; to be in each teacher's room often enough to know\nhow the work in each subject is progressing; and to consult with and help each supervisor to keep in touch with the work of each teacher, see that the plans are understood and\ncarried out by each teacher, and that the teachers are not allowed to overlook or neglect\nplans and instructions. By such careful and detailed supervision the principal, who ought\nnot to be expected to be a specialist in numerous lines, can amply justify his existence and\nthe existence of the position which he fills.\nThe statue was in the mind of the sculptor before it was hewn from the stone; the\npicture was seen of the eye of the painter's soul before it took shape upon the canvas;\nthe temple stood forth to the architect's imagination before its columns and arches sprang\nin stone. So the leader of teachers can do most for those who work with him if he shows\nthem the vision of their work, fair and excellent, for their appreciation and emulation.\nTo give ideals, to set standards, to show the proper finish and quality of workmanship\nis well; it is necessary. But there is another thing more important still: to awaken the\ndesire for realization, that the vision may jDecome the reality. And the most successful\nleader, who would do most to improve the teachers already in service, must touch the\nsprings which make his associates greatly desire to bring their work to its best quality\nin completeness and finish. It is not merely to plan wisely, to inspect carefully, to explain\nclearly, to illustrate skillfully; it is also the spirit of the leader which kindles a like spirit\nin the help>er and makes him the doer of the finest things because these are the goal of his\nhigh desire.\nJohn R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. — Some superintendents take themselves too seriously. They consider that they are the source of all\ninspiration and example to their teachers. The best way to help a teacher is to put some\ndirect searching question to her or make some fertile suggestion that will stimulate\nthought. Improvement will not come by following rules, prescriptions, or formulas.\nIt will come if teachers are given the opportunity for self-development and if the authorities place great trust in them.\nWilliam M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Washington, D.C. — ^There is no\nway to improve the teacher so surely and effectively as to see to it that she is an adherer\nto rules and ideals. This is intangible, and cannot be discussed, yet it must be realized\nif improvement is to occur.\nNearly every teacher must pass thru three stages: device, method, and philosophy.\nA realization of these three stages is essential to proper development and improvement.\nThru these three phases ideals are reahzed. In the lower stage, that of device, much good\nwork is done; however, if the teacher remains in this stage she becomes a mere marker to\nit, she must move out of it and into the method stage, and thru that into the last stage\nof philosophy, if she is to become the highest type of teacher. The real teacher must be\nable to give information, to illuminate her work, and to inspire her pupils.\nJames M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo. — In many school\nsystems the main trouble in the improvement of teachers is often in the principals and\nsupervisors. Many of these cannot be of help to the*r teachers. Some of them busy\nthemselves with the mere supervisory things connected with the school work and have no\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSome others cancel then: usefulness by giving\njust appreciation of the real teaching.\ntoo much direction.\n,\nEdwin S. Monroe, superintendent of city schools, Muskogee, Okla.— The distinguished superintendents who have preceded me have touched upon all the points\nI have noted for this part of the discussion, and all that is left for me is to emphasize\none or two features brought out.\nIn my judgment the most effective means of improving the teachers in the service\nof city schools is eflScient supervision. A teacher who is under the constant eye of an\neflficient supervisor, if she be healthy in body and buoyant in spirit will grow — her methods\nwill improve, her outlook will become enlarged, and her vision broadened. The beginning, therefore, of the improvement of the teacher is the improvement of the supervisory\nforce.\nThe most important factor in the improvement of the teachers is the principal of\nthe building. The principal must be a man or a woman who has scholarship sufficient\nto encompass the school problem. He must be kindly and sympathetic and be endowed\nwith all those qualities of leadership which inspire confidence and reUance in his directions.\nIt is the constant checking of error of method, the inspiring to do better on the part of\nthe teachers by a principal in whom the teachers have confidence, that will bring about\nsure improvement. No other force in the school is so potent, no other aid is so near as\nthe principal; and I would assign to his influence the largest measure of responsibility\nin the improvement of the individual teacher. No one can know the individual weakness\nbetter and no one is so close and constant to apply the remedy needed. The supervisors\nof special subjects would necessarily bring about one-sided improvement — improvement\nin their own special lines — but the principal is at hand to bring about symmetrical growth.\nHe is there to see that the means suggested by the superintendent are properly used and\nthat the largest measure of fruitage shall be secured from the equipment placed at his\ndisposal for the advancement of the teachers in his building.\nOf course on the shoulders of the superintendent falls the supreme burden in the way\nof suggesting and planning for the professional growth of his teachers. To do this he\nmust meet his teachers frequently and come into as close contact as possible with their\nwork. 'Tis true that most of his work is done thru the principals, but he must by personal visitation of the teachers at work find by personal observation that his suggestions and plans are being carried out.\n\nThe general teachers' meetings are his chief opportunity for establishing the policy\nof the schools and by his inspiration and leadership he must direct the professional improvement ofhis teachers. The kinds of teachers' meetings, the mode of conducting\nthem, the matters considered, etc., I shall not attempt to discuss. They will vary as\nthe demands of the local conditions vary. The superintendent must know the needs, the\nconditions, and measure up to the responsibility. He is the center of influence which\nshould permeate the whole system inspiring the teachers to nobler ideals, filling them\nwith enthusiasm for accomplishing their work each day better than the day before. He\nshould so direct his work that each teacher would feel the individual need and strive to\novercome the need by effort to fulfill it at whatever cost or sacrifice it may entail. Not\nonly should the teachers be made to feel their individual needs, but they must be made\nto understand their personal source of power and inspired to cultivate those faculties\nwhich bring individual success.\nThe superintendent must needs bring to his teachers the inspiration of other leaders\nthan himself in order to promote their improvement. He will, therefore, bring before\nthe teachers for addresses in the general meetings men who have accomplished something, especially leaders in educational lines. He will also bring to the attention of his\nteachers books and educational articles in magazines, periodicals, etc., that should\nbe\nread. Extension courses of lectures are valuable and well-directed courses of reading\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\nCouncil]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nNQRMAL-SCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\n445\n\nshould be planned. In whatever is done, however, the teacher's improvement should\nbe kept in mind — no work should be assigned for the teachers just for the sake of giving\nthem something to do. Nothing brings such joy and enthusiasm to the true teacher as\nthe knowledge of the principles underlying her work, and I have found that no amoimt\nof general reading, listening to lectures, investigating, preparing reports, etc., is considered burdensome that adds to her teaching power and special professional improvement.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n*\nI.\n\nPREPARATION\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nDAVID FELMLEY,\n\nOF CANDIDATES\nTRAINING\n\nPRESIDENT, ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL\nNORMAL, ILL.\n\nFOR\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe question before us may be understood in two ways :\n1. Shall high -school preparation be required of all candidates for normal-school\ntraining?\n2. What shall be the character of such high-school preparation?\n\nIn this paper both of these questions will be discussed.\nWith respect to their preparation, three classes of students enter the\nnormal schools. The first are high-school graduates. City trainingschools usually admit no other kind of students. State normal schools\nin regions where the high schools are well developed, or where public sentiment demands a high standard of academic and professional preparation\nfor teachers, usually plan their courses primarily for these, their most\nnumerous class of students. In such schools the percentage of men students islow. For causes well understood few young men graduating from\nthe high schools look to teaching as a vocation. If they do so, they are\nmore likely to enter the college than the normal school.\nThe second class comprises teachers of some experience. These are\nusually without full high-school preparation. Thru elementary schooling\nand private study they have attained sufficient scholarship to pass the\nexamination for the lowest grade of teacher's certificate. They have\ntaught in country and village schools. In most cases they have not taken\nup teaching with any thought of permanence. They have discovered\nthat they like the work and have discovered also their own limitations.\nThey resort to the normal schools, especially to the private normal schools\nand to the state normal schools with a large rural constituency, to obtain\nthe professional preparation needed to satisfy their own sense of responsibility and to admit them to the more desirable positions. These students\nare in many of our states the elect of our profession. They are selected\nfrom the great mass of untrained beginners by real personal fitness and\ndivine vocation. Here are the men who b^ome village principals, county\nand city superintendents.\nIt would be folly to turn these people away from our state normal\nschools by requiring high-school graduation as a condition of admission.\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWhere else can they go ? They are too mature to enter the high school\nalong with the fourteen-year-olds. They are not ready for college work.\nThe only doors open to them would be the private normal schools and\nprivate academies with their scanty resources and meager equipment.\nNo state can afford to exclude these really choice people from the ranks\nof its teachers or deny to them the fullest opportunity for adequate preparation. Until the state requires of all teachers four years of high-school\npreparation, the normal school should admit this class of students and\nprovide for them strong courses in the various branches of study along\nwith professional training.\nThe third class of students entering the normal schools range in years\nfrom fourteen to twenty or more, are without teaching experience, and\nhave not had complete high-school preparation. Of these the younger\nshould not be admitted. I should draw the line at sixteen for girls, seventeen for boys. Most students below this Hmit are still children. They\nlack the reflective habits, the concentration, the physical vigor needed\nto keep pace with older students of equal school preparation. Because\nof their immaturity they lack the professional interest and serious purpose\nthat should pervade the normal school, and can find better opportunities\nin a good high school. Above this age the conditions are similar to those\nobtaining with the preceding class, with the very important exception\nthat they lack the acquaintance with the problems of teaching that\nexperience has developed. The same rule should govern their admission to\nthe normal school. If under the law they may secure license to teach\nwithout a high-school course, they should be admitted to the state normal\nschool. If they are going to teach, the best opportunities for preparation\nthat they can use should be open to them.\nIt thus appears that the question of admitting students to the normal\nschool must be settled according to the laws in each state governing the\nminimum requirements for a teacher's Ucense. This in turn will be governed by the development of the high-school system, the rate of teachers'\nsalaries, and the public demand for well-educated teachers. The high\nstandards set by CaHfornia and Indiana will be adopted in other states\nas soon as the pubhc is convinced that a full high-school course represents\nthe minimum of academic preparation that the state can afford to accept\nin its teachers.\n\nThe next question is: What shall be the character of this high-school\ncourse ? With the growth of the elective system in our high schools, the\ndiploma has come to stand for any of a great variety of courses of unequal\nvalue in the education of the teacher.\nInasmuch as the elementary school deals with the elements of those\narts and knowledges that are fundamental in our civHization and of large\nvalue to people in every walk of life, the elementary teacher needs a broad\ncourse.\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\n447\n\nIn the normal school itself her time will be occupied with studies in\neducation, in psychology, in the principles and methods of teaching, in\nactual practice in the training school, in a review and reorganization of\nthe branches of study from the teacher's point of view, in a detailed study\nof the newer studies that are finding their way into the curriculum, and in\nstudies in sociology, economics, and literature that will nourish her deepening interest in our social problems and bring her to a true estimate of\nthe meaning and purpose of the school. Little time can be devoted to\nrepairing defects in early education.\nFirst, the teacher needs a broad equipment in the biological and physical sciences. The modern world is a world of applied science, and some\nknowledge of the nature sciences is needed everywhere and in all callings.\nBut the high-school science needed by the future teacher is not the course\nthat the university imposes upon the high school in the interest of future\nphysicians or engineers. Physics and chemistry should not be given over\nto physical measurements, to the verification of physical constants, or\nother quantitative work. What the common citizen needs is to understand the world about him, an explanation of the phenomena of nature\nand of industrial processes — of dew and cloud, of lens and mirror, of telephone and gas engine, of soap-making and oil-refining, of leavening and\ncleansing agents. We are now charging the teacher with a large responsibility for the physical education of the children, for due attention to school\nhygiene, and instruction in personal hygiene. But such instruction, to be\nrational and effective, must rest upon a knowledge of physiology, and of\nphysical and biological laws.\nBut the teacher needs this knowledge of science not merely for its\npractical and economic value. A large part of the joy of life comes from\na love for and an appreciation of nature. I have just spent a week with\na party of twenty-eight in the Yellowstone Park. All alike enjoyed the\ngeysers, the deep coloring of the pools and canyon walls, the great falls, the\nsapphire sky, the mighty forests, the deer and bears, and other conspicuous\nor novel phenomena; but as it seemed to me, the trip meant most to a young\nwoman in the party, a good botanist in the flora of the Middle West, who\nrecognized at every turn in new species the familiar genera of Illinois.\nAlong with this knowledge of nature we must put a knowledge of the\nways of men, of their modes of co-operation in institutional life. Institutions are to be known not merely in their present organization, but in their\nhistory. In fact, the chief value, if not the only value, of the study of\nhistory on the intellectual side is in order that we may understand our\ninstitutions as they are, what forces and conditions have molded them\ninto their present form. Do these conditions persist ? Would other institutional forms afford freer movement to the life of our people ?\nThe teacher should know arithmetic in its practical appUcations, and\nso much of algebra as contributes to a better insight into the unity of\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^National\n\nty\narithmetic. To this we must add enough of geometry to give famUiari\nsome\nand\nalgebra\nthe\nof\nMuch\nng.\nreasoni\ne\ndeductiv\nof\nwith the forms\nof the geometry now included in our high-school courses are quite superfluous inthe preparation of the elementary teacher. Mathematics obtained\nits footing in our coUeges and secondary schools chiefly thru the influence\nof John Locke. He beHeved that the chief function of studies is to train\nthe mind, not to nourish it; and that of all studies mathematics is best\nadapted to develop the reasoning powers. Both of these views are probably mistaken.\nIt goes without saying that the teacher should have a wide acquaintance\nwith our best literature, should appreciate it and love it. Literature is\nsupposed to consist of the best thought of the best men and women of all\ntime, set down in permanent and beautiful form. But literature, especially poetry, embodies the ideals of our race. In the poems of Homer\nand the psalms of David it was the chief vehicle of moral and religious\ninstruction for the two most influential peoples of antiquity. It appeals\nto the emotions, converts ideas into ideals, and determines the moral\nquahty of our reflective acts.\nThe teacher needs more than a broad acquaintance with much literature; she should be ready to quote hundreds of passages, especially of\nthe literature usually studied in the elementary school. For illustration\nand effective appeal nothing is more potent than apt quotation of this\nsort. While this knowledge and the power it gives should grow with the\nyears, it is evident that at the outset the teacher should have a generous\nequipment.\nEvery teacher should be a master of English, which means not merely\nthat her speech shall be grammatically correct and that she speak and\nwrite with clearness, coherence, and energy, but that she recognize bad\nEngUsh when spoken or written, and wherein it is bad. Many high-school\ngraduates speak badly because they think badly. Their thought is illogical, lazy, and incoherent, hence their language reveals these quaHties.\nOthers use slang, provincialisms, and ungrammatical speech. To form\ngood habits of speech in high-school boys and girls, every teacher must\nneeds be an EngUsh teacher. In no other way can the desired result be\nsecured; yet we find in our larger high schools a disposition to hold the\nEnglish department wholly responsible. It would be just as logical to\nhold the physiology teacher responsible for every case of round shoulders.\nThe teacher must read well and speak well, must write a good hand,\nmust arrange her written work upon the blackboard in logical and beautiful\nform. It is desirable also that she sing well and draw well, and that she\nhave fine manners. We all know that in the elementary school the teacher's own example in these matters of form is quite as potent in determining\nthe pupils' practice as any direct instruction can be. We know, too, that\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\n449\n\nthe time for forming good habits in these things is during the adolescent\nperiod — ^from the twelfth to the eighteenth year. Now> all arts are\nacquired thru practice under wise direction. There must be intelligent\ndirection by the high-school teacher, there must be patient drill and unremitting attention on his part; but above all there must be the stimulus\nof the fine example. As pointed out in the admirable paper of Professor\nRugh, Saturday night, the teacher who is respectable because of his genuine\nexcellence in these hues of worthy endeavor is the teacher who will win\nthe respect and confidence of his pupils.\nIt may seem to you that the program mapped out for the high school\nis a large one and can scarcely be attained under any conditions. The chief\nobstacle is the traditional element in our high-school curriculum. The\nGerman gymnasium and the English grammar school of the sixteenth\ncentury, the prototypes of the modern high school, set up as their distinct\naim to enable their students to write and talk like Cicero. They devoted\nthemselves unremittingly to this one end and achieved fair success in some\ncases. No high-school teacher would acknowledge this aim today. Yet\nthru the force of habit, the tendency to teach as we were taught and what\nwe were taught, the disposition to take the course of study for granted, as\npart of the divinely ordained system, we find high-school pupils devoting\n40 per cent of their time and energy to the study of a language that\nthey rarely master and which would be of no use if it were mastered.\nVarious reasons are urged for keeping Latin in the high-school curriculum.\nIt is said that translation is an admirable exercise in composition. Yet in\ncomparatively few classrooms does translation give any real command of\nidiomatic EngHsh. There is too much \"Caesar said himself about to be\nmade more certain.\" It is urged that the grammar of our language can\nnever be understood unless compared with another whose way of expressing things is different. The ancient Greeks developed all the great t)rpes\nof Hterature and became excellent grammarians and students of style\nwithout any study of a foreign language. In fact, I have riever found any\nadvocate of the traditional curriculum who had the courage to admit that\nin the absence of Latin we ought to invent some such language to set up\nas a dummy with which to compare our English forms of expression. It\nis urged that the study of Latin gives a knowledge of the derivation of\nthousands of English words. Then why spend so much time on inflections\nand Latin syntax? Six months' diligent work on Latin roots, prefixes,\nand suffixes will give one greater power in this field than the four years'\nhigh-school course in Latin. Moreover, the derivation of a word, while\noften curious and interesting, rarely helps us to a knowledge of its exact\nuse in EngHsh. Take, for example, the words \"biscuit,\" \"arrive,\" \"temperance,\" \"person,\" \"improve,\" or the leg^ terms \"venire\" and \"subpoena.\" The truth is the value of a word as a vehicle of thought and\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "450\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfeeling depends not upon its derivation nor yet upon what it denotes\nits mere dictionary meaning; it depends rather upon what it connotes and\nsuggests. If half of the time now given to Latin were spent in our best\nEnglish hterature, with equal fidehty and thoroness, the outcome in power\nand culture would be of far higher value.\nWe make much nowadays of the definition that education is a process\nof adjustment. Are we not in our high schools adjusting our pupils to a\nprimitive and obsolete type of civilization when we devote 40 per cent\nof our students' time to the study of the language, the literature, the government, the customs, the wars, the religion, and superstitions, of a people\nfor fifteen centuries dead, while we expect them to pick up incidentally\nthe greater part of the knowledge that will enable them to earn a living,\nto discharge their duties as citizens, and to serve their generation ?\nI would add that there are certain elements of personality that the\nhigh school may develop.\nThe high school may develop good habits of study. This phrase\nincludes the self-denial that turns a deaf ear to, the mere solicitations of\npleasure; it includes the love of excellence; it includes the appreciation\nof the things of the mind and real delight in learning, but it includes with\nthese conformity to the laws of mental hygiene. It means such analytic\nattention as seizes the main point of a paragraph and relates the attendant\nmaterial.\nLastly, the high school should develop students with genuine enthusiasm. They are educated most by what they love and admire. If they\nare bent chiefly on having a good time, as the phrase goes, on being \"popular\" with their schoolmates, they are not the best sort for teachers. But\nif they see some part, at least, of the world not only as it is but as it ought\nto be, and if they are wilHng to dedicate themselves to bringing this better\nday to pass, then there is hope. All this means, if it means anything, that\nthe high school should not be ruled by conventionaUsm, but by a spirit\nof buoyant and courageous optimism.\nn.\n\nJOHN R. KIRK,\n\nPRESIDENT,\nKIRKSVILLE,\n\nSTATE NORMAL\nMO.\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe question is a practical one. Some of its implications seem unsound.\nIts full and fair treatment includes consideration of the conditions and\npurposes of both the high school and the normal school.\nHigh-school conditions are critical and unsettied. The high school\nfeels keenly the needs of community life on the one hand, and painfully\nthe aggressive interference of higher institutions on the other.\nInstruction in the elementary schools is better organized and more\nefficient than in the high schools. Supervision of elementary schools is\nfar-reaching, efficient, and sympathetic. The high school is viewed from\nafar and criticized and hectored by fault-finders, novices, and self-appointed\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\n451\n\nsuperficial judges. It is neglected by public-school superintendents and by\nthem turned over to the manipulation of inspectors, visitors, and accrediting committees.\nInspectors and committees superficially measure the high school by\nthe number of its degree-holding teachers, and the investment in buildings,\napparatus, and appliances.\nThe high schools have grown remarkably and unavoidably because\nthey have been pushed upward and forced to grow, not by committees\nand inspectors, but rather by the inrushing masses from the elementary\nschools. Universal education gradually expands into secondary and\nhigher education. Our fathers builded wiser than they knew. They set\nthe age limit from five to twenty-one for common-school education, meaning little more than elementary education which children readily finish\nnow by the age of fourteen or fifteen. The children can carry high-school\nstudies from four to six years farther and graduate from the most extended\nhigh-school course by the age of nineteen. Natural forces, therefore, have\nin the main produced the great expansion of the high schools. But the\ninstruction in the high schools has been determined by other causes.\nThis paper seeks to recall simple facts. It casts no opprobrium upon\nanyone. Nobody's motives are impugned. No super-sensitive persons\nshould rise up and accept an undue share of responsibility for conditions\nor make any charges of muckraking.\nWe have approached uncomfortably near the control of the pubHc\nhigh school by a coalition of higher educational institutions. This coalition unwisely goes even farther: It aggressively reaches over and seeks\ncontrol of the normal-school curriculum and declares the Hmits beyond\nwhich the normal school should not go, and the narrow channels in which\nthe normal school should run. It would confine the normal schools to\nsuch a circumscribed curriculum that their graduates could never become\nhighly elB&cient teachers for schools of any kind. It would make of them,\nat the best, but schools for ''training\" high-school graduates about two\nyears, in mechanical routine, with a view to their becoming elementary\nteachers by imitation and drill.\nResponsibility for the best improvements in high schools belongs to the\npublic-school men and patrons. The gradual transformation of the highschool curricutiun has come thru receding and yielding by higher institutions and the insistent demands of high-school teachers, f)atrons, business\nmen, and the general pubUc.\nFor a long time the chief content of the high-school course was mathematics, dead languages, and belles lettres, with a little of modern languages.\nPopular demand forced an increase in modern languages. Laboratory\nscience was fought for long and hard. Last among the sciences comes agriculture, which, even in the Middle West, the higher institutions reluctantly\nrecognize in response to public demands.\nLittle by little the will of the\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nt^^^^»\"^^\n\nhome\npeople prevails and manual training is recognized. Now come\neconomics, art, music, and physical education.\nFacts show the trend of community sentiment and the obstacles met\nand overcome.\nSome high-school men, thoughtful, watchful, and earnest, feel and\nresent external domination; some oppose and struggle against it; some,\nin doubt, hesitate; some yield hopelessly to the inspectors and committees;\nsome acknowledge frankly that they have no real share in determining the\ndetails of the high-school regime.\nBut the high-school men have studied their own problems and know\nfar better than any others just how to control, provide for, and stimulate\nthe high-school children to the development of the best that is in them.\nHundreds of these men, from their own election, live their lives in the\nhigh schools. They have definite conceptions, desires, and sympathies.\nThey live in a concrete and real world. They see the gross bungling by\nrecent graduates forced into the high-school teaching corps without regard\nto efficiency in teaching skill, but solely by the support of well-intentioned\nyet unwise committees and inspectors. Again, the textbooks for high\nschools are in large measure prepared by college men, who organize the\ntextbook content from their own large intelligence, individual study, and\njudgment, on the basis of logical arrangement without regard for the psychological, personal, and social characteristics of the high-school student\nor the apperceiving bodies of knowledge in the mind of such student.\nWe are reminded that these college men once taught in high schools.\nThe investigation shows large numbers of colleges graduates to have had\nbrief and unsatisfactory careers in high-school teaching, to have declared\ntheir dissatisfaction with high-school conditions and opportunities, to\nhave returned to graduate study, to have worked their way into tutorships and ultimately into professorships, where a part of them engage in\ndictating to the high schools how things shall be done which they themselves couldn't do very well. The careers of a few of these men have been\nstudied.\nHere is an illustration: Two ambitious and well-known inspectors\nwere, prior to their inspectorships, peripatetic high-school teachers, principals, or superintendents, moving from school to school biennially, without\ntheir own consent. These men, and some others among the most persistent\nin dictating whai the high schools shall do, did not remain long enough\nin any one position thoroly to understand and appreciate the high school\nin community life. These men are scholarly, honest, and forceful men,\nbut how can anyone believe that men of this type can understand the high\nschools as well as the men that are living their whole efficient lives in the\nhigh schools ?\nOur condition is to some extent primitive. The facts can scarcely be\nstated without somebody becoming offended. It would seem, however.\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "453\nCouncil]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR NORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\nthat the Council of the National Education Association should be able\nto consider the facts and to support some form of clean-cut educational\ndemocracy in lieu of the belated monarchism that worries us.\nMen and women of ability, scholarly attainments, rich experience, and\nactive sympathies, living for and in the high schools; men and women\nwith skill and efficiency in instruction and control who have faithfully\nfor many years devoted their full energies to the high schools — these\npeople in an honest democracy should have the authority and the responsibility ofdetermining more than all others just what shall be done in the\nhigh schools.\nYet tradition, voluntary coaUtion, and increasing centrahzation of\nhigher institutions present obstacles which make it very difficult for democracy in high-school education to prevail.\nTherefore, in the interest of a \"square deal,\" I believe that all the\nrepresentatives of higher education and of technical and professional\neducation now having their hands on the high school, should take their\nhands off, disband their committees, and concede to the high schools the\nfreedom without which high efficiency is impossible. I believe that all\nthose now in higher education and in technical and professional education\nwho have not their hands already on the high schools should keep their\nhands off.\nThere is one permanent, safe, logical, fundamental principle of democracy in education applying to this question: It is that the high school\nshould be organized and conducted solely with a view to such instruction\nin the high school as is best adapted at each passing moment to the development of the adolescent high-school child most naturally and economically\ninto a somewhat higher and more efficient mental, physical, and moral\ncondition. The high school should be so conducted that the largest possible number of children of high-school age will desire to enter the high\nschool and remain in it until they have exhausted such of its resources as\nmay be helpful to them. The instruction should be so gauged as to exercise\nin the highest degree and stimulate to the greatest extent the best native\nand acquired capabilities of each and every high-school girl and boy.\nBut these things are impossible unless the high-school children can be\nfree from the handicap of external interference by institutions and by\nindividuals. There is a tendency in higher education so to standardize\nand classify our institutions as to produce some such caste as characterizes\neducation irf European • countries. There is a disposition to classify the\nhigh-school students prematurely, so that some, without financial means\nor social standing, will be coached and \"trained\" and specialized in the\nhigh school with a view to entering some lo^-grade, alleged normal school\nor city \"training\" school, and in the shortest possible time secure the\nreviewing and \"training\" and mental padding sufficient to make of them\nteachers for the masses in the elementary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ngraduates,\nThis standardizing scheme pushes certain other high-school\nm four or\nwhere\nities,\nunivers\nof\non\ndirecti\nthe\nwhose parents have money, in\nbecome\nmay\nthey\nzing,\nspeciaH\nand\nfive years of coaching and \"training\"\nn.\nvocatio\nhzed\nspecia\nother\nsome\nin\nor\ng\nteachin\nspeciaHsts in high-school\ndifferome\nwholes\nand\nnatural\nthe\nBut premature speciaHzation ignores\nentiation which should be allowed to take place in the last few months\nof the high-school course or even later. The high-school student needs\ntime to be tried in a variety of rather elementary studies and exercises.\nHe and his parents and his teachers have little conception of what he can\nbest do. He doesn't know himself and isn't very well known by his teachers or his parents.\nThe abnormally early differentiation and speciaHzation of our highschool students is largely influenced by a vicious doctrine creeping into\nAmerican education, to the effect that a half-educated person, trained\nand drilled in recipes and prescriptions and mechanical methods, and\nmechanical \"training\"\nrepresenring perhaps graduation from ofa short-cut\nthe children up to and including\nschool, will do very well as a teacher\nthe last day in the eighth grade, while a fully educated person, such as a\nuniversity graduate is supposed to be, must be secured to teach the children from and after their first day in the high school.\nInvestigation as to what the half-educated teachers can do in schools\nof any kind, as compared with the work of fully educated teachers, reveals\nunmistakably the unsoundness of this creed. It is discovered that if any\nperson with brief and narrow preparation can be endured as a teacher, it\nis the one who teaches mathematics or a foreign language in a secondary\nschool or college. If any teacher anywhere needs the incisive mental\nvirihty supposedly acquired in a college education and along with it an\nabundance of professional skill and abiHty, it is the person who is permitted\nto enjoy the rare privilege of teaching in an elementary school.\nThe two years' \"training course\" in normal schools should be abohshed.\nSuch \"training courses\" and most of the \"city training schools\" are\nagencies to arrest the development of young life. They are machines to\nprepare round pegs for round holes and square pegs for square holes.\nEach peg is useless, excepting for the hole it is made to fit.\nI beUeve some high-grade normal schools of the Middle West represent the best possible attitude as to the relation between high schools and\ntechnical and professional institutions, and also the attitude which normal\nschools should assume toward all education. I believe these normal\nschools typify the earlier stages of the ultimate scheme for the preparation\nof teachers of all kinds and grades. Such normal schools encourage very\nlarge freedom in the high schools. They comfortably ignore the trend given\nthe high-school students while in the high school. They welcome most of all\nthe alert, eager, versaUle, inquisitive, purposeful, industrious high-school\ngraduate who has learned to work with a will at the things that come next.\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\n455\n\nSuch normal schools are not at all satisfied with mere \"training\" courses\nin the doctrines and processes of teaching. They have discovered that\na good teacher of any kind cannot be made out of a typical high-school\ngraduate in the short period of two years. They have discovered that for\nthe present the minimum time in which to transform a high-school graduate into a reasonably good teacher of any kind is three school years. They\nhave discovered not only the utility, but the necessity of intermixing\nintensive academic studies of college rank with pedagogic studies. They\ncan't even trust the good college-union colleges to produce the type of\nmental virility in history, or literature, or mathematics, or science that is\nnecessary in a thoroly efficient, independent, resourceful teacher in the\nhigh-school grades or in elementary-school grades. Much less can the\nacademic attainments obtained in any kind of a high school now existing\nbe accepted as the basis for pedagogical instruction. The efficient and\nfree normal school guards constantly against the implications which are\ncontained in the term \"training.\" It is probable that the earlier masters\nin education used the term \"training\" with greater caution and with more\nlimitations than men in university circles now do. It is the well-settled\npractice of the best normal schools of the Middle West to devote nearly\ntwo-thirds of the student energy to academic studies of college rank, and\nbut little more than one-third of the student energy to definite professional\nwork and study. It is believed that the necessity for the policy of these\nschools is well demonstrated. These normal schools will take care of themselves.\nThe efficient normal school is in no sense a college, tho it is of college\nrank. It may include everything that a college can possibly do. It may\nset the pace for the college in some things that a college ought to do. It\nis a new force necessitated by new conditions. It is unlike any other\nagency in our democratic scheme of education. Some illustrations make\nmatters clear: The normal-school student may take college algebra and\nanalytics to refresh his mind and sharpen his wits and to increase his power\nof mental concentration and to make easy and simple all the processes in\nelementary and high-school mathematics. Then in the concrete pedagogy\nof mathematics which every good normal school gives, the intensified\nknowledge and keenness of mind enable the student to deal readily with\nthe concrete phases of all elementary mathematics and with ready skill\nto apperceive, utihze, and for himself organize under the stimulus of skilled\nassociates and supervisors, his own effective ways of teaching and illustrating elementary mathematics down to the easiest lessons in the lowest\ngrades where any mathematics shall be taught.\nAs bearing distinctly upon our question: one high-grade and very\npractical normal school has, during the past decade, kept itself in very\nclose touch with the rural and village schools. Members of its faculty\nevery week in the year spend some portion of their time in public schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nm^Jor^^\n\nfollowed\nSeveral hundred high-school graduates of various kinds have been\nes\ngraduat\nthe\nthat\nred\ndiscove\nthru this normal school to graduation. It is\na terof the smaller and apparently more neglected high schools thruout\nritory ahundred and fifty by two hundred miles almost uniformly lead\nand surpass the graduates of those larger high schools where the ideas and\nrulings of inspectors and accrediting committees are closely followed.\nA variety of reasons may be discovered for the almost uniform superiority of the graduates from the smaU and isolated and neglected high\nschools. But there is not much of consolation in the results discovered\nfor those reactionaries in education who adhere to the doctrine of official\ninspection and the selection of teachers thru committees and officials of\nthe higher institutions.\nThe high-grade normal school of the Middle West deals with a concrete\nand real situation. All it asks of the incoming student is an alert and\nreceptive and quickly acting mentaUty. Its doctrine is to produce students\nand teachers with initiative and constructive ingenuity, who are not very\nimitative, who think Uttle about a method taught them, but who acquire\nreadily the habit of adaptation, of looking into the mind and character\nof the children to be taught, of having regard for the background in the\nconsciousness of the children, and for the apperceiving bodies of knowledge\nin the minds of the children, and for all the habits of action which the\nchildren have acquired.\nThe conclusion of this paper is that the professional school for the\npreparation of teachers should have little concern as to the curriculum of\nthe high-school student; that no one else understands the high school so\nwell as the principals and teachers who are living their hves in the high\nschools; that it is better for the high-school children and better for the\nnormal school and better for all education that the high-school graduate\nwho is to enter the normal school shall do so unbiased by the interfering\npreconceptions of anyone. It is enough that such high-school graduate\nshall be a virile, eager, anxious, inquisitive, curious-minded individual,\nwho comes like the undamaged film in the camera, ready for impressions\nand accustomed to reaction in view of the impressions and the situation.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala. — ^It is fortunate,\nperhaps, that the excellent papers just read have left the topic sufficiently vague and\nindefinite for ample discussion. They have not attempted positive conclusions. This\nwould be dangerous at a time when the curricula and methods of our schools are undergoing transition. I prefer to avoid hasty and dogmatic determinations and to let our\ncurricula remain fluent and adaptable to the demands of local conditions.\nIt is assumed that candidates for the normal school should receive a high-school\ncourse that should be, in some specific ways, different from the course of study provided\nfor others. This, of course, is a mere assumption. It is still a debatable question\nwhether the course for the normal-school candidate should not be a broad foundation,\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncUl\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\n457\n\nstrong enough to bear the weight and responsibilities of a normal course, a technical\nschool course, a university course, or the work of practical life. The increasing tendency\nto differentiation in our secondary curriculum certainly increases the complexity of the\nproblem confronting our smaller high schools.\nBesides, the difficulty of determining in the secondary stage the future career of a\npupil is not easily solved. No teacher is endowed with sufficient wisdom and foresight\nto justify the assumption of divine prerogatives and \"before the foundations of the\nworld\" — as far as the child is concerned — to foreordain some pupils for college or university, some for the normal school, and some for the work of life without further preparation. Serious life disappointments are too often the results of unwise and premature\ndecisions. For those whose time and opportunities are limited, it is agreed that the\nhigh-school course should be so adjusted as to meet the needs of practical life, but the\nscholastic requirements of those who contemplate teaching should be as rigidly insisted\nupon as the demands of the college or university.\nCandidates for positions as teachers in elementary schools, as a rule, are required,\nor should be required, to have a four-year high-school course or its equivalent, plus two\nyears of training in a normal school. It would seem that this should be the minimum\nrequirement. Two years in college should be accepted as an equivalent for the normal\nschool course, provided such course embraces education. For high-school work, it is\nrecognized generally, I believe, that college graduation or its equivalent should be required as a minimum condition of eligibility. In some cities that are favorably situated\nwith regard to university privileges, university graduation or its equivalent, including\na course in education, is required already as a condition of eligibility in applicants for\npositions as teachers in the elementary schools. While this is admittedly exceptional,\nit is nevertheless a desirable and a growing tendency. In some states that are blest\nwith normal schools, the trouble now is to get normal-school graduates who are equal\nin proficiency to the graduates of the high schools, when at least two years of normalschool work, superimposed upon a four-year high-school course, is sought as the immediate ideal. Too many of our normal schools admit pupils from the elementary school\nand turn them out as teachers believing that they are prepared for work in any school,\nelementary or secondary, a year or two before they could possibly complete any regular\ncourse in a good high school. This is admittedly wrong, demoralizing, and disorganizing. To perform its function in our system of education, the normal school must first\nof all recognize a good high-school standard, and should require for graduation, at least,\na course of two years beyond the high-school standard for graduation.\nMoreover, we need a greater degree of co-ordination between the work of the normal school and that of the college. A student leaving the high school desires to go to\ncollege, but has not the means to complete a college course. He hesitates about\ngoing to the normal school because the two years' work in the normal school will not be\ncredited for a degree in the university. If the graduate from the normal school finds\nthat after a few years of teaching, he can enter the university and receive credit for his\ntwo years' work, many would enter the normal school with university graduation as an\nideal. As a result, both our elementary and secondary schools would be the beneficiaries. The graduate of the normal school should be able to complete a college course\nin two years, if the normal school and the college are so correlated that waste and lost\nmotion are prevented. Besides, the university graduate, entering as a teacher in the\nelementary school, should be credited in the salary schedule with his two years of university work, just the same as two years of actual experience in teaching.\nUpon the assumption that the candidate for normal-school entrance while in the\nhigh school has no idea of completing a college course, I may concur in the sentiment\nthat certain studies should be emphasized in the high-school curriculum. The subject\nof English should unquestionably be magnified; stress should be laid upon biology in\nits more practical phases and applications; a strong course in history should be required,\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[i^^tion^X\n\nmore than\nand social science, including practical hygiene and sanitation, should receive\nthe stufor\nal\nfundament\nbe\nshould\ntopics\nThese\n.\nincidental and theoretical treatment\ndent who contemplates entrance into the profession of teaching thru the avenue of the\nnormal school. Admitting this, the question still arises, Are not these subjects equally\nthey\nimportant for the pupil who expects to enter college, or the counting-room? Are\nnot as vital and essential as elements of training for domestic, industrial, social, and civic\nlife as they are for the life of the teacher ?\nThere is danger today that the high school shall attempt too much differentiation\nand over-much classification in response to the insistent demands, on the one hand, of\ndiverse trades and occupations. On the other hand, there is danger in heeding the too\npersistent requirements of institutional interests. Unchecked differentiation in our highschool courses of study, to meet the immediate and simultaneous demands of the normal\nschool, the college, the technical school, the counting-room, and the shop, will have a\ntendency to make of our high-school courses meager and attenuated foundations for\nhuman lives that shall be proportionally narrow and contracted.\nWe must not forget that the average pupil in the high school is an unknown quantity; he is unknown to himself, to his parents, to his teachers. It is the chief business\nof the high school to enable him to discover himself, his tastes, his capacities, his possibilities. To this end, his course of study and his school activities should be adjusted\nand directed, and above all, energized by the spirit of the teacher.\nMrs. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. — ^That I should know anything\nabout the high-school preparation of candidates for normal-school training is a violent\npresumption upon the part of our good-natured president. At least this must have been\nthe thought of the member of this Council who asked me what in the world I knew about\nnormal schools!\nAfter the principal of the normal school with his expanding ideals, \"his intellectual\nand spiritual fullness that is so easily recognized \" — after the lecturer, after the psychologist, after the dean of the training school, the dean of the educational theory and philosophy, the critic teachers — after all these have done their best, and have sent the\nproduct of their multiplied efforts out into the world, then comes one who, in a most\nsignificant and vital way deals with this product — one who can truly say \"by their fruits\nye shall know them.\" For twenty years I had but one chief diversion in pedagogical\nexperience: to analyze, to dissect, to classify, and to create in willing young minds an\ninsight into teaching, so that young high-school graduates could do some work. If there\nis anyone who knows the value of trained teachers by whatever process, it is a principal\nof a grammar school. I have had the high-school graduates before taking normal training and after taking normal training — I know them by comparison and by contrast.\nThe situation as regards the teaching force of Kansas City is similar to that of many\nother rapidly growing cities. The demand for teachers is constant. We employ as many\nexperienced teachers from the outside as are attracted to us by the salary offered. In\nthe Kansas City field are many teachers of superior ability. But we have the contingent,\nincreasing each year, that has graduated from the city high schools, passed the teacher's\nexamination, substituted one year, and received temporary appointment as teachers.\nDuring the period of substituting, these beginners have learned a few devices. They\nare ahnost helpless if left to themselves. They have Uttle knowledge of children and\nlittle knowledge of the subjects to be taught. They belong to no school of thought,\nthey know nothing of the philosophy of education, or of its history, or of its principles,\nor of its practice. They begin substituting at a small salary and are put in charge of\na room. They have youth and personal charm, and what may be termed flexibility of\ncharacter; they are enthusiastic and eager to succeed. Their personaUty tides them\nover the period of their novitiate and if they remain in the service, they sometimes become\nvaluable members of it. But what of the interim that elapses before they become\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "459\nCouncil]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\nvaluable ? What of the undisciplined rooms, the indefinite teaching, the wasted energy\nupon non-essentials, the pupils standing idle in cloak rooms and halls, the unmotivated\nmonotony of routine, the habits of mental indolence fostered, the letting-down of standards ? I know these high-school graduates well — and rejoice to see them enter any course\nof training.\nAt the National Education Association meetings of 1908 and 1909 there was much\ndiscussion of the problems of normal schools, this discussion ranging from problems\nfound in every normal school to conditions highly ideal. Probably further consideration\nis thought advisable because of the difference of opinion still existing as to the function of\nthe normal school. Without side-tracking to the discussion we all agree that a normal\nschool is what it is: its \"isness\" is determined by its capacity, by its faculty, and by its\nability to place its product. We say its field of influence is the state, but it often goes far\nbeyond the state.\nIt is obvious that a normal-school training can only rest secure on a firm foundation,\nto wit: preparedness. Upon entering the normal its students should be fitted to do work\nbeyond high-school grade.\n\"Personal culture equivalent to a four years' course in high school\" may mean\nlittle or much. The question is: Does the high-school graduate bring to the normal\nthe requisite preparation ? He may and he may not. The modern high school deservedly stands high in the opinion of educators — yet many graduates of the modern high\nschool (even those having in view the profession of teaching), owing to hereditary influences, or environment, or mental indolence natural or acquired, or to the great number\nof electives, or to being taught by young persons fresh from college or university — owing\nto some cause not easily determined, have a frivolous, indefinite, scattered habit of thought\nwhich, tho possibly advantageous as a preparation for the ordinary activities of life, is\nvery detrimental to one in training for a teacher where disciplinary concentration is a\nnecessity. A sovereign need in preparedness for normal-school training is the habit of\ncorrect expression due to the ability to center thought, in teaching and in administration\na teacher's ability depends upon his power of concentration.\nYet the high-school graduate manifests a wild delirium of ideas which seem to run\nover each other. This does not constitute preparedness. It is, in my opinion, a weak\nspot for the high school or the normal school to overcome. This is not meant as a complaint. The poor, i.e., the receptive thought, we have always with us. In correcting\nthis situation the pedagogical expert will find here a field of opportunity.\nJacob A. Shaw an, superintendent of schools, Coliunbus, Ohio. — In considering the\nqualifications necessary to enter a normal school, one must take into account the essential elements of a good teacher — these are personality, scholarship, and training. Under\npersonality would exist those natural elements which constitute the born teacher, hopefulness, cheerfulness, tact, and love. \"As is the teacher, so is the school.\" A gloomy\ntemperament never wins or helps the child. Closely allied to personality is physical\nstrength and power of endurance. Without health, cheerfulness, vivacity, and enthusiasm are practically impossible. First of all, then, personality and good health should\nbe cc«isidered in the preparation of the teacher, and hence for entrance into the normal\nschool.\nA good strong four-year high-school course should be required. In preparing to\nenter the normal school, certain high-school subjects should be required; such as:\nA four-year language course, preferably Latin.\nA complete course in algebra and geometry; physics and botany, in science; music\nand drawing.\n•\nOn the cultural side, a full course in history, English, and literature is absolutely\nessential to a good teacher.\nIt is a rule in our own city to require an average standing of not less than 85 per\ncent thruout the four-year high-school course. Those who come from other high schools\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "46o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntNational\n\nthan our own must present credentials and give evidence that good preparation has\nbeen made in a preparatory school. A full equivalent of a strong four-year high-school\ncourse is required.\nIn these days of educational opportunity there is little reason for admitting anyone\nto the normal school, the gateway to the teaching profession, who does not have the personality and the academic preparation to take the training required.\nHomer H. Seerley, president of Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.—\nIn the state of Iowa the relations of colleges and secondary schools are in the control of\nthe State Board of Education, whose special function is the supervisory management of\nthe State University, the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and the State\nTeachers College. On account of this legal authority, the entrance conditions to these\nhigher educational institutions are uniform and the inspection and accrediting high\nschools is under the control of an oflBcer of this board called the inspector of secondary\nschools. Assisting this officer is a secondary school board composed of the examiners\nof these three educational institutions, which persons represent the varied interests and\nmake reports to the board as well as to the several institutions. In many respects this\nstate inspector is better than an inspector appointed by any one of the institutions, as\nhe represents a broader constituency and seeks the improvement of the high school more\nthan to act as an agent to soUcit attendance of high-school graduates at the institution\nwhere he is a recognized member of the faculty.\nSo far as two years' experience with this system can determine, the plan works well.\nIt gives the high schools a hearing that they much appreciate and it has broadened the\nscope of their courses of study so that modem subjects are permitted to form a part of the\nrequirements that are accepted for Freshman entrance. At the same time, whenever\nthe high schools desire modification or readjustment they are able to secure official attention. With such a plan the colleges are required to accept a graduate's quaUfications,\nif his high school is accredited, and also to adapt the courses of study they offer students\nto the conditions that universally exist. The normal schools are thus able to rely upon a\nreasonable uniformity of preparation and they can so plan their courses that each student\ncan have abundant opportunity to prepare for some special line of teaching in the most\nreasonable time. This will lead to the presentation of all kinds of teacher preparation\nand training and give the normal school a real and potent place in the educational system\nthat is often absent..\nThe fact is that the normal schools must become co-operating institutions that are\nrelated to the high schools on the one hand and to the universities on the other hand, so\nthat they have the recognition which their mission and their opportunities should confer.\n\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal of high school, Joliet, III.— This subject involves\nchiefly the answer to three questions:\n\n1. When do high-school pupils determine that they are going to attend a normal\nschool for the purpose of preparing to teach ?\n2. What do they expect to teach after receiving such training?\n3. In what kind of school do they expect to teach— grade school, high school, normal\nschool, or college ?\n\nUntil these questions can be fairly answered at the beginning of the high-school\ncourse, it will be impossible to give the training which may be agreed upon as best suited\nto the needs of the individual student.\n\nEvery high-school principal knows that even with all the assistance that may be\ngiven to the high-school Freshman, what he is going to do after he completes his highschool course is largely a matter of conjecture. Indeed, it is a well-known fact, that\neven in the best high schools, not more than 50 per cent of those who enter, graduate,\nand of those who say at the beginning of their school course that they are looking forward\nto teaching, probably half either drop out of the high school before they have graduated\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nADJUSTMENTS\n\nBETWEEN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND COLLEGES\n\nor change their minds and decide to do something else. But granted that the student\nknows upon entering high school that he is going to teach, yet does not know what he\nexpects to teach, the difficulty of determining what his course shall be in high school is\nstill a puzzle, because we are coming to believe now that specialization with reference to461\nvocational training and with reference to professional work may legitimately begin in\nthe middle of the high-school course.\nSo it seems to us, that it is both difficult and unwise to assign the same work in high\nschool to a young man who expects to teach manual training in the grade school, and a\nyoung woman who expects to teach kindergarten, or the same work to a young woman\nwho expects to teach domestic science either in the grade or high school, and to a young\nman who expects to be a village principal.\nAgain, the course of study certainly ought to be modified to some extent for these\nyoung men or young women, some of whom expect to teach in the grade school, others in\nthe high school, and still others in the college. For those who are looking forward to\nteaching in the grade school, the course of study ought to be extensive; for those who are\npreparing to teach in high school or normal school, the course of study ought to be both\nextensive and intensive, and for those expecting to teach in college, the course of study\nshould be somewhat intensive.\nSince the difficulties involved in the ideal answer to these three questions are under\nour present system very great, we shall probably continue to receive in our normal schools,\nthe graduates of four-year high schools and adjust the preparation to the conditions which\nthen present themselves.\n\nNEEDED\n\nADJUSTMENT\nAND\n\nI.\n\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY, PRESIDENT\n\nBETWEEN\nSECONDARY\nCOLLEGES\nOF THE UNIVERSITY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF MAINE, ORONO, ME.\n\nIn order to consider this question adequately, it is necessary to keep in\nmind four important factors: the college, the secondary school, the community, and the individual. Any attempt at adjustment that leaves out\neven one of these factors can be neither satisfactory nor permanent. The\ntraditional order of the factors places the college first. It is probable that\nthis order will soon be reversed. However, for the purpose of discussion it\nwill be maintained in this paper.\n. The origin and development of the college course is so well known that\nit is unnecessary to review it at this time. We should, however, remember\nthat the old college course was Umited to a few subjects which were studied\ncontinuously thru a number of years. Most of these subjects had been\nbegun in the preparatory school. We should also remember that the college\nas an institution has been very conservative and very strong in its opposition to change. New and modern subjects of study have had to fight for\nrecognition. Altho much of the older conservatism has given way, traces\nof it still remain. In many institutions the A.B. degree is considered\nsuperior, even tho some other degree requires more work. Quite a number\nof entrance points are required upon whicA no college work depends.\nIn the earlier days of the college but few requirements were made for\nentrance. Boys were prepared to pass the entrance examination by the\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nminister or by some individual who devoted himself to private instruction.\nAs the facilities for preparation increased, the requirements of the college\nexpanded in order that its own work might be more advanced. About the\nchurch or the home of the private instructor there gradually grew up schools\ndevoted to the preparation of boys for college. In order to meet its own\npeculiar requirements, the college sometimes estabUshed a fitting-school of\nits own, or became the patron of some private or church-established preparatory school.\nThe high school, supported by the pubUc, is of recent development.\norigin it patterned after preparatory schools or the private academy.\nits\nIn\nIts course of study and spirit were in harmony with the entrance requirements of some one or several colleges. Within the last twenty-five years,\nand more especially within the last dozen years, the public high school\nhas had a remarkable growth. No phase of pubUc education has shown\nmore vigor, and no period of school life has received more careful thought\nfrom inteUigent men. With its splendidly trained teachers and its great\nband of enthusiastic students, it is now an educational force that must be\nreckoned with. For it the day of dictation from the outside is about over.\nThe growth of the high school and its importance as a factor in human\ndevelopment, have aroused great community interest. The cost of highschool education is great enough to attract the attention of the taxpayer.\nThe increased complexity of community Hfe and the keen competition in all\nlines of activity, have made apparent to all the need of more intelKgent\nand better-trained citizens. Students of the high school have not been slow\nto see how important it is that the institution serve the community more\nand better than it has in the past. Long ago, by common consent, we agreed\nthat an elementary education for all was necessary to preserve the community itself. We are now rapidly approaching a time when it will be the\ncommon belief that four years of study beyond the common school is just\nas necessary for the best interests of all. The common consensus of necessary knowledge today is certainly four years in advance of the requirements\nof our grandfather's time. If the high school is to meet present needs, it\nmust contribute the knowledge and power that the student will find of\ndirect value in his life-work. This program does not call for a complete\nchange of curriculum. Much of the old and established knowledge will\nalways be needed. The obsolete and useless should be ehminated so that\ntime may be found to give each student the equipment demanded by the\nlife of the present.\nWithin the last decade the individual has assumed an importance never\nbefore recognized. We are coming to beUeve that each one must have the\nopportunity to develop himself to the utmost. The powers and tendencies\nof two individuals were never exactly alike and they can never be made\naUke. The educational effort that is successful must recognize these individual differences and must give to each individual such attention as is\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "463\nCouncil)\n\nADJUSTMENTS\n\nBETWEEN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGES\n\nnecessary to make him realize his possibihties. The growing importance\nof the individual has had much to do in enlarging and diversifying the course\nof study in our high schools and colleges. Doubtless most of the future\nchanges will be made in order to guarantee better care of the individual.\nFrom the past we have inherited the notion that subjects of study differ\ngreatly in value. There are subjects which are supposed to contribute to\nscholarship. There are others that give mere knowledge or skill. We\nseem to forget that the great men of the past whose writings are now supposed to be the real sources of scholarship never took the time, possibly\nnever had had the opportunity, to know many things which we now deem\nnecessary. Our modern experience proves conclusively that there is no\ngreat difference in the value of subjects of study. Any subject really\nworthy of study, if pursued long enough, will give power and culture. No\nsubject can give either of these results if studied but for a short time.\nIt is unfair to compare the results of the study of Latin or Greek for six or\neight years with the results derived from the study of a modern language\nor science for a few months. Time and continuous effort are elements that\nmust not be omitted in making a comparison of values.\nThe college, proud of its long and splendid history and steeped with the\nconservatism that often comes with age, has looked upon its work as quite\nindependent of the great stream of education. The high school, receiving\nits support directly from the people, knows that its life depends upon a\ngreater service to the community and the individual. These two educational agencies have a good many points of difference that should be\nadjusted. A few of the more important ones are these:\nI. The high school needs greater freedom in the solution of its own problems.\nI\n2. The college should require fewer specific subjects for entrance.\n■^\n3. The college should arrange its curriculum so that within its walls all subjects of\nstudy may be begun.\n4. The college should enlarge its range of entrance subjects and lay greater stress\nupon quality and power.\nI\n5. The certificate system of admission to college should be greatly extended.\n\nNo phase of education can be entirely independent of other phases.\nThose giving their time exclusively to one phase of education are not\nthereby qualified as experts in any other. The greatest handicap under\nwhich the high school has developed has been the pressure from the college\nto determine its methods and fix its course. The college with its own\npurpose in view, and knowing exactly what it wanted of the student who\nshould enter its doors, has felt privileged to determine to a considerable\ndegree of detail the work of the high school. No adjustment of present\ndifferences can be made until the high school itself is given very great\nfreedom to determine its methods, its courses, and its field of activity. The\nhigh schools are ready to assume such responsibiHty. The teachers in these\nschools have been educated in the colleges and universities. They are\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nintelligent, well-prepared, thoughtful college men. They have recently\nturned their attention to the problems of their own work. If they are\ngiven freedom to work out the answers to their problems, one need have\nno doubt as to the final outcome. Such freedom will make the high school\na better institution. It will make it evident to the taxpayer that it is\nworth all it costs, because it will contribute to the needs of the community\nin which it exists and because of the opportunities it will give for individual\ndevelopment. Such a high school will build upon the foundation laid by\nthe grades, will make its work fit existing conditions, and will produce the\npower needed for successful college work.\nIt is the dream of almost every American parent that his son or daughter\nshall go to college. It is a fact that conditions are such that only a very\nsmall percentage of these dreams are reaUzed. The dream itself, however,\nhas great influence upon the selection of studies in the high school. So\nlong as the specific requirements of the colleges are so numerous as they\nare now, the prestige of the college-entrance course will induce many boys\nand girls to undertake studies for which they have no abiUty or for which\nthey are at the time too immature. A reduction in the number of specific\nrequirements would enlarge the freedom of the high school and make it possible to meet more perfectly the needs of the individual and to keep a larger\nnumber to the end of the course. Many concrete examples show that the\ncollege does not suffer when specific requirements are reduced.\nOriginally, certain subjects were required for entrance to college,\nbecause in the college these subjects were to be continued by all students.\nThe entering student needed to know Latin, Greek, and mathematics in\norder that these subjects might be carried on in college from just where\nthey left off in the preparatory school. Today there are in most colleges\nbut three subjects left that require specific preparation. These subjects\nare EngHsh, mathematics, and Latin. If Latin and mathematics were\nbegun in college, there would be no need of specific entrance requirements,\nexcept in English. This requirement seems necessary in order to insure\nfamiliarity with the mother-tongue. It is diflfiLCult to see why it is any more\nundignified for a college to teach elementary algebra and geometry than it\nis to give the first lessons in physics or chemistry. It is equally difficult\nto see why any greater harm would come from beginning the study of Latin\nthan now comes from beginning the study of French, German, Greek, and\nHebrew. The beginning of all subjects of study in the college would open\nthe college door to many who would profit much by the opportunity.\nThe range of entrance subjects has been greatly increased in recent\nyears. The increase, however, has not kept pace with the introduction of\nnew subjects into the high school. The list of entrance subjects should be\nas comprehensive as the course of the high school, subject to the conditions\nthat no course in the high school should be shorter than one year, that\nthe teaching should be of high grade and that the subject-matter itself\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nADJUSTMENTS\n\nBETWEEN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n465\n\nshould be well organized. The college allows a student a wide choice of\nsubjects after he enters. Why not allow him greater freedom in presenting\npoints for entrance ? Whatever one is to do in life he needs the discipline\nthat comes from long study of a few things. The high school should not\nplace its stamp upon a student, nor should the college open its doors to\nhim, unless he has pursued successfully the study of at least two subjects\nfor not less than two years each.\nIn the common schools a pupil passes easily and naturally from one\ngrade to another. The teacher of each grade must trust to the honor of\nthe teacher of the preceding grade for the quality of the students sent up\nto him. No good system of schools would allow the teacher of the fifth\ngrade to determine how many fourth-grade pupils should be promoted to the\nfifth grade. The eighth-grade teacher certifies those who are ready for\nthe high school. There was a time when the secondary school held entrance\nexaminations. It did this, perhaps, under the mistaken notion that because\nits own product was not accepted, it could in a way get even by refusing\nto accept the product of the school below it. Today the high school practically everywhere accepts students by certificate from the grades. In a\ngood system of schools it is as easy for a boy to step from the eighth grade\ninto the high school as it is for him to pass from the seventh grade to the\neighth. The high school has not suffered because of this arrangement.\nIndeed, it seems that one of the elements contributing to its rapid growth\nhas been its adjustment to, and recognition of, the school below it. In\nmany states the relation between the state colleges and the high schools\nis almost as close as that between the high school and the grades.\nGeneral certification of high schools is desirable for many reasons, but\nespecially because it will make the relation between the high school and the\ncollege intimate and easy. General certification is already completely\nestablished in a few states, and has assumed large proportions in others.\nThere are but two large barriers in the way of its complete adoption — the\nlack of agreement as to the definition of a high school, and the tradition of\nthe old and privately endowed institutions.\nThere is already general agreement that the high-school course should\nbe four years in extent, that a high-school unit should consist of daily work\nin one subject thruout one year, that every student should take at least\nthree units in English, and that the completion of fifteen units should be\nrequired for graduation. There ought to be general agreement that no\ncredit for less than one unit should be counted toward graduation. Foreign\nlanguage, mathematics, science, and history are so well grounded as subjects ofstudy, and so intimately connected with life's activities, that every\nhigh school ought to give an opportunity for at least three units in each.\nThese subjects and English should constitute what the colleges would\nrecognize as majors. The requirements for graduation should include two\nmajors of three units each, one of which should be English, and one other\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n466\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^^^tional\n\nmajor of two units. This gives considerable freedom in the selection of\nmajors and perfect freedom in the selection of seven units. Under such a\nplan the high school could serve well the individual, the community, and\nthe college. The graduate of such a course would be fitted to be a wageearner or to do successful work as a Freshman in college.\nState universities and a few privately endowed institutions will not offer\nopposiserious opposition to such a program as has been outlined. The real past\nare\ntion will come from those institutions in wliich the traditions of the\npublic\nThe\ndirect.\nnot\nis\npubUc\nthe\nto\nty\nstrong and in which responsibiU\nhigh school is now so strong and so well entrenched in public esteem that\nit can afford to ignore much of the opposition of the college. That it\nwill do this, and that the college will ultimately be compelled to accept its\ngraduates, no one conversant with the present educational trend doubts.\nII.\n\nG.\n\nW.\n\nA.\n\nLUCKEY,\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nPROFESSOR\nHEAD\nNEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nIf I am to add anything worth while to the message of the morning it is\nbecause my thought and experiences shall help you in some way to see more\nclearly the problem that confronts us.\nWe have reached a stage in development wherein we are beginning to\nrealize that something is wrong with the machinery. It does not ring true.\nThe gearing needs adjustment. There is danger of explosion and loss of\nHfe. The wastes are already known to be enormous.\nIt is much easier to discover wrong than to right it. But the teacher\nmust do both. I am speaking to a body of experts most of whom have\ngiven the problem long and earnest consideration. Together we ought to\nbe able to make some suggestions that will have lasting value. A clear\nstatement of the problem is the first step toward its solution.\nThe fundamental problem which we have to solve is the meaning, purpose, and development of life. Our topic covers but a small part of a larger\nand deeper subject. Unless we are able to see in perspective we cannot\nhope to give the true solution to any phase of this greater subject. As seen\nin organic evolution, at least in the earlier stages, life is naturally progressive, changing with growth from lower to higher forms. This does not\nexclude the possibility of retrogression and is, I think, equally true whether\nwe consider growth in plants, in animals, or in man. So far as is known\nlife exists only in and thru an environment, and takes on, or changes with,\nthe features of that environment. We speak of this force as the law of\nadaptation, and note its workings thru the laws of variation and natural\nselection. Man, by taking advantage of these laws, has been able to adapt\nplants and animals more quickly to his needs. But these are the laws\nof life and affect men the same as they do plants and animals. Hence\nwe must have them in mind when we come to consider what shall be the\ntreatment of the boy and girl in any part of development.\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "467\nCouncil]\n\nADJUSTMENTS\n\nBETWEEN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND COLLI\n\nWhen we come to the solution of these problems we do not differ so\nmuch as our words seem to indicate. What we have in common is far greater\nthan what we have that is different. Our submerged self is many times\ngreater than that which is seen. Language is a late development and mayor may not touch the soul vitally. When we really see the deeper truth\nthat is within us we are not far apart, however crudely we express it.\nLife is a great spiritual force which man is able to take hold of, use, and\nby a sort of mutual interaction, adapt to his needs. Thru the working\nof this force man is brought into relation with the whole plant and animal\nkingdom. He is subject to the same physical laws. Knowledge pertaining to the one field will be helpful in the other. It is this unity of lifeforces that one must see in order to adjust the parts to the whole.\nIt is not ea^y to give a satisfactory definition of education. It covers\nsuch an extensive field. We are apt to think of education as both static\nand dynamic — as a product and a process. In the first instance, it is the\ngathering and the transmitting of knowledge ; in the second, it is a matter\nof progressive adjustment, of individual development — a feeding of the\nsoul. In the latter sense, education is the giving of form, efficiency, and\ninitiative (a dynamic action-system), to an organism or group of organisms\nwhen they are growing.\nWhatever our concept of education I believe we agree that all true\neducation is individualistic — a growth or development from within out.\nTo awaken the individual consciousness and to teach individuals to see\nand to live aright is the chief purpose of education. This thought must\nlie at the bottom of all true instruction. True teaching always deals with\nuniversals. The material of education is always past experience — something that has been, not necessarily what is, or is to be. The material is\nalways accumulating and soon becomes too great to be acquired by any\none mind. Besides its acquisition may tend to draw us away from the\npresent and separate us from real Hfe. Each teacher is apt to feel that what\nhe has experienced is all-important.\nAt birth the child is possessed of life and certain inherent qualities;\nwhat more he takes on. must come thru his environment. This is also\ntrue, in a more hmited sense, of the plant. Nature gives it roots for purposes of growth. Man has special organs. When the roots are injured or\ndestroyed new ones take their places, not so with the special senses.\nIn the education of the people there are two things we can trust — in the\nphysical world the laws of nature, in the spiritual world the common sense\nof the people — social consciousness. We can never get far away in our\ncharacter-building from public opinion. Neither can the high school\nbecome far removed from the interests of the community and live.\nNo one can truly teach what he does n*t live. In language, in history,\nin art, in science, we can teach the past only by living it again in the\npresent.\nIn the race as in the individual there are psychological moments\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nor inspirational periods when life seems richer and truer than at other times.\nSuch periods in the civilization are the ones we desire to store in memory\nand to Hve again in thought and action. These are the culture periods\nthat furnish us with the best product of our civilization and inspire us to\nnoble needs. But in order that this material shall be of any value it must\ntouch the soul and become reincarnate. No amount of memorizing and\nrestating unappreciated facts will aid one to see, appreciate, and live the\nbest life of the twentieth century.\nThe children of today are the rulers of tomorrow. Today they are in\nour keeping but tomorrow we shall be in theirs. It matters little whether\nit is my subject or yours that is found to be of waning value. The trust\nis too great to permit of quibble.\nWhat I have endeavored to bring to your mind, is the prder and unity\nof Ufe. There is an individual unity and a larger racial unity, or even\nworld unity — an individual whole and a community or social whole.\nWhen we feel, think, and do, it must be as individuals. The initiative\nmust come from within. We can train animals but we must educate\nchildren; in the former we Umit or destroy individual initiative, in the\nlatter we stimulate it and increase self-direction.\nIndividuals are born with the possibiUties of life but are in no true sense\nliving. They must be awakened and made to see the great possibilities\nthat lie within their grasp — opportunities that are meant for them alone.\nTo enable them to see their places in the world order is the problem of the\nteacher. Unless the teacher sees this order he may hear lessons but he\ncan never teach. When he sees the child in its past, its present, and its\npossible future he will have less difficulty in determining the nature and\norder of the subject-matter to be used. He will be interested in, and concerned with, the child thru every step of its progress. The expert gardener\nis not interested in the particular tree per se, but he is interested in its\nheritable characteristics, its past, its present, and its probable future.\nHow much more should we be concerned with the whole child.\nWe can only truly determine what is the best education for the individual in the high school when we know the individual, and further know\nwhat has gone before and what is to follow. We must not forget that the\nschool is estabhshed for the child and not the child for the school. Each\ngrade or step from the first to the last must be conceived as a part of a\nlarger whole, and planned with reference to the particular needs of the\nindividual child. When this is done in the grades the high school can well\nafford to accept the product, and when this is carried out in the high school\nthe college can equally well afford to take the product.\nThis will necessitate a complete reorganization of our present school\nsystem. But I think the time is ripe for it. Take a single illustration:\nWe have recently discovered that all human beings are vitally connected.\nWe are links of one mighty chain — what injures on^, indirectly affects all.\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADJUSTMENTS\n\nBETWEEN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n469\n\nWe are apt to think that this condition was always true; altho we, in our\nignorance, did not know it. This, however, is not the case. It is a condition\nthat has been brought about in recent years by the advance of science and\nthe changed social and commercial relations. The primitive man contained\nbut little in his soul that was vital to his neighbor. His death meant little\nloss and more food for others. Wars of extermination were the natural\nproducts of the age. Today the arteries of trade and commerce, of science,\nHterature, and art are bringing us rapidly into a world-whole. Arbitration istaking the place of war. No one under the present system can live\nwithin himself. Ignorance and low motive is dangerous to all whether\nfound in the train-dispatcher, the engineer, the bank teller, the preacher,\nor the teacher.\nDoes it not seem surprising that knowing as we do the great changes\nthat have occurred in civilization and social life, we still persist in using\nthe same curriculum that was used in the Middle Ages? If to educate\nmeans to put the individual into touch with his environment, certainly the\nstudies that were best fitted to put one in touch with the mediaeval environment and its aristocracy cannot be the studies best fitted to put one into\ntouch with the twentieth-century environment and its democracy. Quoting\nfrom a former paper:\nIn harmony with the laws of physical development there seem to be at least four\nrather clearly marked stages of mental development. The first covering the period from\nbirth to six or seven; the second extending to fourteen; the third to eighteen or twenty;\nthe fourth continuing thru the rest of plastic life. There are overlappings and some elements and needs common to all periods, but the distinctions are sufl&ciently marked to\nbe carefully noted in all true education.\nThe first is the kindergarten period, in which the child thru the exercise of instincts\ngains intelligence and acquires a limited amount of muscular control. As Froebel has\nsaid, it is the period par excellence for rendering the inner outer. The second is the period\npar excellence for gathering simple facts, concrete material: for gaining fundamental\nmuscular control and acquiring the use of the fundamental instruments of education, e.g.,\nreading, writing, diawing, music, numbers, and the elements of language, and science.\nThe third is the period of youth, the period of organization and construction, of generalization and the perceiving of relations; the period of transition from boyhood to manhood,\nfrom being self-centered to altro-centered. The fourth is the period of specialization,\nof research, of purer and clearer thinking, and of constructive willing. It is the time of\nservice, of vocational activity, of the Master's business and the world's work.\n\nIf we have rightly characterized the different , stages of development,\n,the high-school period stands out as the most trying and vital of them all.\nIt is a period of rapid change, of ideation and castle-building — a struggle\nbetween individual consciousness and group consciousness — between selfishness and service. It is a period when the student is old enough to do\nracial harm but not old enough to foresee the results of his acts.\nBecause the period is so vital, our high* schools should enroll all the\nchildren of the community of high-school age instead of only one-twentieth\nof them. The teachers of these institutions should be free to work out\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n(National\n\ntheir own salvation according to local needs and the immediate interests\nof the child. I believe when we understand one another this is virtually\nwhat we all want.\nI have suggested what seem to me to be the common elements or\nabsolute essentials to be required of all children in the elementary grades.\nThese are the instruments that are to unlock the granaries of civilization.\nIn acquiring the use of the instruments of thought and expression the child\nwill be brought into contact with much useful knowledge. The bright\nchild, in good health, ought to do this elementary work in six years, the\naverage child in seven, the slow child in eight. This would bring the average\nchild to the high school at thirteen. With a standard high-school course\nof four years, the average individual would be ready for college at seventeen. If the bright boy and girl are able to finish the high-school course\nin three years, which I think is feasible, then it would be possible for the\nextra-bright child to be prepared for college at fifteen, the bright child at\nsixteen, the average child at seventeen, and the slow child at eighteen or\nnineteen.\nWhat shall be the high-school course ? I shall permit the high-school\nteachers of the various communities to answer. They know or ought to\nknow the peculiar local conditions better than I. But in closing I am\ngoing to make a few suggestions which I think ought to be and will be\nacceptable to the college and the high school alike. \"\nWhat shall constitute the entrance requirements of the college ?\nExamining the curricula of the various secondary schools today we\nfind a great variety of subjects and these will doubtless increase as we ease\nup somewhat on the \"fitting-for-coUege\" idea. The most prominent of\nthese subjects can be grouped under the following heads:\n1. English.\n2. Foreign Languages— Greek, Latin, German, French, Spanish.\n3. Mathematics— Beginning and Advanced Algebra, Plain and Solid Geometry,\nTrigonometry.\n\n4. History and Social Science — Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modem History, English\nand United States History, Civics, Economics.\n5. Physical and Biological Sciences— Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Physiography, Agriculture, Physiology, General Biology.\n\nFrom these subjects I think we are justified in making up the entrance\nrequirements somewhat as follows:\n1. The student should show the completion of at least fifteen units of credit from an\napproved secondary school, three of which must and four of which may be in English.\n(A unit represents the equivalent of one course carried for one year, recitation periods\nof not less than forty minutes occurring four or five times per week.)\n2. At least two units should be required in a language other than English, and if but two\nunits are offered they should be in the same language.\n3. He should be required to offer at least one unit from each of the following groups:\n3, 4, 5. This is for the sake of variety and balance.\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nADJUSTMENTS\n\nBETWEEN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n471\n\n4. He should be required to offer at least three units in some one of the above groups\nother than English.\nThis is to give continuity of thought.\n5. The remaining five, or possibly six, units should be accepted from work credited in any\napproved high school toward its diploma. There is possiblity of abuse here but I am\nwilling to trust the good sense of the high-school men and women.\n6. No credit for less than one-half unit should be accepted toward college entrance.\nThis scheme provides for nine or ten of the fifteen units as follows: three in English,\ntwo in a foreign language, at least one in each of the following groups : mathematics,\nhistory and social science, physical and biological sciences, and one or two units additional tobe selected from some group other than English to complete the requirement\nof three units. The additional units to be left provisionally in the hands of the approved secondary school. When the high schools have carried their students thru\nthe work as indicated above, the colleges should open their doors to the graduates and\nencourage them to enter by every legitimate means.\n\nThe limit of this paper will not permit me to give the reason for the\nentrance requirements as herein indicated, but from beginning to end I\nhave had in mind the immediate needs of the high-school boy and girl\nfor which the schools are established.\nSince writing the above my attention has been called to the revised\nentrance requirements of the University of Chicago, and the report of the\nCommittee on the Articulation of High School and College: I agree in the\nmain most heartily with both.\nIII.\n\nOTIS W. CALDWELL,\n\nASSOCIATE PROFESSOR\nOF\nCHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nBOTANY, UNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThe New Plan of Admission to the Colleges of the University of Chicago\nI. Present situation. — The modern public high school has now become\npractically an autonomous body. It has been studying the needs of\nsecondary-school education from the broadest possible point of view with\nits relations to colleges as one of the many questions to be considered.\nSecondary-school education was never so efficient as it now is, and there\nnever was a more wholesome relation between secondary schools and\ncolleges. It is generally recognized that the influence of colleges upon\nsecondary schools has in the main been wholesome, and that the present\nhigh standard of secondary-school education is in a measure the result of\nthe relation that has existed between these educational institutions. The\nperiod of college dominance in any unfortunate way is practically over.\nThe colleges were never so anxious to articulate their work with that of\nthe high school, and never so ready to recognize the peculiar function in\neducation that must be met by high schools. The present attitude is one\nof co-operation, not of dictation. The college has found that it needs to\nstudy the purposes and methods of the secondary school, first, in order\nto be of any assistance that it can in the investigation of the general problem\nof the education of the people; and second^, in order that it may learn\nhow to do its own work in a more effective way. The college needs the\nassistance and friendly criticism of secondary-school people in the more\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\neffective administration of the earlier years of college quite as much as the\nsecondary schools need the friendly co-operation of the college men in\nincreasing the efficiency of the secondary schools.\n2. General principles related to high-school organization. — There are principles that are now generally agreed upon, and these should furnish us a\nsound basis for further co-operative study of secondary-school work.\na) The needs for a democratic education of people of secondary-school age demand\nthat the courses and methods of the high schools should be those which will give the\nhighest degree of efl&ciency to high-school pupils whether or not they are to go to college.\nThis education should make young people worth while to society.\nh) Good training in English, which is the nation's language, is needed by all of\nthe people.\nc) A sufficient intensive study should be made of one or a few lines of work so that\nthe pupil may secure a standard of scholarship. Some elementary notion of how knowledge grows and an appreciation of the difference between what we know and what we\ndo not know should be established. This may be secured by sequences of courses in\nthe same general field. This is the principle of intensification.\nd) Not only do we recognize the principle of intensification but also the distributive\nprinciple. There should be at least an elementary acquaintance with the great divisions\nof the world's knowledge — as mathematics, science, history, literature, modern language,\nindustry. The high-school course should introduce its pupils to as many of these fields\nof knowledge as possible.\ne) It is also fairly generally agreed that subjects should be so presented that they\nmay appeal to pupils as having an appreciable significance. The worthwhileness of\nknowledge is stimulating to pupils of high-school age and enhances ideals of scholarship\nas well as of practical life. Civics, language, science, vocational subjects, etc., do not\nlose but gain when their material and methods enable the student to see that these subjects bear a direct relation to practical life.\n\n3. The college needs students who can do effective work. — ^Whether a highschool graduate goes to college or goes into some other activity, he should\nbe tested by his ability to do something that is worth doing. If the college\ncan devise means whereby it may test students upon the basis of their\nabihty to do work as the world tests them, it will have a better method of\ndetermining college entrance than the bookkeeping method which has so\noften prevailed. Furthermore, it is fairly generally agreed by foremost\nstudents of the question that the kind of high-school course which has\ngeneral significance to pupils gives the best foundation for students who\nare going to college as well as for those who are not going. It has been\nargued that students who are not going to college should have a more\nfully significant course than those who are going. It may be quite as\nreasonably argued that students who are going to college need the same\nkind of course. Thru perspective gained by means of meaningful highschool courses, their notion of the relation of college studies to what is\ngoing on in industries, commercial life, etc., is maintained in a better way\nthan if their high-school course has embodied only those academic studies\nwhich have been required of pupils who go to college. It would seem that\nthis should allow the best foundation for work for all.\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nADJUSTMENTS\n\nBETWEEN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n473\n\n4. The principle of continuation of the first years of college work with the\nwork of the high school should he recognized. — When the pupil leaves the\nhigh school and enters the college with its somewhat more free atmosphere,\nits different points of view, methods of instruction, social environment, it\nis of advantage if he may continue lines of work in which he has already\ndone something and in which he has found an ability to work well.\n5. The needs of students in the first years of college demand that more\ncareful attention shall he given to methods of instruction. — ^The lecture method\nwhich was recently so prevalent in college seemed necessary when instructors must present to their classes a large amount of material which was\nnot available in reading material to which the classes might be sent. Such\na situation will always be more or less prevalent, but when the lecture\nmethod is used with lower classes it sometimes occurs that the instructor\nmerely recites to his class in a somewhat unstimulating way and the class\nattempts to secure sufficient notes by means of which they may later come\nto an understanding of what the instructor presented. Real teaching of\nelementary students necessitates that there must be a co-operation between\ninstructor and students to the end that students may think consecutively\nand effectively concerning the subject in hand. It has been well said that\n\"Sometimes the material from the instructor's notes passes from the\ninstructor thru the student's pencil point to his paper without the information entering the head of the instructor or student.\" Dynamic thinking\non the part of the student is to be sought, and the means of bringing that\nabout should be more carefully considered in the college, as well as in\nhigh school.\n6. Based upon the above and other considerations the University of Chicago\nhas recently passed legislation hearing upon the relations hetween the high\nschools and the colleges of the University and upon college curricula. — ^This\nlegislation is the result of two years of study given to the question by a\nspecial curriculum committee. That part of the committee's report which\nbears upon college entrance follows:\nStudents applying for entrance to the University of Chicago present by certificate\nfrom approved schools or by examination 15 units of entrance credits. Among these\nmust be 3 units of English and in addition i principal group of 3 or more units, and at\nleast I secondary group of 2 or more units. These additional groups may be selected\nfrom among the following subjects:\n1. Ancient Languages (Greek and Latin), it being understood that to make a group\nof 2 or 3 units the work must be offered in a single language.\n2. Modern Languages other than English; to make a group of 2 or 3 units the work\nmust be offered in a single language as under group i.\n3. Ancient History, Mediaeval and Modern History, English History, United\nStates History, Civics, Economics.\n4. Mathematics.\n^\n5. Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, General Biology, Physiology, Physiography,\nGeneral Astronomy.\nIn group 5 not less than i unit may be offered in either Physics or Chemistry. Any\ncombination of the subjects within each group is permitted.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[National\n\nOf the IS units offered for entrance at least 7 must be selected from the subjects\nin groups i to 5. Not less than \\ unit may be offered in any subject.\nThe remaining five units may be selected from any subjects for which credit toward\ngraduation is given by the approved school from which the student receives his diploma;\nbut Greek, Latin, French, German (or any language other than English), Mathematics,\nPhysics, and Chemistry, if offered, but not as above under i and 5, must each consist\nof at least i unit. Latin may not be continued in college unless at least 2 units be offered.\nSUMMARY\n\nOF\n\nENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n3 units of English.\n3 or more units in a single group, 1-5.\n2 or more units in another single group, 1-5.\n2 units in subjects selected from any of the groups, 1-5.\n(Total 10 units in English and groups 1-5.)\nS units selected from any subjects accepted by an approved school for its diploma.\nNot less than \\ unit will be accepted in any subject.\nEntrance with conditions is no longer permitted.\n\nThe plan for curricula within the colleges which was a part of the\nreport from which we have just quoted involves a very careful examination\nof the work of the first years of the college course. We propose to grade\nour students so that the inefiicient may be eliminated early in the course.\nWe propose to accept the graduates from our co-operating schools and to\ntest these schools thru the efficiency of these graduates. During each of\nthe last two years more than one hundred students were eHminated because\nthey were unable to carry work in the proper way. While it is the desire\nof the University to have those students who can work effectively in so\nfar as its facilities will permit the University to care for them, it must be\nunderstood that the University proposes to increase the standards of scholarship by this careful method of inspection of its own work; also the University has invited secondary-school men to visit the university classes,\nto inspect the nature and efficiency of the instruction, and to make report\nto the administration. The reports from secondary-school men will be\nmade the basis of the program for the next annual conference between the\nUniversity and its co-operating high schools, to the end that both University and high school may have the benefits of co-operative inspection and\nconstructive criticism. The plan adopted further provides for sequences\nof courses running thruout the four years of the colleges, and details of\nthat statement may be had by those who desire them.\nDISCUSSION\nArthur H. Chamberlain, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. — For years the\nmatter of a closer articulation between secondary school and college has been under\nconsideration. For the most part, however, generahties have been indulged in. President Aley, Dr. Luckey, and Dr. Caldwell have been clean-cut in their statements today\nand the report of this session will be a valuable contribution. Professor Davis has set\nforth the new Harvard plan and the report of Mr. Kingsley on \"Articulation of High\nSchool and College\" has been most illuminating. The new program of \"Entrance and\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nADJUSTMENTS\n\nBETWEEN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGES\n\n475\n\nCollege Requirements of the University of Chicago,\" as reviewed by Professor Caldwell,\nwill be far-reaching in its effects.\nCriticism of the university by the high school has in the past been indulged in frequently. Itcannot be denied that, with all its domination, the university has been no\nsmall element in raising standards of high schools the country over. Moreover, in many\nrespects our universities are more liberal than are the high schools themselves.\nAt last the time has come to adjust relations and stop talking adjustment. We\nmust cease preaching articulation and begin to articulate.\nAt the expense of being dogmatic and misunderstood I shall, in the interest of time,\npresent to you several propositions.\nThese propositions I shall be pleased to support.\nProposition i. — ^There should \"be a closer union of interests than now exists between\nthe secondary school and college. This is a truth universally understood, generally\nadmitted, but seldom practised. To prove it is beside the mark. The man or woman\nwho does not recognize the inadequacy and weakness in the present relations is enjoying\nto the full the educational slumber-time of the Middle Ages. To awaken such would be\na crime.\nProposition 2. — To square with the advance thought of the time, both secondary\nschool and college must set their courses toward a common goal. This end must be not\nonly preparation for Ufe but for hving today. Education fits for service; hence it must\nbe vocational in the broad use of that term.\nProposition 3. — ^To meet this requirement means that the university must open its\ndoors to every boy and every girl competent to receive instruction therein. The college\nmust, therefore, offer larger opportunities for election. The student must directly, or\nhe must indirectly thru those responsible for his welfare, elect his major or chief subject\nof study, instead of having this thrust upon him by the college. From related groups\nof subjects his advisers should then assist him in selecting the remainder of his course.\nThe choice of the major will, in large measure, determine the other subjects to be taken.\nProposition 4. — ^The university shall recognize for entrance any subject pursued\nsuccessfully in a secondary school of good standing, be that subject Latin or blacksmithing, geometry or domestic science. No definite subject shall be specified for entrance\nsave English alone. Instead of prescribing the subjects that shall be presented for\nentrance, the college shall take the students as handed over to it by the high school.\nIn the same way the high school shall accept all pupils coming as accredited representatives of the grammar school.\nProposition 5. — No teacher, man or woman, who has not had experience in the secondary school should, under normal conditions, be on the instructing staff for Freshmen\nin the colleges. In the same way no teacher lacking grammar-grade experience should\ninstruct the entrance high-school class.\nProposition 6. — The so-called accrediting of secondary schools by colleges must be\non the basis of quality of work done, not of the number of subjects offered in the highschool curriculum. The standard of such secondary school may be determined by the\nprogress and fiber of the students as exhibited in their college work. Moreover, the\nproficiency of the secondary school is determined by the general character of its work,\nthe spirit of the school, and the ability of the pupils. In brief, what we speak of as\n\"atmosphere\" is the determining element. The completion of a particular subject or\na final ranking in certain required courses is not necessarily a test of fitness.\nProposition y. — Instead of pushing down into the high school from the college certain\ncourses in pohtical science, economics, sociology, mathematics, and pure science, these\ntechnical courses must find place in the college. The high school must give greater\nattention to the fundamentals and to teaching weil a few things. It must not spread\nto the point of superficialty. This means a continued enrichment of the curriculum,\nbut greater freedom in the matter of particular requirements.\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nProposition 5.— The secondary school is not a fitting-school save for life. The\ncollege is not a fitting^chool save for the greatest thing in life, which is complete living.\nThe secondary school is a preparation place for an efficient life. In fact, it is an institution in which to live an efficient Ufe here and now without regard to college. The college\ntakes those who are to avail themselves of its privileges and carries them forward to a\npoint of greatest efficiency.\nProposition g. — Under proper adjustment the four years of the secondary school\nand the four years of the college may be simply blended into eight years of school life.\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, Department of Public Instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. —\nThe maladjustment between secondary schools and higher institutions of learning is one\nof the vital problems of today in education, and a careful inquiry into causes for these\nconditions is not only timely, but suggestive of remedies.\nMany of these causes are plainly in evidence. The pressure from above down, with\nthe good intent of preparing pupils for college, has continually hindered the very thing\nit attempted to accomplish. Secondary schools have been dominated by college and\nuniversity requirements, until teachers of high-school subjects have been so absorbed\nwith the letter of these demands that no time has been left to consider the things most\nneeded — the cultivation of individual power of initiative, ability to think and to do.\nLack of uniformity among college and university men as to the standards for entrance\nto these institutions has had its effect. Each man, with an \"eye single\" to the special\nrequirements for his own department, does not always regard his work in relation to the\nentire college scheme and other departments. I am of the opinion that there is less\ncommon discussion of common problems among the members of faculties of higher institutions oflearning, than among those of secondary, elementary, and primary schools.\nThe association that today brings together secondary and college men to discuss\nquestions of common interest is one of the most important educational bodies in the United\nStates, because it is doing more to solve this problem than any other one factor.\nAgain, many university and college men and women are untrained teachers. Standards of requirements have been set for teachers below the higher institutions of learning,\nbut I do not know of any standards that have been set for those within those institutions.\nWhen college and university men are trained in the pedagogy of elementary and\nhigh-school work, when they have worked in the general Unes of school management, the\nproblem will be partially solved.\nThe training, too, of high-school teachers must continually be extended. Scholarship isone of the great things for a teacher to possess, but it will not be of great positive\nvalue unless it is tempered and adapted thru a knowledge of children and sane pedagogical\nmethods.\nIn brief — ^less domination from above down, and more recommendations from\nsecondary-school people; frequent discussion between faculties of both institutions upon\ncommon problems, with the attention centered upon the individual rather than subjectmatter and courses of study; better trained teachers in all lines of school work.\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Miss Jane L. Hoxie, 6021 Woodlawn Ave\nChicago, 111.\nVice-President — Miss Mary E. Gamble, Garfield School Kindergarten\nEast Oakland, Cal.\nSecretary — Miss Harriet E. Huggins, associate principal, Oakland Kindergarten Training\nClass\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday Morning, July ii, 191 i\nThe Department met in joint session with the Department of Special Education\nand the Department of Elementary Education. For program see Department of Special\nEducation. Topic: \"The School Laggard.\"\nSECOND SESSION.— Thursday Morning, July 13, 1911\nThe Kindergarten Department met in Century Hall,, at 9:30 a.m. In the absence\nof the president, Miss Jane L. Hoxie, the session was called to order by the vice-president,\nMiss Mary E. Gamble. Miss Gamble gave Miss Hoxie's greetings to the assembly, and\nafter a few words of welcome introduced the first speaker. Miss Mari R. Hofer, director\nof the Chicago Training School for Playground Workers, who read a paper on \"Music\nin the Kindergarten.\"\nMiss Katherine Ball, supervisor of drawing in San Francisco schools, followed with\nan address on \"The Development of the Color Sense.\" She had some very beautiful\noriental brocades on exhibition on the walls to illustrate her points.\nOwing to the sudden death of his mother, Mr. Lester Van Nostrand was unable to\nappear in person, and his paper on \"Milton Bradley\" was read by Miss Gertrude Hussay,\na representative of Milton Bradley Company.\nDr. Richard G. Bo6ne, lecturer on education at the University of California, read a\nstrong paper on \"The Kindergarten: Its Influences upon Higher Education.\" Dr. Boone\nappeared as a representative of the National Association for the Promotion of Kindergarten Education.\nA business meeting followed.\nIt was moved, seconded, and adopted that the Chair appoint members to serve on\nthe nominating and resolutions committees, the latter to draw up the resolutions expressing sympathy to Mr. Lester Van Nostrand for the loss of his mother, and also resolutions of regret in regard to the loss of Milton Bradley.\nMiss Gamble appointed Miss Lucy T. Ellis, of Phoenix, Ariz., Miss Susan Thompson, of Oklahoma, and Miss Mari R. Hofer, of Chicago, 111., to serve on the nominating\ncommittee.\nMiss Gertrude Hussay was appointed chairman of a committee to be selected by\nher to draw up the resolutions.\nAdjournment followed.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Friday Morning, July 14, 191 1\n\nMiss Gamble called the meeting to order at Century Hall at 9:30 a.m. and introduced the first speaker, Professor C. E. Rugh, associate professor of education, Univer477\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nsity of California, Berkeley, who read a paper entitled, \"The Moral Instruction of the\nChild.\"\nMiss Evelyn Pluss, kindergarten training teacher of the Los Angeles Normal School,\nwas next introduced. Her paper was entitled \"The Kindergarten as an Ethical Laboratory.\"\nThe paper on \"The Kindergarten as a Factor in Education for Efficiency,\" by Bertha\nM. McConkey, supervisor of kindergartens and primary schools, Springfield, Mass., was\nread by Miss Lucy T. EUis, director of garden kindergartens, Phoenix, Ariz., as Miss\nMcConkey was unable to come west.\nMr. Frank E. Parlin, superintendent of schools, Cambridge, Mass., was detained in\nthe East by the illness of his wife, and Miss Jenkins of Pasadena read his paper entitled\n\"The Kindergarten of the Future.\"\nAn informal discussion followed, the topic being \"The Kindergarten as a Preparation\nfor Life vs. the Kindergarten as a Preparation for the First Grade.\" Among those\nwho took part were Mrs. North- Whitcomb, of San Francisco, Miss Mary Hannan, of\nMilwaukee, Wis., Miss Vandergaw, of Oakland, Cal., and Mr. Zelenko, of Moscow,\nRussia. Mr. Zelenko had recently visited the schools of Brussels, Belgium, and testified\nX.6 the harmony existing between the kindergarten and the higher grades.\nThe nominating committee then reported the following names:\nFor President — Miss Stella L. Wood, superintendent of kindergarten normal\nschool, Minneapolis, Minn.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Cora B. English, superintendent of public kindergartens,\nKansas City, Mo.\nFor Secretary — ^Miss A. Jessie Davis, kindergarten director, Superior, Wis.\nIt was moved, seconded, and adopted that the Secretary cast the ballot of the Department for these officers.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:\nWe, your Committee on Resolutions, beg leave to submit the following report:\nWhereas, Thru Milton Bradley the kindergarten of America was materially strengthened in its early struggles for existence; and\nWhereas, Thruout his whole life he proved a loyal friend and benefactor to our\ncause;\nResolved, That we express our deep appreciation of his friendship and our keen sense\nof loss in his passing on.\nResolved, That we, the members of the Kindergarten Department of the National\nEducation Association, assembled in San Francisco, July 8 to 14, 191 1, extend our sympathy to Mr. Van Nostrand in his bereavement thru the loss of hil mother.\nResolved, That we extend to Miss Mary E. Gamble a vote of thanks for her untiring\nefforts in promoting the success of the Kindergarten Department of this National Education Association, and to Miss Harriet Huggins for her able assistance; for the day in\nOakland, the luncheon, and the many other courtesies extended to us by local kindergartners; to Miss Mayberry for her generosity in lending us the beautiful collection\nof Japanese tapestries; to Francis Valentine Poster Company for the special kindergarten\nbadge furnished by them.\nRespectfully submitted,\n( Gertrude E. Hussay, Chairman\nCommittee j Ada May Brooks\n(Anna I. Jenkins\n\nThe article that appeared in McClure^s Magazine for May, 191 1, in reference to the\nNew Method of sense training and mental development used by Maria Montessori, of\nItaly, was mentioned, and Miss Brooks, of Pasadena, reported on a friend's morning visit\nto one of her schools.\nAdjournment followed.\nHarriet E. Huggins, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nPAPERS\nMUSIC\nMARI R. HOFER, DIRECTOR\n\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n479\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN THE KINDERGARTEN\nOF TRAINING SCHOOL FOR PLAYGROUND\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nWORKERS,\n\nAs the Irishman said, \"When in doubt as to the turn of the road, it is\nalways safe to turn around and go forward backward.\"\nWhile history is not always the truth, or all of the truth, it is a pretty\ngood guide of the course of events. As regards our subject, it is legitimate\nto ask, What has been done in kindergarten music ? What are we doing\nin kindergarten music? On felicitous occasions the subject of music is\ngiven place upon a national program; also thruout the country, at state and\nlocal meetings, the subject of music in the kindergarten is discussed. These\noccasions are far enough apart to permit only the most fundamental elucidation of the subject. As a rule we get no farther than its sentimental\njustification and are retold of its God-given properties and spiritual outworkings into childlife. An occasional magazine article appears wherein\nsome patient lover of the art attempts to explain so-called kindergarten\nmethods of teaching music, and aims to present the theory of music to\nyounger children in more or less playful and helpful ways. In the meantime, others of our pet heresies have come into established being. The\nfolk-song and game which Froebel retained for us are now well-settled\nfactors in our new education life. The festival so tentatively ventured\nhas outgrown the kindergarten ranks entirely and is now a happy community feature in which we are humbly asked to take part. Oh yes! the\nkindergartner and the kindergarten have \"made good\" in educating the\npublic almost to the point of absorption.\nAs it stands, we can truthfully say that during the last twenty years\nthe subject has been scanned from all points of view; that during this\nperiod of experimentation we have learned how to use it in a measure and\nthat thru us music itself has received a fresh impulse. But it will be\ngranted that the real work of kindergarten music yet remains to be done,\nviz., classification, proportion, and right choosing. What shall we use,\nwhat shall we reject ? The music of the kindergarten has been chronicled\nfrom every conceivable point of view. We have had, first, the orthodox and\ntheoretical statement, which subordinated music entirely to the thought\naspect of the work. In this case the tune did not necessarily interpret\nthe spirit of the words, and our adaptations were more or less forced and\nwooden. This stage was rather prolonged and made the advent of real\nchildren's music, written from the child's point of view, a delightful revelation. In present years we have enjoyed th^ composer for the kindergarten,\nwhere the musician has concerned himself with the true relation of music\nand words. In the first place, he has ruled that there should be good\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\npoetry and then has lent his best talent to the musical setting of the same.\nWhat the child would feel and think in music has been his strongest concern. The leader in this was our dear Father of Kindergarten Music,\nReinecke. It was easy to follow in his wake after he had set for us the\npace of his naive, childlike interpretation, drawn from the pure music\nsource of the Germans— Smith, Hill, Neidlinger, your own early contribution by Mrs. Wiggin. A later poetical volume by Mrs. Knowlton, followed\nby many able contributors and more recent artists such as Mr. Aldrich and\nMr. McCurry of your own ranks; all these, aided and abetted by generous\npubhshers, have helped to establish a Ubrary of children's music, to which\nwe turn in our daily vicissitudes of program-making. Added to these, the\nvolumes of piano music, rhythms, and marches, new musical versions of\nMother Goose, make it possible to fit every tint and shade of musical mood\ndesirable for the kindergarten.\nAt various times, we have developed classical tendencies, and in semioccasional crises we have had the Old Masters revived for us. Some soul,\nnewly convinced of the vicariousness of music, interprets Chopin, and\nHandel's Largo for us, to the effect that the children weep in sympathetic\nresponse. Just now we are in an era of popular tastes in regard to kindergarten music. As kindergartners, we are feeling the need of being more\nlike other folks, less eclectic and superior in our tastes. We must hold our\nown with the present-day trend, which we grant is not of Mozartian\npurity. We are choosing the easier way; moreover, the children know\nmore popular music than good music. Alas! they know nothing else —\nthey will sing it anyway, then why not use it ? It is less trouble and helps\nmove the world along.\nThe general adaptation of the kindergarten to the pubHc-school systems\nis a modifying element to our possibly over-aesthetic tendencies. We\nmust reach out and meet the other half, even tho our ideals suffer somewhat in the effort. Also we are advancing in music education and have\nattracted the attention of the college professor who wishes to turn the\nkindergarten into the first grade of the music system. We can have no\nsympathy with this, tho the child might be able to stand the test. This\nperson is usually a man who is more interested in teaching things than\nchildren. To him this one precious year in the kindergarten atmosphere\nof music is a waste of time when the child might be learning the incalculable\nvalue of the dots and lines of the musical hieroglyphics. He does not\nrecognize the imagination as a factor in learning, or the value of impression\nin education. After this a kindergarten music system promptly appears\nin which sticks and blocks convey these values.\nAnyone who has had to do with later artist-making, or has attempted\nto perfect singers and players, knows the hopelessness of trying to strike\nsparks from unilluminable material. Unless the child has good musical\nintelligence, we will say, a temperamental inheritance, the kindergarten\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n481\n\nis the one and only place where he may acquire musicalness. Here, if\nanywhere in his oncoming strenuous career, we can and must take the time\nto use music musically. Here, in connection with sensible sentiment and\nsubject-matter, he may truly come under the artistic influence of the art\nof music.\nThis is a delicate task and one worthy of the teacher's best effort. In\nthe daily uplift of happy little voices in song, the kindergarten may premonitorily run the entire gamut of musical experience and training. While\nlittle bodies respond to its joyful rhythijis, we may sow the seed of purity\nand wholesomeness of action.\nLast fall, the writer, carrying an armful of beautiful autumn leaves and\nfoliage to help decorate a hall for a real harvest festival in one of the play\ncenters of Chicago, cutting across Milwaukee Avenue thru some bleak\nand dirty streets to reach this obscure corner, quickly turning a corner,\nran into the wraith of a fair little girl playing in the offal at the edge of the\nwalk. On seeing my leaves, she at once arose with her blond hair streaming in the wind — dirty, and blue with the cold as she was, while her eyes\ndanced with delight — and sang, in her childish treble, that joy of all little\nchildren\n\"Come, little leaves,\" said the wind one day.\nWhere, under any circumstances other than those of the kindergarten,\ncould such a neglected child have had this nature picture in mind and\nheart and voice, and, while living and playing in the grime, have responded\nto the sudden bursting upon her with a bit of that real country ?\nThe admonitions and instructions of a good teacher sound preachy and\nUke the goody maxims of the bygone past in the ears of the up-to-date\nhigh-school and college girl of the present. Rare is the girl in the kindergarten training class of today whose refinement of temper and taste in\nmusical matters by reason of previously gained heredity or home training\nis able to respond to the delicacy of a childsong. The moment her mind is\noff her training work, she is back to her rag-time. It is dangerous to allow\nher to conduct rhythms and games at first, as her every movement smacks\nof the variety stage. A simple nature interpretation becomes theatrical\nand affected, and her first year is spent in mawkish self-consciousness in her\neffort to find herself.\nMuch has been said in this convention on child-saving, even in questions\nof deepest import. How are we to stay, how can we hope to stay, the\nswift onrushing current of willfulness and indulgence when from earHest\ninfancy the American child is fed with the untrue and unbeautif ul in life ?\nWe cannot hope to bring up children on orgies of sound and motion and\nexpect them to keep sane and balanced faculties. Even our much-loved\nplayground must come under caustic criticism, if it is only another place\nwhere the child can do just as he pleases, to which he may escape from home\nduties, and where everything is done to make life pleasant for him.\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nHow can the ideals of the most carefully trained kindergartner in the\nsentiment for the maintenance and beauty of life stand against the stream\nof vaudeville vulgarities which are countenanced by parents, nay, in which\nparents indulge with their children ? Children are taken to places where\nparents should blush for themselves. The next grand reform is that of\nparent and parenthood.\nYou will pardon the turning from the practical to the moral side of the\nquestion, which arises in all our educational work. What are we preparing\nour children for? What is the fjiture good for which we are striving?\nEven in our greatest attainment of material good, wealth, position, power,\nthis being gained, are we well enough stocked in the great realities and fundamentals ofeducation to use it to its highest degree of education ? Well we\nknow that this chase frequently destroys the finer sensibilities of appreciation when the end is attained. The modern business man is too worn out\nwhen success finally comes to him to enjoy the best for which he has striven\nof music or food when he gets it. It is unfortunate in our American life that\nwe train for the future when the happy mean would be to work into each\nday's fabric a little of the art and recreation which is absolutely essential\nfor the growth of soul and body. Alcohol, as distributed in fruit and grain\nand all our foods, is a necessary nutritive element. When abstracted and\nimbibed in its essence form, it is rank poison.\nAs kindergartners we are very much mistaken if we think that the day\nof our vigilance is over. While the good work of reform has now begun\nfrom above in the schools, and is working its way down, we have yet a\nnumber of generations to grow into sanity before we are on the safe side.\nA teacher and a mother who has recently made investigations into the social\nconditions of college life says that the present unwholesome trend of the\ndance is due to the low-class music and its dance-hall associations. This\nmusic and the dances and posturings inspired by it find their way somehow\ninto our college circles where young, innocent girls, lilting and swaying to\nits sensuous rhythm*, take part in what constitutes the oreaic element in\nour less respectable social groups. How are we to know, good from bad in\nthese days when the full cup of unadulterated stimulant is offered to the\nlips of every child? He may drink freely for aught of interference by\nparent or teacher and we have the result \"n a common nervous intoxication.\nWe have become indifferent to the influence of the stimulus— a moral indifference that borders on criminality.\nAs teachers we have looked deeply into the souls of children and seen\nthe lights and shadows of impression, our work, reflected therein. Of all\nthe materials we use, music brings the quickest and most general response.\nIt rules our kindergartens for us. Thru it we reach the springs of thought\nand action. We correct and restrain, as well as free, the impulses. While\nwe are moving the waters, comes the change of habit from unorganized\nto organized condition.\nWhatever comes to us in embryo for good or\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "483\nDepartment]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE KINDERGARTEN\n\nbad, we can send forward in the solid realization of clean flesh and blood.\nWe know habit is that which has become cells and we aim to change these\nor to start new ones.\nA young teacher in Chicago, when asked by the pompous civil service\nexaminer down in the City Hall what was \"the place of the piano in the\nkindergarten,\" timidly but convincingly responded that \"the place for the\npiano in the kindergarten was up in the corner near by the window.\" Let\n' us take the piano out of the corner. This is one thing in our training-class\nwork which we can remedy. We must have musicians trained in the\nkindergarten music we wish played in the kindergarten. As it is, we are\nyet at the mercy of the random pieces which a girl may know — glad to get\nany kind of playing which helps move the program along. Each kindergarten training class should have a course as long as is possible, devoted\nto the analysis and playing of piano music suited to our work. Just to\nhear interpretations, even if we cannot play, will help qualify the crudities\nto which we are subjected. Get, if possible, an instructor out of the ranks\nwho knows what is wanted, for it is largely a waste of time to follow the\ngeneralities of the 'average piano teacher.\nIn the end, the music of the kindergarten must be what the kindergartner has to offer in the way of fundamental training and taste. In this\ninstance, as in others, we revert to the species. A girl who has had a large\nand liberal training in the popular street music of the day, not because she\nis uneducated, but thru her school and college contacts, will revert to the\nvaudeville type in her kindergarten music. All who have to do with the\ntraining class know the diffculty of the task of changing the taste started\nin the wrong direction.\nAs kindergartners we feel that we should prolong rather than shorten\nthe kindergarten period for the little ones. How soon is the childlike gift\nof ideality and innocence lost in the oncoming vortex of vulgarity. Theoretically we hear much from the college professor on the necessity of prolonging the infancy of human kind, but the greater our facility with educational methods, the more knowledge we seem to cram into the child. The\nperiod of wholesome experimentation and natural growth is continually\nshortened in order that we may more quickly prepare him to meet — what ?\nNot a greater degree of efl&ciency in higher things, but to sharpen and make\nhim stronger to struggle more ably in the slough of material success.\nAs teachers, we must have a care and, if need be, revert to such of oldfashioned moral convictions as we may yet remember, possibly revive some'\nof those sterner traditions of our elders. We should take European diet\nof taking our pleasures as we go along, interpolating good art training into\nthe lives of our children as an ordinary and necessary thing, inculcating\nappreciation of higher things as we w^ild ordinary table manners. Get\nin the habit of having the good things of Hfe a little every day, a time and\nplace in the ordinary routine for good recreation, a little leisure for good\nimpressions to take hold in the spiritual sub-soil of our lives.\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n484\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nIf I have wandered to the moral side of the subject, it is because in the\nkindergarten we have mastered the soul of the child. We know the\ntremendous import of the emotional nature and the danger of playing\nupon it. In music and rhythm, we have tremendous instrumentahties for\ngood and evil. Kindergartens, in a way, stand responsible for the emotional element in education and we must see the problem to the end.\nWhile the vibration which we have started has passed beyond our reach\nand control, can we not aid in the larger work of moral reform by taking\nfresh hold on our ideals, making a vigorous campaign against immoral\nmusic? We have censored moving pictures and the theater; why not the\nmost subtle of all the art stimuU, the living art of music, which is an accessory to all recreation? Armed with a Tolstoian righteousness, we may\nhelp banish the Apache dances and the grisly melodies from respectable\nsocial occasions. Let us enlist our mothers' and parents' clubs anew in a\nnew crusade for the moral salvation.\nTHE DEVELOPMENT\nKATHERINE\n\nM.\n\nBALL,\n\nOF THE COLOR SiENSE\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF DRAWING\nSAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe keenest perception of color and the finest appreciation of its beauty\nis only the result of training, either by means of an aesthetic environment,\n• or thru the process of direct and specific education. Taste counts for\nnaught, unless it is educated.\nThe degree of growth which a pupil may acquire is dependent upon his\ninherent quaUfication and his opportunities for study. IntelHgence\nregarding color is the same as that pertaining to other subjects. Some\nindividuals reach their limit very early, while others are capable of rising\nto great heights, but all except those who are color blind — of which there are\nbut few— may acquire some knowledge and power, which will be of profit\nand pleasure during an entire life.\nColor training must be eye training. Too^ frequently, not only has the\nsubject been treated scientifically, instead of aesthetically, but devices\nhave been substituted for principles.\nIn reviewing the history of pedagogy, it may be seen how the true order\nof developing the child's mind and faculties has been reversed, by working\nfrom the logical to the psychological, from the scientific to the esthetic,\nfrom the technical to the educational.\nThe teaching of color shared the common fate, and in. many localities\nthis method still prevails.\nIt is very difficult to reahze that the small child cares naught for the\nlogical schemes so dear to the adult mind, but the disintegration of white\nlight, the recognition of spectrum colors, and a knowledge of their names,\nhowever reasonable the scheme may seem, will never unlock the door\nof\nthe world's color wonders.\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOLOR\n\nSENSE\n\n485\n\nWhat the children need is the opportunity of seeing and using in combinations, not the six normals, but many colors, so tempered that a discord\nis impossible.\nTheir first notions should be derived from color mosaics, in which\ngrayed colors are so juxtaposed that they enhance each other's intensities.\nThe quality of a single color is not absolute, but variable according to\nits associated colors and to the area which it covers.\nA hand placed alternately on a pink and a yellow surface will change\nits complexion in a surprising manner, while squares of the same neutral\ngray paper, mounted on different colored backgrounds, will reflect varying\nqualities of hue.\nAgain, what .appears to be a very subdued color in a small sample,\nwill become most intense when used in large quantities. Most students of\nchromatics have had the unpleasant experience — when papering a room, or\npainting a house — of seeing a startling spectacle of color intensity, after having carefully selected what appeared in the sample to be very unobtrusive.\nStudy the scale of normals as it is commonly presented, and compare\nit with the solar spectrum or even the \"bow of promise.\" How different\nare the two effects. One is a thing of beauty, while the other is its crude\nsymbol. One appeals to the eye, the other to the intellect. One is an\nocular appearance, the effect of visual sensation; the other a scientific\nformula, derived from the experiments of the laboratory; each a very\ndistinctly different category.\nIt is such a beautiful device of pedagogy, to begin instruction with the\nnormals, and then advance to their modifications. The child is expected\nto outgrow the taste for this nourishment, after he has had his fill and\nassimilated the food. But does he? Alas! his color ideals are derived\nfrom his first lessons. After playing with colored balls, working with colored\npapers, drawing with wax crayons, always using the same fixed hues — color\ncomes to mean the unvarying qualities of the given normals.\nWhat wonder that the sky is thought to be normal blue, and the trees\nnormal green, and that every thing of chromatic beauty is seen thru a\nfalse mental color screen ?\nSeeing color is experiencing a sensation which acts upon the emotions,\naffecting the individual pleasantly or otherwise. The qualities of the\nnormals, by their very nature, must jar upon the sensibiHties of the child;\nand when all color expression, by means of pigments or with stuffs, is\nlimited to these particular hues thru a period of early school life, the effect\ncannot help being disastrous.\nThat the child appears to enjoy his work and that the product seems\nto justify the instruction, is no proof that the method is not objectionable.\nWhile some supervisors have departed f^im the old way, the great army of\nteachers thruout the country are still unacquainted with color in its true\nsense, and color instruction is apt to be more of a detriment than of an\nadvantage to the pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nVisit the schools where the old order prevails. It will be difficult to\ndetermine the grade where the transition from the study of the normals\nto the study of their modifications occurs.\nSee the desecration of our beautiful California poppy, done in normal\nhues. Observe the normal red apple, the normal yellow banana, the\nnormal green cucumber, the applied design, the maps, the flags, the blackboard drawings— not to speak of the characteristic wall decorations that\naccompany this scheme of instruction — all warring with each other, causing\na riot of contending vibrations, that make us writhe, as they bombard our\nhelpless eyes.\nTo cultivate the function of seeing the appearance of color, the eye\nmust be constantly exercised, both iri perceiving the quahties of single\ncolors and in discerning their conduct in their various relationships. It is\nnot so much knowledge that is desired as power; and for this power constant practice is necessary.\nNot only should the children work with well-chosen color in all kinds of\nmaterials, but they should live in an atmosphere of refined color where they\nmay unconsciously imbibe its beauty and early acquire true standards of\ncolor qualities and values. No one will dispute this statement, but as to\nwhat constitutes beautiful color and true standards is an open question\nto many.^\nColor judgment should be developed by the study of both nature and\nart. The creative imagination acquires but little from nature unless\nfostered by the constant association with art. It is by means of the latter\nthat the subtle beauties of the physical world are revealed to ordinary\neyes.\nTo adyance in art, there must be art examples for study; to learn to\nsee color, there must be plenty of it.\nMore and more art will be needed in our educational institutions if\nour children are to be given the kind of education which is to equip them\nto take their place in the industrial and commercial affairs of the nation's\nfuture. Not only should our schools be better equipped with all kinds of\nexamples of art, but our school superintendents and principals should make\nan effort to learn something of this new education and not leave it\nentirely to the teachers and art directors. It is the superintendent who\ncreates the conditions of the school department, and when he enjoys the\nadvantages of art culture there will be a corresponding atmosphere in the\ncommunity over which he presides.\nIt is not my purpose to discuss \"easy methods of teaching color\" nor\neven to define devices and explain systems. Too long have teachers\ndepended upon such resources, while striving to teach a subject which is\nunknown to them. Instead of resorting to prescriptions of various kinds,\nthey should study the subject. \" Educational Art,\" or \"The Formation of\nTaste\" — of which color is an important, factor — should be included in\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOLOR\n\nSENSE\n\n.\n\n487\n\nevery course of instruction, whether it be intended for children or for the\npreparation of teachers.\nBut some one says, \" Where and how are we to study ?\" Seek the expert\nand take lessons as you do for any cultural subject. Use the museum as\nyou do the public library. *' There is none.\" Then agitate the acquisition\nof one, for it is a necessity to the community. Haunt the shops where the\narts of the Orient may be seen. Strive to grasp the peculiar charm of\nPersian rugs, Chinese porcelains, and Japanese brocades and prints. If\npossible, collect a few — even if at a great sacrifice. Place them where they\nmay play upon your eyes, and luiconsciously become your impersonal\ninstructors. Follow the lead of t^ art workers of this decade, who are\nturning to the East for fresh inspiration- In this field of research may be\nfound high- and low-keyed color schemes, producing rich and vivid as well\nas subdued and quiet effects, but never a palette of the six normal colors.\nThe wonderful blue described by the Chinese as \"the blue of the sky\nafter a summer shower\" is never normal. The flame and coral reds of\nJapan may vie with the hue of the setting sun in its manifold variations,\nbut they never reached the cold crimson of the Occident until the introduction of the kindergarten.\nThose of us who attended the Chicago Exposition remember with girief\nthe Japanese exhibit, where, adjoining a wonderful collection of beautiful\ndesigns, was placed the kindergarten display. In one case there were\ninimitable patterns in unexcelled color harmonies; in the other, severe\ngeometric forms garbed in the discordant normals. It did not take much\ncolor knowledge to see the difference between the two systems, and the\ncommon expression heard was, \"What a pity!\"\nThe kindergarten is a noble institution, but, like all human inventions,\nit will change and adapt its methods of instruction to the more advanced\nthought of the times. Since it first came into notice, ideas, not only of\npedagogy, but of art and of aesthetics, have changed very materially.\nIts most progressive advocates are beginning to question the original\nscheme that pertains to color, recommending that it follow the lead of the\nhigher schools, and apply some of the principles expressed in the best\nexamples of oriental art.\nColor is the language of harmony, the ultimate goal of all humanity;\nbut it is so misused and abused that it too frequently is the vehicle of discord. No teacher ever knows this subject until she is able to live it everywhere and in every respect. This means in her attire, in her apartment,\nin her schoolroom.\nIt is said, \"A man's power is expressed in his greatest achievement\nbut his taste is determined by the smallest violation of its canons.\" To\ntolerate an inharmonious color spot anywhere signifies that the observer\nis not disturbed by it, hence his color sense is as yet in a very elementary\nstate of development, and seriously needs education.\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nTo outline a plan of work for the kindergarten is beyond Aiie province\nof an art supervisor of the elementary schools, as the conditions governing\nthe two grades of pupils ate so different.\nThe most important question to be considered is that relating to the\nparticular palette which is to be given to the children. When this is\nanswered others will follow, such as: Shall this palette consist of a scale\nhaving a definite number of colors, or shall the colors be unlimited ? Shall\nthese colors be thfe standard normals, or a scale of either high- or lowkeyed hues ? Shall the same s«ale be used in the materials of the different\ngifts, that is, designed for the pigments, or shall they vary ? Shall the children use color spontaneously as a means of pictorial language expression,\nor shall the work be directed, either as dictation or imitation ? Shall they\nuse paints, or a pencil of dry color ? Shall the colors be used as prepared,\nor shall the children mix them? Only the kindergartner who not only\nknows the child but also the subject can answer. By her who is first\nfitted by nature and then equipped by adequate training must the problem\nof laying the foundation for a fine color sense in the next generation be\nsolved.\nIN MEMORIAM— MILTON\nA. L. WEBBER,\n\nBRADLEY\n\nSPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nThe measure of a man is his achievements. What he has tried and\nwhat he has done, are the blocks with which his monument is builded in the\nfield of posterity. To think, to plan, to accompHsh things that are great\nand good— not for his own reward, but that some part of humanity may\nfind life better and sweeter — these are the qualities that mark man's greatness, that make his name honored and his memory cherished.\nQuaUties such as these characterized the whole career of Milton Bradley,\nwhose death, Memorial Day of this year, removed a revered and widely\nknown member of this association. His was a life of inspiration and\nactivity for good, which, tho primarily exerted in the world of business,\nwas so closely allied with educational works and progress, that it is meet\nand fitting that appropriate tribute be paid to his memory at this gathering\nof educators who, most of all, are familiar with, and appreciative of, his\nwork.\n\nFrom the narrow environment of a Maine village, Milton Bradley's life\ndeveloped and reached out into the field of practical education, growing\ninto a power that influenced the teaching of little children thruout the\nEngHsh-speaking world. From the time when, thru his meeting with\nElizabeth Peabody, he came under the spell of Froebel's philosophy until\nhis retirement from active business, his whole ambition and energy were\nspent in the adoption and provision of means for making possible the\npracticable application of Froebel's teachings to the school system of this\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nIN\n\nMEMORI AM— MILTON\n\nBRADLEY\n\n489\n\ncountry. In the embryo days of the American kindergarten, its most\nardent advocates were at a loss how to overcome the obstacles which\nconstantly presented themselves thru lack of proper material. Froebel\nwrote of the \"gifts\" and their uses, but the knowledge gained from his\nteachings could not be applied because no \"gifts\" were available.\nIt was Milton Bradley who solved the problem of their manufacture.\nIt was his ingenuity that invented machinery to produce these and other\nkindergarten materials, the like of which had never before been seen in\nthis country, and for which no facilities to manufacture existed.\nThru the publication of Wiebe's 'Paradise of Childhood, Milton Bradley\ngave to the kindergarten cause an impetus that eventually placed it on a\nfoundation of permanency. And bear in mind that all these undertakings\nwere carried out thru the strength of his convictions and love for the cause,\ndespite strenuous opposition from his business associates, who reaHzed their\nfutility from a commercial viewpoint. Many years passed before there\nwere enough kindergartens to make the manufacture of materials even a\npartial success commercially; but the zeal of the manufacturer knew no\nabating.\nThe teaching of color is so universal today that a thought is seldom\ngiven to its original source, yet the definite nomenclature we know so well,\ncarrying the pupil from kindergarten to high school, .emanated from the\nfertile mind of Milton Bradley. It was he who standardized the colored\npapers of the kindergarten, followed by the crayons and water colors for\nthe primary and higher grades. Of Milton Bradley's early work in color,\nHenry Turner Bailey has written:\nWhen I first met Mr. Bradley he was beginning his experiments in color. It wis\nhe who first saw the value of colored papers as a means of training the color sense, and\nas a means of expression in design, and it was he who spent money freely, who instructed\nand watched the paper-makers day after day, week after week, month after month, until\nthey turned out what he wanted. I recall his dark room with its quivering spectrum\nof glory, ten feet long; I remember the patient experimenting with the Maxwell disks\nwhich resulted in the perfecting of the color wheel; the long discussion which preceded\nthe classification and definition of the five harmonies of color as set forth in Mr. Bradley's book on Color, a pioneer in its field.\n\nMilton Bradley's interest in education, however, was not confined to\nkindergarten work. It was he who promoted the study of manual training,\nand who provided the materials and instructor for the first manual training\nschool in Springfield, Mass., one of the first of its kind in the country.\nMilton Bradley's educational influence reached the home as well as\nthe school. He devised and published many pastimes, called \"Home\nAmusements,\" in which the educative element was strongly apparent.\nIn this field, also, he was a pioneer.\nSo much for his work; and what sort of a man was it who accompHshed\nthese things? Many tributes have been paid to Milton Bradley, the\nman, by those who knew and were close to him. I quote once more from\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "49©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nHenry T. Bailey, who was intimately associated with Mr. Bradley, and\nwho expresses his appreciation in these words:\nMr. Bradley impressed me as being first of all an honest, open-minded man. He\nwelcomed more light upon any topic he was studying, no matter whence it came, or\nhow pitilessly it revealed the imperfections of his own thought.\nMr. Bradley was a promoter of human beings. I learned to know how large a proportion of his trusted men he had taken into the shop as boys fresh from the public\nschools. He was always glad to make the acquaintance of a young teacher, a new\nman, anybody interested in education, to encourage and help in every possible way\nanybody if he were only honest and serious. I could give many examples of this, which\nhave come under my own observation.\nMr. Bradley was a tireless worker. He had visions, endeavored to realize them.\nOnce having determined on a course of action, he held to it no matter what obstacles\nappeared, no matter what opposition developed, and therefore he was successful.\nMr. Bradley was a happy man. He rejoiced in his home, in his church, in his business, in his friends, in the ever-increasing opportunities for service in the realm of education. He was an optimist; he radiated hope and good will to men.\n\nThis voices the opinion of all who came in contact with him, many of\nwhom have reached high places in the educational world. One of the most\nsincere and unusual testimonials (and one which I doubt has ever been\npaid to another man), however, is to be found in Oak Grove Cemetery,\nSpringfield. A short distance from the main entrance stands a plain stone\nof white marble op which is engraved the name \"Charles King,\" with\ndate of his birth and death; and, just below, the epitaph\nSixteen Years with Milton Bradley\n\na phrase that speaks a volume !\nTHE KINDERGARTEN:\nRICHARD\n\nG. BOONE,\n\nLECTURER\n\nITS INFLUENCES\nEDUCATION\nIN EDUCATION,\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nUPON\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nHIGHER\n\nOF CALIFORNIA,\n\nIn a very recent educational work of more than one thousand pages\nby a university president, and one of the leaders in such discussion, the\nfirst chapter of forty pages is given to the \"Pedagogy of the Kindergarten.\"\nAmong the topics are the ideal kindergarten; its value as a means of\neducating young women; Froebel as a seer anticipating modern ideals;\nthe training of kindergarten teachers; and the great ideas which the world\nowes to Froebel: that he antedated the modern discoveries in embryology;\nthat the child recapitulates important stages in the race's history; that\nfeeUng and instinct are primary, and germinative of intellect and will;\nthat thru the play instincts man first becomes creative; that he behevedin\nthe original soundness and wholesomeness of human nature; that during\nthe animal stages of his being the child should be a complete animal as\nthe condition of his highest maturity on the human plane later; that the\nonly test of state, home, church, school, or civihzation is whether or not it\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nINFLUENCES\n\nON HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n491\n\nbrings childhood and youth to the fullest maturity; that a wholesome\nintuition in the teacher is to be preferred to an elaborate methodology;\nand that a belief in sound health is one of the tenets in every educational\ncreed — all of which have been incorporated into the accepted pedagogy\nof one or another of the stages of directed education.\nThe same author characterizes Froebel's Education of Man, as —\none of the best and most nourishing of all infant foods for novices in the speculative\nfield, a book which will and should be dear to all women's souls, not so much for what\nit teaches their intellects, as because it makes them feel so profoundly the burden of\nthe mystery of the nascent soul, and shows that this insight and function are central\nand cardinal in the universe.\n\nIt is the fate of new movements, and especially those of far-reaching\nimport, to be misunderstood. Those of Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel\nare only more notable modern instances. Froebel was and remains particularly open to misinterpretation.\nThe writer quoted above, on a sympathetic page, speaks of Froebel's\n''nebulous speculations which were bred by the Zeitgeist in the natal age\nof German philosophy, and by the great idealistic movement which accompanied the birth of this puissant nation.\" His weird and bizarre version\nof this metaphysical ferment was a unique\nculture bouillon, concocted of various ingredients: theosophic mysticism, foregleams of\nevolution, a passionate enthusiasm for nature just as the great scientific movement\nwas dawning, and love of childhood.\n\nIt need not seem strange that not only among foreigners but also among\nhis own people he was often, generally, misunderstood, or half understood,\nand by some held in derision. Indeed earnest readers of Froebel may be\ngrouped in three classes: those who will have none of him; those who are\nhis devoted disciples and take him whole; and those who see in the substance of the Education of Man an expression of determining tendencies\nwhich modern education is maturing. It is my privilege, in a half-hour,\nto characterize typical forms of these tendencies, and find their counterparts in the current educational life, and in our American social life.\nThe Education of Man was written after ten years of teaching, and a\ndozen years before the kindergarten took either its name, or its form of\neven adolescent maturity. Out of two hundred and fifty pages, thirty\npages are devoted to \"man as child\"; twenty pages, to \"man as boy\";\nand two hundred pages to \"man as scholar.\" This first important contribution by Froebel was not primarily a treatise on the nurture of infants.\nBut shot thru the work of the fabric of his childhood training, were\nthe constantly recurring intuitions of the basic importance of care in the\nearliest years, hke the woof that gives pattern and color and meaning to\nan otherwise aimless structure. To the last of the two hundred and fifty\npages of the Education of Man, the importance of the right training of\ninfancy grew upon Froebel, and it led a few years later to his converging\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ninterest and effort upon the kindergarten age. He saw, as few of the\nteachers and reformers of the present day even have yet come to see, that\n\"the child is the focus of interest for every kind of a social and humanistic\nstudy.\" All shaping of purposes, and the recasting of society and ideals\nof legal and moral justice and human rights -must take their rise in the\nchild and in his nurture. *\nIt is not my purpose here, at all, to discuss the kindergarten as such;\nbut to trace, very briefly, its influence upon other parts of the school\nsystem, and upon doctrines of education as applicable in after-years, and\ntheir reactions upon the common life.\nNot forgetting other principles, but disregarding them for the time, I\nventure to remind you of three Froebelian dicta that have had a positive\nshaping influence upon elementary education.\nThe first is that learning not only may be or should be, but, if effective,\nmust be consciously connected with, and grow out of, the experiences of\nthe hfe being lived by the learner; bromidic enough as a mere statement,\nbut painfully unfamihar in most school practice.\nA second germinative conception is that of the importance of the\nknowledge and habit of co-operative intercourse; the socializing of the\nindividual, fitting him to count for one in an institutional life.\nAnd thirdly, there is the increasing recognition of the value of creative\nwork over mere copying or unquestioning acceptance — an ever-present\ncorrelative of the last factor.\nNo one who is even superficially familiar with the Education of Man\nor the other FroebeUan literature, either by the projector of the system\nor by his disciples or critics, will doubt that these are factors in the. distinctive kindergarten training: current ideas and ideals, the home and\neconomic interests, prevalent codes and behaviors, contemporary interests,\nneighborhood achievements and local institutions, occupations, amusements, and arts — all are drawn upon as raw material for shaping interest\nand purposes in the little ones. In a similar sense, typical exercises of the\nkindergarten look to socializing the child, linking his interests with others\nand fixing the habit of sharing with his fellows; in all of his social doings\ntaking others into account; finding his dependence- upon companions\nmatched by his ability and disposition to offer wanted service. And\nnowhere, in all the range of schooling, is more emphasis, and intelligent\nemphasis, placed upon individual initiative, and first-hand effort, the\nability and disposition to plan, in however simple a way, than in the kindergarten.\nNow, however these may be found to work out in practice, they are all\naccepted theoretically as valid principles in the teaching of the grades up\nto the high school. More and more the curriculum of the elementary\nschool has been enriched by a crop of nature and earth studies as a means\nof understanding and interpreting existing arts and industries; the inter-\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nINFLUENCES\n\nON HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n493\n\nrelations of the social and economic life; by civic and municipal studies;\nthe vital calculations of the shop and the store; by exercises of social and\ncivic habituation; and training in design, construction, and the more\nindependent adjustment of means to ends.\nIn American schools especially, a large majority of whose pupils receive\nno further schooling, and few of whom get any training for specific vocations\nor industries, it becomes particularly important that they acquire, not\nonly a mastery of the book and language as the means of both intelligent\nsocial intercourse and further learning, but the ability and habit of vitalizing the daily activities by all the fund of learning they have; by a sense of\ncommon social interests and a share of responsibility for the social good;\nand by such training in self-dependence and personal initiative as makes\nstanding alone easy if standing alone becomes necessary.\nIn order to see a connection between the common recognition of these\nprinciples by the kindergarten and the subsequent classes of the elementary\nschool, it is not necessary to argue that the schools derived them from\nFroebel or from the kindergarten. Their more general introduction into\nthe practices of the kindergarten, arid their easier application there, have\nstimulated theit adoption as working principles in all grades of schools;\nhave immensely broadened the modern conception of an education for the\nmasses of the people whose schooling is foreshortened, and have opened\nthe way for using the child's instinctive interests in activity and in fruitful\ncompanionship to fit him for a future of responsibilities and intelHgent\nservice in which the instincts shall be less dominant.\nDr. Dutton, in characterizing the \" Modern School and What It Owes\nto Froebel and Herbart,\" says: \"In a complete statement of what the\nkindergarten undertakes to do for little children, it would probably be\nfound to contain the germ of every reform now being attempted,\" and\nnames \"various elements found there which are all capable of being developed in a greater or less degree during the entire school life,\" the sympathetic teacher for whom we are primarily indebted to the kindergarten;\nplay, games, and the song as means of expression; story- telling from\nfolklore to the picturesque presentation of great historical movements;\nthe first-hand interest in, and acquaintance with, things and their behavior,\nas the initial step toward science; concrete relations in mathematical\ntraining; the \"occupations\" of the kindergarten as a true introduction to\nmanual training; facility in the use of the mother- tongue as one means\nof expressing a real inner experience — all of which represent one or another\nof the influences named as touching the elementary school and shaping\nits teaching.\nBut the vitality of the so-called kin4ergarten conception of education\nis quite as obvious in all higher education.\nThe emphasis that is put upon the learner as one, an individual with\nmore or less exclusive aptitudes; interests to be conserved and stimulated;\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\na fund of energy that shapes both his growth and his rate of growth; his\nown particular type of efficiency, as having intellectual and moral rights\nas against another, or others, or all maybe; a free spirit whose first right\nis to find an adequate expression of itself: this, in the conception of Froebel,\nit is to be educated. Not in the kindergarten only, but in schools of all\ngrades, it is coming to be recognized as measurably true that lessons, and\nprivileges, and ideals of responsibihty, and achievements are to be shaped\nby the personal characteristics and native faculty or lack of faculty.\nA recognition of the varying claims of sex; inherited family and class\nbiases; precocity and sluggishness; vigorous health and a weak body;\nthe motor- and the sensory-minded; the vivid, or heavy imagination — all\ncall for more or less manifold courses and varying options; for a regard\nfor particular needs, and selected stimuli; for yielding standards, high as\neach can reach— but for each; and an attempt to equip for the particular\nservice or joy or efficiency for which he possesses faculty.\nIn times, all down thru the ages, this ideal has found acceptance by\ngreat minds who saw clearly, who believed in the soul's unshared responsibiUties, and who had faith in ideals as too sacred to be chopped into\nshreds of mere partnership. But for its effective presentation as a working\nprinciple in the schools, educational practice is indebted to the founder of\nthe kindergarten, or more accurately, perhaps, to the general movement\ntoward a positive individuahsm, of whose meaning for education Froebel\nwas the chief exponent.\nLike most good things, it is a principle that is easily abused in application. But it stands opposed to all uniformity in matter or method for the\nsake of uniformity; to all martinetism in the control of conduct; to all\nplatforms and philosophies; to fixed class distinctions; to imposed curricula;\nand to any training that merges the individual in the mass, so that he no\nlonger acts as an individual but as a part.\nIn American life and, antecedently, in the American school, this individualizing tendency shares with the socializing tendency the position of\nfocal interest in public significance. How to stand for one, and yet work\nco-operatively with one's fellows for the good of the whole; how to respect\none's conscience and join with others in an organized effort to realize a\ncommon creed; how to conform to exacting conventional standards of\nsocial intercourse and maintain a high level of self-respect — are not easy;\nbut the lesson must be learned and, for the most part, must be acquired\nin the schools. The home life is, for most persons, too narrow to accomplish the task; the law too unyielding, or apologetic where it should be\nfirm; the prohibitions of the church too abstract and remote from Hfe;\nand poUtics only tardily responsible; so that the burden is more and\nmore laid on the school to harmonize in any purposeful way these seemingly\nconfficting imperatives of social efficiency. Nowhere is this better done\nor begun than in the kindergarten, and among the agencies that have\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nINFLUENCES\n\nON HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n495\n\nshown themselves willing to take suggestion from the practice of the\nkindergarten.\nAll sorts of teamwork in which the achievements of the group depend\nupon the loyal, efficient work of each: student co-operation, and where\npossible, student initiative in the management of distinctly student affairs ;\na stimulus to high personal endeavor with a constant and wholesome\nreference to the claims of the group; and intimate handling of concrete\nproblems of civic and historical and social forces at work, and the resulting\nmovements, are important means at the call of secondary and higher schools\nfor working out a harmony of these two apparently antagonistic ideals.\nIn every good, real kindergarten, practice in such training is attempted,\nand with more or less success achieved. In many of the better elementary\nschools this is the ideal, and in more of the high schools perhaps, but in\nthe true kindergarten it is the daily order. For inspiration in the effort\nto fit the individual to share in the functions of an institutional society,\nand to find it a means of the fullest self-expression, we must look to the\nkindergarten, as having proved its faith by its works.\nTo have produced a community of individuals capable of co-operative\neffort such that none should suffer and all should share, would greatly\nexalt both the group and the school.\nWith respect to no other one academic interest does the contemporary\nbest school differ more from traditional schooling than in a recognition of\nthe importance of the first-hand studies — ^whether in the secondary school\nor in the college. This is a phase of the general enlargement of the function\nand field of science and the method of science, as worked out in the last\ncentury. But the influence of Bacon and his immediate followers upon\ngeneral education and the teaching of the schools was almost nil, imtil\nwell along toward the middle of the last century, in the movement which\nfound its best normative expression in Pestalozzi and Froebel and the\nreorganization of schools from below and not from above. Crude as\n■were the first efforts at nature-study and object-teaching, they led to real\nstudies, lessons in the field and the inquiry of things themselves as to their\nbehavior; not at all for the purpose of extending the field of knowledge,\nbut as furnishing a sure method of learning, and a basis of experience for\nfuture use in reflection. The teaching of physical science in secondary\nschools, so marvelously reinforced in recent years by the reactions of the\ncollege and the university, at first waited upon the stimulus derived not\nfrom the lessons of the schoolroom, but from the teaching of the philosophers— Comenius, and Froebel, and Herbart — that such studies are basic\nat any stage of instruction. This has revolutionized the teaching of most\nsubjects, even the languages and philosophy and the humanistic studies\nof history, economics, ethics, of arts and religion.\nAll this makes for independence of judgment, because it rests upon selfachieved experience.\nIt makes equally for independence of citizenship,\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Kindergarten\n\nand intelligent morality, and all helpful neighborly quaUties. It makes\none to be a true cause, and not a mere efed, among his fellows. The\nhabit of dealing with realities of one's own discovering, the temptation to\nbe content with shams and pretenses and mere phrases, prompts an effort\nto get at the real meaning of creeds and laws and platforms and civic and\nmoral obUgations.\nThere are not lacking, also, signs of the kindergarten influence even\nin the college and university. \"It might be a watchword of most educational reforms now needed,\" says the writer first quoted, \"to carry the\nFroebelian spirit, as its author intended to do, up thru all grades of school\nwork, even the university\"; and elsewhere adds that \"every educator,\neven the university professor, will profit by a careful study of the kindergarten.\nIn a memorable address before the American Institute of Instruction,\nin 1894, Dr. Eliot, then president of Harvard University, under the caption\n\"The Unity of Educational Reform,\" said \"the steady inculcation of\nthose supreme ideals thru which the human race is uplifted and ennobled\n— the ideals of beauty, honor, duty, and love, are all constituents of\neducation, to be simultaneously and continuously developed, from earliest\nchildhood to maturity.\"\nSo convinced was Dr. Eliot of the identity of aim and motive thruout\nthe twenty or twenty-five years of formal schooling that, in the same\naddress, he was constrained to testify that \"some of the administrative\nimprovements then lately made in universities, resemble strikingly improvements made at the other extremity — namely, in the kindergarten.\"\nIt may be said that selective interest is the basis of all profitable effort.\nAnd while the practical application of this is attended with difl&culties\n\"In this process of educational construction, so new, so strange, so hopeful, Ibeheve. that the chief principles and objects are the same from the\nkindergarten thru the university.\" Among these common aims, Dr. Eliot\nnamed:\n(i) the addressing of instruction to the individual pupil rather than to groups or\nclasses;\n•\n\nand avowed that\nthe kindergarten and the university best illustrate the progress of this reform; (2) the\ncareful training of the organs of sense; (3) practice in grouping and comparing different\ncontacts, and in drawing inferences from such comparisons; (4) the practice of making\naccurate records of one's judgments; (5) the holding in mind for use these records; (6)\ntraining in the power of adequate expression; and (7) the steady inculcation of those\nsupreme ideals, whose principle has its most obvious and picturesque setting in the elective courses and major subjects and special training of the colleges and higher schools,\nfound its first acceptance, except in sporadic cases, in the established and consciously\ndirected practice of the kindergarten; whence it spread, in time, to the colleges, thence\ndown to the high schools, and appears in current elementary education as a practice in\nall subjects, of taking into account the child's natural or stimulated want. To throw\nupon each individual the responsibility— the privilege— of doing what he can do well.\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n497\n\nand of wanting to do the needful best, is not only the problem of the schools, of all grades,\nbut of every cultural, economic, and political society. The best results cannot come\nfrom doing tasks set by others, but those set by one's self, and cherished as on^'s own.\n\nFrom all of this it would appear evident that the kindergarten may not\nsafely be regarded as a device for the training of poor children only, or the\nfamilies of the working classes, but that it is a scheme of education for\nall — for those who direct; for him who follows and him who leads; for the\ngirls who may be mothers and the boys who may be fathers; for the one\nwho must fill his time with labor, .and the other who must make his leisure\nworthy. It is needed for the capable that their great powers be not wasted;\nand for the less competent that the most may be made of whatever faculty\nthere remains. It is not an exclusive device for the infant years, but,\nbeginning there, is valid for every subsequent year or age. It stands for\nuniversal principles, and faith in human growth. It is optimistic and\nbelieves with Emerson that there is that among us which \"tends to make\nthe best better and the worst good.\"\nThe kindergarten, when not even indirectly the originator, is yet\norganically interested in, and in entire accord with, a long train of allied\nmovements for the better understanding and the amelioration of child\nlife: the humane movement in all its manifold forms; numerous children's\nwelfare societies, not for charity but for education; for child-labor laws,\nand juvenile courts, and opportunities for play, and clubs for the young\nof their own administering, and stimulating interests converged upon them\n— all of which are incident to the marvelous, much-organized and farreaching interest in the child, as the true raw material of civilization: an\ninterest that began with the kindergarten, and looks yet to the kindergarten for its chief inspiration.\n\nC.\n\nE.\n\nRUGH,\n\nMORAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nASSOCIATE\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF THE CHILD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCALI-\n\nFortunately we need take no time discussing the importance of each\nkindergartner holding the ethical aim of education as the inspiring and\nguiding power of her life and teaching. The present perplexing problem\nis how to realize this aim in the midst of the present social order.\nStated from the standpoint of means, the present problem is how to\nconceive the moral development of the child in terms of ways and means\navailable and appropriate in present-day society. Probably the quickest\nand surest way of developing the educational philosophy for the solution\nof this problem, is to make a searching examination into, and comparison\nand contrast of, the life of pioneer parents and children and those of today.\nThe pioneer social unit was domestic. In labor, in leisure, in joys, and\nin sorrows, parents and children were companions.\nSocial heredity, social\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ncontagion, and imitation produced moral character suitable to this social\ngroup.\nThe new social order is not well enough defined for us to name the umt\nof structure, if, indeed, it has one. Social psychologists keep naming \"the\ncrowd\" as the unit. The name is not important. The fact is perfectly\napparent that we are in a new social order. It is just as apparent that\nthe child has been more affected by the changing social conditions than\nany other member of society. Most children are removed from first-hand\ncontact with Mother Nature as the source of material comfort. Most\nchildren, except those forced into child labor, are removed from first-hand\ncontact with the productive industries. Most children are removed from\nmost of the modern social Hfe, for which we may be very thankful. The\nold-time home is broken up. Children have been removed from companionship ofadults. They are now classified on the basis of age, not\nonly in school but in church, in industries, and in society. Three effects\nof this rapid change need special notice: first, most children lack the sense\nexperience with many of the things that give concreteness and content to\nour language and hterature; second, the new economic order makes it\nunnecessary and in many cases impossible for the child to think thru from\nraw material to finished product — a most important kind^ of thinking;\nthird, the gradation of children, the separation from productive labor, has\ngreatly narrowed the child's social, and hence moral, vision. The child\nsees and uses moral standards and situations of his grade.\nThese economic and social changes have put heavier burdens upon the\nkindergarten than upon any other branch of our educational structure,\nnot only because the kindergarten deals with foundations, but more because\nthese changes have removed the simpler means of a social sympathy. No\nsocial change will probably ever put the \"three R's\" out of the curriculum.\nThe multiplication table, for example, is a universal means of communication. Itis a formula, and comes into the formula period of the child's\ndevelopment. The kindergarten, on the other hand, must use the means\navailable for developing social sympathy, and at the same time be the first\nformal attempt at adjusting the child to the crowd; that is, to a group\nfounded upon neither a natural nor institutional base. Sympathy is the\nprimary social process. The domestic order develops sympathy because\nthere were examples for imitation and recurring situations demanding it.\nThe physiological basis of sympathy is certain reactions of circulation,\nrespiration, and the rest. The psychic basis is consciousness of kind and\nthe recognition of a specific situation. To be able to sympathize with a\nperson or a group, the child must be able somehow to reproduce some\nof the activities of the person or the group. In order to think and sympathize with a horseman, the child rides an imaginary horse. To think\nand sympathize with the wood-chopper, the child imitates the motions of\nthe chopper. To think and sympathize with the mother, the Uttle girl\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n499\n\nplays with the doll. To some these seem a faraway basis of social sympathy, but they are indispensable. The glory and power of the early\nkindergarten for moral education came from its following this principle.\nThere have been few finer achievements in educational means than the\nsongs, plays, and occupations of the early kindergarten as a means of\ndeveloping social response.\nSince sympathy in this early form demands imitation and reproduction\nof acts, the changed social order puts new and heavy demands upon the\nkindergarten and primary schools. Primitive occupations used primitive\nmachinery and employed the larger, more fundamental muscles in transforming raw material into finished products. Present industrial processes\nuse complex machinery, employ finer adjustments of accessory muscles\nto make a part or piece of the finished product. Again, these primitive\noccupations of the domestic order were daily recurrent, and suggestive,\nand also were associated with known and respected persons. Division of\nlabor and the factory system have eliminated most ot the personal elements.\nThe occupations of adults are so removed from the observation of children,\nand are so complex and piecemeal that they furnish little basis for social\nsympathy. The songs and games oi the sower,, mower, wood-chopper,\neven the shoemaker, have lost most of their significance as means of social\nsympathy. Whether differentiated factory labor or any present-day general form of industry can be made the basis of imitative songs, games,\nor occupations as means of developing the physiological and psychic material for sympathy, is yet to be determined. Of course there is left concert\nsinging. This is a social process par excellence independent of Uterary\ncontent or dramatic motion. The singers must sing together, have the\nsame rhythm, same movement, breathe similarly, have the same pitch.\nIndividual and social control might here be increased by individual and\ngroup responsive singing. For girls the play and game with dolls still\nremain as ways of practicing for adult processes. Many of the ways\nFroebel suggests for using nature as a means of developing insight and\nsympathy may still be used.\nBut all in all, the child's present status in its relation to nature, to adults,\nand to industries, is so new, so different, and so complex that the kindergarten and primary school are forced to a reorganization of much of its\nmaterial. Much of the material used when the social unit was domestic\nstill has educative value because of its historical suggestiveness. But no\nintelligent educator contends that it has the same social and moral significance.\nMoral education can no longer be incidental or indirect. Many customs\nand social standards are still passed on ]^y contagion and imitation, but\nthe insight and good judgment necessary to live a moral life in the present\nsodal situation request definite, direct instruction by parents and teachers\nwho know what they are doing and do the best they know.\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nFormal education may be described as grafting social achievements\nupon instinctive roots. The moral life is the response a person, that is,\na self-acting, choosing agent, makes to the social order. Moral education\naims to make the child able and wiUing to make right responses. Thr\nrealization of this aim demands of the teacher: first, a working knowledge\nof the child's native tendencies; second, a clear insight into the meaning\nand use of good social standards and customs — an insight gained only by\nright thinking and right living; and third, such a knowledge of teaching as a\nfine art as to be able to graft these good standards upon the child's instincts.\nThe situations demanding moral responses are of two types: first, the\nformal, recurring ones — for these, habits of right action must be developed\nby drill prompted and directed by moral motives; second, new and often\nperplexing situations — for these, the child needs the development of\ninsight and moral judgment, the ability and disposition to think before\nacting. In addition to the disposition to think around and thru a new\nsituation, children need formulas for analyzing diflScult problems.\nMoral instruction is accomplished only by a teacher who aims at a\nmoral result. Let this not be misunderstood. A child acquires many\nhabits of right and wrong reactions by the mere example of the teacher,\nand there is no stage of a child's development in which the teacher's personaHty is more important, unless, perchance, it is in the child's second or\nsocial infancy, from twelve to fifteen. But the moral development of the\nchild of today requires, in addition to these indirect ways, the formal,\ndirect instruction in thinking thru moral situations, and instruction and\nguidance in acting according to ideas rather than following habits. In\nshortj for many present-day problems a child has no trustworthy instinctive basis, and the ability and disposition for right reaction must be developed thru instruction. The limitations of time make it impossible to\ntrain by example and imitation for all kinds of acts. Again, children are\nthrown upon their own resources earher and oftener than in pioneer times.\nThe supreme problem of moral education is the development of self-control.\nThis can only be accomplished thru moral motives. A moral motive\nidentifies an impulse with a good end that is the natural result of the\nact which it prompts and directs. Rewards, prizes, and immunities interfere with moral instruction. From the standpoint of intelligence, the\nproblem of moral education is to teach a child to think straight when\nthinking about acts and consequences. Artificial incentives interfere with\nclear thinking upon causes and effects. The invention of artificial means\nand devices of motivation have been brought about by the inabiHty of\nteachers to develop motives appropriate to the stage of intellectual development of the child. The use of artificial incentives with healthy children\nis due either to laziness, indifference, or ignorance. A normal child is a\nveritable magazine of energy, and is one of the most easily directed organisms in the world. The problem is to develop the power and disposition\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "f\n\nDepartment!\n\nMORAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\n501\n\nof self-direction. In the last analysis, the spiritual Ufe of a child is determined by the number and kind of persons with whom he has fellowship,\nand the quantity and quality of that fellowship. Now the primitive companionship iswith those who feed, clothe and care for the child. We are\njust coming to understand how sensitive a child is to persons. There are\nabundant cases of a child's discriminating between mother and nurse, and\nbetween father and mother in the early months of its life. It is not too\nmuch to say that many a child has the physiological basis of a good or\nbad disposition laid in the first two or three months of its life. Regular\nhabits of eating, sleeping, bathing, can be established during the first\ndays of life. Sticklers for nomenclature insist on calling this training,\nbut from the standpoint of the mother and nurse who purposes and plans\nthe ways and means of accompHshing this result, it is instruction. Because\nof the infant's sensitiveness to persons in these early days, a child's disposition ismuch dependent upon the disposition and habits of the one who\ncares for it in this first stage. A fussy, nervous, jerky nurse gets from an\ninfant quite different responses from those of a steady, graceful one. In\nthis first stage of response to the natural and social order an infant's standards of right and wrong are what he wants. The transformation of these\nstandards is caused by wanting what a kind person wants him to want.\nThe second stage of moral development, demanding a new means of\ninstruction and training, is that in which the wants are not for satisfaction\nof bodily appetites, but wants of the mind, at least in the sense of wanting\ntools or means to accompUsh ends. In this stage all the essentia) moral\nelements bud forth, but we must remember that they are but buds — the\nsense of being a cause, the foundation of conscience, of responsibility, the\nsense of values, the sense of ends and means, the sense of social use, that\nis, of using and being used by persons. In this stage formal social instructions must begin. Fortunately we are not left to devise the formal means\nof instruction. The instinct for self-impression and imitation along with\nthe examples and occasions for co-operation develops language to such\nan extent that social intercourse is not only possible but enjoyable.\nIf, now, we analyze the social life into which the child is thrown, we\ndiscover here as in the former stage the two t)^es of reactions. There\nare the recurrent ones, and the new ones. The new, complex social habits\nrequire both instruction and training. Language is the instrument of\ninstruction, and repetition, or drill under moral motives, the instrument\nof training.\nIn either case the process must be rational in this stage.\nIt has been announced more than once in this convention that you\ncannot reason with a child before ten or twelve years of age. If we cannot\nand do not reason with a child before this age, we cannot reason very\nmuch with him at any age. No one has a right to use the plural personal\npronoun \"you\" in this statement. There are parents and teachers who\nmight with some degree of truthfulness say, \"I cannot reason with children\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nten or twelve years of age,\" but this is because of incapacity or disinclination on the part of the parent or teacher, and not due to the irrationality\nof the child. There are parents and teachers who could with perfect truthfulness say, ''I don't want to reason with boys and girls before the age of\ntwelve. I want them to do what I say.\" Such persons refuse to give\nmoral instruction. They would rather give commands.\nWe have somehow drifted into the bad habit of putting training and\ninstruction over against each other as alternatives. It is a vestigial remnant of the old controversy concerning the relation of the theoretical and\npractical aspect of consciousness. In a self-active, complex agent like a\nchild, there is no training worthy the name that is not inspired and guided\nby instruction. Instruction is the ingoing informational aspect as training\nis the outgoing expressional aspect of judgment. It is true that with our\npresent system of education there seems to be something akin to information stored in memory that in no appreciable way influences conduct.\nThere seem to be cases of skill that cannot be referred to any articulate\nbody of knowledge; but these are either only seeming or are pathological\nrather than normal.\nThere is no moral education worthy the name without moral instruction.\nThis instruction may be nothing more formal than a good example, but an\nexample as a means of moral education is not good, not so good as it can\nand ought to be, unless it is deliberately and tactfully set up as a stimulus\nand guide to action.\nInstruction involves consciously directed fellowship between two\nminds. Moral instruction aims to produce moral conduct. Moral conduct is produced by moral intention. A moral intention is a good end\nconsciously and intelligently chosen. Moral instruction in these two\nearly stages of development is accompUshed by providing occasions for\nchoosing, occasions for judging, and acting according to judgment. In the\nfirst stage these occasions must be accompanied by good examples and all\nstages require social approval and disapproval.\nThe confusion in this field arises out of wrong notions of the function\nof knowledge and language and wrong notions of the relations between\nthem. Language has come to be almost the sole instrmnent of social\nco-operation in education. When we speak of information, we almost\nalways think of it as formulated in language. When we speak of instruction, we almost always think of it only as couched in language formulas.\nThis would not be so bad if we all understood the right method of developing\nformulas and their right use. Formulas have three functions: (i) to\norganize and store learning; (2)' to analyze complex presentations; and\n(3) to guide action. The controversy concerning direct moral instruction\ngrows out of a misconception of the use of formulated knowledge, and an\nattempt to reverse the process of teaching a formula. The language\naspect of a formula may be run thru the language machinery of a child\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN\n\nAS AN ETHICAL\n\nLABORATORY\n\n503\n\nwithout affecting conduct, and without any power to guide action. A\nformula comes at the end of the primary learning process. It is the refined\nproduct of re-examined experience. Such an articulated experience can\nthen be used as a powerful instrument of analysis; and when a formula\ncan be used as an instrument of analysis, it can also be used as a guide\nto action, i.e., as a guide to life synthesis or social self-adjustment.\nAll good and great men have left us maxims of conduct. Careless\nthinkers have often concluded that the goodness is the result of having\nfollowed these formulas, whereas it is nearer the truth to say that these\nformulas are the result of good hving. While these formulas are the\nproducts of right living, they are also the instrument of prompt and accurate\naction. Life maxims are as useful to a man of action in the moral world\nas formulas concerning matter are useful to the natural scientist. Moral\ninstruction, as the etymology of the word suggests, consists in building into\nthe child's life, as it were, the formulas for right responses. For common\nsituations, this means organizing the physiological and psychic constitution\ninto good habits. For complex and new situations, this means constructing\nthe formulas for their analysis, and the correlative formulas for choice\nand action.\n^\n,\nThis is the age of science. The mind is a real cause, and the objective\nworld is a real and orderly world. In such a world the danger of producing\nintolerable prigs by teaching children to reflect upon conduct, are infinitesimal in comparison to the danger of allowing children to grow up into\ncoarse, disrespectful boors, because they do not care or do not think of consequences ofaction. This prig problem arises out of another false assumption. This false assumption is that reflection upon conduct is thinking\nabout past and bad conduct. Moral instruction is constructive, and\nconsists in getting that good thinking and acting that insures right living\nin the future. In a complex and progressive social order like the present,\ndirect moral instruction is a necessity.\n\nTHE\nEVELYN\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAS AN\n\nETHICAL\n\nPLUSS, KINDERGARTEN TRAINING TEACHER,\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nLABORATORY\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThere has been no stage in the growth of the world as it is today that\nhas not brought to mankind its problems of adjustment of things and\naffairs. Upon the wisdom displayed in the solution of these depends\nthe strength of nations. History is full of it. We have the names of\nthese men who have grappled with the flings and affairs of their day\nhanded down to us as the great men of the world. For example: Confucius, the great Chinese teacher, who states the problem of his time,\n500 B.C., in this way:\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nIt is because men are prone to be partial toward those they love, unjust toward\nthose they hate, servile toward those above them, arrogant toward those beneath them,\nand either harsh or over-indulgent to those in poverty and distress, that it is so difficult\nto find anyone capable of exercising sound judgment with respect to the qualities in\nothers.\n\nConfucius adds as his solution of the problem:\nTherefore it is the part of wisdom that we immerse ourselves in our own affaurs, in\norder that others may attend to theirs —\n\nprobably a very wise conclusion at that time and in that place.\nWe might foUow the growth of various nations to what they are today\nby their consideration of responsibility of the individual to the social\nwhole: the Hindus, Persians, and Egyptians, whose individuals are lost\nin family, caste, and nation; the Greeks and Romans, whose individuals\nasserted a claim, tho their chief aim was to produce good citizens; the\nIsraeUte's consideration chiefly of his relation to his God — ^the Israehte has\nno country. Christianity has played a great part in the development of\nmany nations by its opposition to all external distinctions among men.\nThus has humanity ever struggled to meet and adjust its various phases\nof Hfe. The world has broadened and new needs have arisen. We have\nvolumes written of man's efforts to master these and himself. The greatest\nmen of any nation have been those who have offered the best solution to\nthe difficulties presented. Probably no one will dispute the statement\nthat the greatest problem before us as educators at this time is the moral\ndevelopment of the boys and girls in our schools today because they will\nbe our citizens tomorrow; to develop the moral individual who wills to\nbe, himself, a strong member of the social whole, to give his best of physi cal\nand intellectual strength; in short, to lead the individual to his greatest\ngood to himself and to his country.\nConsidering conditions as they exist in America today, would it be\nthe part of wisdom to immerse ourselves in our own affairs in order that\nothers may attend to theirs ? Is there another country in which co-operation and interdependence play so great a part in the every-day life of all\nas in America ? Great changes have come to us within comparatively few\nyears — the homes of a generation ago with their upHfting tendencies and\nmoral protection have been so changed by the inrush of foreigners to our\nland, thru the great growth of our cities, the flat and apartment houses being\nsubstituted for the home, and the general change in the form of domestic\nhfe, that they have grown less and less responsible for the details of child\ntraining. In the rush and hurry of modern hfe, moral as well as intellectual\nculture has become more and more a part of the educator's duties.\nCulture — the result of training, disciplining, refining, and enlightening\nthe moral and the intellectual nature of man — ^is the process by means\nof which the individual rises above his environment and it is just this which\ncreates a new and better social whole. I know not whether I am alone\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAS AN ETHICAL\n\nLABORATORY\n\n$05\n\nin my belief that if the physical and intellectual powers of man be properly\nnurtured, the spiritual can but be the best.\nPhysical life is protected, nursed, and subject to strict disciphne, because its strength determines the utility and the welfare of the individual —\nmuscular training in the interest of general culture is becoming more and\nmore universally understood to influence the entire organism of man.\nAll mental powers and processes have a physical base — ^who would make\nmost of man intellectually and morally must not neglect his body. As an\nexample of the intellectual side, take the underlying thought in Froebel's\nmother-play game of \"The Target\" — ^perfect material, balance in form,\ngood workmanship, produce a useful article to be sold for a proper price —\na simple example of perfect moral balance in trade life, showing justice in\nthe ethical world. Emerson says, \"The soul which within is a sentiment,\noutside of us is a law.\" Cause and effect must enter into every bargain\n— the spiritual compensation must show us the difference between true\nand false values in both the trade and the ethical world. There is a law\nin CaHfornia which says that \"instruction in morals must be given in all\ngrades and classes during the entire school course.\"\nThe question as to how has been asked by many and answered by\nfew who disagree on many points. We must consider the child, the social\nwhole, and the adaptation of each to the other. The task is a great one:\nto lead our boys and girls to possess that strength of character which will\nenable them not only to see and know the world at its best, but to will\nand to be of the best in the world.\nDr. Palmer defines ethics as \"comprehension of moral principles,\"\nmaking his statement plainer by adding:\nEthics are related to morals as is geometry to carpentry — the one is a science; the\nother, its practical embodiment in the former consciousness, is a prime factor; from the\nlatter it is often altogether absent.\n\nSo, considering ethics as the essence of moral law, how shall we *best deal\nwith it in our kindergarten ? We should use as one base an appreciative\nrecognition of the process of growth in the child, who must become familiar\nwith his race and the relations existing between him and the external\nworld, become conversant with the nature and relation of all things that\ninfluence human happiness and usefulness. He must also become skilled\nin all the modes of expression by means of which one human being communicates with another and adapts himself to this world. The kindergarten takes the child in the awakening stage, guiding his love and loyalty,\nhis entire emotional nature in right channels. Both the individual and\nthe social phase must be kept constantly in view, cultivating each with\nreference to the other.\n%\nThe kindergarten stage is that of instincts, the formative period, the\nfoundation of his later life of habits of thought, habits of speech, and\nhabits of action — the stage of activity of mind and body; the greatest\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nperiod of struggle for freedom to master his own body and to know the\nworld about him. From this struggle he masters the social whole as he\nsees it, and becomes one with it. How important then the guidance at\nthis time; that he be given the highest ideals; be led to see simple and true\nrelations in the world about him; be helped to overcome his weaknesses\nand encouragement be given his inspiration.\nThe beginning of all training is response — the beginning of all moral\ntraining is response to spiritual atmosphere. The power to do leads to\nthe power to be. As instructors we must be what we would have the\nchildren be, because the spirit from within us marks our personahty and\ndetermines our influence — the atmosphere which we would create. This\nthen is the kindergarten keynote — the child masters all that he will ever\nknow or be thru his own activity, not by what he produces but by his\neffort to express what he has grasped from the world.\nKindergartens are fitted with furniture for the comfort of, and with\nvarious play materials of various sorts to aid in the unfolding and development of that self within each httle one who comes within its doors; also\nwith a director to guide his activities to the discovery and unfolding of all\nthe powers which hve in each one. There may be gardening — ^there\nshould be much of it, also plenty of free and outdoor play where it is possible; but the best of all is the children themselves. The kindergarten\nis in itself a small community of equals, where each may learn to know\nhimself and this httle world, and as he knows he grows and adjusts himself\nto this environment.\nPubhc opinion is quite as much master here as in the world of grown\nups. The child placed in the kindergarten is with children of his own\ndevelopment. All are socially equal, tho there are shy ones, timid ones,\nselfish ones, self-assertive ones, and, not infrequently, untruthful ones also.\nLet us hope they are all there, for they are needed if in each one we would\ndevelop a well-balanced character.\nThru association with the group under guidance of the director each\ngains in quahties from the others. The timid child gains courage, selfcontrol, tempers the self-assertive child. While self-assertion is required\nby the shy child, selfishness is eliminated by putting in its place a feeling\nof joy in sharing with others; while untruthfulness is corrected by knowing\nright ways. Stronger and more valuable than all these is the sympathy\nand service which grow in, thru, and from this little community-life.\nThere are songs of home- and family-life, of trades, and of nature,\nthat lead the child to feel and think; stories which give to the child vicarious experiences outside his sense-perceived world. Especially valuable\nare the expressions of primitive life in mythology and folklore. The\nchild is prepared for the simple ethical standards of the myths and old\ntales before he can safely meet the more complex problems of the hterature\ninterpreting modern fife. We have also conversation which draws from\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAS A FACTOR\n\nFOR EFFICIENCY\n\n$07\n\ndifferent children their store of knowledge to be added to our whole, and\ngames that give the best of opportunities for showing justice and fair play\nin a most general way. The game may be the very simplest circle game\nand yet each child can but feel the equal rights offered him if he only\ndo his part, or it may be a representative game in which to these would\nbe added sympathy with, and a greater respect for, that phase of life,\nrepresented in the little drama, whether it be a member of a bird family\nor workman that the child has been in the little play.\nAll games are merely organized play — the law of the game controlUng\nall who participate. Their value in child welfare is being proven in the\nplaygrounds as well as in the kindergarten. The play materials in the\nkindergarten, correctly used, not only lead the child to creative use of these\nmaterials, but give him the power to do something with whatever is put\nbefore him. The child must gain confidence in himself, be given ideals and\nstandards, adding more and more as he gains knowledge and experience.\nThought, will, and action should be one.\nResponse is the main thing. The child's response to material will\nlead him to discoveries which are new to him and should be respected as\nsuch. Gardening, too, gives an unUmited field for cultivation of right\nprinciples with its beautiful illustrations of cause and effect; its lesson of\nenvironment and the never-ending mystery of the power in unseen forces.\nWe may guide the child thru what the race has struggled alone to gain.\nHe must rearrange and readjust to present things in a new way. He must\nrediscover the world. Everybody meets the universe in a different way\nand makes a different thing of it. It is only thru knowing himself and\nthe world and thru recognition, sympathy, and participation in the things\nand affairs which concern his fellow-beings that one may be led to the\nprofoundest ethical relations of life. We must think of this end in the\nbeginning, keep the principle in mind, and make use of art, music, literature, trades, games, nature — whatever is at hand, as devices merely — as\nmeans to this end.\nTHE\nBERTHA\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nM.\n\nMC CONKEY,\n\nAS A FACTOR\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF\nKINDERGARTENS\nSCHOOLS,\nSPRINGFIELD,\nMASS.\n\nAND\n\nFOR\nPRIMARY\n\nDuring recent years the attention of educators has been centered upon\nthe more practical phases of school instruction, and much thought has been\nexpended upon the revision of courses of study in order to meet the popular demand for a scholastic training that shall be at once broadly cultural\nand definitely practical.\nWith a view to the wisest ultimate expenditure of public funds every\ndepartment of the pubUc-school system is being called to account by\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIKindergarten\n\npractical men of affairs who are asking insistently, \"How does this or that\nfeature of school instruction contribute to the child's education for efficiency\"? The question would be easier to answer were there a universally\naccepted definition of the word \"efficiency.\"\nIf by efficiency we mean all-around capabihty, adaptabiHty, and\npotential power, and not merely mechanical skill along certain narrow Hues,\nthe clamor for manual education does not constitute a menace to our broad\nand democratic system of pubUc education. But if, on the other hand, the\npressure of modern business conditions should tempt us to reorganize our\nschools so as to train children from early youth with a view to making them\nnarrowly efficient in the vocational world, the loss would be vastly greater\nthan the gain. That the man is greater than the artisan, the workman than\nthe work, is a fact that must be recognized in a democracy.\nA child should be given every possible advantage by means of which\nto prepare himself for the great business of living before he is encouraged\nto concentrate his attention and effort upon preparation for a particular\ntrade or occupation. The \"short cut to the dollar\" is not necessarily the\nbest and happiest avenue to hfe. Education shotdd \"first render fit to\nlive, and then assure a fit living.\"\nChildhood is the formative period of hfe, when the perceptive powers,\nthe social instincts, the emotions, and the will seek exercise, and expand\nin proportion to the opportunities afforded for their development.\nIt is one of the functions of the school to prolong the period of childhood, and to develop in children the strength of body, mind, and spirit\nthat is necessary to successful achievement in later years, by means of\nphysical and mental activities suited to each stage of growth.\nFrom this point of view the training of the kindergarten is as necessary\nin a child's development as the highly specialized training of the vocational\nschool, which must be given much later in hfe. To the suggestion of wouldbe economists that the money now being expended for kindergartens in\nthis coimtry had better be apphed to trade schools, reply may be made\nthat the general all-around traim'ng of a young child's powers, afforded by\na good kindergarten, may mean quite as much to his success and happiness\nin adult hfe as the acquirement of the rudiments of a specific trade or\navocation.\nWhy, in this case, should Peter be robbed to pay Paul ? Surely upon\nno other ground than that Peter is undeserving of the confidence of the\npubhc and has but poorly fulfilled his trust. That such a view of the case\nis unsupported by evidence is conclusively proved by the fact that out of\n92 cities in the United States, having a population of 40,000 or over, 86\nhave kindergartens. And out of 72 cities that returned answers to the\nquery, \"Have kindergartens ever been abolished in your city ?\" only three\ncities made answer in the affirmative, and in two of these three cities kindergartens have been re-estabhshed and are now in successful operation.\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAS A FACTOR\n\nFOR EFFICIENCY\n\n509\n\nThe letters received from school superintendents, in response to a\nquestionnaire regarding the conduct of kindergartens in various cities, give\nevidence that this system of child training, providing as it does large\nopportunities for the exercise of self-control, kindness, generosity, and\nsympathetic understanding of the rights and needs of others, as well as for\na harmonious development of all a child's powers, has made a unique\nplace for itself in our system of education.\nThe necessity for a kindergarten may possibly be questioned where\nparents have the means and the will to supply an equivalent training, and\nwhere the importance to a child of early association with other children,\nunder right conditions, is definitely provided for in the home. But when\nchildren are left to the care of servants, or when the mother of a family is\ntoo busy or too preoccupied to supervise, personally, the work and play of\nits younger members, the school must supply the deficiency or the children\nwill be defrauded.\nThere are comparatively few mothers who find it possible under the\npressure of home and social duties to maintain the sympathetic, self-controlled attitude toward children that is maintained by the kindergartner\nwho has been trained for her task. And it is a difficult matter for any home\nto provide children with such opportunities for progressive and educative\nactivity as are afforded by a properly equipped kindergarten.\nThe neglected child, the \"only\" child, the lonely, selfish, or wilful\nchild, even when the latter is surrounded by every luxury and refinement\nthat wealth and culture can afford, all need to be brought under some\nstrong sociaHzing influence while they are in the plastic period, when habits\nare readily formed and conduct most easily influenced. In the case of\nchildren of alien peoples, who must be taught a new language and must be\nprepared for Hfe under new conditions, there is no more potent or more\neffective educational agency than the kindergarten with its atmosphere of\nlove and beauty and its opportunities for self-expression.\nA further suggestion is offered by short-sighted economists to the effect\nthat money may be saved for vocational schools by delegating to the primary\nschool in well-to-do city districts many of the functions of the kindergarten,\nand estabUshing day nurseries for the children of the poor.\nAt best such a substitution would be merely a makeshift, for no primary\nschool can perform its own functions and those of the kindergarten. As well\nmay the trade school attempt to give to its pupils the elementary instruction in reading and writing that should have been given earlier in the\ngrades.\nTo provide day nurseries for the children of the poor, and substitute\nthe primary school for the kindergarten in all districts where the people are\nwell to do, would be to lose more than anyone who is not a close student\nof kindergarten methods and results can possibly apprehend.\nThe kindergarten is not an experiment. It has come to stay, for it\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "^lO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nmeets a need that no other agency can meet so well. It lays broad and\ndeep foundations for virtuous and effective living and cannot therefore\nbe spared from any complete system of education. It is no nearer perfection than the college or the high school, but it is growing each year in efficiency, and already many practices to which its critics object have been\nabandoned by progressive kindergartners. Occupations which have a\ntendency to strain the eyes or the nerves of children, such as cardboard\nsewing, fine weaving, the stringing of small beads, and construction with\npeas and sticks, have been replaced in a majority of the modern kindergartens by work with materials that are much larger and much more\ned. For example, very soft, large-sized crayons are used\nmanipulat\neasily\ninstead of pencils for drawing and coloring; free paper cutting is taking\nthe place of the old-time cutting to Hne, and mucih of the construction work\nis with blocks of large size with which stable and satisfactory structures\nmay be reared, structures that when completed stand firmly in place upon\nthe floor and the building of which brings into play all the larger muscles\nof a child's body.\nIt is true that a primary teacher is now and then heard to complain\nthat kindergarten children are restless and incUned, as one mother expressed\nit, \"to dance the carpets off the floor\"; but the majority of first-grade\nteachers testify that when given work that calls for the exercise of power\nthe child who has had a year in a kindergarten gives practical evidence\nof the benefit derived from his training. Such a child is apt to be bored\nby work that is beneath his abihty, but he is more responsive, more ingenious, and more helpful in his human relationships than the child who has\nentered the grades without this preliminary training. Whether he passes\nthru the grades more rapidly than his neighbor is of less moment than how\nhe passes thru them, and what he is when he has finished his school course.\nHow much does he get out of his educational work ? What does he contribute tolife and to his school ? What is the result in general efficiency ?\nThese are more important questions than, \"Did he pass the examination\nand reach the high school in advance of his mates ?\"\nThe friends of the schools, by suggestions based upon a sympathetic\nand intelligent study of conditions, and by constructive criticism, may do\nmuch to improve them. Open discussion of educational methods and\nprocesses is always to be welcomed, for nothing is of more vital interest\nto every home in the commonwealth than the question of public education.\nIn the kindergarten is embodied an ideahstic philosophy, which has\nalready influenced greatly and beneficently all departments of our schools.\nBut the books are not yet closed, the problems are not all solved, and kindergarten workers everywhere are calling for the co-operation of parents,\nphysicians, and educators in perfecting a scheme of child-culture that is\ndestined to meet a great need. Such faults as are apparent in individual\nkindergartens are not inherent in the system. The doctrines of Froebel are\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\n511\n\nfundamentally sound, and the kindergarten as it exists thruout our\ncountry today fully justifies the refusal on the part of its patrons to rob\nPeter in order to finance Paul.\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN\nFRANK\n\nEDSON\n\nPARLIN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF TEE FUTURE\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nMASS.\n\nSome of us, who appreciate the genius of Froebel and heartily approve\nmost of his fundamental principles of education, believe the orthodox\nkindergarten is neither sacred nor perfect, that the position of the conservative kindergartners is^ both unwise and untenable, that they emphasize\nthe most defective parts of Froebel's system and forget his most vital and\nvaluable principles. We insist that we are not only true friends of the\nchildren but of the kindergarten, but friends who sincerely believe radical\nchanges are desirable and absolutely imperative if the kindergarten is to\nsurvive. Kindergartners need to study something besides the writings of\nFroebel, and to study Froebel anew in the light of modern knowledge of the\nchild. If Froebel were living and familiar with the results of modern\nresearch dealing with the growth, development, and education of the\nchild, he would be one of the most severe critics of many of his own methods\nand much of our practice. To imitate Froebel blindly as tho he were infallible isno more wise than to follow in like manner the teachings of the leading chemists or physicians of the eighteenth century. He was wise for his\ntime but not for all time.\nIt matters not how old or systematic or aesthetic our theories of the\nchild's education may be, if they are in conflict with the fundamental\nlaws of his growth and development, they are simply wrong and must be\nabandoned. In the kindergarten, the laws of the child's physical growth\nand development, especially the growth and development of his nervous\nsystem, must determine the time and the method of his training, for the\nbrain is the chief organ not only of the mind but of the body and of life.\nAt birth, the child has as many brain-cells as he will ever have, but they are\nat very different stages of development and will require widely varying\nperiods and conditions to mature. The brain does not develop symmetrical y as a whole but in spots, and there is an invariable sequence in\nthe order of its functioning. Nature's order is always from the lower to the\nhigher forms, the higher being conditioned upon the lower, and she allows\nno departure from her order and time without exacting severe penalties.\nIf, in our ignorance or impatience, we attempt to force the functioning of\ncenters before their nascent period, nature responds as well as she can and\nwe secure precocious results; but the premature development always falls\nshort of the normal and results in a case of arrested development. Moreover, we interfere with the development of both the centers below and those\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nabove, and so dwarf the possibilities of that brain and actually diminish\nthe sum of human power. At birth, the only organized centers are those\ncontrolling the general sensibility, the vital functions and certain reflex\nmovements. After birth, the sensory and motor centers are the first to\ndevelop, rap'dly at first and then more slowly up to maturity. The lower\nintellectual organization and language center follow, and the higher intellectual and moral development come much later. At the kindergarten age,\nthe child's brain is very immature and entirely unprepared for most of\nthe intellectual work now required. It is ready for sensory, motor, and\nlanguage training only. These centers should be freely exercised up to the\npoint of fatigue, but not to exhaustion, for it is only by such exercise that\nnascent cells can be developed to their maximum capacity. The theory\nof an all-around symmetrical education for young children is in direct conflict with the laws of their growth. Nature strongly emphasizes one thing\nat a time, the rest being incidental and supplementary. In our shortsighted anxiety to transform young children into little men and women\nwe do at great labor and cost much needless and even harmful work. It\ncannot be insisted upon too strongly that the condition of the child must\ndetermine the character of the kindergarten.\nIn the first place, the kindergarten of the future will be true to its name,\na garden of children, a place especially adapted to the nurture of children\nand in charge of those who understand their condition, their .needs, and the\nlaws of their growth. If it is to be a garden and not a hothouse, it will\ngenerally be out of doors, in the sunlight and open air, among the trees and\nflowers, associated with the birds and animals, providing healthful conditions for the body, appropriate food for the hungry senses, abundant\nexercise for the growing muscles, ample scope for the imagination, and unfailing topics for stories and conversation. The health of the child will be the\nprime consideration, the chief aim being to develop a strong, well-organized\nbody to serve later as the efficient instrument of a well-trained mind.\nPhysical health and strength are of sufficient importance in themselves\nto receive most careful attention during these early years, but they assume\nincreased importance when it is known that they are essential to the\nhighest and best development of the intellectual and moral powers. Spontaneous activity will largely displace prescribed sedentary occupations, and\nlarge lungs, good digestion, a strong heart, and steady nerves will greatly\noutrank peg-sticking and a meager knowledge of sphere, cyUnder, and cube.\nThe kindergarten of the future will recognize the supreme importance\nof play in the education of the child and will provide ample time and suitable places for it. Few things seem to disturb the minds of kindergartners\nso much as the suggestion of free, spontaneous play, and yet nothing is so\ncharacteristic of childhood nor so potent in the general development of the\nchild. It is by far the wisest and most efficient teacher he will ever have,\nbecause it calls into well-timed and well-measured action both body and\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\n513\n\nmind without forcing or neglecting either. It trains the senses, exercises\nthe muscles, stimulates the imagination, excites thought, increases knowledge, and promotes normal growth. It involves a concentration of attention, a persistency of effort, an exercise of ingenuity, and an intensity of\naction never secured in any other way. No school, not even a kindergarten,\nhas yet succeeded in securing such absorbing interest, such harmonious\nco-operation of mind and body, and such large and lasting results. We\nwonder that the child does not completely exhaust himself, until we learn\nthat the effect of spontaneous action upon the nerve-cells is very different\nfrom the effect of work, or action under the compulsion of the will. Genuine\nplay draws only slightly upon the energy of the brain while imposed duties\nrapidly exhaust it. A healthy child is fatigued a hundred fold more rapidly\nby enforced sitting than by active play of his own choosing. Much of\nthe kindergarten play is only make-believe, just playing play, and lacks\nmost of the value of real play. Spontaneity and imagination are largely\nlacking. I refer to industrial plays representing adult interests and imitating things about which the children know nothing. These bogus plays\nwill certainly give place to the genuine plays of childhood, which are of\nthree kinds : the frolic or aimless capering and laughing due to an overplus\nof physical energy; the imaginative individual play, in which each child\nfollows his own observation; and the group plays, in which all play together.\nThe frolic is nature's safety valve. It may be somewhat noisy but it reduces\nthe tension, distributes the circulation, and wakes up the whole body. The\nfree imaginative play is more quiet, but, from an educational point of view,\nmost valuable. For it there should be a large collection of all kinds of\nsimple playthings. The ideal place is by the side of a large rock or under\na big, low-branching tree. In this kind of play no direction is needed, only\nunobtrusive oversight with now and then a little sympathetic co-operation\nby one who will be learner rather than teacher and who will not shatter\nthe child's world of imagination by injecting ideas from the adult world of\nfact. Here let the child test, plan, construct, tear down, and make himself\nlord of his little domain. After a while there is need of play which will\nchange the emphasis from mental to physical activity, and the old hide-andseek, run and catch, circle and singing games are best.\nOur kindergarten will surely associate childhood with the myriad forms\nand voices of Nature. The animals and birds, the trees and flowers, the\nclouds and winds, speak to the child as they will never speak to him again.\nThe spirit of nature calls to the fresh spirit of the child to know her and to\nlove her. This is his golden period for gathering thru his senses a stock of\nelementary ideas. The time for classified knowledge and scientific thought\ncomes later. Now is the time for harvesting the materials of thought —\nsense and motor impressions. The country provides the most natural\nfood for the mind of the child; without it, it is difficult to secure a normal\ndevelopment.\n\n\" God made the country, but man made the town.\"\nt\n\nOne\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nis the created world, the other the manufactured world. The ideas from\none are general and standard, those from the other, mdividual and special.\nThe sensations from the city differ from those of the country both in\nkind and in quaUty. They are man-made, too obtrusive and noisy. They\nshout to the senses of the child and tend to confuse, overstimulate, and\ntire him. They come too fast, present too may details, and do not give\nsufficient time for reaction. Nature presents objects and forces more\nquietly and harmoniously. She whispers and smiles and keeps still, so\nthat the little investigator can observe and experiment without distractions.\nShe neither gorges nor starves him but gives him each day his daily bread.\nHer influence seems to develop rather than to ripen him, to implant the\ngerms of wisdom rather than of smartness. To starve the senses in childhood isto dwarf the intellect in manhood and to impoverish life.\nOur kindergarten children should also see the works of man and man\nat his work — ^locomotives, fire-engines, boats, and beautiful buildings; the\ncarpenter, mason, farmer, and blacksmith; poUceman, fireman, bootblack,\nand newsboy; trench-digging, road-making, street-cleaning, and housebuilding; infact, every place and everything within the radius of their\nsafe and possible observation. They should see the materials, the processes,\nand the results. Therefore, the home of our kindergarten will be near the\nlarge parks or in the outskirts of the city, and means of transportation\nwill be provided so the children may have both rural and urban experiences.\nThe kindergarten of the future will give much attention to oral language\ntraining, the children doing most of the talking. After new discoveries\nand new experiences, they will be encouraged to tell about them as directly\nand as clearly as they can, being allowed to use gesture freely to aid their\nthinking and expression. The kindergartner will listen patiently, explain\nclearly, and answer truly. It is a pecuUar fact that the language center\nof the brain develops in connection with the hand most used in acquiring\nthought or in expressing it, being located in the left hemisphere of right\nhanded persons and in the right hemisphere of the left-handed. The\nlanguage training must necessarily be largely individual, each child having\nfrequent opportunities to tell the story of his experiences and to ask his\nquestions. The most profitable language exercise for the acquisition of\nlanguage power is the one in which the child tries hardest to give adequate\noral expression to his own thought.\nOf course the kindergartners will continue to tell the children the old\nfavorite stories, which have stood the test of ages, and will teach the\nchoicest selections from children's poetry. In fact, they will not only\nlearn a large number of the very best stories for children, representing all\nsorts of conditions, appeaUng to all of the wholesome emotions, and teaching\nmany important lessons; but they will study to tell each story in the most\nappropriate words, tone and rate of speaking, with just the right emphasis,\ngesture, and facial expression. They will carefully note the prevaiUng\nmental condition, or state of feehng of the class, and, selecting story a to\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\n515\n\nmatch it, will, after seeing that every child is in a comfortable and attentive\nattitude, tell the story in the most vivid, charming, and effective manner.\nHaving completed the story, they will not immediately proceed to something else, but will give the children time to think, to recover somewhat\nfrom the spell, to talk it over and ask questions which should always be\nanswered intelligently, in harmony with the spirit of the story, and, as far\nas possible, in its very words. Whenever a story is retold, it should be in\nthe same words and manner as at first. After the children are familiar\nwith it, some child may tell it instead of the teacher. This will finally lead\nto the acting or dramatizing of some simple stories.\nBut what will the kindergarten of the future do on cold and stormy\ndays? When the weather drives the children indoors, they will go to a\nlarge, well-lighted and well-ventilated room, fringed with a row of seats\nand furnished with a piano, pictures and story-books, and all sorts of playthings. The FroebeHan gifts, with their formal lessons, their abstract\nideas, and their poor mathematics, will be found only as building-blocks.\nThe children will dance, play games, sing songs, and tell stories; they will\ntest, invent, construct, and carry on all the bustling business of a lilliputian world.\nThe kindergartner of the future will be a most important factor in the\ncommunity and in the lives of the children. She will have a healthy, welltrained body; a quick, sensible, and versatile mind; and, above all, a great,\nwarm, motherly heart. She will be the friend, companion, and guide of the\nchildren. She will really and truly love them and understand them, not\nonly sympathetically but scientifically, the laws of their growth, the order\nof their development, their instincts and interests, their physical needs\nand mental requirements. She will know and love Nature, be able to\nrecognize the trees, identify the flowers, call the birds by name, and tell\nthe story of the hills and stones. She will know the best plays and games,\nthe best childhood songs and be able to sing them, the children's favorite\nstories and be able to tell them charmingly and always in the same way.\nShe will be able to run, throw a ball, roll a hoop, skip a rope, make a whistle,\nsteer a sled, and do all the other things which little folks expect of their\ngrown-up friends.\nFinally, the kindergarten of the future will respect the individuality\nand spontaneity of the child and give ample scope for his imagination and\ninitiative. It will provide an environment rich in its opportunity, inspiringin its suggestion, wholesome in its influence; but will give far less attention\nto regular programs, formal instruction, and sedentary occupations. It\nwill be more of a nursery and less of a school. It will stand for the rights\nof the child — the right to healthy normal g?owth; the right to play in the\nopen air and sunshine; the right to see something of the works of God and\nthe ways of men ; the right to be a child, to think as a child, to speak as a\nchild, to understand as a child, in order that, when he becomes a man he\nmay put away childish things and be as much of a man as possible. ,\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor, Department of Public Instruction. Indianapolis, Tnd.\nVice-President— a. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools\nDecatur, HI.\nSecretary — Miss Nellie M. O'Keepe, Principal of Jefferson School\nSt. Paul, Minn.\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 12, 191 1\n\nThe meeting of the Department of Elementary Education was called to order in\nTemple Beth Israel by the president, Miss Adelaide\" Steele Baylor, Department of Public\nInstruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\nUnder the general topic \"The Curriculum,\" Edwin R. Snyder, professor of education, State Normal School, San Jose, Cal., read a paper on \"The Need of a New Standard\nof Measurement for the Various Subjects of the Curriculum.\" Informal discussion was\nopened by Mr. Heaton, of San Francisco, who expressed the opinion that the people have\nfaith in the public schools, as shown by their willingness to raise money in various ways\nfor their support. Mr. Work believed that the educational forces were strengthening\nthe system by discussion and criticism from within.\nThe Chair named the following persons as a committee to nominate oflScers for the\nensuing year:\nMiss Nellie M. O'Keefe, St. Paul, Minn.\nMr. Everett Shepardson, Los Angeles, Cal.\nMiss Glascock, San Rafael, Cal.\n\"Industrial Education in London\" was presented by Miss Kate Stevens, principal of\nNorth Islington Central Girls' School, Tollington Park, London, England.\nA \"Report of Committee on Motivation of School Work\" was presented by H. B.\nWilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111., chairman. Discussion was led by Everett\nShepardson, head of the practice school. State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal. Mr.\nRichard D. Faulkner, principal of Horace Mann Grammar School, San Francisco, continued his discussion, stating that he would say \"Amen\" to much of this paper and that\nhe himself had received inspiration in college from the addresses given daily thru the\ncourse. Mr. J. M. Berkey, principal of Liberty Sub-District Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.,\nstrongly approved of the contents of the paper and believed that a child has a right to\nask why.\nMr. Shepardson made the following motion, which was duly seconded and carried\nunanimously:\nResolved, That it is the sense of this, the Elementary Education Section, now assembled, that the \"Report on the Motivation of the Children's Work\" and the accompanying presentation by the chairman of the committee, are so valuable that we respectfully\nrequest the Publication Committee of the Natienal Education Association^to publish\nboth in full in the forth-coming report of the proceedings for the year.\nMr. Faulkner moved that the committee in charge of the Proceedings make reprints\nof this report and address, to be sold at cost by the Secretary of the National Education\nAssociation.\nS17\n\n•\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "^l8\n\nNATIONAL\nSECOND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nSESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 14, 191 1\n\nThe meeting was caUed to order by Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor, president of the\nElementary Section.\nTopic: \"Health and Sanitation.\"\nRobert J. Aley, president of the University of Maine, Orono, Me., read a paper on\n\" The Health of School Children.\" .\n\"Playgrounds and Health\" was the next paper on this topic, given by L. H. Weir,\nfield secretary of the Playground and Recreation Association of America, Seattle, Wash.\nDr. W. A. Sawyer, director of the State Laboratory, Sacramento, Cal., presented the\n\nfollowing paper: \"Laboratory Instruction in Hygiene and Public Health.\" The general\ndiscussion was led by Professor Ritchie, of Virginia.\nSuperintendent Edward Hyatt, state superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Cal., extended an invitation to the assembled teachers to partake of the hospitality\nof the Sacramento valley and receive a basket of fruit to take away.\nMiss Nellie M. O'Keefe, chairman of the nominating committee, reported the following names for nomination:\nFor President— R. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111.\nFor Vice-President— J\\ilia.n C. Bryant, principal, Madison School, St. Paul, Minn.\nFor Secretary—Miss Gertrude Longenecker, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nThe nominations were accepted and approved. It was moved and duly seconded\nthat a committee of two be appointed to secure the reprinting of the report and address\non \"Motivation of School Work.\"\nThe president named Miss Nellie M. O'Keefe, of St. Paul, and Mr. T. L. Heaton,\nof San Francisco.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nNellie M. O'Keefe, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE NEED OF A NEW STANDARD OF MEASUREMENT\nTHE VARIOUS SUBJECTS OF THE CURRICULUM\nEDWIN\n\nR.\n\nSNYDER,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nSAN JOSE, CAL.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nFOR\nSCHOOL,\n\nWhen the president of this department invited me to speak at this\nsession, she set as the general topic for discussion \"The Curriculum.\" I\nwas led to select as my special topic the subject just stated because of the\nfact that there is a widespread and growing feeling or behef current that\nthe education of the day rarely makes for efficiency. This view is not\nconfined to the leaders in education, but is common to the laymen, and\nprevails to a considerable extent among the teachers themselves.\nMen of the business world are constantly pointing out the fact that the\ncolleges and universities rarely fit their students for their hfe-work. It is\nalso pointed out by these men that the graduate of the secondary school\nis not only unprepared to enter upon any particular vocation, but that he\nis deficient in a proper knowledge of the so-called essentials — reading,\nwriting, and arithmetic.\nOn the other hand, the colleges and universities\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTANDARD\n\nOF MEASUREMENT\n\nFOR THE\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n519\n\ncharge that the product of the secondary school is not only deficient in a\nknowledge of the three R's, but that it is also deficient in a knowledge of the\nsubjects especially pursued in them.\nThe situation with the elementary school is similar to that of the others.\nHere also the public at large has ceased to be satisfied. There is a tendency\nto lay the blame upon the curricula, and also to criticize adversely the\nefiiciency of the individual product in the various studies, and especially\nin the formal subjects. The volume of this criticism is increased by the\nvoice of the professional representatives of the higher institutions. In short,\nthe educational institutions of America are at last compelled to face a\npowerful adverse public criticism, not, as of old, a criticism involving their\nright of existence or their right to receive public support, but an adverse\ncriticism of their efl&ciency as measured by their human product.\nThis adverse criticism has been met frequently in the past by an attempt\nto shift responsibility. The higher institution has placed the blame upon\nthe secondary school, this institution has attempted in its turn to shift\nit to the elementary school, and the elementary school has met the adverse\npublic criticism of its product by pointing out the fact that it has been controlled, not by the pubUc direct, but by the higher institutions themselves.\nAll of these criticisms involve but two phases of the question. The\none deals with a need for the addition to the curriculum of a number of\nmore practical subjects. The other deals with results achieved in the subjects already included within the present curriculum. The new subjects\ndemanded by the public are such as will primarily contribute directly\nto utihty. The second demand relates to the subjects which contribute\nindirectly to utility. I shall confine the remainder of this discussion to the\nproblem as it grows out of the second group of studies; and I shall consider\nit only in its application to the elementary school.\nThe failure of the elementary school to satisfy the demands of its critics,\nwhether they be lay or professional, is caused, usually, either by the fallacy\nof the criticisms themselves — due to the failure of the critics to take into\nconsideration the factors of selection — or by the condition arising out of a\nlack of time — due to the overcrowded curriculum — ^in which to secure the\nstandard of eflaciency required.\nMost of the criticisms directed at the failure of the elementary school\nto get results cite the weakness of the pupils in the so-called fundamentals —\nreading, writing (including certain composition), and arithmetic. The\ncritic of results obtained in these fields, an individual of special class,\nusually compares his own efficiency in one of these fields, either with that\nof an individual who has no talent, or whose talent lies in another direction,\nor with that of the average of the mass of children. The fallacy of such\ncomparisons is of course ob\\dous. Not infrequently the arithmetical\nability of the average boy of thirteen or fourteen is compared with that of\nthe exceptional sixteen- or eighteen-year-old boy of a past generation.\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nIn all of these arbitrary comparisons we also fail to take into consideration the fact that the child of today is limited in the amount of time that he\nmay spend upon any one of these subjects. Originally the curriculum of\nthe elementary school consisted merely of the so-called fundamentals.\nToday the number of subjects pursued ranges from twelve to twenty, with\nthe prospect of others to come.\nIt appears, then, that in so far as there is any validity in the criticisms\ndirected at the product of the elementary schools, it is due either to the\nfact that we place obsolete standards of measurement upon certain of the\nsubjects included within the present curriculum, or to the further fact that\nthere are certain subjects of a practical na.ture that should be incorporated\nwithin that curriculum.\nIn our hurry to provide educational opportunities for all American\nchildren, we have failed to realize that the demands of hfe upon these\nchildren are as varied as their particular capacities and the occupations\nthey will later be called upon to pursue. Even in the elementary school\nwe have provided for the mass a class education with its class standards\nof efficiency.\nThe recurring demand for a more practical education has been met in\nthe past by merely adding to the curriculum more subjects, as these have\nproven their worth; and regardless of the enlarged content, the varying\ncapacities of children, and future use, both the school and the public have\nretained for all children the same obsolete standards of measurement of\nefficiency in all of the older subjects.\nWe try to get the same results when we divide the time, the effort, and\nthe attention of our children into a dozen or more channels that we did\nwhen they pursued but three or four subjects. We retain the same absolute\nstandards of measurement for all regardless of individual abiUty or of\nindividual need. So closely do we hew to the Kne, that if a child cannot\nmeet the standard set for a given subject, we refuse to promote him, and\nthus virtually drive him forth from the school, and forever remove his\nopportunity for further scholastic preparation for his Hfe-work. We either,\nmake all children read, write, or spell with an equal degree of accuracy,\nor we forever close to them the doors of opportunity.\nWhen a new subject knocks at the scholastic door, its vouchers are\nalways careful to announce that its pursuit will not in the least interfere\nwith the select already occupying positions therein. In fact, they are\nalways charged with subtle arguments to prove that it will react in such a\nmanner as to make for greater efficiency in those subjects already occupying the position of holy of holies. In a degree this is true, or at least it was\nbefore so many of the newer subjects secured entrance into the curriculum.\nIt is largely true, however, only in so far as these subjects serve the purpose\nof a much-needed recreation. In many schools their position is such today\nthat their main function is merely that of a questionable recreation.\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nSTANDARD\n\nOF MEASUREMENT\n\nFOR THE\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n521\n\nIn holding on to the absolute standard of measurement for the older\nsubjects, the newer ones have been caused to yield a more or less fruitless\nharvest. These subjects, such as music, drawing, nature-study, industrial\nstudy, manual training, and vocational training, are much more than\nrecreational. They are the real essentials for most of the people, and they\nwill ultimately occupy the select places in that portion of the elementary\nschool which will in the future serve the common people.\nBefore we can do justice to these subjects, some of the older ones, yea,\neven the so-called essentials, will have to suffer for most children a much\ngreater curtailment. And why should they not be curtailed? Have we\nnot been proceeding with our education as tho all of our children were\ndestined to scale the same mountain, when we knew full well that most of\nthem were by capacity, disposition, and surroundings h'mited to the climbing\nof numberless hills — some even molehills ? And finally, has not our procedure in the past resulted in handicapping many individuals in making\ntheir particular hfe- voyages ? Does the world demand of the laborer that\nhe should be able to spell as well as the teacher or newspaper writer, or that\nhe should be as efiicient in handling figures as the bookkeeper? If the\nsocial standard of requirement is not absolute in these matters, why should\nthe scholastic standard be absolute ?\nWe constantly ignore the relative worth of things. When we attack a\nsubject in the school we tend to set as our standard absolute perfection.\nWe pursue this standard so vigorously that we are of necessity compelled\nto neglect other things of equal or superior value. We fail to consider the\nfact that the final increment of any subject is frequently secured at an\nexpenditure of energy out of all proportion to the value of the accretion.\nFurther, we fail to consider the fact that the relative volume of this final\nincrement varies for each subject and for each and every individual.\nFinally, and most important of all, we completely fail to take into consideration the fact that the real value of the acquired final increment varies with\nthe future occupation and surroundings of the individual. We do not\nrealize the fact that with each separate individual a time arrives when it\nbecomes an economic waste to pursue further any given subject, because\nsuch pursuit necessarily precludes the possibiUty of securing a much larger\nvolume of more useful knowledge along other Unes.\nTo be more specific, the school sets a single standard of excellence in the\nthree R's, for the future laborer, carpenter, contractor, or housekeeper, and\nlargely disregards the native capacity, incHnation, and opportunity of each,\ntho these may have already settled the question of his coming occupation\nand future need. Instead of getting the best possible result in each subject\nwith a reasonable expenditure of energy ^d time upon the part of the child,\nthe institution holds each to an arbitrary degree of excellence whether there\nis any chance of his achieving the result or not. All other subjects are usually\nsubordinated to an arbitrary and more or less static standard of excellence\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nin the so-called essentials, which are really only essential in degree, depending completely upon their appUcation to future need.\nIt is not improbable that, if our laborer had spent the same amount of\ntime and energy upon some practical subject as he spent in securing that\nlo per cent of final increment in the three R's he might have succeeded in\nplacing himself in the class of the artisan. Or, if this were not possible,\nit is quite certain that the time spent upon such final increment could have\nbeen used to much better advantage upon some real content subject.\nNeither is the carpenter nor the blacksmith primarily measured by his\nspelUng, his penmanship, or his reading; he is solely measured by the results\nhe may achieve in his chosen field, and these results are influenced to a\nlarger degree by the informal content subjects than by a final perfection\nin the formal fields of knowledge.\nThe assumption that all must reach approximately the same degree of\nefficiency in the formal subjects assumes, either that the process of education\nis serial, and that each subject and each phase of each subject must be\napproximately exhausted before the individual is prepared to take up any\nother subject, or that all knowledge is secured thru the use of the so-called\nessentials. These assumptions are equally false. The process of education\nis primarily reciprocal, and the direct or sense method precedes or goes\nhand in hand with the indirect, or intellectual method.\nIn practice we proceed as tho educational progress in the formal subjects\nwill completely cease with the end of the school term, while in fact real\nefficiency in these subjects can come only thru the continued practical\napplication of them. If, on the other hand, the individual does not use\nthem they become a useless ornament, soon to be forgotten. It follows,\nthen, that it is of more importance to develop the habit of use in relation\nto these subjects than to secure a great degree of artificial efficiency in\nthem.\nThe apphcation of these subjects to real-life situations will also require\nthe incorporation of numerous subjects of a practical nature into the already\novercrowded curriculum, and the profitable pursuit of these added subjects\nwill entail new standards of measurement of efficiency in the subjects\nalready composing the curriculum.\nIt should be clear from the above that the criticisms of the product of\nthe public school, when not rendered fallacious by comparisons that do not\ntake into consideration the factors of selection, are due, first, to obsolete\nand traditional standards of measurement of excellence which do not take\ninto consideration the need of a modern system of universal education;\nsecond, to the inability of the school because of this same false standard\nto find time properly to take care of the newer subjects of the curriculum,\nwhich, being the real source of education, are of the first importance.\nLike the traditional standard of measurement which is fitted to those\nonly who are preparing for the professional hfe, the new standard of measure-\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN LONDON\n\n523\n\nment will be evolved out of experience thru the process of selection. In\nthis case, however, the experience will be largely experimental, and the\nselection will be conscious. These new standards of measurement will take\ninto consideration not alone individual capacities and individual inclinations, but also individual needs as they relate to present educational and\nfuture occupational and social demands.\nThe difficulty of applying an individual standard of measurement is of\ncourse a problem of administration. Two solutions of the problem suggest themselves. The one is to segregate the pupils into groups and set\nsuch pliable standards of measurement as are needful to each group. The\nother is to lower the standard to a minimum and gradually increase the\nefficiency in all fields as the pupil advances, differentiating where the need\nmay arise, and carrying the work of the formal subjects well into the secondary period of education.\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN LONDON\n\nKATE STEVENS, PRINCIPAL OF THE NORTH ISLINGTON CENTRAL\nTOLLINGTON PARK, LONDON, ENGLAND\n\nGIRLS' SCHOOL,\n\nThere is no grade of education more important than that given in the\npublic elementary schools of a country, for here the majority of its people\nobtain the only training which they receive as a preparation for their\nfuture lives. Here, too, others who pass on to higher forms of education\nreceive the groundwork for that further training.\nIt is necessary to secure that the education given is efficient and economical, both in making the best use of the short school life of the pupil, and\nalso in securing an adequate return for the outlay of public funds which have\nbeen appropriated for that purpose.\nIt is the duty of the school to discover and foster any special ability\nor aptitude possessed by a pupil; to encourage initiative, to train the\nintelligence, to strengthen the will-power and to develop self-reliance.\nIt must emphasize the right thinking which leads to right action.\nHabits of observation and accuracy must be inculcated; also the necessity\nfor looking at any subject from other points of view than one^s own; the\nvalue of tenacity of purpose, and perseverance so necessary for success in\nany undertaking; the gradual training toward a \"suspended judgment,\"\nas against hasty generalization; all these must be kept in view, as well as\nthe imparting of information. Especially valuable is the training as to\nwhere and how the pupil can obtain information for himself. All this and\nmore will be included in the aims of the best school education. There has\ngradually come about a change in ideals of education; from being a means\nof culture and discipline for the leisured few, it has developed a wider and\nmore democratic side, as a means of industrial, civic, and social betterment. This has come about, in a great measure,' thru the extended appli-\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ncation of science to industry; to new commercial activities, and to increased\nfacilities for communication and transport; to the growing use of machinery, and to the decay of the system of apprenticeship.\nWith increased knowledge, and wider fields of information to be covered,\nmore and more is thrown upon, and expected from, the schools. In order\nto meet this demand, one of the great achievements of education has been\nthe introduction into the school curriculum of industrial and technical\ntraining, with its subsequent, and almost phenomenal, development.\nIn order to prevent misunderstanding I must premise that the term\n\"industrial school,\" in its narrower English sense, signifies a school for the\nindustrial training of vagrant or neglected children — o. preventive institution where they are usually boarded, clothed, and taught until they reach\nthe age of fourteen or sixteen.\nThe term, however, gradually widened in meaning, until at the recent\nimportant conference held at the Guildhall in London, at which both the\nPrime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition spoke in favor of its object,\nthe securing of a national system of industrial training, the main resolution\nread as follows:\nThat this conference views with grave concern the large numbers of children leaving\nschool without practical training for definite vocations, and resolves that a national\nsystem of industrial, professional, and commercial training should be established, to which\nthe children shall pass, as a matter of course unless the parents are prepared to undertake\ntheir future training and without interval, for a definite period, to be thoroly trained\nfor entry to the particular calling for which they are best fitted, such training to be given\nunder fully qualified instructors.\n\nMuch enthusiasm was caused by the receipt, during the conference, of\nthe following telegram:\nI am commanded by the King to convey to you the expression of his sympathy with\nthe objects which your conference desires to secure. His Majesty believes that further\ndevelopment of industrial training will be of inestimable benefit to the nation, and he\nhopes that your conference may have the effect of stimulating and educating public\nopinion in favor of this branch of education.\n\nA National Industrial Education League, for the above purpose, was\nformed as the outcome of this conference.\nConcerning London, Mr. Blair reports that\nof the total industrial population of England and Wales, employed in factories and workshop, one-seventh are to be found in London. One-fourth of all the clerks of the same\narea are to be found there. One-fourth of all the men and boys, over fourteen years of\nage, are engaged in unskilled employments. About two-thirds of all the children leaving\nthe elementary school enter unskilled employments, where there is generally no effort\nmade towards further education, and the effects of the mental and moral training of the\nelementary schools are soon dissipated. Seventy per cent of the dock laborers employed\nhere have been born in London, the skilled trades are largely recruited by immigrants —\nnewcomers from home and abroad, constituting one-third of the population of London.\nThe system of indentured apprenticeship has largely disappeared, and an exhaustive\nenquiry in 1906 showed that it would only be a waste of time and money to try to\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN LONDON\n\n525\n\nrevive it. Keen competition and extensive subdivision of labor do not afford opportunities for an all-around training; new inventions, or a change of fashion may dislocate\nindustries; initiative and adaptability are needed for success.\n\n\"Industrial education\" is here used to include, in addition to a general,\ncultural education:\na) Instruction in the principles, and some practical acquaintance with the methods,\nwhich underlie a particular group of allied trades or professions, as training in wood- or\nmetal-work for boys, or in housecraft for girls.\nh) Technical or distinctly vocational education, where a large proportion of the\ntime is spent in training for some specific calling, e.g., bookbinding or tailoring for boys,\nor dressmaking or upholstery for girls.\n\nThe London County Council is the local education authority for London.\nIn its elementary primary schools there are 650,000 pupils. These schools\nconsist of: (i) infant schools for those under seven; (2) senior schools for\nboys and girls, taught either together or separately, between the ages of\nseven and fifteen. The compulsory school age is from seven to fourteen.\nThe foundations of manual training are laid, for the younger children,\nin the kindergarten occupations, which give interest and faciUty in dealing\nwith concrete substances, foster habits of observation, and give free play\nto the child's imagination.\nSince 1890, when the \"Mundella Code\" introduced kindergarten training for infants, woodwork for boys, and domestic subjects for girls, manual\nwork has always formed a part of the curriculum of the elementary schools.\nIt has also lately been introduced into state-aided secondary schools as\na recognized part of the school work. Its aim is\nto train the intelligence thru familiar occupations, to show how scientific methods may\nbe usefully employed in ordinary pursuits, and how much valuable manipulative skill\nmay thus be incidentally acquired.\n\nThe problem of how to bridge over the gap which so often occurs\nbetween the child leaving the infant school and the age of eleven, when\nwoodwork is taken by boys and domestic subjects are taken by girls in the\nsenior schools, has of late been receiving much attention. Various attempts\nhave been made to this end. Needlework for girls is, happily, continuous\nthruout. Many persons think that these subjects should be taught by\nmembers on the regular staff of the school and not be treated as outside\nor special subjects.\nThere are two avenues ty which promising pupils may pass from the\nprimary school to a place affording more advanced education: (i) By\nmeans of scholarships, accompanied by maintenance grants, where needed,\ntenable at the fee-paying secondary schools. These are mainly intended\nfor pupils who are likely to remain at ichool beyond the age of sixteen.\nThe secondary schools contain 30,000 pupils and are required, as a condition of receiving financial aid, to reserve 25 per cent of free places for pupils\ncoming from the elementary schools.\n(2) By nominations for a central\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nschool where a four years' course of general, and also a more specialized,\neducation is offered to suitable pupils, whose school life must close at about\nthe age of fifteen and one-half. These schools, only recently established in\nLondon, have a distinctly commercial or industrial bias. They are planned\nin order to continue the general education of the pupils, and at the same time\nto develop their adaptability of hand and mind, so that by the time they\nare between fifteen and sixteen, they may be in a better position to take\nup some trade, or industry, or business. With this object all boys are\ntaught some forms of handwork, and in the schools with an industrial bias\nconsiderable time is devoted to workshop drawing and the use of wood and\nmetal tools. In schools with a commercial bias, attention is given to the\ndetails of office-work, while all girls are trained in practical subjects, such\nas domestic economy, home dressmaking, and general needlework. No\nmoney grants are given to pupils who enter the central schools. No fees\nare charged, but at the age of fourteen, in the case of pupils whose parents\nare unable to keep them longer at school without financial assistance, a\nlimited number of exhibitions are offered to promising pupils, to assist\nin meeting the incidental expenses from their fourteenth birthday until\nthey leave school. Pupils between the ages of fourteen and sixteen in both\ncentral and secondary schools may compete for trade scholarships. There\nare 60 central schools in London containing 20,000 pupils. They are\npretty equally divided into boys', girls', and mixed departments.\nIn the schools having an industrial bias, from ten to twelve hours per\nweek out of a total of twenty-seven and one-half hours must be given to\npractical work, which for girls must consist of elementary science, domestic\neconomy, drawing, needlework, dressmaking, millinery, or other approved\nsubjects.\nTEADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nBOYS\n\nThere are 8 trade schools entirely supported by tjie council, and 3\nwhich are aided or partly supported. They are of two kinds: (i) preparatory schools for allied groups of trades; e.g., wood-working, engineering, building-trade, book production, etc.; (2) those which train for specific\ntrades; e.g., si versmiths, tailors, men-cooks, bakers, etc.\nThere are also, in London and its suburbs, other trade or technical\nschools established by private enterprise and philanthropy. One of these,\nthe South Norwood Technical Trade School, founded by the late Mr. W. F.\nStanley, will well repay a visit.\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\nThe first day trade schools for girls were organized by the London\ncouncil in 1895. There are 4 entirely and 2 partly maintained by them.\nThey all prepare for some particular trade and are intended to be a substitute for apprenticeship. The trades taught are dressmaking, retail and\nwholesale ladies' tailoring, waistcoat-making,\nmillinery, corset-making.\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN LONDON\n\n527\n\nupholstery, laundry-work, cooking, embroidery, photography, and hairdressing. There are about 700 pupils. The course lasts for two years.\nThe age of admission is fourteen to sixteen. Scholarships are granted to\nsuitable pupils from the council's schools, and any other places may be\nfilled by fee-paying pupils, provided they have reached a certain standard\nof general education, as shown by their attainments in English, needlework, and drawing. As the work becomes more widely known the competition for entrance becomes keener.\nAbout twenty-two hours a week are given to purely trade teaching, and\nten hours to general English subjects, physical exercises, and drawing,\nincluding design. The English subjects are carefully co-ordinated with the\ntechnical instruction. Special attention is paid to the writing of business\nletters, to correct spelling, and to composition. The reading of good\nliterature is encouraged.\nMANUAL\n\nWORK\n\nIN THE SPECIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMrs. Burgwin, the superintendent of the schools for defective children\nin London, was good enough to furnish me with the following particulars:\nLeicester was the first English town to establish a class for mentally defective children, in April, 1892, and later in the same year. London followed\nwith its \" School for Special Instruction.\" From the first it was recognized\nthat children in these schools must be taught by methods different from\nthose in use in the ordinary elementary schools, and so training by means\nof handwork was accepted as one of the special features of these schools.\nManual work for boys. — (i) Senior schools (age twelve to sixteen), bootmaking,\ntailoring, woodwork, metal-work, and drawing. An interesting school of this type is to\nbe found at Romilly Road Center, Finsbury Park, N. (2) Junior mixed schools — here\nwe find drawing and coloring, chair-caning, cane- weaving, raffia-work, etc.\n\nIn ordinary special schools a minimum time of six hours p^r week must,\nby law, be given to woodwork in the senior schools, both for boys and for\ngirls; about three-fourths of the time is given to the various crafts which\nare taught. In London, defective children generally remain in the infant\nschools (where much handwork is taught) until they are seven years of\nage. They can remain at school only till they are sixteen years of age,\nand may leave before that age (after reach ng fourteen) only by obtaining\nspecial exemption in order to go to approved work.\nA voluntary care committee deals with the placing of the children on\nleaving school, and watches over them for the first years after they commence work.\nThe numbers on May 12, 191 1, were as follows:\na) Schools — 90, of which 1 2 are for senior boys and i for senior girls.\nb) Teachers — 329, including 90 head teach^ and 41 instructors in special subjects.\nc) Pupils — about 8,200.\n\nBesides the above there are in London hundreds of 'students preparing\nfor higher careers in both industry and commerce.\nThese may be found in:\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\na) The schools of the University of London.\nh) Polytechnic and higher technical institutions.\nc) The Imperial College of Science and Technology at South Kensington.\n\nThese, as in the case of secondary schools, may be divided into three\ncategories:\na) Those entirely maintained by the council.\nh) Those partly maintained.\nc) Those which do not receive financial aid from the council.\n\nIn 1908 the Board of Education appointed a committee to report on\nmanual education. This report appeared in 1910. The following is a\nsummary of its recommendations:\na) That handwork should be regarded as an essential part of the curriculum of all\nelementary schools.\nh) That the course of handwork should be continuous thruout these schools, from\nthe infants upward, and that it should be regarded as a method rather than a separate\nsubject of instruction.\n,\nc) That a knowledge of handwork principles should be an element in the training\nof all future teachers.\nd) That the ideal to be aimed at is that all forms of handwork should be taught in\nthe school by the ordinary teachers.\nOur efforts must be directed toward making the instruction in our schools a fitting\npreparation, not so much for the higher secondary education of the few, as for the\npractice for the many, in technical pursuits, in which the overwhelming majority of the\nchildren will be engaged in after-Ufe. — Sir Philip Magnus.\n\nREPORT\n\nON TEE MOTIVATION OF THE CHILDREN'S\nIN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nH. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nWORK\n\nOF SCHOOLS, DECATUR, ILL.\n\nWhatever other merits this report may lack, your committee has sought\nto make it constructive rather than destructive, positive rather than negative. We consume no space in pointing out weaknesses in school work,\nexcept as they may be implied. We devote our attention to stating the\nbasis for improved attacks in school work and to setting forth typical\nresults attained.\nThe discussion of the motivation of school work a year ago at Boston,\nby the chairman of this committee, following which the committee now\nreporting was appointed, may be briefly summarized^ as follows: The\nlargest problem in the technique of teaching is that of supplying adequate\nmotives for the work of the pupils. The psychological rather than the\nlogical organization and presentation of the school curriculum contributes to the motivation of school work. The pupils' present needs and\ninterests are the natural and safe avenues thru which to lead them into\nthat response to the best social standards and into those abilities which\nare essential to effective social participation.\nSchool work is meaning^N.E.A. Proceedings, 1910. pp. 418-26.\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nWORK\n\n529\n\nful and significant to pupils to the extent that it contributes to the satisfaction of needs, immediate or remote, which are real to them; progress\nin the motivation of school work will result both from efforts to understand pupils' interests and needs and the methods of building upon them,\nand from such modifications in the course of study as will be suggested\nto teachers who teach with sympathetic, open minds, looking for suggestions in the response pupils make to their teaching, as to modifications\nin the interest of motivation. The sources of motivation, together with a\nfew motives which had produced desirable results in drawing, manual\ntraining, reading, and language, were briefly indicated by way of illustrating the point of view maintained, and finally the fundamental importance\nof a united effort to motivate school work and of intelligent co-operation\nin evaluating our results was urged. The point of view, together with\nthe grounds in support of it, presented before the meeting of this Department one year ago, with sKght modifications, is reaffirmed.\nThis report naturally organizes itself into two divisions: (i) that\ndealing with those phases of the theory of motivation, not presented a\nyear ago, emphasizing the basis for it in the nature of the developing child\nand showing its place and function in a hygienic, economic scheme of\neducation; (2) that setting forth some of the results which have been\nsecured in the proper motivation of school work. The second portion of\nthe report is in printed form for distribution.\nIn the first place, the reports received indicate a need for a more definite understanding of the meaning of motivation and of the approach to,\nand the means of, securing it. The lack of understanding seems to result\nin part from confusing certain terms employed iii modern educational\nparlance which express the efforts of the school to render its work and\nprocesses more valuable to the children. That the work may be more\nimpelling and also more profitable, the modern school employs incentives,\nit appeals to children's interests, and it seeks to establish motives in the\nlives of the children for the work they do. It is a mistake, however, to use\nthe terms incentive, interest, motive, interchangeably.\nLet us briefly note the content expressed by each of these terms when\nused with discrimination. An incentive is characteristically something\nto be had following a series of efforts, but the thing gained is not produced\nby or developed thru the effort expended. Rather, the thing gained is\nexternal to, or outside of, the immediate result produced by the effort.\nIncentives range, to be sure, from the most material, mercenary prize to\nthe loftiest social and spiritual gift, or reward, man can confer. The\neffect of an incentive is to move the mind, stir the passions, and cause\naction. It is, however, as noted abov^, external to the direct results\nproduced by the acts it excites. It stimulates one to efforts much as martial music quickens the step and strengthens the courage of the soldier,\ninspiring him to do his duty even in the face of grave danger.\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "530\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nAn interest is what lies between the self and some end which the individual may later attempt to realize, because he believes that end is essential to self-realization. It is characteristically statical, altho action must\nfollow if one's interest in the thing or an end reaches the degree causing\nhim to choose it as a goal for realization. Viewed with reference to its\npossible outcome, interest is always potentially active, of course. Interest and volition fuse in the act of pursuing an end, but the interest is not\nthe action nor is it ever the goal of one's activity.\nA motive is not an external reward conferred at the conclusion of a\nseries of efforts, nor is it what Ues between the present self and something\nwhich it is believed will promote self-realization; but it is a^ ''gratification contemplated,\" operating to cause the efforts of the one desiring it.\nThe distinctive mark of a genuine motive is that the contemplated end\nis produced by, and realized as, the result of a series of efforts. It must\nalso be borne in mind that the \"gratification contemplated\" is always a\ncomplex mental product, composed of intellectual and emotional elements\nand of motor tendencies. Rowe states it well when he says:* \"it is any\ndefinitely recognized ideational, emotional, or volitional tendency.\" Our\nmotives then are really a crystallization of all of our tendencies to action\ninto a series of accepted, longed-for goals, varying greatly, of course, in\ntheir value and importance in advancing life's problems. Each is a power\nwhich possesses and permeates one, reaching the fundamental springs of\nhis inner life.\nMy experience as a boy on the farm definitely illustrates the operation of a genuine motive. For the work I did in gathering and marketing\nthe butter and eggs, I shared the profits derived from the production and\nsale of this produce. This profit was the \"gratification contemplated\";\nit was my goal. It caused my effort and this effort produced the contemplated end (the profit) which served to motivate my acts. Whether one's\nmotive be to earn money, write a letter, assist his classmates, or delight\nhis parents, it operates similarly, generating the effort which, if successful, enables him to realize the longed-for. end.\nFrom the foregoing brief discussion of incentives, interests, and motives,\nit is evident, perhaps, that whereas incentives are superficial and external\nin relation to one's efforts, motives are fundamental and vital in determining effort; one is proposed to or held before the child to stimulate\nhim, while the other arises out of his own efforts in self-expression and\nself-realization. Any motive operates as an incentive, but no mere incentive constitutes a genuine motive.\nIt must be clear also that motive goes beyond interest. It is more\nimpelling and irresistible. Rowe says ,3 \" While .... interests .... are\nlike railroad-ticket forms, all printed and ready for the agent to stamp,\nthe motive is like the ticket which has been stamped, that is, validated,\n» Century Dictionary.\n\n» Habit Formation, p. 147.\n\n*Ibid.\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nOF CHILDREN'S\n\nWORK\n\nand is good until used, unless recalled.\" Our interests incline us more\nor less strongly to do many things, but action in the way of realizing\nthem will not occur until we have stamped one or inore of them as\n\"being good enough for us.\" While interest lies between my present\nself and a possible larger self, holding my attention actively upon the 531\nprojected larger self, motive renders me active in securing for myself\nthe contemplated end which will enlarge me. While there can be no\nmotive without interest, all interests do not result in motives. While a\ngenuine, absorbing interest holds one in rapt, active attention, a definite\nmotive prompts and excites effort, actually moving one to realize the\n\"gratification contempla.ted.\"\nWe are now prepared to appreciate what motivation consists in, and\nwhat its sources are, and to see something of its significance. Motivation\nis accomplished whenever one's effort is directed toward the securing of\nsome contemplated, longed-for end, be it near or remote. As soon as I\ndecide definitely to accept and pursue an ideal it becomes a motive in my\nlife, which motivates all of the efforts I put forth in seeking to reaUze it.\nA pupil's work is motivated, then, whenever it contributes to the satisfaction of some need he has felt, to the provision of some value he wants,\nto the supplying of some control he wishes, to the securing of some accepted\nend, or to the attainment of some definite goal. Motivated work is therefore definitely purposive in a child's Hfe; it is meaningful to him as a child,\nwith his childish ideals; it contributes to the realization of his present\naims. Of course, in the pursuit of an end requiring extended effort, the\nmotive will hardly be sufficient to keep one at the white heat of enthusiasm thruout. At times one's effort will run so low that it seems in danger\nof fagging out entirely. The fact that it does not demonstrates strongly\nthe imperious force of a genuine motive.\nThe sources of motives are many. They are derived from our instincts,\nemotions, interests, idsas, and ideals. A piece of work may be purposeful and meaningful, that is, definitely motivated, for the pupil, whether\nthe motive originates from his instinctive tendencies to play, to inquire\nfrom curiosity, to compete, to repeat for its rhythmic effects, or to acquire\nand master, or from the coercive influence of social standards and social\npressure which cause the pupil to do what his social world approves and\nto acquire those things essential to efficiency in his present and future\nsocial situation. As a rational, social being, struggling to succeed, the\n.pupil develops' guiding principles, definite purposes, clear-cut standards,\nand rules of conduct. Out of this body of organizing principles come\nmotives which are determinative and imperious, leading the pupil as\nhe advances toward maturity to set up lemote goals difficult of attainment and requiring long periods of time and strenuous efforts for their\nrealization.\nRowe, Habit Formation, p. 148.\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nIn view of the peculiar, personal character of motives and of the wide\ndifferences in children, the problem of motivating school work is quite as\ndefinitely one of varying our work to fit individual needs as it is of discovering those genuine motives which are stimulating to most normal\nchildren at any stage of their development. Some motives, genuine and\nimpelling to most children, will be of Httle worth to certain types of children. These children must be discovered and work suited to their special\nneeds must be instituted if we are to retain them in school and save them\nto themselves. The successful school is the one which develops the machinery required to adapt its course of study and its methods of instruction,\nnot only to local needs but to individual capacities and interests. Fortunately, we are coming to see more and more clearly that the purpose of\neducation is specific in every life. Social eflSciency, the general end of\nthe school, consists in developing the ability on the part of each child to\nserve society in a specific, definite way.\nThe proper limits of this report will permit but a brief consideration\nof the significance of motivation in school work further than has been\nimpUed in the foregoing discussion. In a general way, every teacher\nknows that the problems of discipline, management, and control disappear\nif her pupils are engrossed in significant, vital work. Intense, vigorous\nwork occupies the child's attention so fully that no energy or time is left\nfor engaging in things which do not contribute to desirable school work.\nThen, too, when the pupils are eager for a result, progress is more rapid\nand the work is easily done with greater accuracy and thoroness.\nIn a Httle greater detail, let us note the significance of motivation in\nrelation to the drill work of the school and in promoting those general\ntraining results which the school is expected to develop. In the first\nplace, two general types of drill should be recognized: (i) rote drill, the\nolder type of drill, in which individual facts are repeated over and over\nin the hope of fixing them in memory with the behef that they will be\nvaluable in some future situation; (2) systematic, or scientific, drill in\nwhich vital, significant facts and principles recur in new and meaningful\nsituations.\nThe amount of rote-drill work in the schools is growing gradually less.\nMore vital ways are in use for securing the results we formerly sought\nthru rote drill. Even speUing, the combinations in addition, the differences in subtraction, and the multiplication table are taught mainly thru\nsystematic drill. The rote drill which is employed is so vitalized thru\nthe use of games and other social situations, as our printed report on motives employed in spelHng and especially in arithmetic shows, that it seems\nquite satisfactorily motivated. No teacher who has employed these mo^\ntives questions their value in securing quicker and more lasting results\nthan were secured when mere repetition under compulsion was depended\nupon for the desired end.\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nOF CHILDREN'S\n\nWORK\n\n533\n\nSystematic drill is occupying a much larger place under the new educational regime. If the work in which it occurs is motived work, as it\nshould be, the knowledge and habits thus acquired are gained under the\nmost favorable circumstances. They can be thus largely fixed for use\nin future situations with a minimum of conscious effort on the child's part\nto acquire them as such. Systematic drill reduces 'conventional work and\nmethods to the minimum and exalts the vital and significant.\nIt seems to your committee that the much-discussed, mooted problem\nof how to secure formal discipline, or general training, thru our teaching is solved, in part, at least, by the proper motivation of school\nwork. All recognize that general training must be had and all concede\nthat somehow it is secured to some extent. It has been accounted for by\nThorndike and others from the fact that subject-matter is identical in\ndifferent subjects (for example, mathematics appears in physics), and that\nmethods are duplicated (laboratory methods in the different sciences are\nvery similar). In his Educative Process (p. 216), Bagley proposed tentatively the operation of a third factor in promoting transfer of training, the\nfactor of ideals. Ruediger, in his Principles of Education (p. 114), shows\nexperimentally the ground for such a third factor and proposes to denominate this factor, \"Identity of Aim,\" and, in his Educational Values\n(pp. 191-94), Bagley seems to endorse this terminology, altho he gives it\na wider significance than Ruediger does. Curiously enough, however,\nwhile Bagley urges the value of ideals in promoting general training, he'\nseems to attach little or no value to motivated work (work done under\nthe stimulus of a validated ideal) in facilitating general training.\nThe theory of motivation rests upon the fundamental value of a controlling, organizing, directing aim or purpose. To determine upon a definite end is to set up a motive for effort, as we have seen. It was further\nnoted that these motives are vital and significant to the individual. Knowledge or a habit acquired under the operation of a genuine motive possesses\na significant hfe-relation; it is already established in a functional way\nwith reference to all of life's relationships. This knowledge or habit was\nacquired in realizing a vital end. This end is identical in character, altho\nnot in substance, with the succession of ends the individual will be called\nupon to pursue in his battle for success in life. This is the most fundamental identity of the three proposed in accounting for the transfer of\ntraining. Because of its fundamental reach and of the strong emotional\ncoloring a motive always carries, this is much the strongest of the three\nfactors in promoting transfer of training. If we accept the foregoing, it\nmust follow that to the degree in which life motives dominate the pupil\nin the mastery of knowledge or in the acquisition of habit, will that knowledge or habit be effective as an instrument in the solution of later problems. That is, the possibility of connecting knowledge or habit with the\n^School Review, February, igii, pp. 80-81.\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nreal problems of later Kfe will be the greater, the more closely the initial\nmastery of knowledge or habit has been related to similar vital problems.\nPresident Emeritus Eliot brought out this principle in a striking way in\nhis address before the National Education Association one year ago\nwhen he showed the superior work done by students after they reached\nthe strictly professional courses in their university training. These courses\nprocure the most \"active interest and co-operation of the minds and wills\nsubjected to them,\" said he, hence the results attained are phenomenally\ngreat when compared with the progress made by the same students in\ntheir general culture courses. Genuinely motived work renders all school\nwork what might be called \"professional\" in the appeal it makes, for it is\nrelated to the student's then vital problems.\nOf course, your committee does not wish to minimize the value of facts\nand habits acquired without particular reference to real life problems.\nThru the adaptive instincts of play, curiosity, and repetition, nature has\nprovided for the acquisition of useful information and useful habits at a\ntime when the child has not the slightest conception of their later uses.\nThese results are valuable and serviceable. Indeed, with our present\ninsight into the methods of securing motivation, we shall be compelled\nto rely largely upon these instincts to give us our results. We see how to\nmotivate economically only a limited portion of the work now taught in\nthe schools. Further, also, we must never forget that the results attained\nunder the operation of genuine motives are secured by reason of the\nfact that we make the conditions most favorable for the working of our\ninstincts.\nThe printed portion of our report, in your hands, has been made possible by the fine response of teachers to the efforts of your committee to\nsecure reports of motived work. Some reports were quite extended and\nshowed great care and preparation. This was true of the work sent in\nfrom the Horace Mann School, East St. Louis, and especially true of the\nreports on reading, geography, and arithmetic furnished us by teachers in\nthe Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. The report makes no attempt to\nestimate the amount of such work in the country; it merely seeks to- show\nthat such work is being done. Evidently, we secured very meager reports\nof what is being done. We had no funds to make an exhaustive inquiry.\nOur returns also showed that teachers find much difficulty in reporting\ntheir work in terms of motives and specific problems. An examination of\na large number of representative courses of study showed that they are\nnot written so they lend themselves to execution in the form of specific\nproblems.\nOur reports showed that there is much confusion in the use of terms.\nFor example, many reported ways of making the work interesting, but it\nwas not organized into definite problems centering about vital motives.\nThe teacher's aim in presenting the work was confused with the pupil's\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nOF CHILDREN'S\n\nWORK\n\n535\n\nmotive in doing the work. Mere incentives and devices employed in\nteaching were reported as motives, and so on.\nInadequate tho it is, if this report affords any help to teachers in enabling\nthem to secure a more effective attack in their work and if it stimulates\nsuperintendents to organize their courses of study so as to promote more\nrational and vital teaching, the work of your committee has not been\nwholly in vain. We hope it may help to point the way to the sources of\nproblems and to give all an inclination to organize their teaching more\nlargely from the problem-solving standpoint.\nIn closing, your committee would call your attention briefly to three\ngeneral considerations growing out of this study: First, while motivation\nis not the only problem before the teacher, it is the largest one in the\ntechnique of teaching. The Great Teacher showed that a man is measured by his motives. Larned accepts this standard in his study of greatness in Napoleon, Cromwell, Washington, and Lincoln. Just as the true\nmeasure of any man is determined by his motives, so a school is to be judged\nby the motives about which the children's work is organized.\nSecondly, the problem of motivation is no more one of finding a motive\nthat will impel the children to large results in their work than it is of cultivating in them a feeling for and a disposition to choose worthy, lofty,\nuplifting motives. This is most effectively done, however, by organizing our work and methods of procedure so that the pupil's energy is always\nentirely consumed in his effort to realize some worthy end which is significant to him. As he develops, these ends will become more and more\nworthy under the guidance of teachers, and thus his moral standards will\nbe elevated and desirable progress in his complete socialization will be\nmade.\nFinally, the effects which adequate motivation produce in the student's\nsuccess in his work are quite as significant for his personal welfare as\nmotivation of the school's work is significant in determining the efficiency\nof the school.\n'* In the first place, motives for work focus the student's apperceptive\ncapital upon the problems which he desires to solve. They cause his\nrelated past experiences to crowd to the front. This is true whether the\napperceptive mass most needed in the situation be emotional tone, volitional attitudes, or facts and principles. Adequate motives inhibit the\nnon-productive expenditure of mental energy and center it definitely on\nthe tasks of vital concern to the student.\n\"Again, adequate motives insure enthusiasm in the student's work.\nThey establish the right emotional atmosphere for work. It is not a\nsuperficial enthusiasm resulting from the teacher's charming personality,\nor from her vivacious manner and skillful methods of presentation, or\nfrom an admiration of her great learning, altho all of these are valuable\nassets, but it is a deep-seated, enduring enthusiasm born of the student's\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nconviction of the large value for him of the mastery of his work. In such\nan atmosphere of genuine enthusiasm, difficulties vanish, results are attained,\nand victories are won. It is in the white heat of an abiding enthusiasm\n•that hard problems are solved, immortal poetry is written, great music is\ncomposed, eloquent oratory is developed, and significant conversions in\nreligion or politics occur. Caught up by intense enthusiasm, the student\ngets a vision of larger things, ideals are bom, and relations, otherwise\nimpossible, are estabUshed.\n\" Further, if the student is spurred on by right motives, he manifests\nmore originality, greater initiative, and large independence in attacking\nhis work. In his effort to solve his problems, he will think of more valuable things to do, of more sources of aid, of different plans of attack, and\nof different methods of approach. He will not depend upon imitating\nsome student brighter than himself, nor solely upon the directions of his\nteacher. Rather he will become more inventive and aggressive. Instead\nof sitting, looking, listening, and answering when pumped, as students\ntoo generally do, he will be thinking, planning, creating, initiating, and\nexecuting.\n\"Yet further, not only do all of these effects manifest themselves in the\nstudent if his work is significant and definitely motivated for him, but the\nincreased and enlarged results which he secures react to motivate further\nall his efforts. It is the motivation resulting from success. Nothing\nstimulates to other successes quite so genuinely as a series of successes.\nSucceeding not only breeds ' confidence in one's self but it develops an\ninsatiable hunger for additional success. It is under the intoxicating\ninfluence of succeeding successes that the student is led into greater and\ngreater tests of his ability, with the result that he taps the deepest fountains ofhis nature and discovers his own fundamental and abiding interests\nand yearnings.\"^\nAppended hereto is the printed report containing the tabulated returns\nembodied in the reports from teachers.\nRespectfully submitted,\nH. B. Wilson, Chairman\nSuperintendent of Schools, Decatur, 111.\n^\n.,, ) Gail H. Calmerton,\nCommtUee {\n-r^ .\no\n.\n-r^\n„r\n-^ ,\nPrimary Supervisor, Fort Wayne, Ind.\nThomas Agnes, Jr.,\nPrincipal, School No. 6, Bayonne, N.J.\nIn the following tabulation, no attempt has been made to arrange the motives listed\nin the order of their value or importance nor to classify them as to their merit ethically.\nSome of them are merely artificial incentives.\nThe rules governing the length of papers forced the committee to omit all of the\nvitalizing material contained in the excellent discussions some sent with their reports.\nSchool and Home Education, February, igii, pp. 228-35.\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nOF CHILDREN'S\n\nWORK\n\n537\n\nOnly the skeletons of these discussions pertaining directly to our problem are reported\nbelow.\nREADING\n\nMotives in reading spring from the social value of the ability to read. It enables\none to gain ideas needed in solving problems, to aid or entertain his friends and classmates, and to \"express beautifully one's own conception of something that is really\ncapable of arousing individual emotional expression.\"\nMotives reported: (No attempt to distinguish silent and oral reading motives.)\n(i) to express the picture, music, and emotion the reader is personally enjoying; (2) to\nentertain an audience with a play, as other grades of school, parents' meeting, general\naudience; (3) to share information with others needing it, as in working on a phase of\nhistory, a problem in civics, the making of a school garden; (4) to show an upper grade\nthe progress made, as when lower grade children read to an upper grade or upper grade\nchildren read to a lower grade; (5) to share interesting stories found in out-of-school\nreading, the new Christmas books, perhaps.\nSPELLING\n\nMotives reported: (i) making little dictionaries in second grade in which were put\nall words children could spell; (2) wishing to write a letter to board of education asking\nfor playground apparatus required quite a campaign in strenuous spelling before the\nletter could go; (3) preparing to defeat other schools in term spelling contest; (4) wishing to have name on list of pupils perfect in spelling; (5) wishing to spell well enough\nto be allowed to set type in school printing office.\n,\nLANGUAGE\n\nThe motive stimulating the child to effort in his language work is the desire to communicate for the purpose of learning, instructing, or entertaining. Reports showed the\nthe following needs for correct and effective language expression served to motivate the\nlanguage work: (i) to tell supervisory officers, children of another grade, those attending the school assembly, parents, or grandparents a story that was much enjoyed; (2) to\nthank a citizen for prize money, the board of education for a clock, hedge fence, etc., a\nhigher grade for books loaned and for programs made, the postmaster and city librarian\nfor privilege to see President Taft from their lawns, a mother for making pen wipers for\nall children in her son's room, a friend for paper napkins suppUed for use at school picnic,\nmothers* club for pictures, books, and play apparatus, the liveryman for a sleigh ride and\na hay ride, the park superintendent for use of the park and for making play apparatus\nfor the school grounds, citizens for the loan of flowers to decorate the schoolrooms on a\nparents' day; (3) to invite pupils of other grades or parents to enjoy a dramatization,\na good reading lesson, or a literary program, parents and friends to come and see the\nregular school work on a visiting day or to attend a school fair or bazaar, a citizen to\ndeUver a lecture on some topic related to work; (4) to answer invitations from other\ngrades or teachers, letters from children in schools in Detroit, Mich., Stratford, Conn.,\nand Manchester, England; (5) to inquire of city clerk, circuit judge, or superintendent\nof ^hools for information needed in civics or arithmetic work; (6) to apply to superintendent ofpark, a factory, a brickyard, a molasses mill for permission wanted and to\nthank these persons for privileges extended; (7) to succeed in a prize story contest; (8)\nto write programs, prepare papers, and dramatize a story for an entertainment the grade\nwishes to plan for the parents, the other grades of the school, or a general audience for\nmercenary purposes; (9) to write \"ads\" of school^nterprises and to report results of\nschool undertakings to newspapers; (10) to write a booklet giving the history of the flag,\nmaking it so interesting people will buy it, thus raising money with which to purchase a\nflag for the schoolroom; (11) to write a letter to State Superintendent Blair thanking\nhim for a courtesy extended the school, letters for the mothers' club ordering the pictures\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthey wish to purchase for the school with the funds derived from the school fair, for\nliterature to use in the study of birds, and the planting of a school garden; (12) to prepare items for the school paper which is read once a week in the school assembly; (13)\nto write to the congressman for seeds to plant the school garden; (14) to write letters\nof appreciation to Mrs. Kate Douglas Wiggin, telUng her what keen pleasure was experienced in reading her Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm and to Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton\nin reference to the pleasure the reading of his animal stories has afforded (A diary of\nthis correspondence was prepared for binding in manual training class.); (15) to ask\nsuperintendent of schools for materials needed, privileges wanted; (16) to write something interesting enough to merit publication in the school paper, as a letter to an absent\npupil who is traveling in England, a half-day visit to Ichabod's school, adventures of a\npay-as-you-enter car, a speech by the Great Stone Face.\nLanguage work reported by one sixth-grade teacher in which good motives are\nevident:\n(i) Make a book of stories about vacation experiences for second grade to read;\n(2) letter inviting third grade to play a dramatization of The Lion and the Mouse\nwhich sixth grade wrote; (3) letter to the superintendent of schools inviting him to see\nthe dramatization and enclosing a copy of the dramatization; (4) letter of thanks and\nappreciation to third grade after they presented the dramatization; (5) letters to parents inviting them to witness a repetition of the dramatization; (6) letter to the superintendent ofschools asking permission to visit a sorghum-mill; (7) letter to the owner\nof the mill asking his permission to inspect the mill and learn the process of making\nsorghimi, and also one to citizens owning automobiles asking them to take them to the\nmill; (8) letters of thanks to the superintendent of schools, the owner of the mill, and\nthe owners of the automobiles after the visit; (9) a written account of their experiences\nat the mill to loan to other grades which did not visit the mill; (10) letters inviting\nparents to attend the school's Thanksgiving exercises and enclosing program; (11) letter of request and later one of thanks to the principal of another school for the loan of a\npicture needed in a colonial life scene in the Thanksgiving program; (12) letter of request\nand later of thanks to the kindergarten teacher for the loan of her small chairs, to a citizen for the loan of his curtain-stretchers, and to the teacher of another grade for the loan\nof some Indian shields, all for use in giving the Thanksgiving program; (13) letters of\nthanks to the first grade for the privilege of witnessing their dramatization of parts of\nHiawatha; (14) letters at Thanksgiving time such as the early colonists might have\nwritten to friends in Europe; (15) invitations to all in the building and to all supervisory officers of the schools to witness their Discovery Day exercises on October 12;\n(16) making programs for Discovery Day exercises; (17) writing play for Discovery\nDay program; (18) letter of request and later one of thanks to seventh grade for the\nloan of costimies needed in presenting Discovery Day program; (19) similar letter to a\ncitizen for the loan of Indian relics; (20) letter of invitation and later one of thanks to\nthe second grade teacher asking her to tell of her travels in connection with certain geography work; (21) letter of request and later one of thanks by girls to a local shoe dealer\nfor shoe boxes in which to keep their sewing; (22) letter of request and later one of\nthanks to an old citizen for information about early pioneer life in Kentucky, needed in\nconnection with history work; (23) letter of greeting accompanied by flowers to this\nsame citizen on his eighty-seventh birthday; (24) working out story of life of Wagner\nto enable them to better understand some of his musical productions; (25) letters of\nreply to children in Stratford, England (Each child gave particular attention to some\none thing in or about Decatur or Illinois that no other child was to write about. Gathering the information necessitated visits to factories, post-office, waterworks, public hbrary,\nY.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A., depots, coal shaft, etc., also letters of inquiry to^ newspapers,\nChamber of Commerce, factories.) ; (26) letter of sympathy accompanied by a basket\nof fruit, to a sick schoolmate;\n(27) letter of thanks to a citizen who loaned his Victrola\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nOF CHILDREN'S\n\nWORK\n\n539\n\nat Christmas time, playing selections appropriate to Christmas season too difficult for\npupils to sing; (28) Christmas greetings to teachers and supervisory officers of schools;\n(29) preparing a February booklet containing papers and programs pertaining to noted\nmen born in February; (30) compiling booklet recording legends of St. Patrick's day;\n(31) replying to letters from Indian children; (32) letter of sympathy to a classmate at\ntime of his grandfather's death; (ss) compiling the history of the school this grade\nattended, it being the oldest school in the city; (34) compiling booklet of Easter legends;\n(35) writing essays in competition for a prize offered by a citizen on \"The Attraction\nand Protection of Song Birds\"; (36) girls answering an advertisement in local paper\nfor \"Girl Wanted\"; (37) boys answering an advertisement in local paper for \"Boy\nWanted\"; (38) letter of request and later one of thanks to superintendent of schools\nin connection with school picnic at close of year.\nA careful checking of the technical work in language and grammar, assigned to this\ngrade, showed it had all been covered in the meeting of actual situations requiring written work. Oftentimes it was found necessary to refer to the books or take a series of\nlessons from the books in order to do successfully what was desired.\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nMotives in geography work spring from curiosity, the feeling of need for a larger\nand better understanding of the great world and its meaning, an appreciation of the\neconomic and social value of geographic information, and from the way in which the\nfacts and materials of geography may be used in games and contests.\nReports show: (i) maps were drawn on floor of schoolroom enabling children to\nwork over them as over country itself, getting directions, contour, size, relative size and\nposition, slopes, drainage, products, industries; (2) sand maps were made bringing out\nabove items and erosion; (3) school gardens were laid out to represent a country and\nits states and products, etc.; (4) a delta table was used to show erosion, formation of\nflood plain, wearing of banks, depositing, sifting, sorting, etc.; (5) a device was made\nto reproduce the formation of Niagara Falls gorge; (6) field trips were taken to clear\nup ideas of land and water forms and how produced, etc.; (7) games were used involving\nwalking over states and naming them, putting puzzle map together, making product\nmap, industries map, guessing the state or country by an oral or visual representation\nof it, sailor geography contest; (8) areas and relative sizes, heights and volumes were\nrepresented in cardboard and clay or wood blocks; (9) weather maps were made and\nweather phenomena were dramatized; (10) collections of postal cards, pictures from\nmagazines, railway folders, guidebooks, etc., were made and used; (11) journeys were\nplanned and taken in imagination, involving keeping of careful diaries and writing of\nletters giving careful reports of trips; (12) illustrated geography booklets were made;\n(13) real-estate companies were organized to sell land in various localities, requiring a\nknowledge of climate, water supply, facilities for commerce, products, etc.\nARITHMETIC\n\nProblems requiring solution arising in other work or needs for number ability appearing in efforts to play games result in highly motivated arithmetic exercises and problem\nmaterial.\nMotived work reported grew out of need to solve problems in (i) making calendars,\nclay pots, handkerchief boxes, glove boxes, jewel boxes, wastebaskets for gifts, dictionaries, wooden boxes divided into smaller compartments by cardboard for holding collections ofstones, furniture for doll houses, looms*for weaving, penwipers, wigwams,\nEskimo houses, crates to pack jellies and preserves made to present to parents at Christmas, bridges and clocks in manual training, sanitary henhouse for hens kept at the school;\n(2) caring for chickens kept at school, involving purchase of feed, the collection and\nsale of eggs, and the marketing of the chickens raised; (3) cooking in domestic science,\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nrequiring measuring with scales and dry and liquid measure, purchasing ingredients\nneeded, mixing same in right proportions, and so on; (4) printing which necessitates\npurchasing paper, ink, oil, cutting paper economically, computing size of cuts and the\nnumber of quads and spaces in different lines, estimating the size of type and the spacing\nof matter for good artistic effects; (5) trying to appreciate the significance of data as to\npopulation, taxation, areas, etc., in history and geography; (6) playing games such as\nChanging Places, Simon Says Thumbs Up, Fireman, Hod Carrier, the Cave Man, the\nBoy Scouts, Arab Practice, Playing Store, Bean Bag, Ten Pins, Ring Toss, Tumble In,\nSpin the Top, Going into Business, Banking, involving measuring, counting, writing and\nreading numbers, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing in all phases of arithmetic;\nconstructing various geometric forms, computing perimeters, circumferences, areas; making change, depositing money, balancing accounts, opening and closing accounts, keeping accounts, organizing a company and bank, figuring discounts, profits, losses, and\ninterest, loaning and borrowing, preparing orders and bills, remitting money by draft,\ncheck, or postal order; (7) planting a school garden, involving measuring up the plot,\ndividing it between rooms and then into beds or plots, purchasing seeds, marketing produce and expending income; (8) managing school excursions and picnics, requiring\nestimating time needed, cost of transportation, food, and so on; (9) conducting school\nenterprises such as a fair, supper, entertainment, necessitating purchasing, paying expenses, keeping the account, expending the proceeds; (10) determining for the use of the\nsuperintendent the cost of books and supplies purchased by the pupils in the school;\n(11) figuring up the items of the teacher's statistical report for her; (12) keeping\naccount of money given or earned by each pupil and of ways of expending it; (13) entering up data imder correct dates in diary; (14) sorting material for first grade boxes so\nas to get right amount in each box; (15) measuring up school properties as to size,\nsize of rooms, amount of blackboard, etc., for reporting to superintendent.\nMore remote motives mentioned as operating were: (i) desire to learn early table\nwork accurately so later arithmetic work will be easy; (2) desire to work with speed\nand accuracy so as to be chosen to a responsible position in the games played; (3) desire\nto become proficient in mathematics because it is so essential in a business career.\nWRITING\n\nReports showed following needs supplied motives: to write legibly and rapidly in\nmeeting requirements in other work of school, to surpass specimen of preceeding year's\nwork, to produce neat, attractive books for school exhibit at close of year, to write letter\nto Santa Claus, friends, to make booklet of good writing for present to parents.\n\nMotives reported: writing imaginary diaries of great men, making supposed speeches\nof statesmen, representing their constituency in the legislature or congress, dramatizing\nscenes, stories, and epochs, arranging a pageant, preparing to debate some question Congress had to settle, learning structure of a mediaeval castle in detail so as to rebuild it in\nclay, model cave, tools, etc., used by early cave men, working on period of discovery and\nexploration to acquire knowledge necessary to participate in a conference of the different nations which settled America.\nMUSIC\n\nMotives reported: (i) desire to sing at home for parents and guests; (2) to provide music for the school assembly, memorial evening at G.A.R. hall, mothers* club\nmeeting, evening school social; (3) wish to learn a beautiful song they have heard;\n(4) want to learn to write music expressing own feelings; (5) desire to be able to read\nmusic as well as stories; (6) writing melody to fit into that of Thanksgiving program;\n(7) organizing a school orchestra.\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING,\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nWORK\n\nART, DOMESTIC\n\n541\n\nSCIENCE\n\nMotives reported: (i) making things actually needed for use, as a birdhouse for\nschool and home grounds, a playhouse for first-grade children, furniture for this house\nsuch as chairs, tables, couch, rug, doll's dress, doll's hammock, doll for sick child, a dress\nfor poor child, articles needed by a charitable institution, a tea table, costumer, community rug, couch cover, cushion, a bookcase, or a davenport for the school, pencil cases,\nbags, mats, footrests for small pupils, sand tables, pointers, window boxes, specimen\nboxes, filing shelves or a glue table for the shop, playthings for school and home use,\npresents for friends at Christmas or on birthday occasions, articles for sale at school\nbazaar such as shoe-p>olisher, cake-beater, pen-and-ink stand, picture frame, tea mat,\nmotto, fancy blotter, writing desks, easels and standards for supporting studies in drawing lessons, binding in book form interesting stories brought for reading; (2) patching,\nmending, and darning actual garments brought from home; (3) making candy to sell\nat school fair; (4) serving a luncheon to board of education; (5) making a booklet on\nsewing containing compositions on thimble, needle, cotton, linen, etc.; (6) making\ninfants' clothes for use of school visiting nurse; (7) allowing students to use shops out\nof hours, after knowledge of tools is acquired, to make things they want.\nDRAWING\n\nThe following needs were reported to have appeared and meeting them has called\nfor drawing lessons: (i) to illustrate bird prize compositions; (2) to make posters\nadvertising art exhibits, ball games, entertainments; (3) to paint some pictures suitable for decorating a doll-house, some scenery suitable for use in staging a play written\nby the class; (4) to design a cover for Miles Standish booklet at Thanksgiving time,\nbooklet on Early Days in Macon County, the February compositions, booklets in geography, nature-study, language, the school-garden diary, the flag book; (5) to design a\ndecoration for a picture frame, a pattern for the rug the children wish to weave, for the\ncurtains for the school ofl5ce or for the office table cover; (6) to win the local paper's\nprize for the best weather cartoon; (7) to produce the design which will be chosen to\ndecorate the cover for the mothers' club programs, the report of the board of education,\nor for the school paper; (8) to make a design for the decoration of the schoolroom blackboards; (9) to develop a poster to assist teachers and visiting nurse in their campaign\nfor cleanliness and neatness; (10) to make a motto to decorate schoolroom; (11) to\ndecorate a Christmas tree to send to a sick child; (12) to design covers for stories bound\nin book form.\nGOOD\n\nATTENDANCE\n\nMotives reported: seeking to win the school pennant for the best record in attendance for the week or month, securing favorable mention in the superintendent's bulletin\nnoting the best records of attendance, having name written in list of pupils attending\nwell, wishing to have a record worth pointing to, striving to get on published honor roll\nby having no grade below E, seeking to make building record better than for previous\nyear, desiring to advance with associates; boys and girls competed in regularity and\npunctuality of attendance, attending regularly so as to miss nothing of value, win pennant for best attendance.\nGOOD\n\nCONDUCT\n\nMotives reported: being allowed to go home at first afternoon dismissal, having\nname placed in honor list, organizing a self-government plan, being trustworthy enough\nto help check up library and supplementary books anii to work in groups without supervision in office, halls, on lawns, to do right for pleasure it affords, allowing pupils who\nshow most care for politeness and courtesy to attend telephone, assist principal, do errands,\netc., pleasure of good conscience and feeling of self-respect, pupils organize a self-government system.\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\nWEALTH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF MOTIVATION\n\nFROM\n\nASSOCIATION\nA GENERAL\n\n[Elementary\n\nPROBLEM\n\nA number of reports indicated how almost all phases of the school's work may be\nmotivated by the handling of a large problem or school enterprise.\nA May-Day Party — Third Grade\nA very interesting lot of work grew out of the decision of one of the third grades to\ngive a May-day party to which their mothers were to be invited. Under the skillful\nmanagement of the teachers, the children carried the responsibility for the party from\nits inception to its completion. They wished to earn the money necessary to defray all\nexpenses and to manage the development of the program, the reception of the guests,\nthe presentation of the entertainment, and the serving of the refreshments. While the\nwork was in progress and following it, the teacher based much of her school work upon\nthe problems the children were finding it necessary to solve. Interesting compositions\nwere written in which each told how he earned his money and in which the success of\nthe party was reported. Notes were written asking the first grade to make colored paper\nchains with which to decorate the room, another grade to make programs for distribution to the guests, the other grades for flowers for decoration and for chairs to seat the\nguests. Finally a formal invitation was written to send to each person invited. After\nthe party was over, all who assisted were thanked in a written note or in a personal message borne by some pupil. ' A gentleman who contributed some paper napkins received\na very courteous and detailed note of thanks. Problems solved during the manuaU\ntraining and art lessons grew out of the need for a May basket and a program for each\nguest. Many problems in arithmetic arose in estimating the cost of the party and in\nfiguring up the purchases made. The largest problem was developing the program\nrendered at the party. This called for singing and added to the interest in the music\nlessons. It also called for a little play and led them to dramatize some of their Greek\nhistory work.\nOperating a School Garden — Third and Fourth Grades\nLanguage work was necessary in keeping garden diary, in writing the Flower Mission for order blanks, in ordering seeds, and in writing letters of request for help in things\nchildren could not do and later letters of thanks for help received.\nArithmetic appeared in keeping account of garden's progress by dates, in measuring\nup garden and figuring up its size, dividing it between rooms, providing paths, determining space to devote to each vegetable, figuring up amount of seed needed and cost of\nsame, marketing produce and expending proceeds.\nMuch interesting reading was done in learning how to make and plant a garden and\nin understanding the phenomena of plant life which appeared as the garden developed.\nThe necessity for markers for the beds provided some manual-training problems.\nA School Bazaar — All Grades\nThe aim was to raise money to further equip and beautify the playgroxmd. The\nparents' association co-operated actively.\nManual-training work produced for sale loo salt cups in first and second grades, i\ntoothbrush-holder, 2 picture frames, 10 cake paddles, and 27 iron-holders in fifth grade,\nI jardeniere stand and 22 dusting caps in sixth grade, 9 button bags, and 15 sewing-bag\naprons in seventh grade.\nLanguage work was provided in requests for help and later in thanks for help, requests\nbeing for articles for sale on fancy table and in plain-sewing booth, for articles of food\nneeded for supper, for help in kitchen and for waiters in serving supper, for some one\n(the baker) to roast meat for supper.\nMuch meaningful arithmetic work arose from the need of figuring out the amount\nof candy needed at candy booth, determining amoimt of candy to ask each of several\npersons to furnish, estimating the amount of gingham to purchase to make aprons for\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMOTIVATION\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nWORK\n\n543\n\nplain-sewing booth, deciding price at which all articles should be sold to make a reasonable profit, deciding amount of popcorn needed and how much to sell for $ cents, concluding how to apportion money for things wanted.\nThe School Assembly as a Source of Motives\nIn the school assembly, all of the children on the floor or in a building meet for a\nbrief series of simple exercises, growing out of their daily school work. It possesses for\nthe entire school many of the values afforded by a general problem for a grade. Some\nof the features of the program are contributed by the entire school. Each room feels a\npride in doing its part well alongside of the other rooms in the school. Usually some\nroom is responsible for the remaining features of the program. It results in supplying\nmotives for good singing, improved compositions^ since only the best are chosen for reading in assembly; better reading and memorizing, as only the exemplary is presented\nbefore the assembly. In the development of dramatization for the assembly, excellent\ncomposition work is provided. The preparation of programs for the audience calls for\nneat writing, accurate spelling and punctuation, and good drawing. Reporting the conduct and attendance and other significant facts in the life of the school and awarding a\npennant, perhaps, to the most deserving room, in assembly, tends to motivate the formal\nrequirements of the school for the children. No one agency of the school is more effective in reaching the student body and in inspiring it with new and loftier ideals than the\nschool assembly. It possesses all of the advantages arising from the co-operation and\ncompetition which numbers render possible and it affords the enthusiasm of \"the crowd.\"\nDISCUSSION\n\" Everett Shj:paedson, supervisor of Training School, State Normal School, Los\nAngeles, Cal. — Where there is work there must be motive; for there must be an impelling\nforce to stimulate expenditure of necessary energy to reach an ideated end such as is involved in work. Often, however, we need to furnish motives to get children to prosecute\nwork vigorously; we often need, also, to substitute more worthy for less worthy motives, in\norder to raise the moral tone of the work; the printed report distributed to you is especially suggestive of motives usable in different subjects both by way of introduction\nand substitution.\nMr. Wilson indicates that much drill work can be eliminated by proper motivation.\nMy limited discussion will be almost wholly restricted to drill work.\nPersonally, I do not believe that elimination of all drill is desirable. Almost monthly\nam I grateful for the \"Thirty days hath September\" jingle. I have had much opportunity both in school and out to learn incidentally the number of days in each month;\nbut this jingle, with attractive rhythm and rhyme, remains my mainstay and I feel\nfortunate to have had enough drill on it to fix it. But, after all, let me acknowledge,\nin the spirit of the report, that there are really few things in the knowledge phase of the\ncurriculum that are valuable enough to justify much rote drill for their retention.\nIn evaluating drill, as well as for other purposes, it seems important to get clearly\nin mind the various outcomes for children in school work. Most pedagogical books\nand discussions seem to assmne that what we want children to acquire is chiefly organized knowledge related to life. There are at least two other resultants that altho not\nunrelated to knowledge are yet quite distinct from it; namely, aesthetic appreciation and\nhabit formation. The knowledge side of literature, music, and art is of relatively minor\nimportance to the aesthetic; in reading, writing, %nd arithmetic, knowledge is mainly\npreliminary to formation of certain habits. For aesthetic appreciation, what is generally\nunderstood as drill is especially inappropriate; for knowledge acquisition, drill is usually\ninjudicious; but in the formation of habits, drill, or practice by repetition, is indispensable.\nChildren can become really proficient readers and spellers, for instance, only by\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n544\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmuch drill, or practice for skill, in reading and spelling. So with writing, \"figuring,\"\nsinging, and all ing subjects. In many of these, drill may be disguised. The printed\nreport is especially suggestive along this line for reading, spelling, and language. But\nin writing and in acquisition of number combinations it is difl&cult to find motives for\nactivities that will give enough drill, or practice, if we limit children's attention to the\nNow. But why suffer this limitation? Why not recognize and have children recognize\nin their way that school is not only life but also a definite preparation for life? Co-ordinated control of muscles used in writing that is not obtained before ten is seldom gotten\nexcept under great adolescent stress. Number combinations, that are not made practically automatic before the teens, are seldom mastered. Why not have children attack\nthe work in the essentials of such subjects, as things that need to be done because this\nis the time in their development when use of effort will count most for them ? In our\npraiseworthy endeavor to make school life attractive, we should keep in mind the distinction between children's wants and their needs. They often want to stay up at night\nwhen they need to sleep. Fortunate the household with parents in whom children\nconfide so that the youngsters are willing, even in opposition to strong desire, to accept\njudgments of those in authority as to what they need. So in school, we need teachers\nso fully in the children's confidence that pupils are willing to put forth even great effort\nto accomplish work outlined. I make no appeal for drudgery, in whose efl&cacy I have\nno belief. What I suggest gives opportunity to use extremely valuable motives. Practice\ndrills in penmanship and in number combinations in middle grades are necessary for\ngood handwriting and for effective business life. Are these not legitimate ideals for\nchildren? And is not the endeavor to realize such ideals suggested by discriminative\nleaders worth while? Consciousness of personal power arising from accomplishment\nof tasks is almost invaluable, its memory acting as a stimulus to put forth even greater\neffort at a later time. Such tasks may be set at the suggestion, yea, even in response\nto the order, of a wise director.\nAfter children have acquired a certain degree of facility by drill, or practice in simple\nform, on the essentials of \"habit-formation\" subjects, they need much practice in the\napplication of this acquired skill in complex situations. This is really \"systematic\ndrill\" in \"habit formation.\" For practical suggestions in this field of application, I can\ndo no better than refer you to the extremely valuable list in the printed report in your\nhands.\n\nTHE\nROBERT\n\nJ. ALEY,\n\nHEALTH\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nOF THE UNIVERSITY\n\nOF MAINE,\n\nORONO, ME.\n\nWhat shall it profit a child if he gain the whole world of knowledge and lose his\nown health? — G. Stanley Hall.\n\nThose who have given thought to the matter are agreed that health\nis a valuable asset. In the hurry and competition incident to the development ofthis new world of ours, the importance of the care and development ofhealth has been largely overlooked. There has been a very marked\ntendency to treat the individual as we have treated our material resources.\nIn a general way profit has resulted from the growth and work of men.\nThe immediate economic result has blinded us to the importance of human\nconservation. The sacrifice of the life and health of many individuals\nhas counted for but little. The supply of brawn seemed unlimited. We\nhave now been working on this plan long enough to realize that the\nchildren and grandchildren pay the price of excesses and lack of care of\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHEALTH\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n545\n\ntheir fathers and grandfathers. Our experience is bringing us into agreement with the scientific truth long ago expressed by a prophet of Israel:\n**The fathers have eaten sour grapes and the children's teeth are set on\nedge.\"\nThe tremendous increase in the number of almshouses, homes for\ndefectives, schools for the bHnd and the deaf, and places of confinement\nfor the vicious, all go to prove the immense loss that has come because\nthe value of health care has not been fully appreciated.\nThe state has not yet awakened to the real importance of its most\nvaluable asset. No state can be great except as greatness is shown in its\nmen and women. These can be great only if they are strong and vigorous.\nEvery sick and weak individual is a loss to the state. If the loss were\nindividual it would not count so much, but the sick man must be cared for\nby the well man. The weak man must be provided for by him who is\nstrong. The only sure way to have strong, well men is to give the children\na fair chance and a square deal. Strong men do not grow from weak, sick,\nor neglected children. From the standpoint of state development, as\nwell as from that of economy, no greater question confronts the public\ntoday than that relating to the health of school children.\nThe general subject of health is receiving widespread attention. Health\nofiicials are usually intensely interested in the subject and do good work by\nspreading health knowledge among the people. In some states the secretary of the state board of health has inaugurated a campaign of education\nby means of special and regular bulletins, by wide use of the newspapers\nand by public-health meetings. Where this has been done much interest\nin health problems has been aroused.\nWithin the last decade much improvement has occurred and many\nimportant movements have been started. Quite a number of states have\nenacted laws regulating the character of school buildings. In these states\nnew buildings must come up to certain prescribed standards. They must\nbe properly ventilated, sufficiently and equally heated, and adequately\nlighted. In addition to these requirements, the location must be good,\nand proper sanitary conveniences must be provided. It is rather easy\nto secure proper new buildings, but it is very difficult to secure the needed\nchanges in old ones. A large majority of the school children of this country\nare still housed in buildings where the conditions as to light, heat, ventilation, and toilet conveniences are barbarous. Strange as it may seem, it is\nstill possible in many parts of the United States to construct school and\nother buildings without any adequate provisions being made for the\nsimplest sort of sanitary conditions.\nFor a number of years there has been^ more or less insistent demand\nfor the medical inspection of school children. Quite a number of states\nhave enacted laws authorizing such inspection. Where medical inspection has been enforced, most excellent results have been noted. One of the\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmost striking results of medical \"nspection is the proof that it was needed.\nThe very large number of school children found to be suffering from some\npreventable or curable ill indicates that we have been entirely too slow\nin providing inspection. The time ought to come, and that speedily, when\nevery school child in America will be thoroly, carefully, and regularly\nexamined by a competent and well-trained physician. Every child has\nthe divine right to be what nature intended he should be — a strong, physical animal. He cannot be this until society sees to it that he has a fair\nchance. A fair chance simply means that the handicaps of preventable\nand curable diseases, shall be removed. Medical inspection, when properly\ninaugurated and impartially administered, will bring health and happiness\nto many who, without it, would be doomed to disease and sadness.\nIt is admitted by all that medical inspection will not have the desired\npermanent effect unless school children are trained in the ordinary matters\nof hygiene. Indeed, in most states hygienic teaching has been required\nin the schools for many years. It has failed to do the good that was\nexpected, largely because it has been given almost entirely from an impersonal standpoint. Too often the children have studied about hygiene.\nWhere hygiene teaching has been personal and direct, it has usually\nresulted in great good. In many cases the beginning of the study of\nhygiene has been deferred to one of the later grammar-school grades.\nMany children leave school before reaching the grade in which hygiene is\ntaught. The children who do this generally come from poor homes and\nbad environment. They need the principles and practice of scientific\nhygiene more than their fortunate fellows who remain in school. Simple\nelementary health laws should be taught by precept and example in the\nlowest grades. The teaching should begin with the entrance to school\nand should continue thruout the entire school life. When this is done,\nevery child will have some knowledge of this important subject.\nThere are many difficulties in the way of the proper care of the health\nof school children. The conservatism of the public that expresses itself\nin the conviction that \"what was good enough for me is good enough for\nmy children,\" is, perhaps, one of the biggest barriers in the way of health\nprogress. Men and women who, as children, attended school where no\nattention was given to hygiene, and who all their lives have attended\npublic meetings in halls that were improperly heated, lighted, and ventilated, are slow to believe that proper attention to these matters is important. They have survived; others may.\nWe are slow to give assent to the conclusions of science. We lack faith\nin the work of men who know. The conclusions arrived at by men of\nscience in matters relating to public health make but little impression upon\nus. The importance of the early removal of the causes of disease is not\nseriously considered. We rest rather secure in the conviction that children\nwill finally outgrow their physical shortcomings.\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nHEALTH\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n547\n\nDisease and .weakness have become so common that many are disposed to believe them to be the necessary accompaniments of civilization.\nIt is not uncommon to find the gifted amateur who proclaims in loud tones\nhis disapproval of all scientific methods and treatments. By his own\nintuitions he professes to know more than those who have paid the price\nby long study at the shrine of knowledge. Unfortunately, men of this type\nare often followed in preference to the men who really know. The public\napparently concludes that there will be about so much sickness, so many\nweak, deformed, and helpless ones, and that it is no use to enter into a\ncampaign against such odds. The leaders and workers in the cause of\nbetter health are not encouraged by the applause of their fellows as are the\nleaders and workers in other fields where results are more spectacular.\nThe campaign for health is a long one. It must be persisted in for years\nbefore large results will appear. It is this very slowness of results that\nmakes the problem difiicult.\nHowever, it is because the problem is difficult that it challenges us.\nSince the teacher lives on forever, he may well undertake the solution of a\nproblem requiring much time. There will be many factors in the solution\nof the problem besides the teacher, but it is certain that the teacher will\nalways be the largest one. Unless the teacher performs his part well, the\ncorrect answer to the problem will not appear.\nWe teachers have not yet made ourselves felt in public affairs as we\nshould. When we are in attendance at a meeting of the National Education Association we believe, and rightly, that we are representatives of\na great national power. Theodore Roosevelt, however, was in office for\nseven years as president of the United States without discovering the\nUnited States Bureau of Education. President Taft wrote a message of\ntwenty-two thousand words and made no mention of the United States\nBureau of Education. The Bureau of Education has failed to receive\nproper treatment from the Congress of the United States in the way of\nappropriations that would enable it to make scientific investigations concerning the health of school children upon which proper practice might be\nbased. It is certainly possible for the great body of school teachers of\nAmerica to unite and present the case in such a manner that presidents\nand legislators must respect the demand.\nThe school and the teacher should form a closer alliance with health\nofficials. There should be perfect co-operation and complete understanding. There is great need for health officials and medical inspectors who\nknow enough child psychology and pedagogy to appreciate the child's\npoint of view.\nThe proper care of the health of school children will not come until\nthe public has a more adequate underst^ding of actual conditions and\nfeels the importance of change. It was formerly supposed that the school\nwas a semi-private institution and that it was most successful when it\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nkept itself out of the public gaze. That notion is already changing. It\nneeds to change completely. The public must be taken into our confidence. The public must be advised of the actual conditions surrounding\nchildren, of the actual troubles which they have, and of the results that\ncome when these troubles are properly treated. The public should know\nthe improvement that occurs in the progress and behavior of the child\nwho is fitted with glasses, of another child whose suffering has been relieved\nby the renvDval of adenoids, of still another whose defective hearing has\nbeen improved. A school that meets in a hygienic building and all of\nwhose pupils are properly and regularly inspected is a source of health.\nWhen such a school opens in the fall, instead of an epidemic of diseases\nthere is an improvement in the health of the children in attendance. When\nthe public realizes this, it will conclude that the care of health pays. Every\nschool that meets these ideal conditions should see that the results are\ngiven wide publicity.\nThere is certainly great need for a larger amount of direct hygiene\nteaching. How to care for the teeth, the nails, the eyes, the skin, and\nthe digest'-on, should be taught so carefully that every child will give the\ncorrect answer in his habits. The schoolhouse should be made a complete\nobject-lesson in its hygienic equipment. Its air should be so pure at all\nhours of the day that no child can grow listless, or sleepy, or suffer from\nheadache because he is forced to breathe impurities. Its lighting should\nbe so perfect that no child can suffer from cross-lights or eye-strain. Its\nheating should be so uniform that every child in the room will have just\nthe proper temperature. It should be provided with the most modern\nsanitary toilet conveniences in order that every child may learn practically\nto apply the teachings on cleanliness. Many children will come from\nhomes where proper care of the body is impossible. The school should be\nequipped to give the care needed. This means that every school ought to\nbe equipped with a first-class bathroom. In every respect the school should\nbe a hygienic model, for it must be remembered that the school is not only\ncaring for boys and girls of the present, but it is reducing the task of the\nfuture. If boys and girls of the present have impressed upon them the\nimportance of proper hygienic habits, they will transfer these things to\ntheir own offspring, and the teachers of the next generation will have an\neasier problem than those of the present.\nHow far the school should go in the matter of personal and sex hygiene\nis a question not yet well decided. When one reads the statistics showing\nthe awful havoc resulting from sexual sins, he is convinced that at the\npresent there is entirely too much ignorance upon the subject. It would\nseem that the school could do no better service to the boys and girls during\nthe period of adolescence than to acquaint them with the hygiene of the\nmost important functions of their bodies. At no time in the lives of these\npeople can lessons be more deeply impressed upon them than during this\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] '\n\nPLAYGROUNDS\n\nAND\n\nHEALTH\n\n549\n\nimpressionable period. Perhaps at present the form and the matter of\nsuch teaching has not been worked out fully enough to be generally used.\nIt is to be hoped that from the great number of interested students in this\nfield of most practical hygiene, there may come to us a body of truths and\na form of presentation that will make it possible for the teachers of the\nboys and girls from twelve to sixteen to give to them the teaching that\nwill save them from future suffering and make them the ancestors of a\nstrong race.\nPLAYGROUNDS\n\nAND\n\nHEALTH\n\nL. H. WEIR, FIELD SECRETARY OF THE PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION\nASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY\n\nGood health, physically speaking, is that condition of the human\norganism in which all organs of the body perform their proper functions\nwith natural vigor and efficiency.\nThe fundamental conditions necessary for natural vigor and efficiency\nare good food, pure water, air, and sunshine, and exercise therein. It is\nof the last three that we shall speak especially in the discussion of this\ntopic. First we shall consider some of the conditions in our modern life\nthat seriously interfere with a proper amount of air, sunshine, and exercise,\nespecially as they relate to the development and health of the children;\nthen the result of these conditions; and finally, suggestions as to remedy.\nThe most fundamental material fact in social, educational, and civic\nproblems of the day is our wonderful industrial expansion. This has\nbrought profound and far-reaching changes in our social and governmental\norganization, but we shall consider only one of those changes here, viz.,\nthe urbanization of the people. One hundred and twenty years ago there\nwere no cities in the United States with a population of 45,000. Today\nthere are over fifty cities with more than a hundred thousand population,\neight cities with a population of considerably over 500,000 and three of\nthese cities have an aggregate population of nearly 9,000,000. Of the\nentire population of the state of New York, \"78 per cent live in its towns\nand cities, over 55 per cent of the population of Ohio are town and city\ndwellers, while Iowa, a strictly agricultural state, lost 8,000 of its population within the last decade. It is reported that even in California about\n60 per cent of the population live in towns and cities. Thus in but little\nover a century we have passed from an agricultural country, or rather\nfrom a country-dwelling people, to a city-dwelling people, and in many\ncases to cliiff-dwelling people in the modern sense of tenement and apartment houses. There is no quarrel with this development. It is natural\nfor people to dwell together and economically necessary for them to desire\nto do so, and the highest expression of the life of the people not only in\nthis time but in the past and no doubt in the future is, was, and will be\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "550\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nfound in such communities as cities. The trouble, therefore, is not with\ncities per se but with the haste and the greed we have shown in the building\nof them, neglecting to provide ways and means for the maintenance and\nperpetuation of that physical strength and vigor that marked the people\nduring the time of their existence in the open country. The crowding of\nthe people toward and into the centers of population of course caused\ncongestion. Population increased faster than the means of caring for the\nwaste and offal and faster than human organisms change, bringing disease and death. The number of infantile deaths in the cities yearly is\nappalling. It is estimated that 1,000,000 school children in this country\ntoday will die of tuberculosis before they are of age and that we are educating children at a cost of the neat sum of $7,500,000, who will not live\nbeyond their eighteenth year. It is true perhaps that the years during\nwhich the school has the children there is the least loss of life, but even here\nwe find more attention being paid to physical well-being thru medical\nexaminations, operations for nose and throat troubles, clinics for eyes and\nteeth, visiting nurses, special classes, and schools for backward, defective,\nand delinquent children — ^pointing to the fact that the condition has\nbecome serious enough to be made a special problem of the educational systems of our cities. The truth seems to be that a vast number of children\nare finding it pretty hard to survive our modern city civilization and they\nare finding it hard because crowded living-quarters, shutting out light and\nair, the gradual deprivation of play spaces, their lack of a normal home life,\nthe low economic condition of many of their parents, and, strange to say,\nthe ignorance of many parents also (in spite of our admirable school system),\nand I must add, a system of education that begins with the top of the\nchild instead of his feet, all have produced an environment diametrically\nopposed to the needs of his nature. Some of these conditions and others\nthat might be mentioned are affecting nearly every city and town child.\nUnder such conditions it is inevitable that we should find a gradual physical\ndeterioration of the children and of the people in general. There are two\nmethods of approach from which to attack this problem, viz., the cure\nmethod (cure of the individual case), and the prevention method. The\nscientific world has been busying itself most largely in the past and present\nyears with the cure method — establishment of hospitals, clinics, institutions of various kinds for the treatment of individual cases, etc. The\nsocial world, while sending entirely too much of its energies into the same\nchannels in times past, is more and more turning its attention to the prevention ofdisease and death. Both under present conditions are necessary. Itis the duty of society to care for the products of its neglect; but\nit is a far greater duty to remove the causes of that product and there\nis a gradual drawing together of all forces in society, scientific, social,\neducational, religious, and civic, to this end. Out of the social world the\nplayground idea has evolved (strange that it did not come from the educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAYGROUNDS\n\nAND\n\nHEALTH\n\nSSI\n\ntional world!), as best designed to make modern towns and cities habitable\nfor the children. It strikes a knock-out blow to disease because it brings\nin the free air, the sunshine in which no germ can live, and full, free exercise in plays and games, and best of all it brings a great, full happiness —\nthe real antitoxin for all ills.\nThe International Congress upon Tuberculosis declared:\nPlaygrounds constitute one of the most effective methods for the prevention of\ntuberculosis and that playgrounds should be put to the fore in the world-wide propaganda for the diminution of its unnecessary destruction of human life.\n\nThe tubercular patient costs the state about $i©.oo per week to maintain. The economic loss to the state is at least $15.00 per week. In\nBaltimore it was found that $1 . 00 pays for one child on a public playground for six weeks. In Holyoke, Mass., the examining physician of\nthe public schools found that in those districts provided with playgrounds\nand swimming- and wading-pools there was a remarkable decrease of skin\nand eye diseases as a result of the summer's outdoor exercises in plays\nand games. A similar result was noted in Philadelphia. The loss of life\nfrom accidental drowning in Rochester, N.Y., in 1907, the year of\nthe opening of playgrounds with wading- and swimming-pools, was 3.\nThere had been in the years immediately previous from is to 20 annually.\nPlaygrounds lessen the dangers of injury in the streets from street cars,\nautomobiles, and vehicles of various kinds. In the city of New York last\nyear 76 children of school age lost their lives in the streets and 256 were\nbadly injured. Physical directors and school physicians are more and\nmore beginning to prescribe the playground as the best possible medicine\nfor the correction of physical defects of various kinds in children, and the\ntherapeutic value of play in the treatment of children in institutions for\nthe feeble-minded, epileptic, insane, defective, and delinquent is now more\ngenerally recognized both in theory and practice. The superintendent of\nthe Indian Village for Epileptics, New Castle, Ind., writes: \"It is hard\nto overestimate the value of play as a therapeutic agent.\" It is carried\non in this institution both indoors and out of doors. The recognition of\nthe importance of play by the oflGicials of these institutions is in line with\nthe most advanced thought of modern medicine and surgery, which consists largely in giving nature the opportunity to exercise its marvelous\nrenovating and healing agencies. Those educators who have made large\nuse of the playground in their schools are a unit in stating that supervised\nplay makes for bodily vigor, mental acuteness, and improves the discipline of the school. The playground movement comes as a great ally\nto strengthen one of the very greatest weaknesses of our public-school\nsystem, viz., the lack of proper physi<^l training^physical training in\nthe broader sense of caUsthenics, gymnastics, athletics, and especially of\norganized plays and games. The fact that the proper development of\nthe child is largely a question of motor activity, and that play is the natural\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n552\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nand normal means of the expression of this law of his development, should\nhave called our attention to the value of play as a medicine as well as a\nproper educational force for us to utilize long before this. The unfortunate\nfact is that school boards and even educators in many cases still fail to\nrecognize that the system of curricula studies, if adhered to alone, is wrong\nin principle and faulty in results, because it gives the child little that will\nstrengthen him against disease and ofttimes makes him an easy victim\nto the omnipresent germ. A definition of the characteristics of play at\nits best will make plain the value of playgrounds in relation to health:\nIn the first place, the best form of play promotes vigorous health because\nit is out of doors; it is vigorous, natural, spontaneous in spirit, and makes\nuse of the fundamental muscles more largely than the accessory. Secondly, itpromotes nervous stability because in the open; because it develops\nand strengthens the vital organs and fundamental muscles; it rests the\nhigher and more delicate nervous co-ordinations, as of the hands and\nfingers, by using the older and simpler ones of the trunk and legs; it rests\nvisual areas by allowing the eye axes to become parallel, rests the auditory\nareas by being reasonably quiet (this applies especially to delicate children); throws off the worry and strain of too much mental effort in the\nclassroom; it relieves the higher centers by action that is mostly instinctive\nand attention that is involuntary; it tones up the whole system by a pervading sense of the joy of living. Thirdly, the activities of the playground\ndevelop physical strength. They have the advantage, as a method of\nphysical training, of using old co-ordinations and fundamental muscles;\ntend to develop the muscles in much the same sequence as they developed in racial history. But to be effective it must be reasonably frequent\nand vigorous, using a variety of games making use of different muscles.\nFourthly, the games and plays of the playground develop vital and functional strength, because nearly all play involving the fundamental muscles\nof the trunk and legs causes a quickening of respiration, of the action of the\nheart, of perspiration, and the strengthening of the stomach. This function\nof play is far more important than the giving of mere physical strength.\nTherefore, among the varied movements for child conservation and\nchild welfare which the wants and necessities of modem city and town\nlife have brought into being within recent years, it seems that the playground isone most fundamental, most necessary, supplying as it does\nunlimited air and sunshine, and free, wholesome, spontaneous, vigorous\nexercise therein.\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nFOR\n\nSTRENGTHENING\n\nPHYSICAL-TRAINING\nSCHOOLS\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nI. There should be a minimum standard of square feet of play space\nfor every school building. The maximum should be without limit. The\nminimum perhaps should not be less than 30 square feet for each child,\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAYGROUNDS\n\nAND\n\nHEALTH\n\n553\n\naltho in one state, Washington, this minimum was sought to be set at\none hundred square feet.\n2. The scope of physical training in pubhc schools should be enlarged\nso as to include not only calisthenics and gymnastics, but plays and games\nin the open, and these should be the major part of the system, since it is\nquite conclusively proven that most of the evils of the system of classroom\nwork are to be found in a system of cahsthenics and gymnastics as conducted in a majority of the schools today.\n3. The time devoted to physical training should be extended. The\nten or fifteen minutes per day devoted to this phase of the training and\nthe development of the children is a farce so far as its adequacy is concerned and when its importance is considered. The recess periods could\nwell be lengthened and given over to supervised play and games, or to\nfarm gardens. In certain circumstances in large cities it would be very\nprofitable to the community and make for the well-being of the children\nto lengthen the time of the school day and employ the extra hours on\nthe playgrounds, in the farm gardens, or some other form of outdoor physical exercise.\n4. Every grade building as well as every high-school building should\nbe equipped with shower baths and swimming-pools, especially in the\nlarger cities and towns. We ought to be past the time when we should\nexpect a single Y.M.C.A. or Y.W.C.A. to meet this need.\n5. Inasmuch as a great part of the actual supervision of the children\nupon the playground will fall upon the teachers themselves, preparation\nfor this leadership should be made a part of the qualification of a teacher.\nAmong the many reasons for this the good it will do the teacher herself\nis not the least.\n6. A primary course of book and practical instruction in sanitation\nand hygiene should, I believe, be introduced into the upper grades of the\ncommon schools at least (perhaps even before), and continued in the\nhigh school.\n7. Get absolutely rid of that system of athletics which has to do with\ndeveloping specialists or a winning team. A system of physical training\nthat does not include every child and which does not give special attention\nto those who need it most, even under a certain degree of compulsion, is\nnot worth the time and energy and money expended upon it.\n8. A thoro system of medical inspection is essential to the organization\nof an efiicient physical-training department.\n9. The homes cannot be neglected. The co-operation of parents is\nessential; therefore some plan of parents' meetings, home visitation, and\ninstruction of parents thru visiting nur§fes or by the teachers themselves\nwould aid greatly. In some cases resort to compulsion is necessary with\nparents, hence co-operation with the juvenile court or other legal agency\nis necessary.\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nThere are several other ways in which the schools can aid in the proper\nphysical development and training of the children, such as feeding them\nunder certain circumstances; * permitting them to get their lessons in the\nclassroom in the evening, as is done in some parts of New York City and\nother places; constructing buildings in such a manner that proper light,\nproper ventilation, proper seating, and proper heating be provided, with\nabsolute cleanliness of rooms and halls and lavatories; open-air schools;\nsanitary drinking fountains; disinfecting of textbooks, and so forth.\nFundamentally, however, the things that are needed most are air and\nsunshine and a great amount of physical exercise in the open, and this can\nbest be provided thru ample playgrounds, athletic fields, and farm gardens.\nAll these activities of the schools, coupled with the wide social movements\nfor better housing conditions, with pure-milk campaigns, better seweragedisposal plants, better water systems, continuous warfare against tuberculosis and other special diseases, better sanitary conditions in factories\nand stores, food inspections, and the movement for better city governments ought in the course of future decades to make for a stronger, more\nvigorous, more intelligent, and happier people.\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — H. M. Barrett, principal of high school\nVice-President — Walter F. Lewis, superintendent of schools\nSecretary — ^Thomas J. McCormack, principal of Township High School\n\nPueblo, Colo,\nPort Huron, Mich.\nLa Salle, lU.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July ii, 1911\nThe meeting was called to order in Golden Gate Banquet Hall, San Francisco,\nby President H. M. Barrett. In the absence of the secretary, O. L. Elliott, registrar\nof Leland Stanford Junior University, was elected secretary pro tempore.\n\"The Report of the Committee of Nine on the Articulation of the High School and\nCollege\" was first presented by the chairman, Clarence D. Kingsley, of the Manual\nTraining High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"The New Harvard Plan for College Admission\" was then given by Harvey N.\nDavis, assistant professor of physics. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., and \"The\nNew University of Chicago Plan for College Admission,\" by Otis W. Caldwell, associate\nprofessor of botany. University of Chicago, Chicago, III.\nThe president appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nJ. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, III.\nLewis B. Avery, principal of high school, San Jos6, Cal.\nAbram Gideon, State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo.\nIt was then voted to indorse the entire report, including the supplementary report,\nof the Committee of Nine on the Articulation of High School and College. The vote\nwas nearly unanimous, only two members voting against the motion. At the request\nof Mr. Kingsley, the committee was given power to amend the report. Section 3 under\nDivision B, making it read as follows:\nEvery high-school course should include the completion of two majors of three\nunits each, and one minor of two units, and one of these majors should be EngUsh.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND\n\nO. L. Elliott, Secretary pro tempore\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nAfternoon, July 12, 19 11\n\nThe members of the department met in round-table conferences at 2:30 p.m. as\nfollows:\nA.\n\nEnglish — Chairman, James Fleming Hosic, head of the Departme.it of English,\nChicago Normal School, Chicago, III., in Golden Gate Hall.\nThe discussion was opened by a statement>Df the report of the committee appointed\nto present the views of high-school teachers of English to the College-Entrance Examination Board. Following his statement a general discussion was participated in by\nthe following: Henry B. Dewey, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia,\nSS5\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nWash.; Mrs. Henry Hulst, head of the Department of English, Grand Rapids High\nSchool, Grand Rapids, Mich.; Miss Emma Breck, teacher of English in the Oakland\nHigh School, Oakland, Cal.; Lewis B. Avery, principal of the San Jose High School,\nSan Jose, Cal.; Samuel S. Seward, Jr., assistant professor of English, Leland Stanford\nJunior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nIt was moved and carried that the Round Table of English request the new president of the Secondary Department to continue this committee on college-entrance requirements and instruct them to complete their report and to organize a national council\nof teachers of English to report to the Round Table.\nA motion was made and carried that the name be changed from the English Round\nTable to that of English Section of the Department of Secondary Education.\nThe following resolution was unanimously adopted:\nResolved, That it is the sense of the English Round Table of the Department of\nSecondary Education that a certificate to teach English in the high schools should be\ngranted only to those who have had at least two years of college work in English,\nincluding oral expression, and who have had professional training, including the study\nof principles of secondary education and practice in teaching.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nW. J. Hunting, Secretary\n\nB. Mathematics — Chairman, Mellen W. Haskell, professor of mathematics, University\nof California, Berkeley, Cal.\n\"Report of the Committee of Fifteen on a Syllabus of Geometry,\" H. E. Slaught,\nprofessor of mathematics. University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., Chairman; William\nBetz, East High School, Rochester, N.Y.; Edward L. Brown, North High School, Denver,\nColo.; William Fuller, Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, Mass.; Walter W. Hart,\nUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; Frederick E. Newton, Andover Academy,\nAndover, Mass.; Eugene R. Smith, Polytechnic Preparatory School, Brooklyn, N.Y.;\nRobert L. Short, Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio; Mabel Sykes, Bowen High\nSchool, Chicago, 111.; Charles L. Bouton, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.;\nFlorian Cajori, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo.; Herbert E. Hawkes, Columbia\nUniversity, New York City; Earle R. Hedrick, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.;\nHenry L. Rietz, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.; David Eugene Smith, Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University, New York City.\nDiscussion: Walter N. Bush, principal. Polytechnic High School, San Francisco,\nCal.; George I. Gavett, assistant professor of mathematics. University of Washington,\nSeattle, Wash.\nA resolution was passed heartily indorsing the work of the committee, and asking\nthem to make such further modifications as seem desirable in view of the suggestions\nwhich they may receive, and to prepare the report for distribution as soon as it is put\ninto final form. It was proposed that the final report of the committee be presented\nat the next meeting of the Association.\nA resolution was also passed asking the Secondary Department to change the name\nof the Mathematics Round Table to the Mathematics Section.\nC. Classical — Chairman, Herbert O. Williams, principal high school, Sacramento, Cal.\nThe Classical Round Table Conference was called to order in Corinthian Hall by\nHerbert O. Williams, principal of High School, Sacramento, Cal. W. F. Ellis, Jr., of\nStockton, Cal., was appointed secretary of the meeting.\nIt was moved and carried that the Round Table Conference be organized as the\nClassical Section of the Department of Secondary Education of the National Education\nAssociation.\nThe regular program was then taken up, as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n557\n\n\"The Revival of Greek\" was presented by James T. Allen, of the University of\nCalifornia, Berkeley, Cal.\n\"The Value of Latin Prose Composition in the High School\" was presented by W.\nScott Thomas, professor of education, University of California, Berkeley, Cal., and\ndiscussed by Charles B. Gleason, San Jos6 High School, San Jos6, Cal.; J. P. Nourse,\nLowell High School, San Francisco, Cal.; Walter H. Graves, Oakland High School,\nOakland, Cal.; F. C. Taylor, Pacific University, Forest Grove, Ore.\nH. C. Nutting, of the University of California, Berkeley, Cal., spoke on \"Latin in\nthe Lower Grades (Below the High School).\"\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nW. F. Ellis, Jr., Secretary\nD.\n\nModern Foreign Languages — Chairman, Abram Gideon, Colorado Teachers\nCollege, Greeley, Colo.\nThe meeting of the Conference in Modem Foreign Languages was called to order\nat 2:30 P.M. by the chairman.\nIt was moved, seconded, and carried that the name of the conference be changed\nfrom Modem Language Round Table to Modem Language Section of the Department\nof Secondary Education.\nThe first paper was \"The Final Aim of Modern Foreign Language Study in Secondary\nEducation\" by J. Henry Senger, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Literary Appreciation in the Study of Foreign\nLanguages,\" by Albert L. Gu^rard, assistant professor of French, Leland Stanford\nJunior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nAfter a short introduction, the chairman, Abram Gideon, of the Colorado Teachers\nCollege, Greeley, Colo., read a paper on \"Simplified Spelling from the Scholarly Standpoint and with Reference to the Masses, \" which was followed by a second paper on the\nsame topic by Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls,\nIowa. The meeting was then opened for a general discussion of the subject, in which the\nfollowing took part: William T. Foster, president. Reed College, Portland, Ore.; J.\nHenry Senger, University of Cahfornia, Berkeley, Cal.; H. C. Hall, principal, Irving\nM. Scott Evening School, San Francisco, Cal.; William J. Drew, Polytechnic High\nSchool, San Francisco, Cal.; George R. Noyes, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.;\nGrace Davis, Oregon State Normal School, Monmouth, Ore.; Dr. R. W. Corwin,\nchief surgeon of the Colorado Fuel & Iron Co., Pueblo, Colo.; M. R. Kerr, principal,\nUnion High School, Inglewood, Cal., and David Felmley, president, Illinois State\nNormal University, Normal, 111.\nA committee was then appointed, consisting of Abram Gideon, head of Department\nof Modem Foreign Languages, Colorado Teachers College, Greeley, Colo., chairman;\nJ. Henry Senger, associate professor of German, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.;\nand Chairles H. Greenleaf, professor of French and Spanish, Oakland High School,\nOakland, Cal., to draw up a resolution expressing the indorsement by the conference\nof the simplified-spelling movement. This committee subsequently met and agreed to\nthe following resolution:\nThe Conference in Modem Foreign Languages of the National Education Association, held in San Francisco, July 12, 191 1, emphasizes its indorsement of the simplifiedspelling movement. It recommends to the Simpb'fied-Spelling Board, of New York City,\nthe desirability of a conference with the Simplified-Spelling Society of Great Britain to\nthe end of securing such action as will promote the progress of the movement in the civilized world.\nThe same conference suggests an effort to obtain governmental co-operation in so\nfar as such a step appears feasible to the Simplified-Spelling Board.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nA. Gideon, Chairman\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL\n\n558\n\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Secondary\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 13, 191 1\n\nThe department was called to order by President H. M. Barrett at 9:50 a.m. In\nthe absence of the secretary, Robert T. Adams, superintendent of schools, Warren,\nPa., was appointed secretary pro tempore, after which the following program was presented.\n1. President's Address— \"The High-School Teacher Himself\"— H. M. Barrett,\nprincipal of Central High School, Pueblo, Colo.\n2. \"Extra-Classroom Activities in High School — Their Place and Their Importance,\" Rufus C. Bentley, associate professor of secondary education and high-school\nvisitor, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\n3. \"Social Functions,\" John C. Hanna, principal of high school. Oak Park, 111.\n(In Mr. Hanna's absence, this paper was read by J. Stanley Brown.)\n4. \"School Publications, Literary and Musical Organizations, Dramatics,\" Gilbert\nN. Brink, principal of liigh school, Berkeley, Cal.\n5. \"Report of the Committee on Cosmopohtan High-School Curriculum,\" Spencer\nR. Smith, principal of Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, 111., chairman. This report\nwas unanimously adopted.\nFollowing these papers a general discussion took place, in which the following contributed: F. F. Nalder, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia,\nWash.; Gilbert M. Brink, principal of high school, Berkeley, Cal.; Lewis B. Avery,\nprincipal of high school, San Jose, Cal.; Charles E. Keyes, principal of high school, Oakland, Cal.; Miss K. M. Smith, principal of Spartan High School, Nevada; Miss Emma\nBreck, teacher of Enghsh in high school, Oakland, Cal.; Ohver S. Westcott, principal of\nWaller High School, Chicago, 111.\nJ. Stanley Brown, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, after explaining the\nqualifications necessary for the ofl&cers of the department, presented the following names\nfor ofl&cers for the following year:\nFor President — ^J. Calvin Hanna, principal of high school, Oak Park, 111.\nFor Vice-President — Edward L. Brown, principal of North Side High School,\nDenver, Colo.\nFor Secretary — Clarence D. Kingsley, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was received and the ofl&cers were\nimanimously elected.\nThe following resolution was presented:\n' Resolved, That the Secondary Department indorse the action of the Mathematics\nRound Table in indorsing the report of the National Committee of Fifteen on Geometry\nSyllabus, and authorizing the publication of the report in such manner as shall be determined by the Secretary of the National Education Association and the chairman of\nthe committee.\nIt was moved that hereafter in making out the programs, the words \"Section of the\nDepartment\" should be substituted for the words \"Round Table Conference.\"\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nR. T. Adams, Secretary pro tempore\nThe following record is added by the undersigned, secretary, to supplement the secretaries' minutes of this department for the past three years, as follows:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nAt the Cleveland meeting in 1908 resolutions were passed authorizing the appointment of this committee, which was subsequently named by President J. Stanley Brown,\nas follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nARTICULATION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n559\n\nSpencer R. Smith, principal Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, 111., Chairman.\nWilliam McAndrew, principal Washington Irving High School, New York, N.Y.\nCheesman Herrick, president Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa.\nI. I. Cammack, principal Central High School, Kansas City, Mo.\nDavid MacKenzie, principal Central High School, Detroit, Mich.\nGeorge Edward Marshall, principal High School, Davenport, Iowa.\nWilliam B. Owen, principal Chicago Teachers College, Chicago, 111.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nARTICULATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nThe resolution authorizing the appointment of this committee was passed at the\nBoston meeting in 19 10, and the committee was subsequently named by President H. M.\nBarrett, as follows:\nClarence D. Kingsley, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N.Y., Chairman.\nWilliam M. Butler, principal Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nFrank B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nCharles W. Evans, principal high school. East Orange, N.J.\nCharles H. Judd, professor of education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nAlexis F. Lange, dean of college faculties. University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nW. D. Lewis, principal William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam Orr, deputy commissioner of education, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam H. Smiley; principal East Side High School, Denver, Colo.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF FIFTEEN\n\nON\n\nNATIONAL\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nThe Mathematics Round Table of the Department of Secondary Education at the\nCleveland meeting in 1908 expressed a desire for the appointment of this committee, but\nit was not appointed.\nDuring the following year the Federation of Teachers of Natural and Mathematical\nScience appointed a committee of fifteen for the same purpose. At Denver in 1909 the\nSecondary Department took up the matter again and ratified the committee of fifteen\nalready appointed to act under the joint auspices of the two associations. This was\ndone on motion of President J. Stanley Brown. The personnel of this committee appears\nin the minutes of the Mathematics Round Table, as given above.\nThis record is deemed important to be added, since, on recommendation of the\nCommittee of the National Council on Investigations and Appropriations, appropriations\nwere made by the Board of Directors at its meeting in San Francisco, July 13, 191 1, as\nset forth in the minutes of that meeting, for the future work of each of these committees.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nREPORT\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE OF NINE ON THE ARTICULATION\nSCHOOL AND COLLEGE\n\nCLARENCE\n\nD.\n\nKINGSLEY,\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBROOKLYN,\n\nOF HIGH\nN.Y.\n\nTo the Secondary Department of the National Education Association:\nYour Committee upon the Articulation of High School and College herewith submits the following report:\nAt the meeting of this department in Boston, July 6, 1910, resolutions were introduced requesting colleges to discontinue the entrance requirement of two foreign languages and to recognize as electives all subjects well taught in the high school. These\nresolutions furthermore stated that the public fligh schools will be greatly hampered\nin their attempts to serve the best interests of boys and girls until such modification\nis made by the colleges. These resolutions were adopted with only one dissenting vote.\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "560\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn accordance with the spirit of these resolutions, your committee of nine was appointed\nto prepare a rational statement of the work that the high school should do. To carryout this purpose, the committee submits:\nA. Some preliminary considerations on the field and function of education in\nthe high school,\nB. A working definition of a well-planned high-school course, and\nC. Reasons for the adoption of this definition as the basis of college admission.\nA.\n\nSOME\n\nPRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ON THE FIELD\nTION OF EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nFUNC-\n\n1. Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, in his Annual Report as president of the Carnegie Foundation, finds that American education, from elementary school to college, is suffering from\nthe attempt to teach too many subjects to the same student at the same time. He\nbeUeves that students taking the newer subjects should not be required to carry all\nthe older subjects. He states emphatically that this is no argvunent against the enriched\ncurriculum of the high school; but that, on the contrary, the high school must go on\nstill further enriching its curriculum, and that it is the duty of the college to adjust\nitself to the high school thus broadened.\n2. It is the duty of the tax-supported high school to give every student instruction\ncarefully designed to return to society intelligent, able-bodied, and progressive citizens.\nTo this end certain work should be included in the course of every student, whether\nor not he contemplates entering a higher institution. The responsibility of the high\nschool in this matter cannot be delegated to the college because there is no guarantee\nthat the particular student will actually go to college.\n3. It is coming to be recognized that in a democratic society the high school has\na distinct function. The high-school period is the testing time, the time for trying out\ndifferent powers, the time for forming life purposes. Consequently, the opportunity\nshould be provided for the student to test his capacity in a fairly large number of relatively diverse kinds of work.\nIn the high school the boy or girl may very properly make a start along the line\nof his chosen vocation, but a final choice should not be forced upon him at the beginning\nof that career. If he makes a provisional choice early in the course, there should be\nample opportunty for readjustment later in the high school. For this reason the requirement of four years of work in any particular subject, as a condition of admission to\na higher institution, imless that subject be one that may properly be required of all\nhigh-school students, is illogical and should, in the judgment of this committee, be\nImmediately discontinued.\n4. Not only is it the duty of the high school to lay the foundations of good citizenship and to help in the wise choice of a vocation, but it is equally important that\nthe high school should make specific contribution to the efl&ciency of the individual\nalong various broad lines. In our industrial democracy the development of individual\naptitudes and unique gifts is quite as important as the development of the common\nelements of culture. Moreover, hard work is to be secured not by insistence upon\nuniformity of tastes and interests, but by the encouragement of special effort along\nlines that appeal to the individual. Our education would gain in power and in virility\nif we made more of the dominant interest that each boy and girl has at the time. It\nwould seem that some have come to beUeve the oft-repeated statement that the liberal\nshould precede the vocational; but an organic conception of education demands the\nearly introduction of training for individual usefulness, thereby blending the liberal\nand the vocational; for only then does the liberal receive its social significance and\nimportance. In other words, the boy who pursues both the liberal and the vocational\nsees the relation of his own work to the work of others and to the welfare of society;\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nARTICULATION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n561\n\nwhereas the liberal without the vocational leaves him a mere spectator in the theater\nof life, and the boxes in this theater are already overcrowded.\n$. Mechanic arts, agriculture, or household science should be recognized as rational\nelements in the education of all boys and girls, and especially of those who have not\nas yet chosen their vocation. Under the authority of the traditional conception of the\nbest preparation for a higher institution, many of our public high schools are today\nresponsible for leading tens of thousands of boys and girls away from the pursuits for\nwhich they are adapted and in which they are needed, to other pursuits for which they\nare not adapted and in which they are not needed. By means of exclusively bookish\ncurricula false ideals of culture are developed. A chasm is created between the producers of material -wealth and the distributors and consumers thereof.\nThe high school should in a real sense reflect the major industries of the conmiunity\nwhich supports it. The high school, as the local educational institution, should reveal\nto boys and girls the higher possibilities for more efficient service along the Unes in which\ntheir own community is industrially organized.\nOur traditional ideals of preparation for higher institutions are particularly incongruous with the actual needs and future responsibilities of girls. It would seem that such\nhigh-school work as is carefully designed to develop capacity for and interest in the\nproper management and conduct of a home should be regarded as of importance at\nleast equal to that of any other work. We do not understand how society can properly\ncontinue to sanction for girls high-school curricula that disregard this fundamental\nneed, even though such curricula are planned in response to the demand made by some\nof the colleges for women.\nB.\n\nA WORKING\n\nDEFINITION\n\nOF A WELL-PLANNED\nCOURSE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nIn view of the foregoing considerations on the field and function of the high school,\nand to secure courses that shall be sound as integral parts of the larger educational process, your committee recommends the adoption of the following definition of a wellplanned high-school course:\nI. The quantitative requirement should be fifteen units.\n\"A unit represents a year's study in any subject in a secondary school, constituting\napproximately a quarter of a full year's work.\" This definition \"assumes that the\nlength of the school year is from thirty-six to forty weeks, that a period is from forty to\nsixty minutes in length, and that the study is pursued for four or five periods per week.\"\nIt further assumes that two hours of manual training or laboratory work are equivalent to one hour of class room work.\nWe beUeve that fifteen units is a better requirement than sixteen units, because:\ni) Quantity should be subordinated to quality.\n2) Overstrain should be eliminated from the atmosphere of the school.\n3) There should be one unit leeway, inasmuch as failure in one unit in one year\nshould neither cost the student an extra year nor tempt the principal to permit such\nstudent to try to carry an extra unit the succeeding year.\n4) Students of exceptional ability should be permitted to earn five units per year,\nthereby shortening the high-school period by one year.\n5) Students poor in ability should be required to spend five years upon the course,\nattempting and performing three units each year, thereby diminishing failures and\nreducing excessive per capita cost of instruction.\nWhere fifteen units is adopted as the required number, it would seem reasonable\nthat physical training and chorus singing should ftot be counted toward the fifteen units.\nWe further recommend that the practice of admitting students to college weighted\ndown with conditions be disapproved on the ground that it is injurious to the student,\nto the high school from which he comes, and to the college to which he goes.\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n2. Every high-school course should include at least three units of\nEnglish, one unit of social science (including history), and one unit of natural\nscience.\ni) English. — There is at the present time almost unanimous agreement among\nhigh-school and college authorities that three or four units of English should be required\nof all. But the high school should be granted freedom to adapt the work to the real\nneeds of its boys and girls. A course that is good in one high school may not be suited\nto the needs of another high school.\nUniformity in this subject is utterly disastrous.\n2) Social science (including history) . — High-school courses in history should always\nbe taught so as to function in a better understanding of modern institutions, current\nevents, and present movements.\nCourses in economics should be encouraged. Economic discussions are paramount\nand ignorance of economic principles is appaUing.\nEvery high-school student should be given a practical knowledge of affairs in his\nown community, pohtical, industrial, and philanthropic; of the basic principles of state\nand national politics; and of movements for social reform and international peace.\nAny high-school course that secures part or all of the above results should be given\nfull recognition.\n3) Natural science. — Where a unit of introductory science is taught, it should be\nrecognized as fulfilling the minimum requirement in natural science.\nIn some schools an introductory course has been worked out based upon physics,\nwith a minimum of principle and a maximum of application, as most advantageously\nmeeting the needs of the pupils. In such a course there should be strict insistence upon\naccuracy and neatness in the presentation of note-books and laboratory exercises. Opportunity should be given for individual pupils to work along special lines, and to make\ncontributions out of their studies to the work of the class as a whole.\nIn other schools introductory science is based largely upon biology. General biological material is used to explain human functions. Personal hygiene, including sex\nhygiene, is taught. Special attention is paid to problems of ventilation, sanitation,\nand the eUmination of preventable diseases. Effort is made to secure intelligent cooperation with health authorities and to form public opinion regarding higher standards\nof health.\nA certain amount of physics and chemistry is also introduced in this course.\nEither of these introductory courses would be placed intentionally in the first or\nsecond year of the high school.\n4) Physical training. — Systematic physical training, consisting of exercises and\nteam games, should be required of all students; but this work should not be regarded\nas counting toward the fifteen required units.\n3. Every high-school course should include the completion of two majors\nof three units each and one minor of two units, and one of the majors should\nBE English.\nIrrespective of the possibihty that the student may go to a higher institution, it\nis desirable for him to do in the high school a certain amount of work of an advanced\ncharacter. This provision also makes it possible for a part of the work in college to\nbe a continuation of work done in the high school, thereby preserving continuity in\nthe educational process.\nWe recommend that the following be recognized as majors:\na) 3 units of EngUsh.\n(Required of all.)\nb) 3 units of one foreign language (Latin, German, French, or Spanish).\nc) 3 units* of mathematics. (To include elementary algebra and plane geometry,\nand selections from plane trigonometry, solid geometry, intermediate algebra,\nand advanced algebra.)\nd) 3 units of social science. (To include selections from history, civics, economics,\nmunicipal affairs, and history of industry or commerce.)\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nARTICULATION\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n563\n\ne) 3 units of natural science. (To include selections from an introductory science\ncourse, physics, chemistry, astronomy, agriculture, physiography, elementary biology, ad\\'anced physiology, botany, and zoology.)\n4. The requirement in mathematics and in foreign languages should not\nexceed two units of mathematics and two units of one language other than\nEnglish.\nFor admission to engineering courses, the requirement of a major in mathematics\nappears reasonable.\nFor admission to a distinctively literary or classical course, the requirement of a\nmajor in one foreign language appears reasonable.\nFor other students a requirement of more than two units of mathematics and two\nunits of one language, when not in accord with the dominant interests and aptitudes\nof the student, appears excessive.\n5. Of\n\nthe\n\nTOTAL FIFTEEN\n\nUNITS,\n\nNOT LESS THAN ELEVEN\n\nUNITS SHOULD\n\nCONSIST\n\nOF English, foreign language, mathematics, social science (including history),\nnatural science, or other work conducted by recitations and home study.\nThe other four units should be left as a margin to be used for additional\nacademic work or for mechanic arts, household science, commercial work, and\nany other kind of work that the best interests of the student appear to reqihre.\nNo limitations should be imposed upon the use of the margin except that the instruction should be given by competent teachers with suitable equipment in classes not too\nlarge, and that the student's work should be of a satisfactory grade.\nThe recommendation that the subjects from which the margin may be made up\nshould be left entirely unspecified appears to be vital to the progressive development\nof secondary education. As long as formal recognition must be sought for each new\nsubject, so long will the high school be subservient and not fully progressive. It ought\nto be possible for any strong high school at any time to introduce into its curriculum\na subject that either meets the peculiar needs of the community or that appears to be\nthe most appropriate vehicle for teachers of pronounced individuality.\nThis margin of four units is not excessive. It amounts to an average of only one\nunit a year. A course containing eleven units of academic or prepared work requires\nthe student to carry, practically thruout the course, three of these subjects at a time.\nIn general, this involves the preparation of three lessons a day outside of the classroom.\nA daily assignment of more than three lessons together with manual training or vocational work 'in school hours, is not conducive to a high standard of excellence. In many\nof our high schools girls, especially, are subjected to a scholastic routine not designed\nto develop a strong race, either physically or mentally. (Note. — Placing the number\nof required units of academic or prepared work at eleven instead of twelve allows a\nleeway of one unit in case of a failure in the academic work. In case of no failure, by\ntaking four units each year the student may accomplish either an extra academic unit\nor an extra vocational unit.)\nThe provisions of the foregoing definition may be summarized as follows:\nNine specified units. —\n3 units of English.\n2 imits of one foseign language.\n2 units of mathematics.\nI unit of social science including history.\nI unit of natural science.\nTwo additional academic units. —\nOne or both of these units must be advanced work to meet the requirement of a\nsecond major of three units.\nFour units left as a margin for whatever work best meets the needs of the individual.\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\nC.\n\nREASONS\n\nNATIONAL\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nADOPTION OF THIS DEFINITION\nOF COLLEGE ADMISSION\n\nAS THE\n\n[Secondary\nBASIS\n\nCollege admission should be based solely upon the completion of a well-planned\nhigh-school course. The committee submits the following argument in defense of this\nproposition.\nFirst: On the one hand, many students do not go to college because they took\nthose courses which were dictated by their aptitudes and needs instead of courses prescribed bythe colleges.\nA committee of the Boston Head Masters' Association, in a report approved by\nthat association last fall, stated the difl&culty as follows: \"It frequently happens that\na pupil in the pubUc high school does not discover that he is likely to go to college until\none, two, or three years of the high-school course have been completed. As matters\nstand now, many of the courses in which he has received instruction and in which he\nmay have done excellent work are entirely useless to him in so far as he may apply\nthem to the purposes of college admission. The Committee are of the opinion that this\nis decidedly wrong.\"\nThe idea that the student should, early in his high-school course, decide whether\nhe is going to college ignores one of the chief functions of the high school; namely, that\nof inspiring capable students with the desire for further education. It is coming to\nbe clearly recognized that the chief characteristic of education in a democracy as contrasted with that in a society dominated by class distinction, is the principle of the\n\"open door.\" This principle of the \"open door\" is part of the great idea of the conservation ofhiunan gifts. It demands that personal worth should be recognized wherever\nfound. The college is one of the many doors that should be kept open. The colleges\nthemselves bear tribute to this principle in the innumerable scholarships that they offer\nto boys and girls in hiunble circumstances. In fact, it has long been recognized in this\ncountry that one boy who seeks a college education because of a strong inner purpose\nin the face of obstacles is worth to the college and to society a dozen boys who go to\ncollege merely because it is regarded as the proper thing to do.\nSecond: The attempt that is often made to supplement the work now required\nby the colleges with such additional work as is required by the community and by a\nmore adequate understanding of the needs of real boys and girls, is highly unsatisfactory. May 7, 19 10, the High School Teachers Association of New York City issued\na statement in which they afi&rmed:\n\"We believe that the interests of the forty thousand boys and girls who annually\nattend the nineteen high schools of this city cannot be wisely and fully served under\npresent college-entrance requirements. Our experience seems to prove the existence of\na wide discrepancy between 'preparation for life' and 'preparation for college' as defined\nby college-entrance requirements.\n\"The attempt to prepare the student for college under the present requirements\nand at the same time to teach him such other subjects as are needed for life is unsatisfactory. Under these conditions the student often has too much to do. The quahty\nof all his work is likely to suffer. The additional subjects are slighted because they\ndo not count for admission to college. In such a course it is impossible for the student to give these subjects as much time and energy as social conditions demand.\"\nThir4: Even by faithfully following the usual college prescription, the best preparation for college is not secured. Abraham Flexner, in his book The American College,\nshows how the college is standing in its own way. He says that \"The motive on\nwhich the college vainly relies, self-realization, has got to be rendered operative at the\nearlier stage.\" \"As a matter of fact,\" he adds, \"the secondary period is far more favorable than the college to free exploration of the boy.\" The restrictive preparatory courses\nprescribed by the colleges do not afford the kind of experience needed in the high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "565\nDepartmentl\n\nARTICULATION\n\nOP HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nFourth: In the attempt to prepare for the widely varying requirements of different colleges the energies of the school are dissipated. The energy that should be\ndevoted to meeting actual individual needs of students is expended upon the study\nof college catalogs. An institution that should be encouraged to develop internally\nis made subordinate and subservient. As an illustration of the confusion in the requirements of different colleges, we find that one college requires one foreign language, counts\nwork in a second, and gives no credit for a third; another college requires two foreign\nlanguages, and requires one unit in a third, unless music or physics is presented as a\nsubstitute; and a third college absolutely requires three foreign languages.\nFifth: But by far the most serious objection to the present condition is, as Commissioner Snedden says, to be found in the restrictive effect upon true high-school development. The high school today is the arena in which our greatest educational problems\nshould be worked out. High-school attendance in this country has increased almost\nfourfold within the last twenty years. If the .college will recognize the true function\nof the high school this marvelous growth will continue unabated and the American\nhigh school will become an institution unparalleled as a factor for democratic living.\nIt is doubtful whether any nation ever before possessed such an opportunity.\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nREPORT\n\nThe committee submits the following additional statement and recommendation:\nThe universal education to which our institutions are now committed is radically\ndifferent from the education for a literary class to which we were formerly devoted.\nSo long as our education was designed for the few it was possible to require candidates\nfor that education to conform to a certain definite intellectual type, and to reject all\nother candidates. That type was defined in terms of Latin, Greek, 'and Mathematics\n— substitutes not allowed. This definition actually debarred many individuals who\ndid not entirely conform to the type but who possessed other strong qualities that would\nhave made them valuable members of the learned professions. Nevertheless, the injustice\nof this procedure aroused no strong opposition because there were a sufficient number\nof other candidates conforming to the type to fill the very limited number of positions\nin the then existing professions.\nAs soon as the advantages of a higher education made a strong appeal to a somewhat larger group of men and women, the rigor of the former requirement of Latin,\nGreek, and Mathematics was relaxed by reducing the amounts required and by allowing a substitution of modern language for part or all of the classical languages. This\nprocess was characterized by its opponents as \"letting down the bars.\" Such it was,\nnot so much in the sense that it made education easier, as in the sense that it permitted\neducation to make its appeal to a much larger group of men and women.\nWe believe that the time has arrived when it is the duty of those engaged in education to consider the importance of making our education appeal to still other students.\nToday it is impossible in many communities for a boy or a girl to obtain even a highschool education unless he or she can do passing work in both mathematics and a foreign\nlanguage. Schoolmen in general are familiar with students, usually girls, who do good\nwork in languages, history, and certain sciences, but who cannot master high-school\nor college mathematics. There are other students, mostly boys, who do good work\nin mathematics, science, and history, but who have exceptional difficulty with foreign\nlanguages. A student of the latter type would find ample field for the exercise of all\nhis Unguistic ability in a reasonable mastery of the English language.\nIn the East we find a tendency to attach particular importance to the study of\nforeign languages, and in the West we find a tendency to emphasize mathematics. But\nnative abilities are not geographical quantities.\nWe believe that insistence upon the study of mathematics and foreign language\nas a sine qua non of an education is based largely upon the belief that both axQindis-\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Secondary\n\npensable for intellectual discipline. But we know that many of our greatest men have\nbeen deficient in one or the other of these accomplishments. They evidently secured\ntheir intellectual power by other processes. The discipUnary possibilities of other subjects are not yet fully recognized.\nIn view of the foregoing statement, we recommend that Section 4 of the definition of\na well-planned high-school course be supplemented by the following additional statement:\n4 (a).^ In place of either two units of mathematics or two units of a foreign\nLANGUAGE,\n\nTHE\n\nSUBSTITUTION\n\nUNDER\n\nunits CONSISTING OF A SECOND UNIT\nSECOND\nUNIT\nOF NATURAL\nSCIENCE.\n\nPROPER\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF SOCIAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nSHOULD\n\nBE ALLOWED\n\n(INCLUDING\n\nOF TWO\n\nHISTORY)\n\nAND\n\nA\n\nIn other words, there should be allowed under proper supervision the selection of\nfour units from the following:\ni) Two units of one foreign language.\n2) ' Two units of mathematics.\n3) Two units consisting of a second unit of social science and a second unit of\nnatural science.\nAccording to this provision it would be possible under proper supervision to substitute the work in columns (B) or (C) for the work in column (A).\n(A)\n(B) (C)\nEnglish\n3\n3\n3\nForeign Language\n2\n2\no\nMathematics\n2\no\n2\nSocial Science\ni\n2\n2\nNatural Science\ni\n2\n2\nTotal specified\nTo which must be added to make another major\nTotal\n\n9\ni or 2\n\ng\ni\n\n10 or II 10\n\n9\ni\n10\n\nConsequently the student without mathematics must present three units in two\nsubjects and two units in the two remaining subjects, thereby demonstrating ability\nin four lines of work.\nSimilarly, the student without foreign language must present three units in two\nsubjects and two units in the two remaining subjects.\nTo carry out this plan we would urge that at least many of the larger colleges should\nmake special provision to continue the education of students of whom it has been discovered\nthat the requirement of mathematics or the requirement of foreign language is an obstacle\nto the continuation of their education.\nRespectfully submitted,\nClarence D. Kingsley, Chairman\nManual Training High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nWilliam M. Butler,\nPrincipal, Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nFrank B. Dyer,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nCharles W. Evans,\nPrincipal, High School, East Orange, N.J.\nCharles H. Judd,\n. Professor of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nAlexis F. Lange,\nDean of College Faculties, University of CaUfornia, Berkeley, Cal.\nW. D. Lewis,\nPrincipal, William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam Orr,\nDeputy State Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam H. Smiley,\nPrincipal, East Side High School, Denver, Colo.\nCommittee\n» See 4 above.\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nHARVARD\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR COLLEGE\n\nADMISSION\n\n567\n\nThe chairman herewith appends the following statement from Professor Charles\nH. Judd, expressing the opinion that even greater latitude should be allowed to the\nhigh scliool and explaining an important principle that should at this time be brought\nto the attention of all concerned with the relations of school and college.\nMy Dear Mr. Chairman: In signing the report, I am very glad indeed to express\nmy sympathy with the general outlines of the whole statement which is here made by\nthe committee. It is my opinion that somewhat greater latitude should be allowed\nthe high school in the organization of its courses. To this 'end, I should personally\nprefer that the various requirements be not specific in terms of the subjects. The only\nspecification which I find it possible to favor is that which requires a certain amount\nof coherent work in the high school. To this end, I believe that it would be wiser to\nrequire two majors of three units, and one minor of two units. This is in keeping with\nthe plan recently adopted by the University of Chicago.\nOne other principle should, I beUeve, be incorporated in any report which deals\nwith the relations of high schools and colleges. These two institutions should follow\nup the work of high-school students much more completely than is now done. A student who comes from a high school into a college, should have his relative rank in the\nhigh-school class reported to the college. The work he is carrying on in the college\nshould be carefully observed, and reports should be sent back to the high school, stating\nth'e rank of the student in college. Both institutions would profit by this exchange\nof information. The college would learn by such a comparative study of the student's\nwork whether or not its courses are articulating directly with those of the high school.\nThe high school would learn whether or not it is articulating with the college. It does\nnot necessarily follow that the high school should in every case articulate with the college\nin such a way as to insure the high standing of its students in college.\nWithout attempting to pass on that question, however, the information that would\nbe gained by the study of relative marks would be very valuable for the purpose of bringing to the consciousness of both institutions the character of the work which the students are able to do.\nI should appreciate the opportunity of adding this comment to the report if you\ndo not feel that it would encumber the committee's statement. In any case, I am prepared to sign the general report. These comments are merely added in the hope that\nthe principles outlined in this report may be extended somewhat further than the committee has found it expedient to carry them.\nCharles H. Judd.\n\nTHE NEW\n\nHARVARD\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR COLLEGE\n\nHARVEY N. DAVIS, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR\nHARVARD UNIVERSITY,\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nADMISSION\n\nOF PHYSICS,\nMASS.\n\nWhat is now called the \"old plan\" at Harvard was adopted substantially inits present form in 1898. It is essentially a quantitative scheme.\nEach of the academic subjects commonly taught in high schools at that\ntime is assigned a value in points, determined partly by the length of time\nrequired for its study and partly by the probable maturity of the student\nat the time in his course when it is usually undertaken. Of these points\neach candidate is expected to collect twenQ^-six, much in the same spirit\nthat he might collect trading stamps, the possession of a complete collection entithng him to a premium in the form of a college education. Even\nif this collection is not quite complete, a candidate is usually admitted\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n\"on condition\" and is expected to supply the missing points later, either\nby attempting other admission examinations in addition to his regular\nwork, or by \"sacrificing\" courses. In either case, the weaker the student,\nthe heavier the burden which he invariably undertakes to carry in his\nfirst year, so as to keep up with his class.. The number of men admitted\nunder a handicap of this sort is appallingly large in every American college\nwhere such a system is used. At Harvard until within two years, it regularly included more than half the class. The result has been an inevitable\nlowering of the standards of work wherever these overloaded freshmen\nappeared in any numbers, and an inevitable relaxation of the minimum\nstandard of admission thru a false behef that the system safeguarded\nitself.\nThese and other facts led the faculty about two years ago to undertake a thoro investigation of the admission situation.\nIt appeared that in each of the two ways in which an admission system\nought to be useful, this quantitative scheme was not a success. In the\nfirst place, regarded merely as a machine for attracting and recognizing\ndesirable freshmen, it was far from efficient. Thru its complication, its\ninelasticity, and its merely quantitative rigor, it was steadily opening an\nalready overwide breach between Harvard University and the public\nhigh schools of the country. The percentage of freshmen entering from\npublic high schools was found to be only between 40 and 45, and if three\nlarge schools near Cambridge, which are practically fitting-schools for\nHarvard, are omitted, the percentage of public-high-school boys was below\n30. Furthermore, these freshmen were largely drawn from the immediate\nneighborhood, only about a fifth of them having been prepared outside of\nNew England. And all this was largely due, I am sure, not to provincialism,\nbut to the administrative barriers set up by peculiarities and maladjustments in the scheme of admission. It is indeed significant that of the 114\napplicants who were examined at the first trial of the new plan in June,\n191 1, over 80 per cent were from public high schools and 50 per cent were\nprepared outside of New England.\nBut no scheme of admission is merely a mechanism of selection. It\ninvariably has an indirect but powerful influence on the policies and standards of the schools that deal with it. Often in the past, this indirect\ninfluence has been regarded as the most valuable aspect of an admission\nsystem, and requirements have been framed, and examinations have been\nset, with great and even chief regard for their \"educative effect upon the\nteachers.' This mixture of purposes I regard as extremely unfortunate.\nThere can be no question but that, in the formative period of American\nhigh schools, some such external pressure was valuable to them. But I\nhope and believe that that period in their development is past, and that\nthe colleges may now regard their admission systems solely as instnmients\nof selection.\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nHARVARD\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nADMISSION\n\n569\n\nAt any rate the \"old plan\" at Harvard was found to have a definite\nand unfortunate influence on the schools most affected by it in forcing upon\nthem a diversified and, in its last years, a crowded program such as no\nboy ought to be asked to undertake. Students were obliged to carry in\ntheir final years six, seven, or even eight studies abreast, so as to have\nthem fresh in mind at the time of their final examinations. Even the\nopportunity of collecting some of their points two years ahead helped\nlittle, for most of the examinations required a certain maturity of mind\nthat few students attained so early in their training.\nThe result of this investigation was the adoption of a fundamentally\ndifferent system, which is now administered in parallel with the old one\nas an alternative method of admission to Harvard College. Its exact\nformulation has been widely distributed as a leaflet by the University\nand this statement, with a detailed presentation of its advantages, can be\nfound in Science for May 26, 191 1. Its main features are a quantity\nrequirement and a quality requirement.\nTo satisfy the quantity requirement, the student must show, by documentary evidence, that he has completed, and done well in., a high-school\ncourse covering four years and \"concerned chiefly with languages, science,\nmathematics, and history, no one of which may be wholly omitted.'*\nThere is a further requirement that at least two subjects, both of which\nmay be languages if desired, must be \"carried beyond their elementary\nstages.\" Except for these very general requirements the arrangement,\ncontent, and method of presentation are left wholly to the judgment of\nthose most competent to decide, the secondary teachers themselves. Just\nwhat \"chiefly\" means was purposely left for the committee to determine;\nit was evidently not the intention of the faculty to change to any great\nextent the type of preparation desired, as for instance by accepting a\nlarge infusion of manual training or agriculture in place of such academic\nsubjects as have previously been accepted, but the prohibition of \"nonacademic\" subjects is not complete, and the whole spirit of the plan is\nthat on every such undetermined point the admission committee shall use\nits best judgment in each individual case; it is probable, therefore, that the\namount of non-academic work that will be accepted in any individual case\nwill depend somewhat on the quality of the boy's scholarship in general\nand the cordiahty with which he is recommended by his head master as fit\nto undertake college work.\nIn any case, it is an individual record that is approved, not a school\nas such — and the quality of the record is considered as well as its satisfaction of the technical requirements. To show that this consideration\nof quality is not merely nominal, I append^he following table covering\nall the applications under the new plan that were received before June 5,\nthe limiting date mentioned in the formal announcements.\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nRecords found acceptable\nRecords refused on technical grounds\nRecords refused on quality\nUnfinished cases\nTotal\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n114\n14\n19\n2\n149\n\nIf the school record is satisfactory, the applicant is allowed to present\nhimself for examination in four subjects. One of these must always be\nEngHsh. If he desires the A.B. degree, another must be Latin, otherwise it may be French or German. A third must be either mathematics\nor physics or chemistry. The fourth may be any one of the above not\nalready counted, or Greek, or history. These four examinations are not\nintended to check up either the extent or the efficiency of his high-school\ncourse — ^the documentary evidence is accepted as covering all that completely— ^they are rather intended to test whether or not the boy can think.\nThey are to be examinations for power, and therefore, we hope, different\nin kind from the present examinations for attainment. Of course, the\npreparation of such papers is not easy and those of this first year are in\nmany ways disappointingly like the old ones, but it is hoped that constant\nimprovement will come thru. experience and frank criticism. The method\nof grading is also different in that each book is to be marked, not merely\nwith number or letter, but with a short, definite statement of the reader's\nimpression of the boy as regards both strength and weakness.\nWhile all this is being done, the chairman of the Admission Committee\nwill have written to the head master of each boy asking for a frank, confidential statement of his opinion of the boy's character and attainments:\nIs he an earnest student ? Is he in any way a leader among his fellows ?\nHas he backbone, determination, grit? Is he, in general, the kind that\nought to get into college or not? The fullness and usefulness of the\nrephes is in most cases very gratifying.\nWhen all the evidence has been collected, namely, a school record, an\nexamination record, a head master's testimony, and a personal impression of the boy if he is a doubtful case and can be reached, the Admission\nCommittee is instructed to form its best judgment in the light of all the\ndata in hand, on the fundamental question, \"Ought this particular boy\nto come to college in this particular year, or not?\" If they decide\naffirmatively, he is admitted clear and given a square start. If they decide\nnegatively, he is not admitted at all. Under the new plan there will be\nno handicapped or conditional admissions.\nIt should be noticed that this is not a certification scheme or a partcertification scheme in any sense whatever, for two reasons: In the first\nplace, it is characteristic of a certification scheme that the head master\nshall \"certify\" that the applicant has done something prescribed by the\ncollege, namely, such and such amounts of Latin and mathematics, and so\non. This certificate the college accepts in lieu of such examinations as\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nHARVARD\n\nPLAN\n\nFOR COLLEGE\n\nADMISSION\n\n571\n\nmight test each of the facts claimed. But the final responsibility of deciding what shall be studied and how, is in the hands of the college and is\nexercised thru the publication of long and detailed \"prescriptions\" in\neach subject. Under the new Harvard scheme of admission the arrangement of a curriculum is wholly in the hands of the school and that is where\nit ought to be.\nOn the other hand, it is characteristic of a certification system that\nthe final responsibility of deciding whether or not a given individual shall\ngo to a given college at a given time is shifted from the* college to the school,\nand that is not where it ought to be. It is true that a head master is\nusually the one best able to judge whether a given boy is fitted for college\nor not, but it is our experience at Harvard that we are much more Hkely\nto get a frank and useful expression of that judgment in the informal\nway mentioned above than thru any formal, thoroly protected certification system. And whenever such an expression of opinion comes, we are\ninclined to give it very great weight.\nThere remains the question as to whether all this is not in reaUty \"lowering the standard.\" As far as the college is concerned, I can answer confidently that it is not. Harvard College is not adopting this scheme in\norder to secure an increase in numbers or as a graceful way of retiring\nfrom the enforcement of the present high standard of admission. What\nwe do want is to get access to a large group of potential freshmsn, so that\nthose we do admit may be of thoroly good quality. We want to make it\npossible for the best boy in any high school in the United States to enter\nHarvard clear, on a few weeks notice, without extra cramming and without\nany administrative friction. It is for these best students that the new\nscheme is primarily designed. If I interpret rightly the spirit of the rest\nof the Admission Committee, I can guarantee that the new plan will not\nlower the standard of the freshman class.^\nWhether the universal adoption of a plan like this, which lacks even\nthe \"inspection\" common in the West, would tend to lower the standard\nof work within the secondary schools themselves, is another matter. Many\nschoolmasters have told us that the schools still need and depend on pressure from above and it may be that the freedom offered by the new scheme\nmay handicap them in the constant fight that all of us have to make to\nmaintain high standards. But this I personally cannot believe. I have\ncome more and more to feel that to give the school men both full power\nand full responsibiUty in administering their own work, is the only wise,\nsafe, and just thing for an American college to do.\n•Addendum, September 27, iqii: The final results for both June and September, 1911, are as\nfollows:\n•\nPer cent\nTotal refused before examination\n48\n25\nTotal lefused after examination\nSQ\n3i\nTotal admitted clear\n83\n44\nTotal applied under new plan\n\nigo\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nTHE NEW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOTIS W. CALDWELL,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF CHICAGO\nADMISSION\n\nPLAN\n\nASSOCL^TE PROFESSOR OF BOTANY,\nCHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\n[Secondary\n\nFOR COLLEGE\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nTwo years ago fifteen members of the University of Chicago faculty\nwere asked to serve as a curriculum committee to make a careful investigation of the courses of study in the different colleges of the University.\nThis committee was composed of members from the instructional and\nadministrative staffs of the Colleges of Arts, Literature, Science, Philosophy,\nCommerce, and Education, and its work related more or less to each of\nthese colleges. There were several reasons for the appointment of this\ncommittee. One of these was found in the lack of close articulation between the work of the first years of college and that of the schools from\nwhich the students come. The pubHc high schools are meeting the needs\nof the communities they serve by introducing courses of instruction and\na significance of content and vitality of method which together have for\nsome time presented to the colleges a new and highly important situation.\nWhen the public high school was being established the colleges rendered\nmuch assistance by outlining the courses for it. But now it is an autonomous institution, and its competent faculty is studying its problems to the\nend that it may serve its community in the most efficient, democratic way.\nThis, in its influence upon the high-school students who desire to enter\ncollege, sometimes forces them to take a high-school course quite different\nfrom that of their fellows; sometimes, in case of students who late in\ntheir high-school course decide that they wish to go to college, it prevents\nthem from so doing and sometimes causes the student upon entering college to be conditioned by several units of work. Of the 450 Freshmen\nentering the University of Chicago on October i, 1910, 150 were conditioned, and in many other institutions the showing is no better. One\nlarge university is said to have conditioned 53 per cent of its entering\nclass last autumn — ^the amount of conditions varying from one to seven\nunits. These conditions, in themselves a direct confession of weakness\nof the college plan, presented one phase of the problem. Another aspect\nwas presented in the difficulty of arranging first-year college courses to fit\nthe educational needs of students who enter with varying amounts of\nentrance units. Still another problem of the committee was found in the\ndifficulty in securing from the curriculum of the different colleges of the\nUniversity a sufficiently large number of coherent and progressive courses:\n(i) to give purposeful college students a wide range of choice of careers\nfor which they may prepare while in college; and (2) to enable the administrative officers to stimulate students of less purpose — of the drifting class\n— to select coherent sequences of courses that may give them definite and\nmore intensive preparation for effective work when out of college.\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nPLAN\n\nOF ADMISSION\n\nTO UNIVERSITY\n\nOF CHICAGO\n\n573\n\nAt the outset it became evident that extensive changes were advisable,\nboth with reference to our relations to high schools and m the organization\nof the curricula in the colleges. As a result of almost two years' study of\nthe situation, with the assistance and co-operation of those who are directly\ninterested in high-school work, a new plan was drawn up. This was passed\nalmost unanimously by the general faculty early in June of this year.\nThe plan provides one specific requirement of three units (three years)\nin English. This English is expected to give reasonable facility, accuracy,\nappreciation, and readiness in use of the mother-tongue, and the University will look for these attainments rather than to the particular content\nand method of the English course, which latter points the high school is\nexpected to determine in the light of its own immediate study of work. Other\nthan these three units of EngHsh, no specific subject requirement is made.\nRequirements based upon recognized educational principles are made in\nthe following way:\nThose subjects that have long been recognized in high schools are\narranged in six groups, as follows :\n1. English\n2. Ancient Languages (Latin and Greek)\n3. Modern Languages other than English; German, French, Spanish\n4. Ancient History, Mediaeval and Modern History, English History, United States\nHistory, Civic Economics\n5. Mathematics\n6. Sciences, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, General Biology, Physiology,\nPhysiography, General Astronomy\n\nEnglish, as stated above, is represented -by a requirement of three units.\nFrom some one of the five remaining groups the student is expected to\ntake a principal sequence of at least three units, and from another, a secondary sequence of at least two units, and in all from the six groups he is\nexpected to present ten units.\nIf Greek, Latin, or one of the modern languages is chosen for either\nprimary or secondary sequence, the three or two units, as the case may be,\nmust be in a single language. Also not less than one unit of physics or\nchemistry may be offered, and not less than half a unit of any other subject.\nWhen presented not as a primary or secondary sequence of units, not\nless than one unit will be accepted in Greek, Latin, any modern language,\nmathematics, physics, or chemistry; and Latin may not be continued\nin college unless at least two units are presented.\nIn addition to the ten units thus provided for above, five additional\nunits are required. These may be offered i3 any subject for which the\nhigh school gives credit toward its own diploma. This means that these\nfive units may consist of any high-school vocational subjects, as agriculture, domestic science, commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, stenography,\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmanual training, etc.; or they may be presented in addition to the ten\nunits from the groups given above, including English. The whole plan\ntherefore provides specifically for three units in EngHsh; for a principal\nsequence of three units and a secondary sequence of two units to be chosen\nfrom five great groups of subjects; for two additional units also from the\nfive groups; five units from any subject offered by the high school; not\nless than one-half a unit in any subject; entrance with conditions will\nnot be permitted.\nIt is thus possible for a student to come to college with work in but\nthree of these six branches of knowledge. It is also possible for him to\ncome to college having work in all of them. In any event, another part\nof the plan adopted insures that during his first two years in college and\nhis high school together he* shall have attained acquaintance with the\nfundamental aspects of each field of knowledge. Thus the two principles\nof intensification ,and distribution are cared for.\nObviously this plan is an attempt to place college entrance upon an\neducational basis instead of a basis of keeping accounts. It asks for a good\nquantity and quality of training in the use of the nation's language. It asks\nfor sequential work in enough lines of study to lay a foundation in scholarship, and leaves entirely to pupils, high-school teachers, and community to\ndecide what those lines of study shall be. It recognizes vocational studies\nas having educational and cultural value quite worthy of place in the\npreparation of students for college work. Indeed, we recognize these as\nsubjects needed quite as much in order that students who go to college\nmay not lose their social and industrial perspective as that those who do\nnot go to college may utilize these subjects in practical affairs.\nThis plan is intended to leave the secondary schools free to experiment\nand find the methods and subjects best adapted to develop socially efficient\nand scholarly students. It is hoped that the plan may open the way for\na genuine co-operation in the study of the many unsolved problems of\ndemocratic education, and may encourage both schools and colleges to\ncareful experiments in the subjects, methods, and results of our teaching.\nEffective democratic education for all the pupils in the high school is needed\nby the community; and is at the same time better for future college work\nthan any narrowly prescribed academic training.\nHigh schools that are in co-operation with the University of Chicago\nand which meet these broad requirements will be asked to maintain a\nquality of work that produces efficient students, and inspection will be\nupon that basis. Upon recommendation of the faculty of the co-operating high school its graduates are admitted to the University without examination, and the school will be tested by the ability of its graduates to do\ngood work, as indeed are those of its graduates who go from high school\ninto positions of employment. If a considerable percentage of its pupils\nfail to carry their work the school will be taken from the Hst of co-operating\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAN\n\nOF\n\nADMISSION\n\nTO\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO\n\n575\n\nschools, until upon further inspection its product seems b'kely to succeed.\nA carefully prepared record of all students will be sent regularly to their\nrespective high schools, thus enabling both high schools and college to\ntest their efficiency, not by a single examination or by a single student,\nbut by a continued investigation of the ability of students to do efficient\nwork.\nFor several years a rigid method of grading students has been in force\nin the colleges of the University. By use of this method inefficient students\nare eliminated* early in the course, the less efficient, the earlier they are\neliminated. Over 100 students have thus been dropped in each of the\npast two years.\nAs a means of further co-operation, and to secure the most effective\nteaching in the beginning of college courses, we have invited a large committee of high-school men to visit, a few at a time, and over prolonged\nperiods, those courses in the University which students take during their\nfirst years in college. We shall expect pointed and valuable suggestions\nfrom these \"college inspectors,\" and I suspect must be prepared to defend\nourselves or eliminate some questionable practices in college teaching.\nThe general plan adopted by the faculty also includes regulations thru\nwhich we hope better to meet the needs of college students all thru their\ncollege course. These bear a definite relation to college entrance. There\nis not time and this is not the place to go into detail with that phase of the\nquestion, but an outline will show its significance.\nIn the first year of college work the student must continue the subject\nof his primary or secondary sequence offered for admission, except in\nspecial cases students may continue a last-year full-unit subject. This\nlast provision is made possible since high-school students often find themselves in some subject of their last year's work. Also during the first two\nyears, preferably the first year, the student must take three majors of\nEnglish, one major of public speaking being included therein. Also in\ntwo years the student must, together with the high-school work presented,\ntake as much as four majors in each of the groups 2 to 5, listed above.\nThis insures acquaintance with the great divisions of human knowledge,\nand if high-school work has been arranged as hefein outlined, this plan\nstill leaves the student considerable election in the college. Furthermore,\nduring the last two years of college work the student, with what he has\ndone in the first two years, must complete nine majors in one department\nand six majors in another. He may not take more than fifteen majors in\none department. Thus we plan to secure intensification within departments in which the student wishes especial preparation, and also secure\ndistribution which gives general cultural ac^aintance.\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE HIGH-SCHOOL\nH.\n\nM.\n\nBARRETT,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTEACHER\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\n[Secondary\n\nHIMSELF\nSCHOOL,\n\nPUEBLO,\n\nCOLO.\n\nA touring car stopped one day not long ago, for no apparent reason,\non the open plain about half-way between Colorado Springs and Pueblo.\nThe owner, who was driving, got out and went over the things that he\nthought might be out of order. He found that there was plenty of gasoHne,\ntightened the battery connections, tried the spark plug, removed some\ndirt from the carburetor. Then he set the throttle and spark and tried\nto crank up, but there was no response from the engine. After two or\nthree unsuccessful efforts he went over the whole car item by item, trying\nto find the seat of trouble, but without success. Then, thinking things\nunutterable, he tramped a couple of miles to the nearest flag station and\nwired to Pueblo for a man from a garage to come out in a car and tow him\nin. It happened that at the time all the cars were out of the garage,\nbut as there was a train going north in a few minutes, the man assigned\nto the job seized his repair kit and took the train for the place named\nin the telegram. His appearance before the owner of the car, on foot\nwith nothing but his repair kit, evoked an explosion which might have\nbeen valuable if it could have been induced in the engine of the stranded\ncar. The man from the garage quietly explained that he had to come\non the train or not at all, and asked the irate man what he had done in\nattempting to start. With as much calmness as could be expected the\ndetails were gone over. \"Well,\" said the man from the garage, \"it must\nbe something serious. I'll take a look at her.\"\nHe raised the hood, examined the engine for a minute and closed the\nhood again. Then he reached under the seat, and turning to the owner,\nsaid \"Jump in.\" He gave the crank a turn and immediately the reassuring chug of the engine answered. He took his seat behind the wheel,\nthrew in the low gear, and the car started on its way. \"What did you\ndo to it?\" demanded the owner, with a suggestion of mingled disgust\nand reUef. \"Turned on the gasoline,\" answered the man from the garage.\nThe high school today is a somewhat more complicated machine than\nwas the old academy. • The academy long ago fell behind the needs of\nthe times and one after another its needs were supplied. The curriculum\nhas been tinkered up . New discoveries have been applied : lines of improvement have been added, such as science with laboratory methods, manual\ntraining, elementary agriculture, household science and art, moral training, special classes for physical and mental defectives and other special\nclasses for the super-normal. The high school has been exploited as a\nsocial center, a Turnverein, a machine shop, an agricultural experiment\nstation, a carpenter shop, a millinery store, a public playground, a summer\ngarden, a theater, a hotel, a hospital — not to say an infirmary — and sometimes its unkind critics declare that it has actually become a mortuary\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHER\n\nHIMSELF\n\n577\n\nestablishment. Truly it would seem that, so far as equipment and opportunity are concerned, the best modern high school leaves Httle to be\ndesired, and yet our presence here and the program of this department\nindicate that we are still tinkering up the engines. Of course all this\nis desirable and necessary; it marks the divine discontent which is the\nessential element of progress, and we shall keep at it until the machine\ngoes to our satisfaction, perhaps until we are arrested for exceeding the\nspeed limit, or until the cost of upkeep on the machine compels us to\ndispense with experts imported at heavy expense to tell us that we have\nforgotten to turn on the gasoline. We have, in fact, been adjusting and\nelaborating the course of study and methods of teaching, and correcting\nastigmatism, anci removing adenoids — ^and now we have come to the\npoint where there is need to devote serious attention to the most\nimportant and indeed the most accessible factor — the high-school teacher\nhimself.\nNot that the high-school teacher has received no attention. At the\nLos Angeles meeting of the National Education Association in 1907 an\nimportant feature of the Secondary Department program was the \"professional preparation of the high-school teacher.\" The report of the\ncommittee was most valuable, as have been investigations in the same\nline by other students of education, published in many books, periodicals,\nand pamphlets and too little studied by high-school teachers; but there\nis still a field which must be cultivated by the individual teacher if there\nis to be a high-school education adequate to the needs of America. And\nthis is the high-school teacher himself — the personal side. It includes\nthe professional side and much more. This somewhat neglected, altogether obvious and absolutely vital element, it is the purpose of this paper\nto point out. It is hoped that the brief suggestions given here may serve\nto direct attention to a matter which demands the earnest consideration\nof every man or woman who calls himself a high-school teacher.\nWhen the Roman orator was analyzing the qualities which made\nPompey a successful general he mentioned last the quality felicitas, good\nluck. He did not elaborate it but suggested that while it is not permitted\nto any man to boast of this quality as his own, it is proper to appreciate\nit and to speak of it in others, just as it is fitting for men to refer with\ngratitude to the gifts of the gods.\n\"Well,\" said Mr. Hinnessey with resignation, \"we are as the Lord\nmade us.\" \"No,\" replied Mr. Dooley judicially, \"Lave us be fair, lave\nus be fair; lave us take some of the blame ourselves.\"\nThe first suggestion for the high-school teacher himself has to do with\nhis attitude toward his work, toward the school, toward the boys and girls.\nThis attitude is fundamental — some are bom with it, some acquire it\ngradually, and some have it thrust upon them by an experience like that\nof Saul of Tarsus upon the Damascus road.\nUsing a term pedagogical.\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nit may be named in Dr. Stanley Hall's word \"orientation.\"\ndefines the attitude:\n\n[Secondary\n\nStevenson\n\nThere is an idea abroad among moral people that they should make their neighbors\ngood. One person I have made good: Myself. But my duty to my neighbor is much\nmore nearly expressed by saying that I have to make him happy — if I may.\n\nThe high-school teacher is to make himself good and his boys and\ngirls happy. Does that sound too much like molly-coddling, like soft\npedagogy?\nListen!\nIn a New York periodical recently there was an article on the cornerstone laying of the new Washington Irving High School. The writer tells\nsomething of the methods employed at this high school which may or\nmay not be pertinent to the corner stone. He says that an old-fashioned\nschoolmaster from up state, who was visiting Principal McAndrew,\ninquired if girls in that school were not sometimes \"sent to the office.\"\n\"Oh, yes, indeed,\" replied the principal. \"Here comes one now.\" A\ngirl entered the office smiling expectantly. She handed the principal a\ndrawing which she had just finished. \"That's fine!\" was the principal's\nenthusiastic comment. \"Isn't it?\" he asked, handing it to the visitor.\nAnd the girl went out, still smiling and radiantly happy. And it is\nsaid that the Washington Irving High School has a high reputation for\nscholarship.\nIn Cincinnati two years ago, I visited a continuation school for boys\nemployed m the local machine shops. When I asked the teacher, Mr. J.\nHoward Renshaw, what he taught these boys, he answered: \"Applied\nmathematics, applied drawing, applied science, and culture.\" \"What was\nthe fourth subject ?\" I asked, for after the straitest of the sect I had always\nlived in the faith that culture was not to be found except in the Greek\nand Latin classics. Mr. Renshaw repeated the word \"culture.\" \"Would\nyou mind explaining just what you mean by that?\" I asked. \"Just\nthis,\" was the reply. \"These boys who come here are apprentices\nworking at low wages for four years. If they complete their apprenticeship they get a bonus of a hundred dollars at the end — if they stop before\nthe end they get none of it. Many of them when they come to the continuation school have just found themselves in a four-year Marathon,\nand they haven't their second wind yet. And they are sore — sore at the\nboss, sore at their job, and sore at life in general. I make it a point the\nfirst thing to see that no boy goes out of here unless he is in a good humor.\"\nCan th's cxilture be the real thing ? Did somebody say of those old Greeks\nthat they \"went about their hardest tasks like noble boys at play\"?\nLeaving this matter of attitude, the second thing to be noted is that\nthe high-school teacher must have an appreciation of and a devotion to\nexact scholarship.\nIf this seems In any way inconsistent with the cheer- ful attitude, we need not worry about it. Life is full of inconsistencies;\nin fact, one trouble with the high-school teacher is likely to be that he\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHER\n\nHIMSELF\n\n579\n\nsteadfastly refuses to admit the existence of exceptions or inconsistencies.\nThis appreciation of exact scholarship and the requirement of it in pupils\nis a fixed habit of mind which education ought to give to the high-school\nteacher. I remember that my old Greek professor used to say, \"There\nare some things which if a man does not learn before he is four years old\nhe never learns.\" It is not certain that a passion for exact scholarship\nis one which the high-school teacher himself must acquire before his kindergarten stage, but a natural bent in this direction is a powerful directive\ninfluence in later education. Yet if one have it not naturally he must\nsomehow acquire it before he can be a real high-school teacher. And\nthis applies to other things besides the exact sciences and the classics.\nThere is nowhere in any subject a more insistent requirement of exactness\nand accuracy than in manual training, mechanical drawing, and bookkeeping. It is, of course, unnecessary to add that the requirement of\nexactness involves no necessity of exasperation over the failure of boys\nand girls to measure rigidly up to the standard from the first. The highschool teacher who remembers the pit from which, perhaps, he himself\nwas digged, may well be patient with those who cannot yet see the importance ofaccuracy and precision. After all, where the pupils are matters\nnot so much as the direction in which they are moving.\n'*I believe in boys and girls, the men and women of a great tomorrow,\"\nso begins the School Teacher's Creed of Edwin Osgood Grover. You may\ncall it platitude if you will, but the high-school teacher must write it upon\nthe tablets of his heart. Someone remonstrated with Speaker Reed\nbecause he was not an admirer of Roosevelt. \"Oh, you are mistaken,\"\nsaid Reed, \"I am an admirer of Roosevelt. What I admire most about\nhim is his enthusiasm over his discovery of the Ten Commandments.\"\nEven so, it needed Roosevelt to remind the American people that the\nDecalog is not obsolete. The world, including the h^gh-school teacher,\n\"needs not so much to be informed as to be reminded.\" The teacher\nneeds, perhaps, to be reminded that these boys and girls of his, if they\nare not brought up so well as he was, as he is sometimes prone to think,\nand even tho some of them are his despair in his hours of depression,\nare yet the hope of the world. \"With all their imperfections on their\nheads\" they are better than their elders. In the moral realm, the highschool teacher needs to recall that whatever the present generation in the\nhigh school may prove to be, it is the past generation or two that has\nsupplied America with the grafters, the embezzlers, the malefactors of\ngreat wealth. Those who tremble with apprehension that the high\nschool of today is turning out untrained, ineflScient citizens will do well\nto reflect that we need not inevitably d8 worse in education today than\ndid the school teachers of a generation ago, whom many of us hold worthily\nin reverence. If the high-school teacher cannot find in his boys and girls\ntoday material, which in skillful hands gives encouragement for the future\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "580\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof America in efficiency and integrity, let him resolve that he has mistaken\nhis calling. It does not follow that there is not work for him to do in\ntraining these boys and girls for the greater responsibilities which they\nmust assume; he needs but open his eyes to their weakness, their unpreparedness for what is before them, and with eyes open to these things,\nset himself to the task of training them into manhood and womanhood,\nwhich are theirs to attain if they are guided aright.\nAnd this leads to the next fact, which the high-school teacher needs to\nrecognize as vital. He cannot do all this training alone; he must have\nthe co-operation of the home; and he can get it if he wants it. A father\nsaid to me a few weeks ago: \"When I went to school, we used to think\nthat the teacher was a sort of natural enemy, a legitimate mark for the\npranks and meanness of the boys and girls. I'm glad that this idea is\ndying out and that my children are viewing the teachers as their friends.\"\nThe teacher may not approve of the home training of his boys and girls.\nThey may have too much freedom, be allowed too 'much social liberty,\nmay not be held down to regular study hours, may not, indeed, have a\nquiet place at home to study. But a talk with the parents, or better\nstill, an acquaintance with parents, which does not come as the result\nof a complaint about the boy's shortcomings in school, will reveal in practically every case, that the parents' ambition centers in their boys and\ngirls. \"All they aspired to be and were not,\" they want to see realized\nin their children. They may be taking a wrong course to realize it, but\nif so the wise teacher can do much to help them, and, thru friendly acquaintance with the homes, he will be sure to discover things that will help him\nin his own work with these children.\nA boy was faiHng in his soUd geometry and his teacher and I had about\ndecided that the work was beyond him. The father, who is a foreman\nat the steel works, came to see me about it. I said to him: \"Mr. Blank,\nI'm afraid that John can't do that work in solid geometry.\" \"Do it!\"\nexclaimed the father, who is a German, \"of course he can do it— he's\ngot to do it! Sometimes I haf a mail at de Steel Vorks dat can't do vat\nI tell him. If he can't do it I show him.\" \"Parens Iratus, His Cause\nand Cure,\" by William McAndrew, in the latest volume of the School\nReview, is good literature on this subject.\nAnd finally, there must be in the high-school teacher himself a personality that inspires the boys and girls. \"Logicians may reason about\nabstractions,\" says Macaulay, \"but the great mass of men must have\nimages.\" You can pick out in your own high-school training the teachers\nwith a personahty, and they are the ones who helped to shape your Hfe.\nCheerful, they were, if not always outside, certainly at heart, and like\nGoldsmith's schoolmaster\nif severe in aught,\nThe love they bore to learning was at fault.\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeni]\n\nEXTRA-CLASSROOM\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAnd you know that they believed in you — you can see it now and you\nsomehow felt it then, even when you were dubious about yourselves. And\nsomehow it almost inevitably happened, tho formal co-operation by parents'\nmeetings was not the fashion when you went to school, that there was\na subtle understanding between teacher and home, which resulted in a S8i\ntacit co-operation. Perhaps you never fathomed it, but you felt it too\npalpably to question it more than once.\nOf this personaUty perhaps no element is so essential as the missionary\nspirit — the spirit of service. You may have known teachers who permitted an overweening sense of their dignity, of their reputation, to weaken\ntheir work. Appreciation of the teacher's dignity, of his worth, like the\nkingdom of heaven, cometh not with observation, nor with nice calculation\non the teacher's part. It is not appreciation of the high-school teacher\nhimself that is important, but appreciation of the things he loves, the\nthings he believes in, the things he respects. In self-abandonment in the\nwork, in the service of the boys and girls, not sentimentally but solemnly,\nadvisedly, in the fear of God, the high-school teacher shall find ample for\ndignity and even for glory. It was this sort of personaUty, which expressed\nitself in the morning prayer of Bulldog, the master in Ian Maclaren's\nYoung Barbarians:\nLord, keep the laddies before thee from cheating, lying, and cowardice — which are of\nthe Devil. Be pleased to put common-sense in their heads and thy fear in their hearts,\nand give them to be honest men all the days of their lives.\n\n\"It was a purposeful prayer,\" commented Jock Howieson, one of the\nladdies grown to manhood. Then he added fervently, \"An' he walkit up\nto his wards.\"\nEXTRA-CLASSROOM\nTHEIR PLACE\nRUFUS\n\nACTIVITIES IN HIGH SCHOOL:\nAND THEIR IMPORTANCE\n\nC. BENTLEY, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND HIGH\nSCHOOL VISITOR, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nIt seems fair to limit my part in this discussion to a statement of the\ncommunity's rights and the school's privilege: this chiefly in the smaller\nhigh school. This numerous, populous, and widespread non-urban type\nseems to furnish the most likely materials from which to construct the\nsocial platform of the American public high school. I beg to divicfe further the labor of discussion by confining myself to a comparison of the\nsocial status of the public high school, which has a local community as its\nconstituency, with that of the college, which has no community in the\n*\nsame sense.\nMy remarks must hinge upon the meaning of community. What are\nthe assurances of its adequacy as the organ of democracy ? That it shows\nvariety is one. That thru these varieties run certain threads of character-\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nistic is the ground of expectation that it will bear a common strain. Hard\nas has been the task, the political adequacy of community has been easy\nto work out, compared with the social and moral. Formal justice and\nequity but furnish a harness in which forbearance and mutual service\nmust work. This strain is fairly on. The part the newer institutions of\nthe community are to bear we have but begun to suspect.\nIt has been in a curriculum epoch, a period of formal accreditation —\none the state was able to handle — that the high school has now secured\nfull recognition. Like \"Bill Smith,\" only ornamental at home, tho known\nas the \"Honorable William Smith\" at the state house, it still wants the\ncredential of genuine service to the community to which it belongs. Its\nbest credit lies before it. On the social side, neither the state, nor as yet\nthe university, has much to offer it. The community is free to establish\nits own precedents. Whether it was necessary to sue for credit from without first is now perhaps an idle question. Anyhow the high school is\nbeholden now to this community as both environment and motive of what\nit is to become. The university has been very self-confident in laying the\nsubstructural Knes. All the help it can give now is a better training for\nthe right sort of workmen on the finer architectural task of superstructure.\nWe are passing into new social protections from the isolating wilderness of pioneering days. We foresee an urban or suburban status for\nmost communities. Whether this shall mean to hang mere settlements\nupon car lines, depends upon the crescent institutions. Some institutions hang in doubt. Some cast about for a new status. The home itself\nseems searching among them for supplements to its waning influences.\nIts rehabilitation may depend upon some compact it can strike up with\nthe school. Perhaps the high school has come to the kingdom for such a\ntime as this! If domicile declines to dormitory, if the hearth loses even\nthe stability of the chafing dish, what shall rescue the integrity of the family\nthat tumbles out of bed into the other institutions and the restaurants ?\nIt must be the institutions ready to render disinterested service to the\ncause of home re-integration. The hope of the high school for prime usefulness rests in its power to conceive a service function where the community needs help most.\nWhy don't young men crowd into our profession? Service, even\nmartyrdom, is what' they seek. Can't the school furnish it ? They go\ninto slum service; sanitary, settlement, playground, and every other type\nof public and private municipal social service. Young women, some who\nwill h^ve to enter the teaching ranks, cast about almost desperately for a\nchance to sacrifice themselves somewhere else than under the brand of\n\"teacher.\" Sometime, of course, care for the interests of young, growing, well folks will be as attractive as the office of doctor or nurse, but how\nlong must we wait? At least until the teacher's human office has the\nrecognition long since granted to his scholastic function.\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXTRA-CLASSROOM\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n583\n\nBut open wide the door — what shall be the limit? One person foresees the advisory teacher being called upon \"to darn the pupils' stockings\"! The real teacher is not worried. He is not on his way to some other\nprofession, seeking leisure here, with pay, in preparation for service later.\nOf course teaching will not be a real profession until it claims the maturest\nand best service of men and women. The community will have even that\nwhen it is willing to pay for it. The high school and its teachers will come\nto their own together. The pupil will swing away from his college exemplar,\nas the teacher swings away from his teacherisms. The teacher will desert\nhis teacherisms when he is sworn to the service and ripens in it. He must\nbe an expert specialist in character and humanity. The high school will\nhave social leadership in its community when the teachers are willing.\nThe teachers will be willing when the community has afforded itself a\npermanent staff. Shall the medical profession learn to train preventive\nadvisers; the legal to exalt counsel above contentiousness; the ministerial\ndevelop a new pastorship, while the school makes no expansion of the\nservice type of its teachers ? As other professions outgrow their mystery,\ninsincerity, devotion to theology, so we must look with them for a better\nday of prevention, counsel, and human service. The teacher's work ought\nto be the best understood of any profession that tries to serve the community. The community will understand and appreciate human service as\nit has never understood curriculum. Not a guild of mystery, but a brotherhood: the pupil will recognize it when it comes; the parent will respond with\nsympathy when convinced; and men and women will fill up the ranks.\nCompare the high school and the college. The college student has\nthe misfortune to be away from home; but he has passed an important\nchoosing point. He is out of his community, presumably segregated for\nthe purpose of studentship. The high-school pupil is not yet compelled\nto choose between studentship and a non-studious vocation. His school\nmust conspire directly with his home in his education. His scholastic\nwork is not only at an unripe stage, but it is only one of many elements\nin his unspecialized education. Some informal returns from advanced\nstudents have helped me. Those from city high schools seem to think\nthat there was no connection between the ideals of their school and its\ncommunity. Those from the country brought forth a harvest of items\nshowing conscious sense of proprietorship, a community impulse ready to\nbe directed. But the program bristles with question marks. Here is\noccasion for sagacity. What may our own temperament be depended\nupon to stand ? What are the actual conditions in our community, the\nage, status, personnel of the other social institutions? What types of\nprecedence have they which must be observed ? What facilities to work\nthe same ground? What is the natural center of co-operation in this\ncommunity, the church, the lodge, the homes, or the high school ? Then\nwhat may a given community be sure to furnish as a point of view ?\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nISecondary\n\nAnywhere, the high-school teacher finds himself charged with the\nleadership of young persons in their last school days. The outside activities\nare the ones most likely to discover the best individual powers. Opportunity is the high school's best word. Opportunity for most lies somewhere else than in scholastic success. Every young person deserves and\ncan have the encouragement of success. The high school must choose\nbetween being the persecutor of some and the purveyor of opportunity\nand success to all. Some won't stay to be persecuted.\nThe word \"opportunity\" is slighted; the word \"required\" is overworked as applied to the student's attitude toward school, tho much less\nso with the country pupil. What he lacks in socialization he more than\nmakes up in seriousness. It is all privilege to him. He knows what time\nwill buy. He helps to buy the leisure Tor high-school privilege. Added\nto the joy of teaching such a person is the joy of seeing his grateful\nappreciation of help toward the acquisition of any possible grace or social\npower.\nSharing in the control of activities lays the foundation for adult controls. Outside activities guarantee to pupils a share in the school's control.\nShare in control reduces one's need .of control. It were well if we might\nlose the terms \"pupil control\" and \"teacher control.\" Some of the best\nhigh schools have forgotten an old interest in their own government. The\nprivilege of the law-abiding adult to be oblivious to the idea of government\nmay well be the ideal of the adolescent's school.\nThe college tries to sophisticate the person whose home has slighted\nhis social training; but with indifferent success, partly because the advisers are students. Even for these few who go to college, high-school teachers could be most salutary missionaries of this endeavor. The college\nteachers are prone to shirk this duty. This is a good place for the high\nschool to turn the tables and teach this newly appreciated duty to its old\nexemplar. The function of advice is both more difficult and more interesting in the high school, because more liberal and less technical. Highschool pupils are educational raw material to be tested and assorted.\nWhen this responsibility has been fully assumed, we shall have disposed\nof the old issue of \"preparation,\" never settled in the old regime, because\nonly attacked upon the scholastic side. Besides preparing students by\ndiscovering that they have the instincts, ambitions, abilities, poise, balance, health, temperament, and adaptability to warrant their pursuit of\nfurther protracted academic study, by the same processes will have been\ndiscovered the aptitudes for many non-student vocations.\nThe special teacher points an important difference. The high school\ncautiously gathers up into itself community activities first tried out by\nprivate enterprise. Then the special teacher becomes regular, standardized along with his function. A librarian secures a place. Such a person\nis available to supervise the neglected activity called studying.\nOr he may\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXTRA-CLASSROOM\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n585\n\nbecome a social secretary, vocational, or other, adviser, or may serve as\ndirector of athletics. The important fact is that a person who seems to\nbe free for new function, draws out a new host of offices all of which are\nof the social sort. There is the risk of relaxing the regular teacher's feeling of responsibility for the work taken over by the specialist, but our\nsmall schools are not so well manned as not to have enough human specialties to keep everybody but mummies alive. Something may be so assigned\nto every teacher as to re-emphasize an almost lost art, the art of knowing\nindividual pupils' whole program of work. This is a qualification of the\nhuman, as opposed to the scholastic, teacher. The physical teacher is a\ngood example, in the high school, of the teacher whose work forces a\nclose connection with other members of the faculty as well as a full knowledge of program and regimen of individual pupils; while the college\nathletic director rather stands ready, than directs the students.\nIt is healthy for the high school that its function is being subjected to\nnew interpretations, as studies are seen to be subject to many avenues of\napproach — most of them preferably \"real,\" \"practical,\" \"occupational,\"\nor \"vitalized,\" as the term may be. Closely connected always with all\nthese practical avenues of approach are the social and recreational. Humanly, that is physiologically, speaking, in terms of sound hygienic balance,\navocation is not so much the alternative, as the reverse side and inseparable counterpart of vocation. In no other part of our experience may the\neducational interplay be so easy as in the high-school life. A normal\nintegration of all phases of Ufe, made from all directions, is the fair requirement to be made of the community's high school, especially where it may\nbe shown to be the chief social institution in the given community. Wherever any activities may be shown to be dissipative of growth energy instead\nof contributive to an integration on the individual's discovered center of\ngravity, they must be dispensed with or rescued. Secret organizations\nclaim the school as their excuse for association, but repudiate its claims\nupon them, and thus serve as a tj^ical example of activities in their nature\ndissipative rather than integrative.\nEven play itself has suffered much from lack of the play spirit. The\nbest feature of vocational pursuits is that in high school we can work at\nthem in the play spirit. In high school the person is within that part of\nhis Ufe which is most significant for him, if not for the race. All activities\nhere profit by the surplus energy. To try on the adult activities is the\nfunction of play. Making the decisions that come by -way of doing, or\ntrying to do, what one thinks oneself cut out for is the essential feature of\nthis late play period.\nIs there any natural limit to such opportunity ?\nOne of the lessons we slowly learned in the \"curriculum epoch\" we\nshall have to learn again in the new field in the present \"social epoch\" of\nthe high school. .We finally came to realize that the most significant fact\neducationally about children was their intellectual differences.\nIt seems\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nlikely that these are still greater socially between individuals, as they\ncertainly are between communities.\nGood home surroundings, in a less degree good school environment,\nis socially to a child what good context is to a learner. To secure good\nusage, you need nothing but exclusively good context, oral and written.\nI knew a man whose own use of language was ridiculously incorrect who\nregarded grammar as one of his strong points in teaching. He was\nstrong on curriculum but weak on expression. We need a school which ^'s,\nin its teaching personnel, an adequate context of verbal, modal, personal\nculture. With solid, cultivated teachers, alive to the privilege of being\nthis context, constituting the very matrix of the embryo persons developing among them, what can hinder a human result worthy of the community\nand its high school ?\nSOCIAL FUNCTIONS\nJOHN CALVIN HANNA,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOAK PARK,\n\nILL.\n\nThe family is a natural group and can perform certain functions and\ncontrol certain activities more effectively than any other group of which\nthe world has made trial.\nThe only result thus far of the development of modern civilization that\nseems to touch this assumption is the result that certain functions are more\nor less successfully turned over in part to institutions owned and controlled by\nthe community which is constituted of all the families in a given territory.\nIntellectual training is one, and the most conspicuous one, of these.\nThe public school is the institution thus developed. Physical training —\nin its ramifications — may come next, but this can be turned over only in\npart to the school. The same is true of moral training and of social training in the large sense of that term.\nThe ignorance, the indifference, the general incompetency of individual parents only make the problem more difficult.\nThe bringing of children into the world must remain with the family\nunless human nature is completely revolutionized and a sublimated Mormonism introduced.\nIt has been pretty well demonstrated that with all its deficiencies and\nall its blunders the pubUc school serves the purpose better for the intellectual education of most children, at least in those fields that are turned\nover to the school,, than any other known agency could serve it.\nIt is the belief of the writer that social training in the schools should\nbe largely incidental and that nothing, not even the school, should be\nallowed to take away from the parents this privilege and responsibility.\nIf for no other reason, this is true for the sake of the parents themselves.\nThey alone must bring the children into the world. They alone must\ncontrol at least a portion of the child's social education.\n\nIf they are\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSOCIAL\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\n587\n\ndeprived of too large a portion of this duty and this privilege they will\nbecome more and more unfitted for the performance even of the moiety\nthat must be left to them.\nThe solution of this problem seems to lie in the intelligent and authoritative co-operation of the family and the school to bring about a healthful, happy result socially.\nTo this end there ought to be developed in the high school careful\ninstruction within reasonable limitations to train the youth themselves\nfor the responsibility that in so short a time wQl come upon them as parents,\nfor the social training of the next generation.\nIt must be borne in mind that the increased turning over of intellectual\ntraining to the school, while it has certain apparent advantages as a result\nof handling children and youth in groups, has its most convincing justification in the smaller cost psr capita as compared with the cost of private\ninstruction.\nThis argument, while ordinarily the most appealing to the individual\ntaxpayer, has its practical limitations. Money cost is counted at a low\nestimate of value when a question arises as to the preserving of rights\nand institutions such as freedom from the tyranny of priest or prince, or a\nbetter home life, or the inevitable competition that crowds in the world's\nwork.\nAnd therefore, unless and until the community or the family units of\nwhich it is composed is ready to surrender the freedom of choice in matters\ncommonly called social, it is the family that will dominate. Only thru an\nintelligent and unselfish co-operation of family and high school can the\ncomplex problem be solved by joint influence and power.\nThe blundering and mainly unconscious harmful attempt to supply\nsocial training thru the development of secret societies in the high school\nhas been brought about largely thru the natural hankering of the highschool boy and girl to ape the manners and institutions of the college\nyoung man and woman.\nThis aping of the manners of the college youth can be handled easily\nby the co-operation of parent and teacher so as to prevent serious results.\nThe aping of the institutions is a more serious matter because institutions tend to a certain semblance of permanence and of course the need\nfor these substitutes for family that are for many college students made\nnecessary by the artificial character of the institution which we call college, and by the almost total neglect of this real need on the part of\ncollege authorities — such a need absolutely does not exist in the local high\nschool.\nHere also, of course, the problem must be solved by the co-operation\nof parent and teacher, who may wisely invoke the aid of the state in the\nenactment of wisely framed legislation.\nIt is in accordance with analogy and apparently with sound biological\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nprinciples to believe that such development of social qualities must come\nabout slowly and cautiously and without artificial opening of any buds.\nGradual recognition of the social problem that thrusts itself forward,\nalbeit in disguise, in athletics and in all physical training, in the debates\nand parliamentary clatter that belong to the latter half of the period of\n'teens, in the hankering for clubs and societies and their soft machinery\nand tinsel decoration — gradual recognition of this problem may, under the\nguidance of broad-minded and unselfish teachers, combining with . unselfish and broad-minded parents, achieve immediate results more and more\nconspicuous and advantageous as years pass, and seemingly must, in a\ndecade, begin to show a molding in the work of the next generation of\nadults.\nEverywhere and at all times these results are possible only thru the\ndevelopment of the \"spirit of the school,\" in the higher and nobler\nsense of that phrase. And here, as everywhere, comes in the power, the\npersonaHty, the ideals, and inteUigent unselfishness of the individual\nteachers.\nResponsible officials more and more will have to look for the \"blue\nflower\" in choosing their new teachers, and this attitude, if persisted in,\nwill slowly force the training schools — university or normal school — to\ngive inteUigent and loyal heed to the changing demand in the qualifications\nof the high-school teacher; for principal and parent will be more and more\non the alert for the discovery of this quality that shall be available in the\ndirecting of extra-classroom activities considered as especially related to the\nphysical, the social, and hence the moral, development intrusted to their\ncare.\nSCHOOL\nGILBERT\n\nN.\n\nPUBLICATIONS, LITERARY AND\nORGANIZATIONS, DRAMATICS\nBRINK,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMUSICAL\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe work of the high school is to prepare, or aid in preparing, its\nstudents for good citizenship. In developing those qualities which make\ngood citizens I believe there is nothing more important than extra-classroom\nactivities. The activities present to the mind of the pupil something\nconcrete and are the practical channels thru which he comes in contact\nwith the life of the community. Classroom work is often very inspiring,\nbut it lacks the concrete application to everyday life which comes from\nwisely directed activities outside the classroom. Did you ever see a group\nof boys outside the classroom eagerly discussing the conjugation of a\ndifficult Latin verb or a proposition in geometry? Perhaps; but you\nmore likely saw them discussing the latest baseball scores or something\nwhich has just happened in the community — things which they see men\ndoing. The things which a boy may discuss with his father and feel that\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPUBLICATIONS\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\n589\n\nthe latter is really interested in are not yesterday's German lesson or the\ngeometry for tomorrow. If there is any ground of common interest to the\ntwo, it lies in extra-classroom activities.\nI shall discuss briefly student publications and literary and debating\nsocieties from the standpoint of the small high school. How can these\nactivities help prepare for good citizenship ? A good citizen ought to be\na man or woman who is trained to keep an eye on the administration of\naffairs in city, state, and nation; who is capable of weighing arguments\nand exercising sound judgment when it is necessary to choose between\ntwo courses; who can be trusted with the management of public affairs,\nand who has the ability and the willingness to assume, if necessary, this\nresponsibility, and is not content to leave it to corrupt politicians. For\noutside activities to develop these qualities in students, it seems to me\ntwo things must be carefully observed: first, membership must be voluntary, and second, there must be a wise and careful supervision,\nI have seen schools where membership in literary societies is obligatory.\nThe idea, I suppose, is that it is a good thing and therefore the student\nmust have it. I believe that anything like compulsory membership is\ndetrimental to the best results. Voluntary membership gives a feeling of\nownership and privilege which brings an active interest and pride in the\nachievements of the organization. I have found that small membership\nis a decided advantage, say twenty-five as the maximum. The second\nrequisite cannot be too strongly emphasized. All idea of ''student control\" or \"teacher control\" must be carefully eliminated. Co-operation\nof students and the advisory teachers is the only way to secure adequate\nresults. Of course the folly of unaided student management is quite\napparent, just as the certain ruin of any enterprise which is dominated by\na teacher. A teacher who possesses the proper tact and diplomacy can\nalways direct the policy of any such organization without the fact being\napparent to anyone but himself; on the other hand, by poor judgment\nhe may easily wreck it. The debating society ought to be self-governing\nas much as possible, with the teacher as an advisory member who can\ncome to their aid and give wise advice when he foresees danger.\nThe responsibility which rests on the president of such a society often\ndevelops unexpected qualities in a hitherto careless or lazy boy. I have\nin mind one such case — a boy whose persistent disregard for law and order\nwas a great source of anxiety to the school and whose fines for disorderly\nconduct in his debating society kept him in continual poverty. When he\nwas elected president of the society, the first couple of meetings were not\nvery successful; he realized that the ^ciety was going to smash because\nhe wasn't conducting it properly. He rose nobly to the occasion and\nnever did a presiding officer have better-conducted meetings. His newfound ability to shoulder responsibility and handle a difficult situation\nmade an entirely different boy out of him.\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn these societies most boys naturally choose debating and public\nspeaking as the line of work to pursue. Here the discussion of local issues\nis a means of bringing them into close touch with the life of their community.\nOn one occasion, in a town of forty-five thousand people, the adoption of\na commission form of government was being considered. This subject\nwas chosen for the annual debate between two boys' debating societies\nin one of the high schools. The interest of the community in this debate\nwas surprising. In the audience were a large nimiber of attorneys and\npoliticians anxious to hear what would be said on the subject. On another\noccasion the gas company was endeavoring to persuade the city council to\nadopt a system of gas lamps for street lighting. One of the boys' debating societies discussed this question and a representative of the gas company was present to see what use was being made of the statistics which\nthe high-school boys had been getting from the company's office for the\nlast two weeks. I presume the arguments of these lads did not appreciably\naffect the outcome of either issue but the debate did give the boys a live\ninterest in the affairs of their community and a sense of their own ability\nto grapple with such problems when the time should come for them to do\nso. It also called the attention of the community to the high school as an\ninstitution of importance. I dare say several fathers were stimulated to\ninform themselves better on these local issues by the innumerable questions\nasked by their sons preparing for the debate. The board of education\nconsidered the work of such importance that separate rooms were fitted up\nfor the special use of these societies.\n, I believe that boys and girls should have separate societies. The work\nof the girls would of course be along slightly different lines.\nThe publication of a high-school paper, while it gives opportunity to\nfewer students, is no less important. The editor finds that he or she must\nexercise careful judgment in the selection and use of material; that to\nput out a paper acceptable to a critical set of subscribers is a position of\ngreat responsibility, and that one must be \"on the job\" every minute if\nit is to be a success. The business manager gets very valuable training\nin getting advertisements, in bargaining with printers, and getting his\nassistants to do part of the work.\nOf course the supervision of these enterprises must be wise or they\nlose their value and are likely to be harmful. This emphasizes the need\nof efficient, true, noble men and women in high-school work.\nIn conclusion, I believe that literary and debating societies, student\npublications, or any other outside activity may be made a source of great\ngood in developing the proper kind of citizens.\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOSMOPOLITAN\n\nREPORT\nSPENCER\n\nR.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n591\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE ON COSMOPOLITAN\nHIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\nSMITH,\n\nPRINCIPAL, WENDELL\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nPHILLIPS HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe Committee on the Cosmopolitan High-School Curriculum begs to\nmake the following report:\nIt has been preparing material for the questionnaire suggested in the\npreliminary report. It finds that to print the questionnaire — ^to mail to\nthe high schools of the United States — to pay for the services of a statistician to make collection of data to be received — will take more money\nthan the members of the committee feel warranted in pa5^ng out of their\nown pockets. It therefore has asked the proper committee to make an\nappropriation for its work and hopes that it has been successful in its\nrequest.\nThe committee at this time wishes to emphasize one phase of its study\nthat it has failed to emphasize heretofore; viz., the content of individual\nstudies. Not only must the new curriculum suggest the proper studies\nand their correlation dependent on the demands of the constituency of the\nschools, but the content of the individual subject must be made a matter\nof study; for example, in chemistry and biology, to know the experiences\nand needs of daily life is of as much value as, if not of greater value than,\nthe teaching of scientific theory therefrom.\nHerein this committee wishes the co-operation of such o1;her bodies as\nare interested in problems that arise in the consideration of the preparation of our young people in that efficient citizenship that is the aim of the\neducation of today. While the committee has not asked for sufficient\nmoney to warrant such conferences with other committees from organizations equally interested in the topics of investigation, it hopes thru its\ndifferent members to come into conference with leaders of these different\norganizations or movements and to receive their aid in the formulation of\nbasic principles for the development of a cosmopolitan high-school curriculum, its constituent studies, and the content of each study recommended\nas a component part of such curriculum.\nYour committee again asks for the hearty co-operation of the highschool principals of the country in the attempt to reach some conclusions\nthat may be basic in their character.\nRespectfully submitted.\nFor the committee,\n* Spencer R. Smith, Chairman\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nROUND\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nA.\n\n,\n\nENGLISH\n\nQUESTIONS\n\n[Secondary\n\nAT ISSUE\n\nPreliminary Report of a Committee on College-Entrance Requirements in English\nJAMES\n\nFLEMING\n\nHOSIC, HEAD\n\nOF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH\nCOLLEGE,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nIN THE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nTEACHERS\n\nAt the Boston meeting last year, the English Round Table authorized the appointment of a committee on College-Entrance Requirements in English. The action was\ndistinctly in the nature of a protest. The committee was instructed to tell the CollegeEntrance Examination Board what the high-school teachers of English want. This\ntask may have appeared to the militant creators of the committee easy, if not grateful,\nbut it did not appear so to the members of the committee themselves. For who knows\nprecisely what the high-school teachers of English do want? Freedom from \"college\ndomination,\" certainly, but beyond that a positive, constructive program in harmony\nwith the newer conceptions of education and successfully carried out by means of intelligent co-operation. Hence the committee decided that it must first of all ascertain\nwhat the teachers of English in the high school really do want and why they want it.\nThe committee has set to work, therefore, to secure a consensus of opinion on the principal questions at issue and hopes to perform a valuable service in uniting the English\nteachers themselves in support of sound principles of secondary English. The highschool course as a whole is now passing thru a period of rapid and somewhat radical\nadjustment, and it is hoped that the work of our committee may be of value in this\nprocess of reconstruction.\nIt was decided to organize a main committee to be composed of members from\nthe various sections of the country, each of whom should seek to secure co-operating\ncommittees in the associations of English teachers in his territory. In fact, a large\nnumber of such committees have been appointed and are actively at work. A bulletin\nwas prepared [see below] stating the purpose and plan of the committee and outlining\nthe questions upon which a consensus is desired. It is intended that each co-operating\ncommittee shall direct the discussion of these questions at a meeting of the local association, and after due consideration shall formulate a reply. These replies will provide\nthe principal material for the final report of the main committee, which will be presented to the College-Entrance Examination Board before the next meeting of the Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English, and which will also be printed\nfor general distribution. Copies of the bulletin have been sent to most of the educational\njournals of the country with request for publication. The bulletin has also been placed\nin the hands of many school oflScers and educational leaders, including school patrons.\nSome of the more active associations of parei;its will formulate replies. It has been suggested that we seek the opinions of the graduates of the schools themselves. This would\ncertainly be desirable, but it would require more time and expense than we can command.\nThe questions which are included in the bulletin above referred to were phrased\nafter much conference and much careful reading of recent educational literature. Representatives ofboth school and college have been very outspoken of late, and they have\nset forth their views on the questions which are now before us with definiteness and\nvigor. Many high-school principals and teachers declare that the influence of the\nentrance requirements in English is bad. They say that the legitimate aims and work\nof the high school are interfered with and that some method of entrance to college must\nbe devised which will not only not hinder but positively help the high school in per-\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nforming its task.\nmore exactly.\n\nTHE\n\nQUESTIONS\n\nAT\n\nISSUE\n\n593\n\nLet us briefly review the controversy and attempt to define the issues\nTHE problem: what it is and how it grew\n\nThe problem of the articulation of the high school with the college is a natural result\nof our educational development. It has arisen from the overlapping of the older system\nof endowed colleges, with their self-developed preparatory schools, and the newer system\nof public high schools and universities organized and supported by the state. The\nacademy was originally and is today a, preparatory school. The public high school,\non the other hand, was intended to provide an increased opportunity of education for\nthe children of the people. With the development of the state universities, it has come\nto be thought of as the necessary stepping-stone from the elementary school to the college\nof liberal arts, the college of science, or the professional and technical school. There\nhas been a marked tendency on the part of the university to regard the public high\nschool as mainly preparatory to itself, and the university is inclined to make excessive demands upon the high school. If the relations between high school and university\nhave been to a degree satisfactory it is mainly because both have felt the pressure of\npublic sentiment and have sought to adjust themselves to the demands made upon\nthem by a democratic community. Since both are chiefly concerned in preparing citizens\nfor efifective service, the university can rightly ask only that the high school do well\nwhat it feels obliged to undertake. As a matter of fact, the state universities do at\npresent accept for entrance credit practically all the courses which the high schools give.\nIt should be noted, also, that the state universities some years ago substituted\na system of inspection and accrediting of schools for the older system of entrance examinations. By this plan, graduates of high schools of standard grade are admitted to\nthe universities on a certificate signed by the principal. This arrangement has been\ngenerally accepted by the endowed colleges and universities, especially in the middle\nand western states, and seems to give much satisfaction. It has not, however, escaped\ncriticism. We hear of \"domination\" of high schools even by these higher institutions\naccepting certificates, and it is charged in some quarters that the system prevents the\nestablishing of a high standard of scholarship in the colleges and universities. It has,\nat all events, brought about such cordial relations between the higher schools and the\nsecondary schools that sympathetic co-operation in working out common problems is\nnow general, and the necessity for freedom on the part of the high school to adjust itself\nto new demands seems to be clearly recognized.\nMeanwhile, many of the children of the people have been making use of the public\nhigh school as their place of preparation for our older endowed colleges and universities,\nand \"thereby hangs a tale.\" For these colleges were organized to give a certain kind\nof education, and they still regard themselves as having functions distinctly different\nfrom those of the colleges supported by the state. They have been exceedingly conservative inmaintaining the traditional view as to what constitutes a higher or liberal\neducation and have felt justified in demanding that any person desiring to take their\ncourses shall have prepared himself in a particular way, so that he may exactly fit into\ntheir scheme and continue his studies with a proper appreciation of them. True, most\nof these institutions have an elective system, but, nevertheless, the undergraduate work\nis so planned as practically to determine what the student's preparatory course must\nbe. Now since it is both undesirable and impracticable to give in the high school two\nsets of courses, one for those who wish to go to college and one for those who do not,\nit comes about that the presence of a few pupil^reparing for college (usually less than\n5 per cent) largely determines what course all shall pursue. Indeed, the effect is often\nso marked as to transform the last year into a year of review and preparation for examination, frequently the particular examinations set by certain colleges differing widely\namong themselves.\nFor the high-school teacher, a graduate of one of these colleges,\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntakes a natural pride in the number of his pupils who pass entrance examinations creditably and he gets into the habit of measuring his success as a teacher by this standard.\nIn this way, as many think, the high school is turned aside from its legitimate uses.\nIt is clear that the whole question of the articulation of school and college has grown\nup naturally and is not merely a result of perversity or desire of domination on the part\nof anybody. College graduates tend inevitably to overemphasize preparation for college,\nand to* employ college methods of work, and this tendency will continue to manifest\nitself until such time as adequate professional training is demanded of those who seek\nto become high-school teachers. That time Seems now to be near at hand. As for\nthe, College-Entrance Examination Board, it was established as a convenience to the\ncolleges and to students seeking to enter them, not to dictate courses of study or methods\nof teaching. Indeed, the board has declared itself both unable and unwilling to say\nwhat the high schools shall do or how they shall do it. Its object is merely to establish\nuniform entrance requirements and an adequate test, so that good students may easily\nfind the way to college. But, as has already been indicated, the presence in each high\nschool of a few pupils who wish to pass these uniform tests has the effect of shaping\nthe courses for all the pupils. It is only fair to say that, in the case of English, at least,\nthe influence of the uniform requirements has certainly not been wholly bad. Nevertheless, the results obtained do not satisfy the colleges, and the restrictions imposed\nare irksome to the high schools. With changing conceptions of popular education and\nvarying demands of local communities, a clash between radical and conservative, between\nhigh school and college, was inevitable.\nThe problem of articulation is complicated by the fact that many colleges which\nadmit by examination do not utilize the College-Entrance Examination Board, but\nset up special requirements. The women's colleges of the East are especially prone\nto do this. Some states, moreover, have very definite systems of higH-school supervision and prescribe courses and set examinations for the high-school diploma. In\nmany cases pupils about to leave high school have their minds centered upon the coming\nexaminations. The inevitable tendency of such a situation is to transform a high school\ninto a cram school. Teachers do not teach, they prepare for examination. Pupils do\nnot study to learn but to pass tests. Such a condition is intolerable. It is opposed to\ngood sense and constitutes a breach of faith with the public which supports the schools.\nThe individual school is robbed of its freedom, the teacher of initiative, and the pupils\nof true educational influence. It is this sort of thing against which high-school men\nare lifting up their voices; it is this condition which must be remedied.\n«\n\nHOW\n\nSHALL\n\nTHE\n\nPROBLEM\n\nBE\n\nSOLVED?\n\nVarious solutions of the problem are urged. Many think the difl&culty would be\nremoved if the colleges would examine schools instead of pupils. This is the certificate\nplan, introduced by the University ot Michigan in 1871. It seems to work well in the\ncentral and western states and has a host of advocates. The essence of this plan is\nsupervision of the high schools by the state universities. A standard high-school course\nis arranged, specific requirements in the various subjects are made out, definite units\nof credit are assigned, the various high schools are rated or, as it is called, accredited,\nand an inspector is appointed to visit the high schools from time to time and ascertain\nwhether the equipment, course of study, and teaching staff are adequate and actually\nturning out good work. The inspector offers advice and encouragement, points out\nweak spots, and, in general, assists the schools in standardizing themselves.\nAs has been indicated, the inspector usually represents a particular university,\nand there is always the possibility that the function of the local high school as an advanced common school shall be subordinated in the mind of the inspector to its function\nof preparing students for his own institution. It is charged, indeed, that, in some states,\nthe inspector or \"visitor\"\n\nregards himself as an advertising agent and devotes his\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nQUESTIONS\n\nAT\n\nISSUE\n\n595\n\nstrength mainly to urging high-school pupils to attend his university, and that, familiar\nwith college methods and perhaps not too well acquainted with boys and girls, he is\ntoo much inclined to praise methods not really well adapted to the young and better\narticulated with the work of his colleagues than with the business and social activities\nwhich will follow graduation from the high school. Not all boys and girls, moreover,\ncan be made efficient even by the best high school, and consequently the colleges which\naccept students on certificate must and do receive many who are ill-prepared for any\nsort of college work. The result would seem inevitably to be a lowering of the tone\nof the colleges and a depreciation in its standards. At any rate, the point is urged\nwith some warmth by the colleges which cling to the entrance examination.\nThe fact is that we have many colleges supported by private means which were\nnever intended to educate the children of all the people. They were founded more or\nless in accordance with the English ideal, and their aims have been intellectual culture\nand preparation for the speaking and reading professions. These colleges say that\nthey have a right to choose what sort of education they will offer and, therefore, what\nsort of preparation for their work they will demand. Two prominent eastern colleges\nhave very recently reafiirmed this position; namely, Amherst and Harvard, and a short\ntime ago an editorial in the Nation urged the eastern colleges, in the strongest terms,\nto devote themselves to producing an aristocracy of culture, and in accordance with\nthis ideal, to continue the entrance examinations which have proved so effective in\nexcluding all but the brightest and ablest boys. We want, say these colleges, only the\npick of the high-school graduates, and we do not regard the newer high-school subjects, commercial and vocational work particularly, as well fitted to develop intellectual^\nculture; and, therefore, we wish those who come to us to have studied mainly languages,\nmathematics, science, and history. Their position is, of course, the traditional one\nand the burden of proof lies on the advocates of the new.\nSo long as the older colleges got all the students they wanted, they felt their position\nto be very secure, but with the rise of state-supported colleges has come a competition\nthat must be met. The older institutions find themselves at the parting of the ways.\nThey must either be small and select or they must articulate freely with the high schools.\nSome are content to be small and select; others are willing to reform. Harvard has\nrecently arranged a new system of entrance. The pupil must have completed a four\nyears' high-school course, consisting mainly of languages, mathematics, science, and\nhistory. He will present an explicit statement from his high school as to what work\nhe has done and as to his qualifications as a student. Harvard will examine him in\nfour of the subjects of the standard course, one of which must be English. The examiner\nwill write an estimate of the candidate on his examination book. With these statements from his school and from the examiners before them, the committee on admission\nwill either accept the candidate or reject him; there will be no admission with conditions. No provision is made for inspecting high schools or forming an accredited list,\nas is done by the state universities.\nIt is worthy of note that, in taking this step. Harvard was influenced in part by\nthe fact that the record of the students in the college was found to be at great variance\nwith the standing obtained in the entrance examinations. Students with conditions\noften did extremely well in college courses, while students who obtained good grades\nupon entering, proved very poor later. Moreover, it was learned that many who would\nhave been glad to go to Harvard were prevented by the rigid requirements for entrance\nand hence offered themselves to colleges offering greater freedom in preparation.\nThis action at Harvard , and particularly me reasons for it, are of the highest interest. The decision is thoroly consistent, for, in common with other universities. Harvard has long been accepting on their records students from other colleges for her graduate\nschool, and it can hardly be urged that the average of work done in American colleges\nis better than that in the American high schools.\n\n\"By their fruits ye shall know them.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nPoor colleges and poor high schools will very quickly be known by the character of\nwork done in higher schools by the students they send out. It seems bad policy to\nimpose needless restraints upon the great majority of high schools because here and\nthere we find one that is not good, and those who have either studied or taught in both\nthe older eastern colleges and in those which accept students on certificate are unanimous,\nso far as we know, in denying that the examination system secures the best students.\nAFTER FREEDOM — WHAT?\n\nThe University of Chicago has just announced a still more liberal plan of entrance\nand beyond doubt others will follow. In view of these advance steps on the part of\nthe greatest of the endowed universities, it requires no prophet to foretell the passing\nof uniform entrance requirements in English and the coming of entire freedom to the\nhigh schools to work out their own destiny. Liberty is at hand, what shall we do with\nit ? The mere removal of the incubus of the entrance requirements will certainly not\nsolve all the problems of high-school English. Was it not mainly the uncertainties\nand vagaries of the high schools themselves which made an attempt at uniform requirements necessary? And have not the colleges justly complained that an appeal to the\nhigh schools for help in framing their requirements raised such a discord of voices that\nthe colleges were obliged to decide for themselves what was best to do ? In fact, do\nwe not owe it to the colleges that we have a high-school course in English at all ? The\nhigh schools do not even yet know their own minds in this matter. Only here and\nthere do you find a high school in which a thoroly practical, consistent, progressive\ncourse in English is carried out with an eye single to the individual and social life of\nthe boys and girls. There is altogether too much consciousness of the college lectureroom, past and future, altogether too much highflown criticism, pedantic referencehunting, and attempt at literary composition. Our exercises have been too isolated,\ntoo motiveless, and too formal. We have failed to teach the simple, correct English,\nparticularly the spoken English, of everyday life.\nIt is to be hoped that when the work of the committee is complete and the experience of the various sections of the country is brought together and made available for\nall of us, that there will appear some definite lines of progress upon which we may move\nout. Nothing can be of more importance to our pupils than that they secure a perfect mastery of the mother-tongue, and the task of discovering how to give it to them\nis our task, the task of the English teachers of America.\nTo Principals of High Schools and Teachers of English in High Schools:\nAt the meeting of the English Round Table of the National Education Association, in Boston, July i, igio, it was decided to appoint a committee to lay before the\nCollege-Entrance Examination Board the views of the high-school principals and teachers\nof the country in regard to the present entrance requirements in English and the examinations set upon them. The members of that committee so far appointed are: Charles\nSwain Thomas, head of the Department of English in the Newton (Mass.) High School ;\nBenjamin A. Heydrick, head of the Department of English in the High School of Commerce in New York City; Henry B. Dewey, state superintendent of schools, Olympia,\nWash.; Edwin L. Miller, assistant principal of the Central High School, Detroit, Mich.;\nMrs. Henry Hulst, head of the Department of English in the Grand Rapids (Mich.) High\nSchool; Reuben Post Halleck, principal of the Male High School, Louisville, Ky.; Miss\nFannie W. McLean, head of the Department of English in the Berkeley (Cal.) High\nSchool; and James Fleming Hosic, head of the Department of English in the Chicago\nTeachers College.\nThe purpose of the committee is to learn from those best qualified to say, whether\nthe present system of entrance requirements and examinations in English fosters the\nbest sort of English work in the high school, and what changes, if any, should be urged\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nQUESTIONS\n\nAT\n\nISSUE\n\n597\n\nupon the College-Entrance Examination Board thru its sub-committee on English and\nits board of review. The supreme consideration is to unite the teachers of the country\nin support of sound principles of secondary education, in order that boys and girls passing thru high school may receive the kind of training in English best fitted to develop\nthem and to prepare them for life.\nTo accomplish this purpose, it is necessary to enlist the sympathetic interest of\nsupervisors, parents, and college examiners and instructors, as well as that of highschool teachers. It is proposed, therefore, that every association of teachers or parents\nin the country, likely to be able to assist in reaching a consensus and decision on the\nquestions at issue, be asked to appoint a co-operating committee, to gather evidence,\ndirect discussion, and report conclusions to the Committee of the Round Table, which\nshall compile and edit a final report. This central committee will report progress at\nthe next annual meeting of the National Education Association, and hopes to complete\nthe work within the following year.\nThe central committee, in order to get this work under way in a definite fashion,\nmakes the following suggestions.\nTo Co-operating Committees:\nEach co-operating committee should secure, as soon as p)ossible, the judgment\nof its constituency upon the main question: Do the college-entrance requirements in\nEnglish, as at present administered, foster the best kind of English work in the high\nschools? If not, what changes should be made? The results of correspondence, discussion, and conference should be formulated and placed in the hands of the central\ncommittee, together with a digest of the evidence upon which each conclusion is based.\nThe following questions, particularly those under i, 2, and 3, should be carefully\nconsidered:\n1. The influence of the uniform college-entrance requirements in English upon the\nhigh school. —\na) What is the influence of these requirements upon the high-school course in English ?\nIn what field is the influence most felt ?\nb) What is the influence of these requirements upon methods of teaching English\nin the high school ?\nc) What is the influence of these requirements upon the pupil's attitude toward\nhis English work ?\nd) What changes, if any, would you make (i) in the high-school course in English,\nand (2) in methods of teaching English in the high school, if the problem of preparation for college were eliminated ?\ne) Do you offer the same courses to your college and your non-college group ? Why\nor why not ?\n/) Are certain high schools affected in special ways by the entrance requirements\nor examinations of particular colleges ? If so, specify.\n2. The high-school course in English. —\na) Is the followng statement of the aims of the high-school course in English satisfactory ? If not, how should it be modified ?\n\"The aim of the high-school course in granmiar and composition is to develop the\npower of the pupil to express the ideas that come to him from the whole range of his\nexperience. The aim of the high-school course in literature is to develop in the pupil\n(i) a liking for good reading and (2) the power to fhiderstand and appreciate it.\"\nb) What principles should be followed (i) in the selection of reading for the highschool course in literature and (2) in distributing the reading thruout the course?\nShould the list be (i) prescribed, (2) advisory, or (3) open? Do the Uniform Requirements include too many books?\ntoo few? suflficient variety of type?\nShould the\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ndistinction between reading and study be dropped?\nfor the study of the history of literature?\n\n[Secondary\n\nWhat provision should be made\n\n3. Entrance to college. —\na) Would the following specifications provide a suitable test of efficiency in English\nupon graduation from high school and entrance to college ?\ni) A test of the pupil's power of written expression by one or more compositions on subjects suggested by the personal experience or the general information\nof the candidate.\n2) A test of the range and quality of the reading of the pupil and of his power\nof literary appreciation by means of:\n(a) The answering of a number of simple, suggestive questions on standard\ntexts not previously prescribed.\n(&) The explanation of two out of three or four passages of prose or poetry\nof ordinary difficulty, selected from books not previously prescribed.\n3) A test of the candidate's power of oral expression by reading aloud and\nby conversing.\n6) Should a high-school diploma be given to a pupil whose deficiencies in English\nare such as to prevent his being recommended for admission to college?\nc) Which is preferable, certification or uniform examinations for entrance to college ?\nWhy ? Is there a third method, better than either ?\nd) How should the National Conference on College-Entrance Requirements and\nExaminations be constituted ?\n4) What books or articles may be cited as expressing sound views (a) of the\npresent situation with regard to high-school English? (&) of the high-school course\nin English and of methods of teaching English in the high school ? (Give full library\nreference in each case.)\n5) What additional matter or matters do you wish to have laid before the\nvarious co-operating committees thruout the country ? (Please answer this question\nvery soon.)\nNote. — To be available, reports and suggestions from co-operating committees\nmust be in the hands of the central committee not later than January 10, 191 2. Correspond with the member nearest you (see addresses abovej.\nJames Fleming Hosic\nChairman of the Committee of the Round Table\nChicago Teachers College\nApril 25, 1911\n\nORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE IN LITERATURE IN SECONDARY\nSCHOOLS PARTICULARLY WITH A REGARD TO HISTORY\nCORNELIA\n\nSTEKETEE\n\nHULST,\n\nHEAD\n\nOF THE ENGLISH DEPARTMENT,\nGRAND RAPIDS, MICH.\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNow that the eastern universities are abandoning the system of examining on certain\nmasterpieces, by which they had practically dictated to their preparatory schools what\nshould constitute the course of reading, and now that they are following the universities\nof the Middle West in leaving the preparatory schools free to read what they will, when\nthey will, and as they will, the movement will doubtless extend thruout the length and\nbreadth of the land, and teachers of Hterature will have an opportunity to do their best\nin their teaching. As a sequel we shall soon be called upon to justify our freedom by\nimprovement in the output from our schools. It behooves us, therefore, to consider\nbetimes and to arrange our course to secure by proper economies and improved methods\n(i) better habits of work, (2) keener appreciation, and (3) consequent power of a\nsuperior order. We shall find, as do other business concerns when they reorganize,\nthat by a little ingenuity and care we can conserve much that we are now wasting, and\nreap a rich percentage in by-products.\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\n599\n\nThe Committee of Ten has advised us to organize our work, and thanks to the committee's labors for years past, we have never been in so favorable a state to attempt\norganization. First, we are accustomed to studying the masterpieces themselves instead\nof snatches from them and books about them, and we do not deaden the interest\nby too much biography and history, but enliven it by enough; second, we have a flexible list, offering more for the most fortunate and efficient schools, and requiring not too\nmuch from the least; third, we have on that list a goodly proportion of pieces that we\nshall want to keep, tho it needs revision to displace the less worthy pieces by selections\nthat give literary types not now represented and that strengthen spots notably weak in\nour course. It is to be hoped that the committee will continue its labors, especially if it\nis ready to adopt its own good advice, and will h elp to organize our course. It is to be\nhoped that a committee whose word carries weight will serve as an advisory board if\nthis present committee, as constituted, does not continue to serve. The old distinction\nthat this committee has made as to reading and sttidy may well be dropped, for the\n\"reading\" should be done with creditable care, and sometimes with minuteness, but the\nterm \"study,\" as it is used here in contradistinction, is certain to continue the abuse of\na deadening learning-for-its-own-sake. What need not be a vice in a professional scholar,\nand may be encouraged in the few members of the class to whom it is natural, is disastrous\nwhen imposed on all in the study of literature.\nOne of the weak spots that we suggest the committee strengthen is in recommending\nhome reading. It is very desirable that habits of individual reading be fostered, and to\nthis end it would be well to stimulate, and in some fashion control the reading list. We\nwish to develop a habit of independent reading, not of required books (for all pupils of\none grade have not the same likings or the same degree of proficiency in reading, and on\nthese books little help will be given by discussions in class) , but of a generous list of selections from what the children, or children of previous classes, have liked, along with other\nbooks that the teacher suggests. The privilege of substituting books that they have\nfound worthy may well be accorded individuals. In my own twelfth-grade classes the\nbooks that were reported range from Plato and The History of Napoleon down to Oliver\nOptic and Henty. If time is taken occasionally for each pupil to tell the class what he\nhas read lately that he liked, the personal Recommendation will do much to stimulate\nreading and raise the quality of books read by the class, as well as to humanize the class\nand secure a true social culture.\nThe purpose of our course, in literature as in composition, should be immediately\npractical, to teach a pupil to express the ideas that come to him from the whole range of\nhis experience. To that end it should aim to include all of the best types in prose and\npoetry — epic, lyric, drama, narration, essay, oration — and these should be studied for\ntheir structural beauty as well as for their thought, or content. The best methods of\nnarration, description, exposition, and argumentation should be noted as they occur in\nthe masterpieces studied, and this study should be supplemented by exercises in composition aiming to give more knowledge, and practice in its use. A good textbook, if it is\nnot abused, will add to the efficiency of this work. Until pupils have felt the beauty of\nthe form in the best and most original types of literature, they will lack the best preparation to give fit form to their own ideas when occasion comes to express themselves. It\nis because this formal side of literature is so practically valuable, so essential in the teaching of composition, and because this side of the literature will be so much more carefully\nconsidered when composition is taught together with literature, that I should consider\nit a great mistake to separate high-school courses in composition and literature.\nThe less immediately practical purpose of the«tudy of the content of literature is\nnot the less valuable to the life of the student, for the body is more than raiment. By\nhis reading he comes to appreciate and use a noble art; but also, traveling in the realms\nof gold under the sway of those kingly spirits, he widens his horizon and learns the distant and the past, whence he can return to understand and cherish the better all that is\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ngood in his present. If he reads aright, his spirit is roused from its passive state, and he\nenters into the life of his book for or against, as judge of its good and its evil. It will be\nobserved that I am following Plato in considering the goodness of the pieces selected as\ntheir most important quality, tho beauty is the quality to be sought most in the study of\ntheir form. Plato held that the purpose of telling children stories was to make them\n\"heroes\" for the state; we are teaching our young people by the moral and religious\nquestions that they encounter in the best literature, to consider their duty as citizens in\nthe Kingdom of God. How can Macbeth and The Idylls of the King be read without opening the eyes of the spirit to moral and religious truths? Plato was doubtless too good\nan artist to want to preach stories, which usually hold their moral in solution; but he\nwas an educational artist in selecting for his course the stories that had the right morals,\n\"models of virtuous thought, picturing God as good, and heroes as good men. \" To multiply the strength of the impression, stories should be told also of men who break the moral\nlaw and are broken by it in turn; and modern children should have stories from the literature of the past, old pagan stories, like the Odyssey, to see what was beautiful and good\nin those times, but also what was not good as compared with the modem, and, following\nthese, mediaeval ballads, romances, and tales, the best and the worst in chivalry as judged\nin the light of our ideals. Until they have read some of the literature of the past, they\ncannot appreciate the present justly, with its fruits of the struggle from pagan to Christian, from mediaeval to modern.\nA lack of the sense of the past is one of the weak spots in American education, as\ncompared with European, and this we should aim to strengthen if possible when we displace the less worthy pieces of literature from our list. It is said that more than other\nnations we turn our faces to the future, and it is full of hope that we should do so; but\nthe past of every nation that composes our American race has riches of wisdom and beauty\nthat should not be lost simply because the ancestors crossed an ocean. Far from having\nno legends and traditions, Americans have the right by direct descent to all that Europe\nhas produced of heroic legend and tradition back to the dawn of time, and we should make\ncertain that the children are not deprived of their heritage. In our continent of literature there should be no boundaries, and it would be folly to limit ourselves to the literature of any one European nation, particularly to take inferior pieces from that one, while\nwe omit the best from the others. To be perfectly definite on this point, it would be\nwell to change the title of our course to \"Literature and Composition\" instead of \"English\"\nwhich is a misleading term. Has the time not come for us now to adopt consciously for\nour policy the selection of the best from all of the sources, so approving and continuing\nthe wise tendency that Ticknor and Longfellow introduced at Harvard, and so securing\namong ourselves the most valuable knowledge, the finest literary sense, and the widest\nsympathies with all of the sister nations whose sons and daughters we are ?\nIf we displace from our list the pieces that are second-best, we can add within a few\nyears in their place more of myth and mediaeval legend, (i) a piece of biography by\nPlutarch; (2) a translation of a Greek drama; (3) a northern Saga, as \"King Olaf,\"\nfrom Longfellow or from the Heimskringla; (4) an animal epic, as Reynard the Fox;\n(S) some legends of the saints, as St. George and the Dragon; (6) incidents of the crusaders at Jerusalem and Charlemagne's peers in Spain; (7) examples of the extravagant in chivalry, that show its decay, as The Seven Champions of Christendom; and Don\nQuixote, which laughed decrepit chivalry out. By making the right selections we can\ngive our pupils the source material on which to base their comparisons of the life and\nideals in the different ages, and we can rouse a real and vital interest as compared with\nthe interest that is given when they are asked to reatl books to be able to take an exami- .\nnation on them, to be intelligent on them, or even to enjoy their beauty.\nGiven a list of the best books suited to high-school pupils, chosen from ancient,\nmediaeval, and modern times and including all of the best types developed — epic, lyric,\ndrama, essay, narrative — it is clear that we shall not secure the best results by running\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\n6oi\n\nthru our assortment in a haphazard fashion, or even by shifting empirically from place to\nplace. By a haphazard order we can obtain at best a conglomerate, lacking in coherence\nand proportion, and lacking in the interest and effectiveness which we wish to secure for\neach piece. We can secure greater interest in the \"Bunker Hill Oration,\" and greater\neffectiveness, if we do not read it just after the Odyssey, but after some piece that has a\nbond of connection with it. The necromancers and spirits of the Faerie Queene will be\ncomprehended best by preceding them and following them with the witches who tempted\nMacbeth, and by other stories of fairies, goblins, and ghosts that terrified the men of that\ntime. These reinforce each other, and after enough of them have been read, the character of the period to which they belong will be clear and a strong historical background\nwill have been formed for the reading of any mediaeval literature that will be encountered\nlater. This will give all of the knowledge of mediaeval times that some of the pupils\nacquire, for all do not take mediaeval history. We can then arrange the order of the\nmasterpieces so that they are of interest individually, but of greater interest and value\nas parts of a larger whole; so that they are apprehended in relation with other pieces of\ntheir time and school, but also, along with their school, in contrast to those that preceded\nand followed. When a pupil is taking a course he should not merely be wandering about\nin it, but he should know, if possible from the beginning, its aim and the final state that\nhe is to attain. He should feel that he is making progress. When he has finished he\nshould be able to look back over it with a sense not merely of certain authors who expressed certain ideas in certain form, but with a sense of differences in spirit, ideas, and\nform between the ancient, the mediaeval, and the modem; with a habit of looking for\nnew forms as they appear; and even with an inkling that there is a logic in their evolution from the less to the more complex. Is it too much to try to teach him in literature\nas he is being taught in history, that thru the ages an increasing purpose runs ? If all of\nthis can be done without increasing the work at present required, by merely organizing\nhis reading course and asking questions and making comments by the way, is it not well\nworth the doing? Without this higher knowledge and this habit of comparison and\nrelating all to life, our pupil will have on hand at the end of his course some assets (he\ncan't help having some), but he will have also much that remains to him as dead\nlearning — and a vice. He will probably have disliked his work, and will hold a lifelong grudge against the innocent masterpieces that he had to read in school. The\npity of it!\nFrom what I have said it is evident that I stand for a logical and historical teaching of the masterpieces, primarily to secure the best condition for their study, the best\nunderstanding and appreciation of their spirit, development, and form. A piece of literature isfashioned of the very blood and bone of its time and cannot be understood apart\nfrom the body to which it belonged.\nThe next principle to observe in organization is that the periods and schools should\nbe approached consecutively in point of time. The more effective approach to the spirits,\nfairies, goblins, ghosts, witches, and devils of the Faerie Queene and Macbeth is not from\nmodern times, but from pagan times, when Athene dashed down the heights of Olympus\nand Hermes passed swift as a thought, when Circe transformed men into beasts, and\nOdysseus descended alive into Hades. If mediseval literature is approached from modem,\nit will probably be misapprehended, and because we have come to smile at superstitions\npupils will take them as lacking in reality, as allied to a light and playful fancy. It will\nbe more difficult to realize how Shakespeare's audience, who believed in witches and\napparitions, looked upon the witches and apparitions in Macbeth.\nAn additional, and a very practical reason for filling the first years of the high school\ncourse with folk-tales, myths, and mediaeval lore is psychological — that our student in\nthose years is in his early adolescence, when his nature craves the distant and the heroic,\nbut not in the old childish way. If he has been fortunate, his reading books in the grades\nhave supplied him abundantly with fairy tales and myths; it will now be a revelation\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto him to review them, and to view them in the light of literary qualities, and of historical, moral, and religious values. He will find that \"Little Red Riding Hood\" is a gem of\nnarration and description — vivid, dramatic, condensed, simple, excellent in construction,\ningenious in device; and he can learn many of his rhetorical terms in a discussion of its\nbeauties. Excellent subjects for exercises in oral composition are selected fairy tales and\nmyths, one presented by each member of the class, and these so planned that they will\ngive, together, ideas of the history and relation of some of the most famous pieces. The\nEngUsh version of \"Cinderella\" in contrast with the German version presents fundamental agreement, but interesting variations; \"Beauty and the Beast\" and \"Cupid\nand Psyche\" show unexpected relations between fairy tale and myth; \"The Sleeping\nBeauty\" and \"Siegfried Awakening Brunhild\" reveal a like relation between fairy tale\nand tradition of demi-god and hero; \"Perseus and Andromeda\" and \"St. George and the\nDragon\" show a growth from pagan myth into Christian allegory, and will prepare the\nway for the Red Cross Knight of the Faerie Queene.\nIn the first year's work in the high school, mythology can be, perhaps, best taught\nincidentally while the Odyssey is read, and, if there is time enough, myths of the Northern\nCycle and Hiawatha, all with a view to their religion and morals as well as to their epic\nform and spirit. If, like Schleimann, the pupil has been fortunate enough to read a\nchildren's version of the tale of Troy divine when he was eight years old, beUeving that\nthere was a Troy, he will return to it with greater interest when he is thirteen, to dig out\nthe sacred citadel and the tomb of Agamemnon with the archaeologist and to penetrate\nmore deeply into the life pictured in the great story. A good exercise is for each pupil\nto undertake a piece of historical research in a small way, accumulating materials as he\nreads, with a view to presenting them in an essay toward the end, one keeping a list and\ndescription of the parts of the palaces, another of all of the furniture mentioned, another\nof games, another of armor and weapons, others of gods and devotions, all contributing\na section to a chapter of history. The Odyssey should be discussed as the Bible of the\nGreeks with a view to its moral and religious teachings, for unfortunately myths are\ntold in the classical dictionaries with no attempt to reveal the mystic meanings in their\ndepths. Without interpretation, and as mere stories, they and the Odyssey come under\ncondemnation in Plato's category of \"just casual tales .... with moral ideas the very\nopposite of those which are to be held by the children when they are grown up.\" Not\nonly are unassimilated myths dangerous in this way that Plato pointed out, but without\ntheir moral and religious significance they are positively misleading and untrue, for the\nreligious meaning predominated in them and they were believed in to the extent that a\nman was condemned to the hemlock who discredited them. We should not waste the\ntime and muddle the minds of the children on uninterpreted myths, but teach them\n(i) as what the Greeks believed and (2) as admirable or not in the light of our own\nreligion and philosophy. Athene and Apollo, when held to the test, are seen to make\nfor sweetness and Ught, wisdom and justice; Perseus and Prometheus make for selfdevotion and self-sacrifice; but many of the Greek gods make for evil, and belong\nwhere Milton put them, along with Moloch, Belial, and Satan in the Fiery Lake. Even\na young child will grasp the good points in a myth and see in the morals of the bad ones\nthe reason why Greek paganism had to pass away when tried by Christian standards.\nWhich goddess, Athene or Aphrodite, was worth the service of a life? Which queen\nwas the ideal woman? Aphrodite assisted by Ares (there is a profound moral to the\nrelation of these two, for war follows in the service of such love) could not protect Helen\nafter she deserted her husband; Apollo and the Furies raised the hands of her own son\nagainst Clytemnestra because she killed her husband, who it must be admitted was a\ncruel and unjust man in his treatment of Achilles and in his sacrifice of his own daughter,\nIphegenia, to his success in war; Heaven rewarded Penelope because she stayed true\nto her wandering spouse thru his absence of eighteen years. How did the ideal youth of\nHomer's time treat his mother ? his old nurse ? his swineherd ? his guests ? his friend ?\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\nhis hosts? What did Wisdom require him to do for his father? How did he take up\nthe responsibilities of life? call a meeting, and make a speech? How did he conduct\nhimself on his travels? How did he pray to his gods? How did he treat his father\nafter the return ? And Odysseus, who was wise with the wisdom of Athene and not won\naway by the wiles of the beautiful goddess Calypso and the enchantment of Circe, but\nwho endured the greatest of trials to return to his faithful wife — was he quite the perfect\nhero in his character of spoiler of cities ? When he slew the less guilty among the suitors, who promised to reform their lives and to give ransom, could he in this equal the\nChristian knight-errant, who went forth to right the wrongs of others and granted mercy\nto a prostrate foe? Will the great Achilles stand that comparison when he denies the\nprayers of the aged Priam and gives the body of Hector to be mutilated, dragged, and\ndevoured by dogs ?\nIs this kind of teaching, in motive and result, for history or for literature ? Neither\nis secured without it, and the two seem inseparable, and are secured by it.\nIt is economical of effort if in the first year of the high-school course myths and the\nOdyssey, Plutarch's Lives, Macaulay's Horatius, and Shakespeare's Julius Ceasar are\nread and discussed in class while the classes are studying in history the Greek and Roman\nperiods. While these selections give pagan ideas, they present a good variety of rhetorical types, with material for comment on narration, description, and dramatic presentation; and the study of their literary art can be made the more effective by assigning\nparallel exercises and essays in composition, some from modem Hfe, some from ancient.\nOne of the best essays that I ever read was a monologue by a ninth-grade pupil, excellent\nin imitation, poetic, lofty, high and serious in style, on the subject, \" The Account That\nHermes Gave to the Council of the Gods of His Mission to Ogygia\"; another was an account in monologue of Odysseus sailing into the present harbor of New York and experiencing Coney Island before the fire. For individual reading in this year we may well\nrequire some Bible stories from the Old Testament, as (i) Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac\n(how does it compare with Agamemnon's sacrifice of Iphegenia?), (2) the bondage of\nJoseph, (3) the life of Moses, and (4) the wanderings of the Children of Israel. Discussion of the Odyssey will quicken an interest in the Bible, and pupils will come from\nthis reading with a better vision of the material conditions of ancient life, the motives,\nand the morals involved. For independent reading in this grade I have known pupils\nto like Ben Hur, The Last of the Mohicans, The Thrall of Leif the Lucky, The Little Shepherd\nof Kingdom Come, The Blazed Trail, and The Riverman, but some prefer books of a lower\ngrade. The Little Colonel stories and books by Henty and Alger still persist. I, for one,\nshould never compel a pupil to finish a book, for home reading, that he did not like. If it\ncannot hold him he had better try something else. If it is a good book and he does not\nlike it, he is probably too young for it, and may Uke it later. If there is a historical\nelement in his book, it is doubly well.\nI have written thus fully of the first year's literature to suggest the method for the\nrest of the course. In the second year many books on mediaeval literature are fit for\nclass reading and discussion, some of them by ninteenth-century writers — Ballads, The\nIdylls of the King, Sir Launfal, The Ancient Mariner, and Ivanhoe. These are suflScient\nto give a general idea of the Middle Ages, tho weak, as I have indicated, in selections\nfrom the Continent. To supplement this work pupils can present to the class as topics,\nin oral composition, other stories of phantoms, witches, goblins, fairies of the period.\nSome excellent stories from the Continent are accessible in the Tales of a Wayside Inn\nand the Golden Legend.\nA still further advantage can be gained in the diird and fourth years of the course\nby studying English and, finally, American masterpieces, in their periods; and their\nstudy will be more effective if a good textbook for reference be adopted on the history of\nEnghsh and American literature. If the history instead of the literature is the purpose\nof the course, and predominates — especially if the literature is read about, andiiot read —\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe study of both the history and the literature will be ineffective; but if the masterpieces are read with a sufficient background of knowledge of the period and the life of\nthe author, not only will their study as Uterature be more effective, but the history of\nliterature will incidentally be more effectively acquired at the same time. Another\nadvantage in this arrangement of the masterpieces is that if circumstances are favorable a considerable amount of supplementary material can be added, by insertion of\nadditional reading, or by provision for topics to be presented as oral composition. So,\nwhen the class are considering the drama before reading Macbeth, each member can\ntell the substance of some early drama, such as Marlowe's Faustus.\nBy a chronological arrangement of pieces from English literature, the first half of\nthe third year will present, still, mediaeval subjects, tho emerging into modem, (i) the\nPrologue, (2) the Faerie Queene, and (3) Macbeth. Modem tendencies toward reformation and revolution are found in two of the three, as well as new t)T)es of composition.\nThe second half of this year will study Milton, Burke, and Burns, with a still more modern\nspirit and relation to reform and revolution, as well as contributions to literary form.\nThe first half of the fourth year will include writers of the nineteenth century in\nEngland — Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, Scott, Macaulay, Dickens, George Eliot, Browning, Tennyson, and as many others as are desired. Pupils will now be old enough and\nwell enough prepared to do considerable independent reading, which discussion in the\nclass will direct, always attentive alike to spirit and to rhetorical form.\nThe last half of the year will give still further developments in American literature,\nthe masterpieces for study being the Farewell Address, Bunker Hill Oration, and House\nof Seven Gables, good examples of the highest political and social ideals attained, and\nof fit literary form. A textbook of the history of American literature for biography\nand movements in periods, and an extended system of individual reading will here\nsecure excellent results in grasping the subject as a whole, besides securing special\ninterest in parts.\nA pupil who has seen his subject of study presenting matter so vital and so useful\nas the study of the content and form of literature is capable of being, should come from\nit with appreciation of its spirit and a consciousness of practical value received. If\nhe does not, it may be that he is at fault — ^it may be, his teacher. Let us see to it that\nit is no longer his haphazard and ineffective course.\nDISCUSSION\nSamuel S. Sewaed, Jr., assistant professor of English, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. — The viewpoint from which I regard the subject of collegeentrance examinations in English is not one of familiarity with the workings of the\nCollege Entrance Examination Board. On the contrary, the conditions under which\nI have worked and observed and experimented here in California have been singularly\nfree from all direct influence of that board. If there be anythmg, therefore, which we\nof California can contribute to the problems before this committee, it is not by reason\nof our dissatisfaction with an examination system forced upon us from without, but\nfrom our experience with conditions that we have shaped, in perfect freedom, ourselves.\nOf course I cannot speak for California in any official, representative sense; the state\nuniversity could better do that, or the high-school teachers themselves thm their accredited\norganizations. But roughly speaking, I think it is fair to say that our experience at\nStanford, gained both from the students we receive and the teachers we know, puts us\nin touch with the conditions in the state as a whole, and makes it possible to make certain broad generalizations in its name. And when, in contrast, I speak of \"the East,\"\nI do so in the same sense — broadly, and for the sake of convenience, with full realization of the qualifications that strict accuracy would require. The situation, in a word,\nthen, is this: In the East the number of colleges and the variety of their needs have\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF THE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\n605\n\ncreated a complex problem, each step in the solution of which has been, perforce, painstaking and deliberate; while in California, on the other hand, our comparative isolation\nhas made it easy to depart radically from the traditions prevailing in the eastern states,\nand to modify our practice, in experiment, with comparative freedom from influence\nfrom without.\nWhen I came to this state, eleven years ago, I was surprised to find that its practice\nin the matter of entrance examinations in English differed from* those I had been brought\nup to in New York in three important particulars: First, instead of the examination\nsystem pure and simple, I found a system based on the principle of accrediting the\nwork done by responsible high schools — accepting recommended work with some qualifications, tobe sure, yet recognizing the broad principles upon which the accrediting\nsystem is based. In the second place, I found that the high-school course in literature\nwas based, not on a rigidly prescribed list of books, but on a long list of literary works,\ngrouped according to type, from which the teacher would make free selection within\ncertain prescribed limits. Finally, the subjects for the test in composition were taken,\nnot from the topics dealt with in the literature classes, but from the personal experience of the student wherever it touched real life and thought.\nThe pleasure with which I recognized the freedom of these conditions, the humanness of them, would be hard to express, and it is wholly natural that while working\nin the new environment thru a course of years I should observe with interest the tendencies that have been manifesting themselves in the eastern states thruout this period.\nChanges have been made, and others are discussed and warmly advocated; and the\ndirection of all these changes has seemed to me significant indeed.\nWhat do we find ? The system of accrediting, to which we in the West are more\nand more thoroly committed, gains advocates in the East every year. The examination system is no longer taken for granted; certain disadvantages of it become more\nand more apparent; and even where it is retained, the advisability of modifying it in\nthe direction of the accrediting system is being seriously considered. The recognition\nof the principle of reconmiending students that Harvard has recently given in her alternative requirements for admission is deeply significant of this tendency. Significant,\ntoo, is the fact that the most far-reaching problem before this conference is the question\nwhether the examination system, as applied to English, ought to be supplanted by the\naccrediting system or by some other perhaps based upon it.\nWhen we turn to the subject of the choice of literary works in the literature classes,\nwe find that the College Entrance Examination Board has definitely accepted the system\nof choice among a fairly large range of books grouped according to type.\nFinally, the wisdom of basing the test in composition upon subjects drawn from\nthe study of literature is at last being seriously questioned, and one of the problems\nbefore this conference is as to whether it would not be preferable to draw topics for\nthis test from the wider experience of the student outside of the classroom and the study.\nIt appears, in short, that the gap between our practice in California and the earlier\nsystem of the College Entrance Examination Board tends more and more to draw\ntogether, and that our experience here has a more and more direct bearing on the\nproblems agitating the teachers of English thruout the country.\nAll this that I have said suggests a possible solution to some of the questions that\nnow confront this body; but before we approach the practical aspect of the problem\nit is appropriate that we consider a fundamental principle lying at the heart of the whole\nsubject. We are accustomed to speak of composition and literature as parts of the general subject of English, and it is the most natural to think of them as essentially one,\nbecause they are taught by the same teacher and examined by the same department.\nYet when we consider the nature of the two studies we find a radical difference separating them. The aim in literary study is to appreciate; its method is to study another's\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nself-expression; the real test of success is the student's ability to enter imaginatively\ninto experience outside of himself, and so to expand his own capacity for emotional\nand intellectual sympathy. The aim of composition, on the other hand, is to construct;\nits method is to build a complete, harmonious whole out of the student's own experience; and its test is the student's ability to communicate effectively to another his\nown feelings and thoughts. In the one subject he takes in; in the other he gives out.\nIt follows, therefore (and this is the important point), that whereas training in literary\nappreciation is by its very nature different from the discipline of other subjects — mathematics, history, physics, etc. — training in composition, or constructive expression, is an\nindispensable element in successful study of every kind. The student of geometry, of\nhistory, of physics, must in every case, if he is to command his subject for effective\nuse, be able to express clearly to another the results of his study. The teacher who\ntrains him to do this, therefore, works not in the interest of his own department alone,\nbut in that of every other subject represented in the curriculum. Some recognize this\nprinciple in advocating that composition be taught not by the literature teacher alone,\nbut by all the teachers of all subjects. But whether or not this be a wise method to\ntry to put into practice, this much is clear: the results of good teaching in composition\nare shared, to an extent untrue of any other subject, by all the teachers of all the subjects in school or college.\nThis brings us to the practical suggestions for solving the problem before us:\n1. Emphasize the distinction between the two subjects by basing the test in literature upon the books studied, and that in composition upon the candidate's general\nknowledge, observation, and experience.\n2. In recognition of the subtlety of literary appreciation, apply the method of\ncertification fraiScly and freely, within such limits as seem wise, to literature. Compared with the student's capacity to receive pleasure, which can never be adequately\ntested, his accumulated knowledge is a matter of Uttle moment. It is best to free such\nteachers as are capable of stimulating hterary appreciation to do their best work, and\nto leave unliterary discipline to the charge of other departments.\n3. Reserve a test in composition as a uniform requirement of all students who\nprofess themselves capable of taking up college study effectively. Require a recommendation from the school, based on a thoro course in the subject, but supplement it by\npractical demonstration of the student's power to think upon paper, and to express\nhis thought in clear, idiomatic, correct language.\nThese principles we have tested in CaUfornia thru an experience of many years,\nand we feel that their value has been amply proved. It seems, too, to be a significant\nsign of tendency that the new plan adopted by Harvard aims at the very result that\nwe have been trying to achieve — that of recognizing the responsibility of the high-school\nteacher and leaving him in freedom to accomplish his work in the way he can do it best,\nand at the same time reserving for the college a test whereby it may judge the quality\nof intellectual power that the student has gained in his school course.\nIt may be of interest to add a practical example of what would be considered at\nStanford a good test of a student's powers in composition. The subjects set must be\nlarge enough in variety and general enough in statement to offer suflicient choice to\nall the students who apply for admission. They must be of such a nature that girls,\nas well as boys, may find suitable material for self-expression. They should be so grouped\nthat the method of treatment — narration, description, exposition — ^is clearly indicated:\nGROUP\n\nI. — ^NARRATION\n\nAn\nIncident\nin -\"^\nthe Life \\I\nx^tl\"\nfySnE\nof a Favorite Historical >\nCharacter\n)\nMy Experience in a Balloon\n\n(CHOOSE\n\nONE)\n\nStories of personal ^perience\nFor the unimaginative student\nFor the imaginative student\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\nGROUP\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nII. — DESCRIPTION\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n(CHOOSE\n\nONE)\n\n(CHOOSE\n\nONE)\n\n607\n\nMy Favorite Aunt (or any other relative)\nMy Room, When I Like It Best\nA Garden Scene\nWhere We Camped\nGROUP\n\nm. — EXPOSITION\n\nHow Athletics (or any other activity) Are Managed in My School\nReasons for Approving (or disapproving) of High-School Fraternities\nA Public Question of Present Importance\nA Desirable Occupation for Women\n\nB.\nPROVISIONAL\n\nREPORT\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nOF THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE\nON GEOMETRY SYLLABUS\nPRELIMINARY\n\nOF FIFTEEN\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nAt the meeting of the National Education Association in Cleveland, in 1908, the\nmathematics Round Table of the Secondary Department, numbering some two hundred\nmembers, unanimously called for a national committee to study and report upon the\nquestion of a syllabus for geometry. In December, 1908, the American Federation of\nTeachers of the Mathematical and Natural Sciences, at its meeting in Baltimore, authorized the appointment of a national committee of fifteen on geometry syllabus. At the\nDenver meeting of the National Education Association in 1909, the Secondary Department authorized the committee which had already been appointed by the American\nFederation to proceed under the joint auspices of the two national bodies.\nThe committee thus constituted was made up of eight representatives of secondary\nschools and seven representatives of universities, as follows: William Betz, EastlHigh\nSchool, Rochester, N.Y.; Edward L. Brown, North High School, Denver, Colo.; William\nFuller, Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, Mass.; Walter W. Hart,* Shortridge High\nSchool, Indianapolis, Ind.; Frederick E. Newton, Andover Academy, Andover, Mass.;\nEugene R. Smith, Polytechnic Preparatory School, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Robert L. Short,\nTechnical High School, Cleveland, Ohio; Mabel Sykes, Bo wen High School, Chicago,\n111.; Charles L. Bouton, Harvard University; Florian Cajori, Colorado College; Herbert\nE. Hawkes,=' Yale University; Earle R. Hedrick, University of Missouri; Henry L. Rietz,\nUniversity of Illinois; David Eugene Smith, Teachers College, Columbia University;\nHerbert E. Slaught, Chairman, University of Chicago.\nAfter an extended preliminary correspondence in which each member of the committee submitted to all the other members a full statement of his views on all phases\nof the work in hand, including desirable methods of procedure, the investigations of\nthe committee were conducted in three subdivisions of five members each, the first dealing\nwith \"logical considerations,\" under the chairmanship of David Eugene Smith; the\nsecond having charge of \"exercises and problems,\" under the chairmanship of Henry\nL. Rietz; and the third determining the \"lists of theorems,\" under the chairmanship\nof Earle R. Hedrick.\nThese subcommittees carried on their work by correspondence and in some cases\nby meetings of their members during a period of a year and a half, the results being\nsubmitted from time to time to the general committee for suggestions and criticisms.\nA meeting was then held in Cleveland, Ohio, on November 24, 25, 26, 19 10, at which\nwere present the three subchairmen, the general chairman, and three other members.\nAll the recommendations of the subcommittees were submitted to a searching examination in the course of which they were either passed, eliminated, amended, or reconstructed, until finally substantial agreement was reached on all points; whereupon it\n' Now assistant professor of mathematics at the University of Wisconsin.\n» Now professor of mathematics at Columbia University.\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwas decided to print the report in the form thus evolved and to submit it to one hundred or more selected critics for further suggestions before its final presentation at the\nSan Francisco meeting in July, 19 ii,\nThe report contains a historical introduction prepared by Florian Cajori; a section\non logical considerations, including axioms, definitions, new terms, and symbols, treatment of limits and incommensurables, time and place in the curriculum, purpose of\nthe study of geometry; a section on the grading and distribution of exercises, algebraic\nand geometric types of exercises, special classes of exercises such as loci problems and\nproblems in concrete setting, and the correlation with other subjects such as arithmetic\nand trigonometry; a section on types of courses for special classes of students and on\nprehminary inductive courses in the grades; and finally the syllabus itself exhibiting\nby means of distinctive forms of type the varying degrees of emphasis which may properly\nbe attached to the different theorems both as to their importance in the logical chain\nand as to their richness in applications.\nIn the preparation of this report the various syllabi published in this country and\nin foreign countries have been consulted. With one of these — the syllabus pubUshed\nby the Association of Mathematics Teachers in New England — this report makes direct\ncomparison, indicating both omissions from, and additions to, that document.\nThe report in provisional form has been pubUshed in full in School Science and\nMathematics, issues of April, May, and June, 191 1. The table of contents and the\nhistorical introduction are printed herewith. The remaining sections are subject to\nfurther suggestions, criticisms, and modifications which have been freely invited by the\ncommittee from all sources and especially from one hundred selected teachers to whom\nadvance copies were submitted. All suggestions will be carefully considered by the\ncommittee and the report in final form will be submitted to the Mathematics Section\nof the Secondary Department at the meeting of the National Education Association\nin 191 2. Meanwhile, as soon as the committee can digest and act upon the suggestions\nwhich may be submitted, the report as thus modified will be reprinted thru School\nScience and Mathematics and distributed to teachers of geometry as widely as possible.\nCONTENTS\nPreliminary Statement\ni\n(A) Historical Introduction:\nBibliography\n2\nFrance\n»\n4\nGermany\n10\nItaly\n15\nEngland\n19\nUnited States\n24\n(B) Logical Considerations:\nAxioms\n28\nDefinitions\n31\nInformal Proofs\n33\nLimits and Incommensurables\n35\nTime and Place in the Curriculum\n35\nPurpose in the Study of Geometry\n37\nPoints on SoUd Geometry\n39\n(C) Special Courses\n40\n(D) Exercises and Problems:\nDistribution, Grading, and Nature\n43\nSources of Problems\n47\nProblems Involving Loci\n54\nAlgebraic Methods in Geometry\n57\n(E) Syllabus of Geometry:\nPreface to Lists of Theorems\n59\nTheorems on Plane Geometry\n63\nTheorems on Solid Geometry\n70\nConclusion\n76\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON GEOMETRY\n\nSECTION\nATTEMPTS\n\nMADE\n\nDURING\n\nA.\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n609\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nTHE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH\nTEACHING OF GEOMETRY\n\nCENTURIES\n\nTO REFORM\n\nTHE\n\nBibliography\nThe following six books bearing on the history of the teaching of geometry have\nbeen found most useful in making this compilation:\n1. V. BoBYNiN — \"Elementare Geometrie,\" being chap, xxii in Cantor's Vorlesungen\niiber Geschichte der Mathematik, Vol. IV (Leipzig, 1908), pp. 321-402. (Covers the\nsecond half of the eighteenth century.)\nReferred to as \"Bob3aiin.\"\n2. F. Klein — Elementarmathematik vom hoheren Standpunkte aus. Theil II; Geometrie\nReferred to as \"KJein.\"\n(Leipzig, 1909), pp. 433-515.\n3. J. Perry — Discussion on the Teaching of Mathematics. British Association Meeting,\n1901.\nReferred to as \"Perry.\"\n4. H. ScHOTTEN — Inhalt und Methode des planimetrischen Unterrichts. Leipzig, 1890.\nReferred to as \"Schotten.\"\n5. M. Simon — Ueber die Entwicklung der Elementar-Goemetrie im XIX Jahrhundert.\nLeipzig, 1906.\nReferred to as \"Simon.\"\n6. A. W. Stamper — A History of the Teaching of Elementary Geometry. New York,\n1906. Referred to as \"Stamper.\"\nOther useful sources of information on the history of the teaching of geometry are\nas follows:\n1. Reports of the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching (in England).\nThe name of the association has been changed to \"The Mathematical Association,\"\nand its present organ is the Mathematical Gazette.\n2. Zeitschrift fiir mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, Leipzig and\nBerlin.\nFormerly called Hoffmann's Zeitschrift, now Schotten's Zeitschrift.\n3. L'enseignement mathematique.\nRevue internationale.\nParis.\n4. La revue de V enseignement des sciences. Published monthly.\nParis.\n5. Nature (London).\nSee Indices for \"Geometry.\"\n6. D. E. Smith — The Teaching of Geometry.\nBoston, 1911.\n7. G. LoRiA — Vergangene und kiinftige Lehrpldne.\nDeutsch von H. Wieleitner.\nLeipzig, 1906.\n8. G. LoRiA — Delia varia fortuna di Euclide. Rome, 1893.\n9. R. Fricke — \"Ueber Reorganisationsbestrebungen des mathematischen Elementarunterrichts in England.'^\nJahresbericht d. deutsch. math. Vereinigimg, Vol. XIII\n(1904), p. 283, etc.\n10. KxEiN-ScHiMMACK — Vortrdge iiber den mathematischen Unterricht an den hoheren\nSchulen. Leipzig, 1907.\n11. Plan d' etudes\nParis, 1903.\n\net programmes d' enseignement dans les lycies et colleges de gargons.\n\n12. A. W. Stamper's list of references at the end of his book.\n13. The various histories of mathematics.\nFRANCE\n\nFrance began to maintain a critical attitude toward Euclid as a textbook in geometry for beginners as early %as the time of Petrus Ramus\n(1580). Ramus treated geometry as the art of accurate measurement.\nIn the eighteenth century this spirit of independence was intensified by\nthe publication of Clairaut's Elements de geometrie (1741), in which surveying and other practical matters received marked attention.\nIi^the latter\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6lO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhalf of the eighteenth century Euclid ceased to be used as a textbook\nin France.\n« Williamson, in his edition of Euclid, 1781, criticizes Clairaut as follows:\nElements of geometry carefully weeded of every proposition tending to demonstrate\nanother; all lying so handy that you may pick and choose without ceremony. \"This\nis useful in fortification;\" \"you cannot play at bilHards without this.\" \"You look\nthrough a telescope like a Hottentot until this proposition is read,\" with many such\npowerful strokes of rhetoric to the same purpose. And upon such terms, and with\nsuch inducements, who would not be a mathematician? Who would go to work with\nall that apparatus which I have described as necessary for understanding Euclid, when\nhe has only to take a pleasant walk with Clairaut upon the flowery banks of some delightful river, and there see, with his own eyes, that he must learn to draw a perpendicular\nbefore he can tell how broad it is ?\n\nAbout 1836 De Morgan remarks that these arraignments are not \"without\ntheir force, when directed against experimental geometry as an ultimate\ncourse of study, [but] lose their ironical character and become serious\nearnest, when applied to the same as a preparatory method.\" De Morgan\nstrongly favors a geometry like Clairaut's as a preparatory course.\nThe critical attitude of Ramus and Clairaut toward the Elements of\nEuclid brought to the mind of D'Alembert the questions: \"What are\nthe elements of a science ? What should be the contents of a book called\nElements?\" D'Alembert gives his answers in two articles, \"Elements des\nsciences,\" and \"Des elements de geometric\" in the Encyclopedie methodique (about 1784).^\nD'Alembert distinguishes between two kinds of elements of a science:\ni) If all truths or theorems of a science which are the foundation for\nall others are brought together, so that these truths or theorems potentially\ncomprise the whole science, then these constitute, when properly co-ordinated, the elements of the science. In geometry, such elements embrace\nnot merely the principles of mensuration and the properties of plane figures,\nbut also the application of algebra to geometry, and the differential and\nintegral calculus in its application to curved lines.\n2) The elements of a science may be defined also as comprising those\ntruths or theorems which treat the subject-matter, in the simplest way,\nand which constitute, together with their deductions, a detailed study of\nthe simplest parts of the science. By the elements of geometry, elements\nof this kind are usually meant; they include only the properties of plane\nfigures and the circle.\nDissatisfied with the elements of geometry known in his day, D'Alembert sets up the following demands which such texts should fulfill:\ni) The text should develop the subject along the path pursued by the\ndiscoverers of the science, so as to show the truths in their natural relations\nto each other.\n' EncyclopSdie miikodique, MatkSmatiques I, 617-25; III, 133-36. We have used the Italian translation of this dictionary (Padova, 1800), and also a full abstract of these articles, given by Bobynin, See\nBobynin, p. 325, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n6ii\n\n2) The usual division of the subject into longimetry, planimetry, and\nstereometry does not provide for the circle and sphere and is therefore\ninadequate. The division into plane geometry and solid geometry, D'Alembert does not consider at all. He suggests the division into the geometry\nof the straight lines (considered with respect to position and relative magnitude) and circles, the geometry of surfaces and the geometry of solids.\nThe straight line and circle must be taken up together. The circle renders\nimmense service in considering the position of lines. The measurement\nof angles by circular arcs and the principle of congruence constitute the\nbasis of the first part of the geometry of lines, upon which other theorems\nof this part rest. The second part in the geometry of the straight line\nhas as its fundamental theorem the one on the section into proportional\nparts of two sides of a triangle by a line parallel to the third side. This\ninvolves incommensurables.\n3) Incommensurable relations must be treated by the apagogic method,\naccording to which it is shown that one ratio cannot be greater or smaller\nthan a certain other ratio, hence it must be equal to that other ratio. He\nuses this for the following reasons: Incommensurable magnitudes involve\nthe idea of the infinite and therefore, he claims, cannot be treated by\nany direct method. Notwithstanding this difl&culty presented by incommensurable lines, he maintains that they should be taken up early in\ngeometry, because of their importance. He states that the whole theory\nof incommensurables demands only one theorem, concerning the limits\nof quantities, viz., \"Magnitudes which are the limits of one and the\nsame magnitude, or magnitudes which have one and the same limit,\nare equal to each other.\" In the geometry of the circle, of surfaces\nand soUds, he feels that the method of exhaustion or that of limits should\nbe used.\n4) A suitable text on the elements of geometry can be prepared only\nby a mathematician of the first rank. D'Alembert complains that most\nelementary geometries are written by men of little ability.\n5) To lay down definitions at the beginning without any analysis of\nthe subject is not only contrary to sound philosophy but contrary to the\nnatural march of thought.' Axioms are useless.\nIdeas similar to those of D'Alembert are embodied in a text on geometry\nby Louis Bertrand of Geneva,^ who in Berlin had been close to Euler.\nBertand's book antedated D'Alembert's articles in the Encyclopedic\nmethodique. Like D'Alembert he divides geometry into three parts: (i)\ngeometry of line and circle, (2) measurement of parts of a plane bounded\nby straight lines and circles, (3) measurement of curved surfaces and\nsolids. Bertrand ignored the classification of geometry into plane and\nsolid. His second theorem is: \" When two planes intersect, their conmion\n' See \"Axiome\" and \"Courbe\" in Encycl. mfth.\n*Diveloppement nouveau de la partie 6Umentaire des mathlmatiques, Geneva, 1778.\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l2\n\n^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n(section is a right line.\" The straight line and circle are taken up together\nat the beginning as D'Alembert would have it. The incommensurable\ncase is treated by the reductio ad absurdum method. In the latter part\nof the geometry he uses also the method of exhaustion. Bertrand reduces\nthe nimiber of theorems, in one instance, by replacing theorems on the\nmensuration of prisms, pyramids, cylinders, cones, and spheres by the\ncorresponding problems.\nBertrand 's work was published in two unwieldy volumes and had little\nsale, yet exercised some influence, particularly upon Lacroix, whose Cours de\nmathematiques, published at the close of the eighteenth century, has been\nused until recently. Lacroix divides his geometry into geometry of the\nplane and geometry of space, and does not follow D'Alembert closely.\nAccording to Lacroix there are only two kinds of theorems that should\nfind a place in an elementary geometry: (i) theorems necessary for the\ncon;prehension of the line of argument, developed synthetically; (2)\ntheorems which grow out of the practical operations in geometry (drawing\nand measuring). He objects to placing all axioms at the beginning, believes\nin the omission of the definition of an angle, favors \"a straight line is the\nshortest path between two points\" as growing out of the child's experience, and uses the apagogic method for incommensurables.\nAnother author of note was Bezout, who followed D'Alembert's plan\nquite closely, but was criticized for his lack of rigor and for his endeavor\nto lighten the work of the examiner as well as of those being examined.^\nThe most celebrated work on elementary geometry is that of Legendre\n(1794). He came nearest to fulfilling D'Alembert's requirement that the\nelements be written by a mathematician of the first rank. He does not\nfollow D'Alembert's plan for a book on geometry, nor does he heed the\nphilosophic demand that the author should follow the path of the originators of the science. Impressed by the lack of rigor in the works of his\nday, he aims at greater rigor and approaches closer to Euclid than his predecessors had done. He does not divide geometry in the manner of D'Alembert and Bertrand. Like Euclid, Legendre begins with definitions and\naxioms. The first four chapters are given to plane geometry, the last\nfour to solid. The first book treats of the equality of angles and triangles,\nthe second of the circle and the measurement of angles, the third of proportional figures, the fourth of regular polygons and the measurement of\nthe circle. Legendre uses in measurement the terms equal and equivalent.\nHe uses the reductio ad absurdum method for incommensurables and the\nmethod of exhaustion for curved lines.\nWhat was it that made this book so successful? In the first place\nmust be mentioned his great clearness of exposition and his attractive\nstyle. A great advance of Legendre over Euclid was the fuller treatment\nof solid geometry.\nHe leans less toward logic and more toward intuition\n* Bobynin, p. 355-\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n613\n\nthan does Euclid. In place of Euclid's famous fifth book on incommensurables, Legendre borrows rational and irrational numbers from arithmetic, even tho in arithmetics of his day no scientific treatment of those\nsubjects Was given. A ftieorem true for rationals is assumed to be trud\nfor irrationals. Thus, if A:B = C:D, then AD = BC in all cases. Klein\nsays that this is in accordance with the practice of the best mathematicians\nof his day, that even Lagrange works out the expansion of {x-{-h)^ when\nn is rational and assumes the results thus obtained to be true for irrational\nvalues of n. Legendre stands for a fusion of geometry, not only with\narithmetic, but also with trigonometry. As late as 1845 Legendre's\ngeometry still contained trigonometry, but as Klein remarks,^ the trigonometry and the practical applications of geometry were gradually filtered\nout. Comparing A. Blanchet's edition of 1876 with an edition of 1817,\nwe find also that the twelve \"Notes\" on topics of elementary geometry,\ncovering 55 pages in the older edition, are omitted in the later edition.\nThe later edition has a somewhat fuller treatment of solid geometry and\na list of exercises in original proofs, loci, and constructions. Other notable\nchanges were made in the 1845 edition by J. B. Balleroy and A. L. Marchand. They state that Legendre uses the reductio ad absurdum method\nto excess, a method which \"convinces but does not satisfy the mind.\"\nLegendre's text is, however, left intact, alternative proofs being given in\nnotes at the end. These alternative proofs, as well as the proofs given\nin the modified text of the 1876 edition, are rough applications of the\ntheory of limits.\nDuring the first half of the nineteenth century, and even later, the\nworks of Legendre, Lacroix, and Bezout were used extensively in France.\nIn later editions less stress was laid upon practical applications and numerical computation. Otherwise few changes occurred. In general, school\norganization based on the regulations of the time of Napoleon I, was\nquite fixed in France until 1870. France has a rigid centralization of\nauthority in education. If the \"Conseil d'instruction superieure\" decides\nupon a change, the whole country adopts it at once. As compared with\nthe German, the French teacher has little individual freedom. France\nis a country with a \"system of revolutions from above.\"* Since 1870 the\nmovement has been toward greater individual freedom. The later tendencies ingeometry are imaged in the work of Rouche and de Comberousse,\nwhich contains a large amount of new material and meets the demands\nof the one-year course of the classe de mathematiques speciales^ during which\nas much as seventeen hours per week are given to mathematics and a\ndegree of specialization is allowed in preparation for university courses\nas in no other country. In 1902 and I9\"fe5 new official courses of study\nwere adopted in France in which greater stress is laid upon graphic representation, the idea of a variable and a function, and upon the practical\n•^Klein, p. 470.\n\n» Ibid., p. 457.\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\napplications of mathematics. The introduction of the derivative in\nalgebra in the regular secondary classes, the use of motion in geometry,\nand emphasis on geometric drawing are other characteristic features of\nthis reform. This new tendency is mirrored in tfie geometry of E. Borel,\na valuable book, in which the practical receives due emphasis and in\nwhich intuition meets with fuller recognition. With Borel the concept of\nmotion is prominently used. There is an introduction of eight pages on\nthe use of the ruler, compasses, and protractor, and ten pages on the\nmensuration of surfaces and solids, treated empirically. Applications\nare skillfully interwoven with theory, thruout the book. He has wellselected practical exercises involving symmetry, the nets of regular polygons,\nthe use of pulleys, etc. Algebraic geometry and the development of\nmetric properties come last in the book. He introduces the rudiments\nof trigonometry. The usual division into plane geometry and solid geometry is not rigidly maintained. A similar tendency is shown in the recent\ngeometries by C. Bourlet (1908), Fort and Dreyfus (1908), and Niewenglowski (19 10).\n\nA parallel and somewhat different tendency in France is seen in the\ngeometry of Ch. Meray of Dijon, which was first brought out in 1874\nbut has only in recent years received much attention. Meray represents\nthe severely logical mode of exposition;^ he uses in his proofs no fact of\nobservation which has not been previously set down in an axiom; he\nformulates a complete list of axioms, but introduces each only when it\nis needed; nor does he aim to limit their number to a minimum. Characteristic ofMeray is the complete fusion of plane and solid geometry,\nand the use of motion, not only as a means of proof, but also to define\nparallels. Recently there has been considerable discussion in France on\nthe question whether, in laying the foundations to geometry, motion should\nbe used or not. The defenders of a static theory of parallels claim that\nmotion cannot be visualized on the board, rendering intuition more difficult. The defenders of the kinematic theory advocate the use of movable\nfigures.* Prepared under the influence of Meray. so far as the use of motion\nis concerned, are the geometries by Bore], Bourlet, Fort and Dreyfus,\nand Niewenglowski, above mentioned.\nInfluenced by the Perry movement in England and America, France\nis experimenting on the laboratory method of. instruction.^ A mathematical laboratory has been recently founded by J. Tannery and E. Borel\nat the Ecole normale superieure in Paris in order to give prospective instructors an insight into the possibilities of this method of teaching.\n» Klein, p. 475.\n» Schotten, Zeitschrifi, Vol. XL (1909), p. 445; La revue de V enseignement des sciences, many articles\nin Vols. I-III.\nJ Schotten, Zeitschrift, Vol. XL (1909), pp. 444-45; V enseignement malhStnatique, XI, p. 206.\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n.\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n615\n\nGERMANY\n\nKlein ^ expresses surprise that, during the Renaissance, Euclid should\nhave come to be looked upon as a text suitable for the first introduction\nin geometry. Perhaps the reason for this attitude toward Euclid lies in\nthe fact that geometry was first taken up in the universities by students\nof maturer years. As geometry came gradually to be taught to younger\nand younger pupils, Euclid was still retained. Thus the misconception\narose that Euclid was a suitable geometrical text for young boys.\nWhile D'Alembert formulated his ideas on elementary geometry in\nFrance, A. G. Kastner evolved in Germany a type of his own, in his work,\nAnfangsgriinde der Arithmetik, Geometrie, Trigonometrie, und Perspectiv,\nGottingen, 1758. Kastner begins with definitions and axioms in Euclidian\nstyle, develops the geometry of the plane (69 pages) and ends this part\nwith practical applications (47 pages). The second part of the geometry\nbegins with the geometry of space (60 pages), continues with 31 pages\ngiven to plane trigonometry and its applications to the solution of triangles,\nand with 9 pages of practical geometry. Then follow spherical trigonometry and 24 pages on perspective. The method of exhaustion is used.\nIt was the opinion of Kastner that \"the newer works on geometry lose\nthe more in clearness and thoroness the farther they depart from Euclid.\"\nHe complains that modern authors, particularly the French, have departed\nfrom the ancient rigor, \" to make the study of mathematics easier for people\nwhose main occupation is not study, namely, for soldiers.\"\nNot without interest is W. J. G. Karsten's Lehrbegriff der gesamten\nMathematik, in eight volumes, 1767-77, the first two volumes of which\nare given to arithmetic and geometry. Karsten begins with arithmetic,\nthen proceeds to plane geometry, closing with simple arithmetical applications. He proceeds thereupon to solid geometry, returns to arithmetic,\nand gives the rudiments of algebra with logarithms, followed by trigonometry and its applications to plane geometry. Finally are given the rudiments of spherical trigonometry and a fuller treatment of solids. Nowhere\nare heavy demands made upon the pupil. That this exposition was intended\nfor students of university grade rather than those in the preparatory school,\ntestifies to the low state of mathematical instruction in German universities\nof the eighteenth century. Close relation between arithmetic, geometry,\nand trigonometry is also maintained in the works of J. G. Biisch (1776)\nand G. S. Kliigel (1798), the aim being to make the subject easy of comprehension.\nIn the nineteenth century, until near its end, advanced mathematicians\nin Germany took little or no part in ^e improvement of the teaching\nof elementary mathematics. In geometry, Euclid's text was not usually\ntaught, but the dogmatic method of Euclid was in vogue during the first\nhalf. About the middle of the century Euclid's order of the theorems\ncame to be criticized as chaotic. It is interesting to see the Germans\n» Klein, 434-35.\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nattack Euclid's order as arbitrary and the English defend it as the onlyorder worthy of serious consideration. The grouping of theorems according to subjects came to be discussed in Germany.^ The advocacy of objectteaching by Pestalozzi, the championing of Pestalozzianism by Herbart,\nthe attacks upon mathematical reasoning and particularly upon Euclid\nthat were made by Schopenhauer' conspired to influence the teaching of\ngeometry.\nAbout i860 the genetic method (called \"heuristic\" when the inventional side was emphasized) came to be discussed. This makes a plea\nof being a natural method, since it incites self -activity in the pupil. With\nthe genesis of a theorem the pupil se«s intuitively its inner relation to\nother theorems; he not only sees whence he came but also whither he\nis going; the reader of Euclid is blindfolded, so to speak, and then somehow transported to the next station. It is difficult to prepare textbooks\nfor the genetic method. The teacher by careful questioning one moment\nleads the student, the next moment follows him, and no one can foresee the\nexact path which this mode of advance will mark out. It is not strange,\ntherefore, if many teachers proceeded heuristically while the texts retained\nmostly the dogmatic form.3 Moreover, experience made it plain to teachers\nthat the dogmatic statement of theorems has a high mnemotechnic value.'*\nWhile the genetic method in its pure form has not succeeded in establishing itself, it has exerted a strong influence by shifting the emphasis from\nthe memorizing of proofs to the cultivation of originality and logical\nreasoning.\nAnother movement that sprang from the teachings of Pestalozzi and\nHerbart was the adoption of preHminary courses on observational geometry and drawing, about 1870. Such courses had been recommended\nlong before this time. This movement was stronger in Germany than\nin England and France. In their propaedeutic courses the geometry of\nsolids was to receive consideration and a taste of the genetic method was\nrecommended. The pupils acquired dexterity in the use of ruler and\ncompasses. Propaedeutic courses have maintained their place to the\npresent time.\nHerbart made strong endeavors to remove the superstition that had\narisen in early days when Euclid was placed in the hands of young and\nimmature students, to the effect that mathematics could be learned only\nby a few pupils endowed with special gifts. According to his view the\nfault lies as a rule in the abstract character of the early instruction; the\nintroduction of propaedeutic courses and the greater emphasis upon\nAnschauung at all stages had shown that most students can master mathematics. Whether \" amathematicians \" do exist in rare instances, is a\nquestion which Klein refers to experimental psychologists for reply .«\n« Schotten, p. ii.\n» Klein, p. 503.\n» Schotten, p. 96.\n\n< Ihid., p. 13.\n* Klein, p. 499.\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n617\n\nA third movement agitated in Germany was in favor of the introduction\ninto elementary instruction of the concepts of the modern projective\ngeometry. It originated about 1870.^ The criticism was made that\nSteiner, Mobius, and von Staudt had been so busy with their researches\nas to make no attempt to reform elementary instruction, and that textbook writers had ignored the researches of these great men. The leaders\nin this attempt to incorporate modern methods were Schlegel and Fiedler.\nA concomitant of this program was the breaking down of the division\nof geometry into plane and solid, and the effort by the use of models,\netc., to make geometry more concrete. To effect this reform, a number\nof texts by Schlegel, Mliller, Kruse, Becker, Worpitzky, Henrici, and\nTreutlein sprang into existence.* Aside from the production of interesting textbooks this agitation has had little success. The books in question\nwere seldom used.^ Can it be that D'Alembert's dogma is, after all,\nbased upon truth — the dogma that the historical order of development\nof geometry is the pedagogical order; that is, the easiest approach to\nthe science for the young mind ? Are the concepts of projective geometry\nmore difficult to grasp than those of the older geometry, or did the texts\njust named overtax the pupils, and perhaps in other ways violate the\ndemands of sound pedagogy ?\nMost interesting are the statistics gathered in Prussia in 1880, which\nshowed the following distribution of geometrical texts: Kambly was\nused in 217 institutions; Koppe in 54; Mehler in 44; Reidt in 29, while\n55 texts were used in one institution each. Kambly 's \"clever but unscientific book\" was first issued in Breslau in 1850 and a few years ago\nreached the loist edition in the revision by Roeder. Koppe was looked\nupon as an inferior work, yet it enjoyed great popularity. On the other\nhand, books like those of H. MiJller and even Henrici and Treutlein seldom\npassed beyond the second edition. This most astonishing success of\nworks considered as scientifically inferior, requires explanation. Schlegel\nsays^ \"that the quality of the books most widely adopted allows one\nto draw an inference respecting the scientific level of the instruction generally reached in that subject.\" But this remark considers merely one\nphase of this question. May not the mass of teachers have had a feeling\nor insight concerning textbooks which involved questions of intuition or\nother psychologic matters that the writers of the more scientific books\noverlooked ? Simons points out that until recently the German teacher,\nimlike the French, enjoyed complete freedom in teaching, and that small\ntexts, like Kambly, allow his individuality much wider play.\nKambly 's Elementar-Mathematik was made up of four parts: first,\narithmetic and algebra; second, planimetry, third, plane and spherical\ntrigonometry; fourth, stereometry. Of interest here, is the interpolation\n' Schotten, p. 18.\n* Hid., p. 21.\n• Ihid., p. 10.\n« Simon, p. 25.\n* Ibid., p. 20.\n\nm\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof trigonometry.\nWe have before us Kambly's Flanimetrie, 43d edition,\nBreslau, 1876. Among the points of popularity we mention the following:\n1. The book contains only as much matter as a class can conveniently\nfinish in one year. Skipping parts of a book, says Kambly, has a bad\neffect upon both pupils and parents.\n2. The diction is clear and simple. Mathematical symbols are used\nfreely. The setting of the type is such as to enable the eye more quickly\nto see the relations set forth.\n3. The arrangement of the book is such as to allow the teacher much\nfreedom. He may, for instance, omit incommensurables altogether, or\nelse substitute for certain proofs in the regular text others given in the\nfootnotes where rough proofs are found for incommensurable cases.\n4. Easy arithmetical applications, original theorems, and original\nconstructions are given at the end of the book, so that some, or all, may\nbe conveniently taken or omitted, according to the preference of the\nteacher.\nKoppe's Planimetrie made somewhat greater demands upon the powers\nof the pupil than did Kambly, but incommensurables were treated only\nin footnotes or in remarks following the proofs of theorems. In Liibsen's\nElementar-Geometrie, I have not been able to find a reference to incommensurables. Itdiffers from Kambly and Koppe in having better figures\nand in having them on the page where they are needed, instead of at\nthe end of the book on separate sheets that unfold. A clever feature in\nLlibsen are the practical applications introduced from the very beginning.\nHow to run a straight line over undulating country by the use of poles,\nis explained in several diagrams on the first pages. Other figures show\nhow to determine the distance between points on opposite banks of a\nriver.\nSince about 1890 the activity of Felix Klein, of Gottingen, in mathematical reform has been very great. For the first time since the death\nof Kastner, is the influence of university professors upon the teaching\nof elementary mathematics in Germany beginning to be strongly felt.\nAmong the defects of geometrical instruction, he points out the insufficient\nfusion of the various branches of elementary mathematics.^ Thus, too\nlittle attention is given to drawing of solids and to projection, to the idea\nof motion in a figure to replace Euclidian rigidity, to the fusion of arithmetic and geometry, to the introduction of the co-ordinate representation\nof analytics. On the other hand, the construction of triangles from given\ndata is overemphasized,^ as is also the study of the curious points and\nlines in the geometry of the triangle. This last criticism applies even\nmore strongly to English tex.tbooks.\nKlein points out that modern demands in geometric teaching, first,\nemphasize the psychologic point of view,^ which considers not only the\n» Klem, p. 439.\n• Ibid., p. 442.\n\nJ Ibid., p. 435.\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n619\n\nsubject-matter, but also the pupil, and insists upon a very concrete presentation in the first stages of instruction, followed by a gradual introduction of the logical element; second, call for a better selection of the\nmaterial from the viewpoint of instruction as a whole; third, insist on\na closer alignment with practical applications; fourth, encourage the fusion\nof plane and solid geometry, and of arithmetic and geometry.^ The\nLehrbuch der Mathematik nach modernen Grundsdtzen by Behrendsen and\nGetting, a secondary-school text published in 1909, carries out Klein's\nideas on the teaching of algebra and geometry.\nA piece of research of vital importance in the advanced study of geometry is the Foundations of Geometry, brought out in 1899 by Professor Hilbert,\nof Gottingen.' Tho widely read by mathematicians, it has exerted\nno direct influence upon elementary teaching in Germany. It has been\nfelt that this mode of treatment is not suitable for pupils first entering\nupon demonstrative geometry.\nITALY\n\nSince the unification of Italy, great mathematical activity has existed\nin that country. Before that event, very different practices in geometrical\nteaching existed in different parts of the country. ^ In 1868 Cremona\nand Battaglini were members of a government commission to inquire into\nthe state of geometrical teaching. They found it unsatisfactory, and the\nnumber of bad textbooks so great, and so much on the increase, that\nthey recommended for classical schools the adoption of Euclid, an edition\nof which was brought out by Betti and Brioschi. Later other works of\nscientific merit replaced Euclid. Cremona's great emphasis upon projective geometry reached from the universities down into secondary schools.\nA typical work is that of A. Sannia and E. d'Ovidio, 1869, which uses the\ntheory of limits and retains the division of geometry into plane and solid.\nIt stands closer to Euclid than to Legendre. The blending of plane and\nsolid geometry, which received great emphasis in Italy, is typified in the\nElementi di Geometria of R. de Paolis, 1884.\nA very remarkable school came into being in Italy, the purpose of\nwhich is to render geometry still more rigorous than in the Euclidian\ntext. Starting with a single basic concept — the point — all other concepts\nare to be logically developed. This movement is typified in the works\nof G. Veronese.4 Of elementary works he has prepared Nozioni Elementari\ndi Geometria Intuitiva, 1902, and Elementi di Geometria, 1904, the first\nof these being a propaedeutic work. Demonstrative geometry is taken\nup in Italy with older pupils than in Germany and the United States;\nhence works of greater rigor can be u^ed.\nVeronese endeavors to state\n' Klein, p. 437.\n» D. Hilbert, \"Grundlagen der Geometric\" in Festschrift zur Feier der EnthUllung des Gauss-WeberDenkmals in Gottingen, Leipzig, 1899.\nJ Simon, p. 43.\n\n* Klein, p. 482.\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nall the necessary postulates of geometry, no matter how obvious, as for\ninstance, \"There exist different points,\" to make it plain that we do not\nconsider a geometry in which only one point exists.^ As regards the\nselection of material, Veronese confines himself mainly to that of Euclid,\nthus receding from the tendency of the school of Cremona. He avoids\nall fusion with arithmetic. Somewhat similar in character is the Elementi\ndi Geometria of F. Enriques and U. Amaldi, 1905.\nThe effort at rigor, due to Veronese, has been intensified in the great\nschool of Peano, which endeavors to eliminate all intuition. It seems\nthat this school has influenced even elementary instruction and the teaching in technical schools.^* This recent ItaUan emphasis upon extreme\nrigor has led to deplorable results with the less gifted pupils, and a reaction\nappears to be setting in. Under the leadership of Loria and Vailati a\nmovement is on foot favoring greater emphasis upon intuition, the introduction ofsome modern geometrical notions, the fusion of geometry with\narithmetic, and the concession to the demands for practical applications\nmade by this age of industrial development. In fact, Italy is entering\nupon a reform much like that of Germany and France.^\nENGLAND\n\nRoger Bacon says that toward the close of the thirteenth century\nthe definitions and a few of the theorems in geometry were studied by\nsome pupils at Oxford.^ About 1570 Sir Henry Savile began to lecture\nat Oxford on Greek geometry, and in 161 9 Briggs at Cambridge on Euclid.\nIn 1665 Isaac Barrow at Cambridge prepared a complete edition of Euclid,\nwhich was the standard for fifty years. (jOW says that \" the seventy years\nor so, from 1660 to 1730, when Wallis and Halley were professors at Oxford,\nBarrow and Newton at Cambridge, were the period during which the\nstudy of Greek geometry was at its height in England. \"s In 1703, William\nWhiston became the successor of Newton at Cambridge. He brought\nout an edition of Tacquet's Euclid. Robert Simson's edition of Euclid\nfirst appeared in 1756. Simson was professor of mathematics at the\nUniversity of Glasgow. In the universities of Great Britain, Euclid met\nwith no competition. Ward's Young Mathematician's Guide, 1707, may\nhave been used to some extent, but probably more for its arithmetic and\nalgebra than for its geometry. Practical men, holding positions as excise\nofficers, had to be familiar with practical geometry. For them practical\ntreatises existed, some of which gave explanations of the slide rule. A\ndeparture from Euclidian rigor might be expected in the education of men\nfor the army or navy. We have seen that Kastner criticized the French\n' Klein., p. 483.\n\n* IhH-, P- 486.\n\n» For additional details see W. Lietzmann's article in Schotten's Zeitschrift, Vol. XXXIX, pp. 177-01;\nVol. XL, pp. 227-28.\n* Ball, Mathematics at Cambridge (1889), p. 3.\n» Gow, History of Greek Geometry (Cambridge, 1884), p. 208.\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentt\n\n\"REPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n621\n\nfor making mathematics easy for men interested in war. England has\nhad since 1722 an academy at Portsmouth where men spent one. or two\nyears studying navigation, drawing, etc. England has had also, since\n1 741, a military academy at Woolwich, where sons of noblemen and military\nofficers were taught fortification, gunnery, and mathematics. Among the\nmathematical professors at Woolwich, during the eighteenth century,\nwere Thomas Simpson, John Bonnycastle, and Charles Hutton, all three\nauthors of textbooks, including geometries. Button's works went thru\nseveral editions in the first half of the nineteenth century. From this\nit is evident that Euclid did not hold universal sway in England. Yet\nthe forces opposing him were utterly unable to dislodge him.\nIn 1822, Sir David Brewster brought out an English translation of\nLegendre's geometry. Did teachers rally in favor of the introduction of\nthis text ? We shall see that De Morgan suggested the use of some parts\nof it on solid geometry; De Morgan deplored that solid geometry was\nseldom or never taught before trigonometry. But otherwise we are not\nable to find any serious reference to this translation of Legendre.\nDuring the second half of the eighteenth century England had come\nto be the only country where Euclid was practically the only geometrical\ntext used. During the eighteenth century the average age of Freshmen\nin the English universities was gradually increasing and, perhaps at this\ntime, Euclid passed from the universities to the lower schools. There is\nno explicit proof, however, that in the great \"public schools\" Euclid was\nstudied before the nineteenth century.'\nVery recently' some interesting information has been published about\none of the \"public schools\" — Christ Hospital — ^whicn paid more than\nusual attention to mathematics in the courses for boys preparing to enter\nthe royal navy. It seems that as early as 1680 such boys were required\nto study the earliest parts of the first book of Euclid, the loth* nth, and\n12th. propositions of the sixth book, and to learn arithmetic. Perhaps this\nrepresented all the theoretical mathematics taught, for Sir Isaac Newton,\nwhose advice about changes in the course was sought, notes the following\nomissions: There was no \"symbolic arithmetic,\" no \"taking of heights\nand distances and measuring of planes and solids,\" no \"spherical trigonometry,\" nothing of \"Mercator's chart.\" In other public schools probably no courses in geometry were given during the eighteenth century.\nSays Stamper: \"It was not until about the middle of the nineteenth\ncentury that the study of Euclid became common in the secondary schools\nof England.\"\nIt would be instructive to secure more information explaining how it\nwas possible for Euclid to maintain its supremacy as a text when geometry\nwas being transferred from the universities to the schools.\nWhat were\n» Stamper, p. 88.\n« \"A School Course in Mathematics in the XVII Century\" by W. W. R. Ball in the Mathematical\nGazette, Vol. V (1910), Part I, pp. 202-5.\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "622\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe experiences of teachers in secondary schools with the Euclidian text?\nThe desirability of modifying Euclid must have arisen early, for in 1795\nJohn Pla3rfair brought out a revised Euclid containing the first six books\nand adding the computation of it and a book on solia geometry drawn\nfrom modern sources. Pla3^air endeavored to give the geometry a form\nwhich would render it more useful. Euclid's fifth book, which had never\nbeen used successfully with beginners in geometry, as far as we can ascertain, was modified by Playfair by replacing Euclid's prolix explanations\nby the more concise language of algebra. But Playfair did not try to\nchange the nature of the reasoning. Had there been a strong movement\nagainst Euclid in England at this time, Playfair would probably have\njoined it. In his review of Leslie's Geometry in the Edinburgh Review,\nVol. XX (i8i2),p. 79, he says: \"A question has been sometimes agitated\nwhether it is most advantageous, for the study of geometry, to possess a\nnumber of elementary treatises, or to have one standard work, like that\nof Euclid .... the same lessons are not suited to every intellect, and\non these accounts it may be of advantage that different elementary texts\nshould exist. We are very much inclined to the latter opinion.\"\nWilliam George Spencer's unique booklet on Inventional Geometry was\nbrought out about 1830 or 1835, but \"received but little notice\" at that\ntime. A noteworthy device for aiding the young mind thru sensuous\nstimulus was the use of colored diagrams, suggested by Oliver Byrne,\nin his edition of Euclid, London, 1847. The failure of this book is doubtless\ndue to the want of moderation in the use of colors.\nThe ablest writer on the teaching of elementary geometry, during the\nfirst half of the nineteenth century in England, was Augustus De Morgan.\nHis articles published in the Quarterly Journal of Education, in 1831, 1832,\nand 1833, display a pedagogical insight which would have prevented many\ncalamities m English teaching, had his views been more promptly and\nwidely accepted. Elsewhere we quoted De Morgan's remarks on Williamson's criticism of Clairaut's geometry, which showed that De Morgan firmly\nbelieved in a preliminary course in geometry, as an introduction to a logical\ncourse like that of Euclid. It will appear that England was the last country\nactually to introduce propaedeutic courses in elementary instruction.\nDe Morgan did not hesitate to recommend radical changes in Euclid.\nHere is what he said in 1831 in an article in the Quarterly Journal of Education entitled \"On Mathematical Instruction\":\nWith regard to the fifth book of the Elements, we recommend the teacher to substitute for it the common arithmetical notions of proportion. Admitting that this is\nnot so exact as the method of Euclid, still, a less rigorous but intelHgible process is better\nthan a perfect method which cannot be understood by the great majority of learners.\nThe sixth book would thus become perfectly intelligible.\n\nTwo years later, in an article in the same journal \"On the Methods\nof Teaching the Elements of Geometry,\" De Morgan dares to suggest\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n623\n\nthat certain parts of Legendre might be profitably substituted for parts\nof Euclid. \"The eleventh book of Euclid may, in our opinion, be abandoned with advantage in favor of more modern works on solid geometry,\nparticularly that of Legendre, which the English reader will find in Sir\nDavid Brewster's translation.\" In the same article De Morgan gives\nutterance to a difficulty experienced by young students, which has been\nreferred to by many writers in different countries, the reductio ad absurdum.\nDe Morgan says: \"The most serious embarrassment in the purely reasoning part is the reductio ad absurdum, or indirect demonstration. This form\nof argument is generally the last to be clearly understood, though it occurs\nalmost on the threshold of the Elements. We may find the key to the\ndifficulty in the confined ideas which prevail on the modes of speech there\nemployed.\" As regards the difficult fifth book, De Morgan said, in 1833,\n\"We would say to all, teach the fifth book, if you can; but we would have\nall remember that there is an if.\" In another place he adds: \"We\nstrongly suspect that Euclid, as studied, does as much harm as good.\"\nTo the credit of teachers be it said, that the fifth book was quite generally omitted. But De Morgan's activity in this line did not end here.\nIn 1836 he published The Connexion of Number and Magnitude; An Attempt\nto Explain the Fifth Book of Euclid. For fifty years this tract was not\nduly appreciated; later it began to wield a wide influence; it is on this\ntract that the substitute for the fifth book given in the Syllabus of the\nAssociation for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching is modeled;\nit is on this tract that the revised fifth book in the more recent editions\nof Euclid by Nixon and by Hall and Stevens is based.\nThe need of modifying the text of Euclid is brought out by De Morgan\nin the Companion to the British Almanac of 1849, p. 20, as follows: \"If\nthe study of Euclid has been almost abandoned on the continent, and has\ndeclined in England, it is because his more ardent admirers have insisted\non regarding the accidents of his position as laws of the science.\"\nHow little influence De Morgan's views wielded in England before about\n1870 as regards the revision of Euclid's fifth book and the study of solid\ngeometry, appears from the fact that the most popular edition of Euclid\nfor many years was the one brought out in 1862 by Todhunter. This\nauthor reproduces Simson's text, tho he greatly assists the pupil in\novercoming the difficulties by breaking up the demonstrations into their\nconstituent parts. In an appendix are given notes, supplementary propositions, and original exercises. Todhunter was quite out of sympathy\nwith the purposes of the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical\nTeaching.^\nOpponents of Euclid existed in England at all times. Thus in i860\nW. D. Cooley brought out a rival text. Eleven years later he expressed\nhimself regarding this venture as follows:'\n' See Conflict of Studies, by Todhunter. London, 1873.\n* Nature, Vol. IV (1871), p. 486.\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn i860 there was published for me, by Messrs. Williams and Norgate, a little volume\nentitled, The Elements of Geometry Simplified and Explained, adapted to the system of\nempirical proof, and of exhibiting the truth of theorems by means of figures cut in paper.\nIt contains in 35 theorems the quintessence of EucUd's first six books, together with\na supplement not in Euclid. There was no gap in the sequence or chain of reasoning,\nyet the 3 2d and 47th propositions of Euclid were, respectively, the 3d and 17th of my\nseries. This book proved a failure, for which several reasons might be given, but it\nwill be suflficient here to state but one, namely, that it came forth ten years before its\ntime.\n\nThe reformers found a champion in Sylvester, who, in 1869, before\nSection A of the British Association, exclaimed:\nI should rejoice to see mathematics taught with that life and animation which the\npresence and example of her young and buoyant sister (natural science) could not fail\nto impart, short roads preferred to long ones, Euclid honorably shelved, or buried \"deeper\nthan e'er plummet sounded\" out of the schoolboy's reach\n\nThe reform forces finally organized themselves, in 187 1, into the \"Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching\" (A.I.G.T.).\nIt is a curious circumstance that England's great mathematician,\nArthur Cayley, opposed this reform movement. His admiration for\nEuclid was so ardent that he even expressed a preference for the original\ntreatise without Simson's additions. In the opinion of Langley, Cayley\n** overshot the mark and his opposition told in favor of the Association.\"'\nThe second Report of the A.I.G.T. recommended practical exercises in\ngeometrical construction, easy originals, and numerical examples. Two\nyears were given to the preparation of the Geometrical Syllabus on proportion. A double syllabus was prepared: A Syllabus on Geometric\nConstructions, and a Syllabus on Plane Geometry. Most of De Morgan's suggestions^ on the revision of the fifth book of Euclid were adopted.\nThis society, after long labors, finally issued a substitute text. The\nElements of Plane Geometry. This was not used at home, but was used\nwith success in the British colonies. Klein expresses himself as follows\nin regard to it:\nThis is essentially merely a smoothed-down and polished presentation of the first\nsix books of Euclid's elements; thus the rough places at the beginning of the first book\n.... are removed by a consistent use of the concept of motion, but in general the\nsequence and the contents of Euclid are adhered to, in deference to the examinations.\nIt is therefore only a tame reform, that is here attempted; nevertheless, it has met\nwith sharp opposition by the adherents of the old English system. As proof of this,\nI refer to an amusingly written book of Dodgson, Euclid and His Modern Rivals.\n\nHere Euclid comes out victorious, and all reformers, particularly Legendre\nand members of the A.I.G.T., are put to rout. J. M. Wilson's Elementary\nGeometry, ist edition, 1869, came in for a large share of the criticism.\nAt Oxford, where Dodgson had given instruction in geometry for many\nyears, this same Wilson had, at one time, read a critical paper before the\n' Fifth Report of the A.I.G.T., p. 21.\n• Companion to the British Almanac, 1849, pp. 5-20.\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n625\n\nMathematical Society, on * 'Euclid as a Textbook of Elementary Geometry.\"\nWilson was a prime mover in the organization of the A.I.G.T.\nSince about 1870, many editions of Euclid have been printed containing revisions with the object of better adapting Euclid to school use. They\nexhibit all possible gradations of departure from the original text. There\nappeared sequels to Euclid like that of F. Casey. Professor Klein expresses\nhimself in regard to these as follows: \"The necessity has been felt to\nconsider modern research, going beyond Euclid; this has been done by\npressing it by force into the rigid Euclidian form, whereby a good part\nof the modern spirit is, of course, lost.\"^\nDuring thirty years the A.I.G.T. appeared to have accomplished comparatively little. It had secured the concession that proofs different from\nEuclid's shall be accepted in examinations and had brought about a sentiment favoring some modification and enrichment of the Euclidian text.\nIn reality, it had accomplished much more, for it had prepared the way\nfor the great agitation of 1901, known as the Perry Movement, which\ncalled for a complete divorce from Euclid. The discussion of the teaching\nof mathematics at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association marks\nan epoch. The following are suggestions and criticisms that were contained inPerry's Syllabus.^\n1. Experimental geometry and practical mensuration to precede\ndemonstrative geometry. Use of squared paper. Rough guessing at\nlengths and weights to be encouraged.\n2. Some deductive reasoning to accompany experimental geometry.\n3. More emphasis on solid geometry; this subject has been postponed\ntoo long.\n4. Adoption of co-ordinate representation in space.\n5. The introduction of trigonometric functions in the study of\ngeometry.\n6. Emphasis upon the utilitarian parts of the subject.\n7. Examinations conducted by any other examiner than the pupil's\nteacher are imperfect examinationsIn criticism of previous practices. Perry held that a boy should be\neducated thru the experiences he already possesses, and should be\nallowed to assume the truth of many propositions. He held that the\nteacher must recognize that boys take unkindly to abstract reasoning.\nHe criticized Oxford because, for the pass degree there, two books of\nEuclid must be memorized, even including the lettering of figures, no\noriginal exercises being required. In the discussion that followed, all\nfavored the prelirm'nary experimental course and some advocated a second\nexperimental course to accompany EucMd. Hudson and Forsyth still\nbelieved in maintaining the Euclidian sequence of theorems.\nMinchin\n» Klein, p. 447.\n« Discussion on the Teaching of Mathematics, edited by John Perry (igoi), p. 97.\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ndeclared Euclid's order bad. S. P. Thompson and MacMahon favored\nthe retention of Euclid. Miall did not see why we should have a recognized geometry any more than one arithmetic, or one trigonometry.\nMinchin, Magnus, Pressland, Workman, and Lamb declared themselves\nagainst Euclid as a textbook.\n•The immediate result of Perry's address of 1900, at Glasgow, was the\nappointment of two committees, one of/ the British Association and the\nother of the Mathematical Association. The former committee confined\nits work to the more general aspects of geometrical teaching. The latter,\nwhich was composed mainly of schoolmasters, formulated a set of detailed\nrecommendations, which were published in the Mathematical Gazette of\nMay, 1902. They include an experimental introductory course, requiring\nthe use of instruments, practical measurement, and numerical work.. In\nthe formal study of geometry is recommended the retention of Euclid as\na framework, the admission of hypothetical constructions, definitions not\nto be taught en bloCj the omission of incommensurables in the ordinary\nschool course, and the use of algebra in the treatment of areas.\nThe Perry laboratory method has led to the preparation of some severely\npractical works, but as Lodge says. Perry \"overemphasized fact divorced\nfrom principles.\" A middle ground has met with greater favor. The\nplans recommended by the Mathematical Association have been embodied\nvery successfully by Godfrey and Siddons in a textbook entitled Elementary Geometry, Practical and Theoretical (Cambridge University Press,\n1904). The recommendations of the Mathematical Association have met\nwith favor among teachers, and the general effect has been beneficial. A\ncircular issued in 1908-9, by the Board of Education, on The Teaching\nof Geometry and Graphic Algebra, showed the wide departure made since\nthe beginning of the twentieth century. We quote two sentences : \" Axioms\nand postulates should not be learnt or even mentioned.\" \"It should be\nfrankly recognized that unless the power of doing riders has been developed,\nthe study of the subject is a failure.\"^\nThe greatest obstacle to reform in England has been the system of\nexaminations. After thirty years of failures the Mathematical Association, at last, has been remarkably successful in persuading examining*\nbodies to give up their insistence upon Euclid, and now Euclid's proofs\nand arrangement are no longe r required by the universities. \"Any proof\nof a proposition will be accepted which appears to the examiners to form\na part of a logical order of treatment.\"\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nOF AMERICA\n\nDuring the seventeenth century, arithmetic and geometry received\nsome attention in the last year of the college course at Harvard College.\nIn 1726 Alsted's Geometry is mentioned as a textbook studied by Harvard\n' Nature, Vol. LXXX\n\n(1909, May 27), p. 374.\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n627\n\nseniors, but as soon as geometry came to receive serious attention in American colleges, Euclid became the text used. The first mention of Euclid\nthat we have seen at Yale i§ in 1733; at Harvard, in 1737. In the latter\npart of the eighteenth century, geometry was taught to lower classmen.\nAccording to a member of the Harvard class of 1798, \"the Sophomore\nyear gave us Euclid to measure our strength.\" In 1801 Professor Webber\nsaid, \"A tutor teaches in Harvard College Playfair's Elements of Geometry. ^^\nIn 1813 the \"Analytical Society\" was formed at Cambridge, in England,\nwhich aimed to encourage in Britain the vigorous study of French higher\nmathematics. The influence of this movement reached the United States.\nIn about ten years American teachers began to adopt French texts. Collateral events at West Point had the same tendency. There elementary\nmathematics was taught from 1808 to 18 10 by F. R. Hassler, who was a\ngraduate of the University of Berne, in Switzerland. In 181 7 Crozet, of\nthe Polytechnic School in Paris, introduced descriptive geometry into\nWest Point.\nIn 1819 John Farrar, of Harvard, brought out a translation of Legendre's\nGeometry, which, with translations made by him of other French and\nSwiss texts on mathematics, were at once widely adopted in the leading\nAmerican colleges. American teachers were willing to turn to the French,\nnot only for works on the calculus and celestial mechanics, but also for\nbooks on elementary mathematics. So it came about that Euclid was\nreplaced by Legendre. In 1828 Charles Davies, professor at West Point,\nbrought out an edition of Brewster's translation of Legendre's Geometry.\nDavies did not enunciate propositions with reference to and by the aid\nof the particular diagram used for the demonstration, and to that extent\nreturned to the method of Euclid. Davies' edition became widely popular\nunder the name of \" Davies-Legendre,\" and was much used in the United\nStates as late as the '70's.\nOne of the earliest American geometries worthy of note was that of\nBenjamin Peirce. The Harvard catalog of 1838 announces that Freshmen take Peirce's Geometry. Peirce favored the use of infinitesimals and\nalso the use of the term directions — a concept probably first used in this\ncountry by a Harvard teacher named Hayward in his geometry of 1829.\nPeirce's text did not become widely popular, for, like his other elementary\nbooks, it was too condensed for immature students. In 1843 or 1844,\nHarvard first made geometry a requirement for admission to college.\nIn 185 1 Professor Elias Loomis, of Yale, issued a geometry which was\nrevised in 1871. Loomis came under French influences as a student in\nParis. In the second edition of his text he says: \"The present volume\nfollows substantially the order of Blanchel's Legendre, while the form of\nthe demonstrations is modeled after the more logical method of Euclid.\"\nIt has been said of American writers, that whild they have given up\nEuclid, thev have modified Legendre's Geometry so as to make it resemble\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nEuclid as much as possible.\nThis applies to Loomis with greater force\nperhaps than to any other author.\nIn 1 87 1 Professor Olney, of the University of Michigan, published a\ngeometry under two main heads:\nI. Special or Elementary Geometry, comprising (i) Empirical Geometry, (2) Demonstrative Geometry, (3) Original Exercises in the Application of Algebra to Geometry, (4) Trigonometry.\nII. General Geometry (Plane Loci).\nOlney was a self-educated man. He was a great teacher and had\noriginal ideas about teaching. It is said that he was prevented by his\npublishers from departing very far from the traditional classification.\nHis ideas were novel and forecasted in many ways the present tendencies\nin mathematical teaching. His geometry shows that he attempted to\ncorrelate the various mathematical topics and to introduce applications\nto everyday affairs. Olney's books were used quite extensively in the\nMiddle West, but acquired no firm foothold in the East.\nJust before the death of William Chauvenet, in 1870, appeared his\ngeometry, the only elementary book he wrote. Closely following French\nmodels, exhibiting a wonderful ease and grace of style, Chauvenet produced a remarkable book, which was used in many of the best schools.\nHe included as a part of the work, an introduction to modern geometry.\nPerhaps no work on geometry ever published in the United States has been\nso highly respected as this.\nIn 1878 appeared the geometry of G. A. Wentworth, which is still in\nuse. We omit all discussion of it, as also of later books which have been\npublished in this country. Likewise, we omit all discussion of various\nmethods of presentations now being tried in this country, in particular\nthe experiments in teaching algebra and geometry in parallel courses.\nThe researches on non-Euclidian geometry, begun in the eighteenth\ncentury in Italy and Germany, and brought to fruition in the early part\nof the nineteenth century, did not produce appreciable effect upon the\nteaching of elementary geometry until the last quarter of the nineteenth\ncentury. It was 1867 and 1868 that Baltzer, Battaglini, Grunert, and\nHouel brought Bolyai and Lobatchevsky to the attention of the mathematical public at large.\nThe new ideas have not affected the teaching of elementary geometry\nexcept in some of the definitions and postulates. They have assisted in\nthe rejection of the definitions, \"parallel lines are lines everywhere equally\ndistant,\" and \"parallel lines are straight lines which have the same direction.\" They have shown the futility of \"proving\" the parallel-postulate\nand have led to the use of the word \"axiom,\" not as a \"self-evident truth,\"\nbut as a synonym for \"postulate.\"\nIn conclusion, we rfote, that, with the beginning of the twentieth century, England began once more to influence the teaching of geometry in\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n629\n\nthe United States, thru the so-called \"Perry Movement,\" and that\nGermany, which at no time during the nineteenth century affected geometrical teaching in America, makes itself felt at the present time thru\nthe pupils of Klein and Hilbert and thru the international movement\ntoward reform in the teaching of mathematics, headed by Klein.\n[The remaining sections of this report will be printed next year, when\nit will be presented in serial form. Copies of the complete preliminary\nreport may be obtained from the chairman.]\nCOMMENTS\n\nON THE\n\nREPORT\n\nBY THE\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nIn presenting the report, the chairman, Professor H. E. Slaught, of the University\nof Chicago, occupied an hour in elucidating its salient features, now commenting upon\nthe spirit in which the committee had labored, now quoting some important passage\nin the report, now emphasizing the principles upon which the report was based.\nIn the historical introduction by Professor Florian Cajori he pointed out the ever\nrecurring \"see-saw\" between the strictly logical presentation as represented by Euclid\nand the more intuitive form which makes greater use of concrete material. On the\nintuitive and concrete side being Clairaut, De Morgan, D'Alembert, Lacroix, Legendre\nin the earlier editions, Klein, Kambly, Lubsen, Loria, Vailati, Sylvester, Perry, and\nmany others; while on the side of greater rigor are Williamson, Meray, Hilbert, Cremona,\nVeronese, Peano, and others. On the whole the balance of emphasis in the historical\nretrospect seems to be the recurring desire to attach the geometrical teaching to the\nconcrete as njuch as possible and to encourage a large number of assumptions and much\nrecourse to intuition, especially in courses intended for young pupils corresponding to\nour tenth grade. The committee has endeavored to present a sane and conservative\nview with respect to both the concrete and the theoretical aspects of geometry. In\nthis spirit it has devoted a section to the logical aspects of the subjects, including a discussion of axioms, postulates, definitions, informal or intuitive proofs, the place of\ngeometry in the curriculum and the claims for the study of geometry as a disciplinary\nsubject. On the other hand, a section is devoted to exercises and applications, in which\nare considered the distribution, grading, and nature of exercises, the sources of concrete\nproblems, the importance of problems involving loci and the use of algebraic methods\nin geometry. There is also a section in which a strong recommendation is made for\nconcrete and constructive geometry in the grades.\nAll this is subordinate to the syllabus itself, which the chairman proceeded to explain\nin detail. The underlying principle in the syllabus is the attempt to secure emphasis\nand perspective for both pupil and teacher. In the maze of theorems as usually given,\nall on a dead level of importance, both in textbooks and in existing syllabi in this country,\nit is difficult for the beginner to find any guideposts or to detect any mountain peaks\nin the landscape. The arrangement of the syllabus and the use of varying grades of\ntype will serve, it is hoped, to lay emphasis upon a certain number of fundamental\ntheorems and to place the rest in such gradations of importance as to materially assist\nthe student in gaining control of the subject.\nThe committee believes that two important ends will be secured by this arrangement of the theorems for emphasis: First, \"it is a fundamental characteristic of the\nhuman mind from which there is no escape that ai^y clear impression of a vast field must\nhave exactly such distinctions as are here made for geometry.\" The teacher needs this\nperspective in planning the course and in the daily recitations. The pupil needs this\nassistance in properly orienting the subject in his mind both as he proceeds and especially\nwhen he is reviewing a topic or a book or the course as a whole.\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nBut secondly, and less important, is the fact that this arrangement for emphasis\nwill enable a class more quickly to gain a comprehensive grasp of the subject, and will\nthen leave more time for exercises and concrete applications. Indeed, the arrangement\nitself will contribute directly to this end, since, in very large measure, those very theorems\nwhich are fundamental in the chain of logic are also of fundamental importance in the\napplication of geometry.\nDISCUSSION\nG. Ieving Gavett, assistant professor of mathematics, University of Washington,\nSeattle, Wash. — ^Those of us who have studied this report must appreciate the vast\namount of work done by our committee. Teachers in both high school and college\nmust realize the necessity for some sort of co-ordination and systemization of the work,\nnot only in geometry, but also in algebra and even in arithmetic, in order to accomplish\nthe true purpose of mathematical training. It seems to me that the recent tendencies,\nwhatever they are, in the teaching of mathematics, do not give the results that should\nbe expected either in training or in actual facts acquired. How many of our high-school\ngraduates have been taught to think ? Not very many of them that come to us in the\ncolleges of liberal arts and the professional schools. Business men claim that not many\ncome their way. If there is any one thing our high schools should do for our young men\nand young women, it is to train them in thinking clearly. If there is any one subject\nthat ought to give a man mental discipline and a thoro training in how to think, that\nsubject is geometry.\nThere are other things that train the eye, the ear, the hand, and give a full storehouse of valuable facts^ both utilitarian and cultural. With all this training and acquisition offacts, if the student has not been set on the road to clear thinking we have failed\nin our purpose. I think no one in this Round Table will deny to geometry its power to\ntrain in clear thinking.\nSection A, of the report of our committee, is a historical resume of the attempts\nmade during the last two centuries to reform the teaching of geometry in France, Germany, Italy, England, and the United States. In this excellent Introduction we follow\nthe attacks on the pure formalism of Euclid up to the Perry movement of \"complete\ndivorce from Euclid\" and the effects of modern mathematics on geometry. In order\nto understand the present situation it would be well to study this Introduction.\nIn the last section, E, is the syllabus itself as suggested by the committee. This\nlist of theorems on plane geometry and solid geometry is arranged according to emphasis.\nFor plane geometry there are fifteen groups of theorems and six groups for solid geometry.\nIn these groups certain basal or fundamental theorems are printed in black-face type.\nThese are regarded as of major importance and may form a nucleus upon which the whole\ngeometry depends. Of next importance are those printed in italics. Then come theorems in roman type and lastly the least important in small type. As stated in the report,\nthis list is not exhaustive, neither is there any intention to insist on the order as given.\nProbably there never could be any complete agreement as to just what theorems should\nbe omitted, which ones should be regarded as fundamental and what should be the\nlogical order.\nIt is an important point in the syllabus that the student is to be made to see that\nthere are certain basal theorems and that on these he can hang the whole subject. He\nis led to reason from the fundamental and to classify his knowledge in an orderly manner.\nHe learns to look for the consequences that follow from knowledge already gained.\nIn this part of the report considerable emphasis is placed on informal proofs and the\ndispensing with the formahties of logic in demonstrations. Here, I think, the teacher\nwill have to be on his guard lest in admitting the informal the formal be crowded out to\nsuch an extent that the student loses much of the training in accurate thinking which\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n631\n\ngeometry is to give him. We must not let the student acquire slipshod habits of thought.\nI think nothing is farther from the purpose of the committee than that the student should\nbecome careless in his reasoning. Still some teachers are as anxious to travel the broad\nand easy way as are their pupils, and need only the suggestion to try to make geometry\neasy play. Such should not fail to note \" {d) Dangers, \" on p. 34 of Section B of the report.\nSection B takes up logical considerations. A general list of axioms, postulates, or\nassumptions is given. It is not claimed that this list is exact and the particular forms\nof statement are not insisted upon. The important point is that it is a general list needed\nby the beginner in geometry and is not reduced to a minimum number of necessary\nassumptions along the line of Hilbert. To those who have read Hilbert and have taught\nelementary geometry I think the wisdom of this course is self-evident.\nThere is one point in the Summary, on p. 29, that I would criticize. That is putting /a =1/6 instead of V a= ^Vh altho it has been previously stated that positive\nquantities are understood. The existence of more than one root has already been seen\nin algebra. I believe the student should constantly bear in mind all possible roots and\nbe taught to select only those which fit the case in hand. The evil of any other teaching\nis met with nearly every day in more advanced classses. A form which leads to error\ndevelops a faulty reasoning power and lack of carefulness.\nUnder \"Definitions\" attention is called to certain elementary concepts which the\nteacher should make sure are explained and understood rather than exactly defined. It\nis recommended that new terms be taught when the time arrives for using them. It is\nalso thought that elaborate systems of symbols should be avoided. All of these recommendationsbelieve\nI\nare good.\nAs to the treatment of limits and incommensurables I must demur. It is undoubtedly true that in many cases this subject is not sufficiently understood and that often\nthe presentation is not scientifically sound. I fail to see how a less formal presentation\nwill make it better understood unless it is followed by a formal presentation. The second\nobjection will certainly be removed by giving a treatment which is scientifically sound.\nNo other treatment should be allowed.\nThe subject of incommensurables and limits is bound to come up. In fact it does\ncome up in the syllabus as presented. No one can deny the importance of this subject\nin mathematics. If the student is to go on with his study, he must master this subject.\nIf he is to go no farther, he should be permitted to gain the power and the point of view\noffered by a scientific treatment of variables approaching limits. All have to deal with\nvariables. Variables are sure to present incommensurability. When the subject is\npresented scientifically sound in a clear manner, it is easily within the grasp of the ordinary student. When he has grasped it, he has gained a power of argument which he can\nobtain in no other way of which I know.\nUnder \"Time and Place in the Curriculum,\" the committee suggests provision for\ninductive, constructive, observational work in geometry in the elementary grades, and\nto precede plane geometry by work in geometric drawing. Such a course may be made\nexcellent. The pupil becomes familiar with the general facts of geometry and with the\nhandling of tools for geometric construction. This leaves him free to put his thought\non the more formal side and develop logical deduction from familiar forms.\nOn pp. 37 and 38 the report takes up \"Purpose in the Study of Geometry.\" Here\nis where we will have to be careful. There are widely varying opinions on this subject.\nWe find the advocate of pure formalism who would use EucUd and nothing but Euclid.\nOn the other hand there are some pedagogists who^laim no disciplinary value for geometry\nand propose to make it purely utilitarian. Between these extremes are all grades. In\n{h) and (c) of these pages of the report are some exellent statements. Both extremes\nare disapproved. The committee feels that the formal side should not suffer and that\ngeometry is not lacking in disciplinary value. It is also stated that formal treatment\nis necessary for further study of mathematics and that it has genuine cult^al value.\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwould add that it is also necessary for a proper training of the reasoning powers of those\nwho do not intend to pursue mathematical subjects further. The committee states that a\njudicious fusion of theoretical and applied work, free from radicalism in either direction,\nis necessary. I wish there were some way to make certain to every teacher of geometry\njust what a. judicious fusion really is. As stated, it must be dictated by common-sense.\nBut alas, how many different grades of common-sense there are! We must beware of\nthose writers mentioned as well as those teachers who \"utterly fail to recognize the\nfundamental significance of mathematics in either its intellectual or its material bearing.\"\nAfter this excellent stand, I am sorry to see an apparent retreat in \" {d) Claims for\nGeometry,\" p. 38. It is emphasized that geometry is taught first for pleasure and second\nfor profit, seeming to forget entirely its disciplinary value. Let us rather say: first, for\ndiscipline, the real work of geometry in developing the growing mind and producing a\ncapacity for logical thought, reasoning power; second, for profit, bringing out the utilitarian side on applications to everyday life, to trades and professions, and to sciences;\nthird, for pleasure, which always follows successful accomplishment of any work or overcoming of any dijficulty. If geometry is properly presented, pleasure will come of itself.\nWe will not have to seek it. The student will see the beauty of the subject and a desire\nfor further accomplishment and progress will be aroused. I am sorry to see pleasure\nput first because I feel that there is evil in the recent tendencies to make play out of work.\nThe high-school student is at a formative age when he should be and can be taught to do\nxeal work. When we get these same students in college we find at once the difference\nbetween the one taught to work and the one taught to play. Ask the man out in the\nworld and he will tell you the same about the young men and women that come to him.\nOur schools fail if we do not teach habits of work. Geometry gives the great opportunity to acquire capacity for work thru the mental discipline of accurate thought and clear\nreasoning.\nIt still remains true that there is no royal road to geometry.\nSection C treats of special courses for various classes of students. The committee\nis probably wise in not attempting to outline such courses. The desirability of preliminary courses in the graded schools is emphasized. The control of geometric forms is a\nneed in everyday life. Such control is sadly lacking in many an otherwise educated\nperson. The great majority of public-school pupils never get beyond the grades. There,\nthen, is the place to become acquainted with and see the relations between geometric\nforms, to learn geometric constructions and the handling of simple instruments. This\nwill leave more time for the purely formal side of geometry in the high school, and the\nmind of the pupil will be free to take up the logical point of view.\nIn section D exercises and problems are considered, the committee recommends a\npresentation in which the mcH-e difl&cult exercises are either postponed to a later part\nof the course, or omitted altogether, while the easier ones are brought into more immediate connection with the theorems to which they belong. This arrangement gives the\nstudent a chance to exercise his reasoning power as fast as it is developed. This must\nnecessarily add to his interest. I would not by any means omit the more difficult\nexercises. They are valuable in giving the student above the average an opportunity\nto use his greater ability and make still further progress. They serve as a spur to greater\naccomplishment.\nWe should not plan the course for the average student alone.\nProblems, it is stated, are of three kinds: (i) those involved in constructions of\nfigures; (2) demonstrations necessary to establish certain relations; (3) problems in\ncomputation. Here the utiUtarian side of geometry can be introduced freely. Problems both simple and complex can be selected from architecture, industrial products,\nsurveying, designing, etc. Trigonometric functions are introduced, giving an additional\nsource for many useful problems. Beginning on p. 49, a number of very good illustrative problems are given. These and the references to sources of problems together\nwith the ingenuity of the teacher give an abundant supply.\nIn \"Problems Involving Loci,\" the essential parts of the definition of a locus are\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nSYLLABUS\n\n633\n\ngiven. It is brought out that some consideration should be given to motion. A \" dynamic' '\nelement is given to the idea of locus by means of the expression \"locus of a point\"\nin addition to the static element of \"locus of points.\" Both ideas should be used to\nmake the pupil familiar with different points of view of the same thing. It is also shown\nthat the idea of motion cultivates space intuition by the concept of functionality. I\nwould call attention to the fact that this may lead at once to use of limits.\nAs to \"Algebraic Methods in Geometry,\" it is shown that algebraic forms give definiteness and again emphasize functionality. Algebra can be translated into geometry\nand geometry into algebra. This develops facility and accuracy of expression and gives\ngeometric pictures of algebraic formulas. Geometry and algebra may thus be unified.\nIn the use of algebraic expressions I want to call attention again to the importance of\nconsidering all values of a radical expression.\nWhether or not this report results in an agreement as to the general method of presenting geometry, one thing seems certain: a careful study of its contents and discussion of its recommendations must result in a better teaching of geometry. Every teacher\nof geometry should have definite ideas on the manner of presentation. Consideration\nof this report can hardly do less than set teachers to thinking on the best methods. And\nwhen true thinking is done, good must result.\nAlva W. Stamper, head of the Department of Mathematics, State Normal School,\nChico, Cal. — One presumes a great deal in attempting to criticize this report, espeaally\nwhen the time the committee has given to its preparation, the personnel of the committee, and the great work evidenced by the report itself are considered. While the\ncommittee naturally desires adverse criticisms, one is forced to confine his remarks\nalmost entirely to the favorable aspects of the report.\nThe report of the committee, including the syllabus, should -be of great value to the\nteacher of geometry in standardizing for him the educational aims and values that enter\ninlo the teaching of geometry. Especially valuable should be the report to the prospective teacher of geometry, where, in his university course in mathematical education —\nand such a course is not yet suflSciently common in our higher institutions — he gains a\nperspective that is invaluable. The syllabus prepared by the committee in its report\nwill be especially welcomed by those teachers who prefer to teach from a syllabus rather\nthan from a text. There are certain pedagogical dangers in trying to follow at the same\ntime the plan of a text and the recommendations of a committee. Yet the syllabus outlined by the committee lays no claim to be logically arranged. Definitions are not even\nprescribed. From these considerations we judge that the teacher is expected to use any\ntext, using the syllabus as a corrective.\nOne feature of the syllabus appeals to me as especially valuable to the teacher of\ngeometry. I refer to the grading of propositions according to their degrees of importance.\nTeachers are often prone to teach all theorems and problems as tho they were equally\nimportant. The plan of emphasizing the essential and subordinating the less essential\nhas in recent years worked important reforms in the teaching of arithmetic. The efforts\nof the committee, followed up by the active carrying out of this principle by the teachers\ntbruout the country, should bring about important changes in the teaching of geometry.\nA recommendation of almost equal importance is that many of the less important theorems\nshould be informally proved.\nThe freedom left the teacher is particularly noticeable in the report of the committee. Perhaps no higher compliment could be paid the teachers of the country than\nthe one indirectly expressed by the committee in* refraining from stating their conclusions dogmatically.\nThe committee has been far-seeing in eUminating certain historic landmarks from\nthe geometry of the secondary school. The history of the teaching of elementary geometry tells us that when geometry first began to be taught in the early secondary schools,\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfrom the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, it was, for the most part, of a practical\nnature. With the exception of England and, in a somewhat less degree, Italy, the other\nEuropean countries did not follow the traditional Euclid. Geometries in common use\nin those eariy secondary schools either omitted the incommensurable case, or else paid\nlittle attention to it and the theory of limits. Assumptions of theorems commonly proved\ntoday were to be found in some of the most important texts. In our own country, the\nnineteenth century saw a more highly organized system of logic for the young minds of\nthe secondary-school age than was common when geometry first began to be taught\nbelow the universities. The committee is certainly wise in omitting the incommensurable case and the theory of limits from the high-school requirements and in recommending the assumption of a relatively large list of preliminary self-evident theorems.\nA few questions occur to one after reading the report. I believe that the syllabus\nshould lay greater emphasis on proportion and should give a list of the more important\ntheorems common to both algebra and geometry. While it is granted that most pupils\nstudy proportion in their algebra, the need of a review in geometry is necessary. In\ncase algebra and geometry are taught in close connection in the high school, not especially considered by the committee, the case is different.\nThe committee has suggested that the locus work be based on two conditional statements, not on a system of alternative statements, which is apt to complicate matters.\nIt would seem advisable also to specify that only a few propositions, less than six, need\nto be proved by basing the proof on the definition of locus. The remaining locus propositions are usually to be proved by making them depend upon these half dozen. I make\nthis suggestion, since it has come to my attention in a number of ways that teachers not\nimccmmonly require pupils to prove all locus theorems by making them depend on the\ndefinitions.\nInstead of giving type terms to be omitted or used (p. 31 of the report), it would\nseem better to give lists of the terms the committee has in mind. The committee says\nto omit terms like scholium. The term scholium does not suggest to the reader other\nterms that should be omitted.\nMiss Edith Long, Lincoln, Neb., urged on behalf of a growing number of teachers,\na consideration of the usefulness of teaching algebra and geometry in correlated parallel\ncourses. Attention was called to the successful pursuit of this plan by the Germans\nand French. Protest was offered in view of the practical opposition to this plan which\nmany feel that the report at least suggests. Professor Slaught replied that this matter\nwould be considered by the committee, along with other suggestions; but the committee\ndid not feel that this question properly came before them in theu: work upon a syllabus\nfor geometry.\nA. W. Stamper, of Chico, Gal., expressed approval of the central idea dominating\nthe committee in preparing its report. There are certainly parts of geometry of greater\nimportance than others which serve as means for classifying and organizing the complete\nmass of material. Attention was also called to the value of basing new locus theorems\nupon simpler locus theorems already established. Should there not be also some suggestion as to the treatment of proportion ?\nA. Grant, of Palo Alto, Gal., approved of the idea of emphasizing the figure, or\ndiagram, as well as the verbal, or formal, statement of theorems.\nMiss Hewett, of Alameda, Gal., suggested that it is easy to avoid the difficulties\nof the incommensiu-able case, by early presenting the idea that in nearly all cases in real\nlife the numbers which we use are only approximations. Pupils are all the while using\nincommensurables.\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nLATIN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLOWER\n\nGRADES\n\n635\n\nMr. Smith, of Campbell, Cal., said that the committee was right in emphasizing\npleasure as of first importance in the study of geometry. Unless the class become interested and find the work a real pleasure, it is not likely to become anything more than a\nformal, classroom exercise to be forgotten as soon as possible.\nMiss Brookman, of Berkeley, Cal., questioned whether there is actual mathematical\nvalue in problems that may not conform to real shop conditions. Professor Slaught\nsaid there may be a value in mahy such problems. Principal Westcott, of Chicago,\nstrongly approved the use of such problems. Mr. Arnold, of San Diego, Cal., agreed,\nillustrating by examples found valuable in actual class use, where they could be seen to\nhave real bearing upon problems of experience. He also suggested the desirability of a\nwider study and use of ratio and proportion.\nMr. West, of San Diego, Cal, proposed to shorten the course of arithmetic in grammar grades, and to follow it by a correlated elementary course in experimental mathematics, not arithmetic, nor algebra, nor geometry, but just simple, plain mathematics.\nIf you don't put up partitions they need not be taken down.\nMr. Westcott recommended a review, at the end of the high-school course, called\narithmetic, which will oflFer a means of real correlation. Mr. Arnold commended the\nuse of such problems as ofifer some means of verification.\n\nC. CLASSICAL\nLATIN\n\nIN THE\n\nLOWER\n\nGRADES\n\nH. C. NUTTING, UNIVERSITY\n\n(BELOW\n\nOF CAUFORNTA,\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nSCHOOL)\nCAL.\n\nUnder the stress of prescription and other influences, the study of Greek and Latin\nflourished; but now that the sheltering shade of prescription has been cut away, the\nburning sun of free election bids fair to destroy in large measure our fast-withering plants.\nAs a partial remedy for this situation, so disheartening and disappointing to those who\nlove and believe in the classics, various changes in methods of instruction have been from\ntime to time proposed. Of these none seems so full of promise as the plan of carrying back\nthe beginnings of Latin into the upper grades of the granmiar school, thus allowing a\nperiod of two years for the work which the conventional First Latin Book essays (often\nwith indifferent success) to compress into one-half of that time.\nIt is, of course, the one aim of all methods of elementary Latin instruction to lay a\nbroad and firm foundation for the work of succeeding years; and from this standpoint\nthe advantage, in nearly every particular, lies with the plan of beginning Latin in the\ngrammar school. I say in nearly every particular, for there is at least one point on which\nthere might be a difference of opinion. Those teachers, who believe that elementary\nLatin instruction should deal largely with matters of abstract syntax, would find an\naverage seventh-grade Latin class a disappointing field for their endeavor. This, however, to my mind, is no valid reason for postponing the beginning of Latin until the high\nschool is reached. For, tho the seventh-grade pupil may not have reached the point\nwhere he can grapple with abstruse and abstract syntactical problems, he is just at the\nplace where the study of Latin, by crystallizing his hitherto rather inchoate and unclear\ngrammatical notions, is of great and immediate advantage to his English, and prepares\nthe way for later study of other foreign languages . ^ that, even on the formal grammatical side, I, for one, see a certain advantage in beginning Latin in the seventh grade. But\nwhether or not all share my feeling on this point, surely everyone must agree that the\nseventh-grade Latin beginner has the advantage in the following fundamental particulars:\nI. Acquisition of the forms of declension and conjugation. — ^The student who delays\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe beginning of Latin until he reaches high school is very apt to find that the necessarymemorizing of paradigms is a tasteless — if not distasteful — task. Many, indeed, never\nreaUy master the inflectional system; and of those who do, not a few find it distressingly\neasy to forget what they have learned. Now the pupils who essay this task at an earlier\nage have a wholly different experience. For a small child to learn paradigms is \"fun,\"\nand the whole matter may be treated more or less under the guise of a game; and, best\nof all, what is once so learned is not easily forgotten. The younger the child, the more\nindeUble, apparently, is the impression made upon the mind. The seventh grade, therefore, affords a far better opportunity than the ninth or tenth for laying securely and\nwell this corner-stone of any adequate knowledge of the Latin language.\n2. The acquisition of a working vocabulary. — ^Here again the high-school beginner\nmakes a poor showing, and the reason is clear, namely, overcrowding. In the conventional beginners' books the special vocabularies attached to the exercises sometimes run\nas high as twenty words, thus precipitating a wholly impossible situation; for the teacher\ncan hardly be expected to find time to take up such a list word by word, preparing the\nstudent for the work of memorization, and still more hopeless would seem the task of\ndevising some system of review whereby such a rapidly increasing mass of material could be\nkept fresh in the pupil's mind. It is easy to stand off at a safe distance and criticize; but,\nwhen one really faces the situation, the wonder grows, not that the high-school beginner\nremembers so few words, but that he has gotten anything at all out of the five-minutesfor-lunch program thru which he has been forced. All this is changed for pupils who\nproceed according to the plan now proposed. It is not essential or desirable that a seventhgrade class should attempt to master a vocabulary of more than four hundred words;\nand if these are spread along evenly over the approximately two hundred lessons which\ngo to make up the year's work, the average per lesson is hardly more than two words.\nHere is an entirely possible situation. Taking into account that some words are most\neasily memorized in one way and some in another, and that not all pupils' minds work\nin the same way, the teacher will exploit all the means by which a given word might find\nlodgment in the mind of any, namely, its printed form, its sound when spoken, its\netymology, its cognates, a picture of the thing that it represents, etc. And, furthermore,\nin both oral and written work, the changes can be rung again and again upon the same\nword; for there is no impeding avalanche of new vocabulary to force the old into the\nbackground, imtil the old has become perfectly familiar to the whole class. Therefore,\nunder this second heading also, namely, the acquisition of a working vocabulary, I feel\nquite safe in saying that the seventh-grade beginner has a decided advantage.\n3. The acquisition of reading power. — ^This is the sorest point of all. Our critics have\nnot been backward in telling us that it is a disgrace that, after four years' study of Latin,\nthe average student has so little power to read the language. And in our own camp the\nidealists are sighing and longing for classes which shall be able to take up passages of\nLatin previously unseen, reading them aloud with proper emphasis, taking in the author's\nmeaning word after word, just as it is developed in the text.\nIn passing, I should Uke to remind our friends, the ideaUsts, that not a few of the\nstudents whose performance in' Latin they bewail would make a rather poor showing if\ncalled on suddenly for an elegant and discriminating rendering of an unfamiliar passage of\nEnghsh prose. How much greater the diflicu^y, then, when a piece of Latin previously\nunseen is set before a high-school student whose hold upon the paradigms is none too\nfirm, and in whose knowledge of vocabulary there are fathomless chasms on all sides.\nHere again the seventh-grade beginner has a tremendous advantage. For {a) he\nreally knows his forms; {h) his vocabulary is small, but it is thoroly mastered; (c) he has\nthe whole eighth grade before him to be devoted largely to the business of p)erfecting his\nreading power, and he need not be plunged forthwith into some Latin author. This last\npoint is particularly important because there is no Latin author properly graded for\nrational practice in the art of reading — one sentence is simple, the next complex; one\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMAKING\n\nLATIN\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nOF GREATER\n\nVALUE\n\n637\n\nchapter is easy, the following hard. To secure proper practice the Latin must be largely\nmanufactured, the start being made with the vocabulary and syntax learned in the seventh\ngrade, and then gradually expanding step by step, each lesson being preceded by a preparation covering all the new material incorporated in that lesson. By this process, without\nthe least strain or friction, a class can be brought along to the point where the t/ansition\nto Caesar or Nepos is robbed of all its terrors; in fact, a class so trained will attack those\nauthors in somewhat the fashion that our friends, the idealists, have long since been sighing\nto behold.\nTo sum up, tho it may be admitted that the seventh grade is a poor field for excursions in abstract syntax, it is undeniably true that the child who begins Latin in that\ngrade and devotes, under proper leadership, two years to the business of laying a foundation, will be found on the average to outclass altogether the high-school beginner in the\nfar weightier matters of knowledge of forms, grasp upon vocabulary, and ability to read\nthe language.\nIn view of what has already been said, it is perhaps hardly necessary to state specifically that I am a firm believer in old-fashioned thoroness. I advocate beginning Latin\nin the lower grades, not because I believe that the work so undertaken will prove easier\nand more attractive (tho there is no doubt that it will so prove), but because I am convinced that, on the average, the foundations of Latin can be laid more firmly and securely\nin the seventh and eighth grades than in an early year of the high-school course. I have\nnot a shred of sympathy for weak-kneed, wishy-washy, compromising methods. I would\nnot have paradigms put upon the board to be somehow unconsciously absorbed. I would\nhave them learned, well learned, better learned than they are now by high-school beginners. So with the vocabulary and grammar. I firmly believe that we have here an\nopportunity to train up a new generation of Latin students who will be able to read\nsimple Latin previously unseen in Latin and as Latin, and who will do much to confound\nthe critics who constantly reproach us with the smallness of the tangible result of our\nlabors. At any rate, the experiment is well worth trying; if it is properly conducted, we\nsurely have nothing to lose; rather we have everything to gain. I, for one, am sufficiently\noptimistic to believe that our gain will be large.\n\nMAKING\nWALTER\n\nLATIN\nH.\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nGRAVES,\n\nOAKLAND\n\nHIGH\n\nOF GREATER\nSCHOOL,\n\nVALUE\n\nOAKLAND,\n\nCAL.\n\nWhen I was asked to take a part in a symposium on Latin comp)osition, I took the\nvalue of the subject for granted, and in thinking over what I should present, I found that\nthere were several ways in which I thought that our present work in the subject might be\nstrengthened. Upon seeing the program a couple of days ago, I found that the subject\nassigned was \"The Value of Latin Composition;\" what I shall have to say, then, will\npresent some methods of possibly improving our work, and one or two suggestions as to\nits value.\nIn the first place let me call attention again to the distinction between our term\n\"Latin composition\" and what we really mean by it in practice, namely, the translation\nof English into Latin. Some people would question the value of attempting real composition in our high-school classes; to me it seems that there is a very definite place for it.\nReal composition work can be begun in the very elementary classes by the reproduction\nof the work read and by simple question and ans'wjgr upon it; the dialogs that are given\nin most of our elementary books offer suggestions of this sort, with the disadvantage that\nthere the answers are already suppUed, leaving nothing for original work on the pupil's part.\nIn the advanced work, as well, the same sort of thing can be done — real composition\nwithout any Enghsh original. For instance, in reviewing the work in Caesar, the class\nmay be asked to state in Latin what was the principal achievement of Ca|par's second\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncampaign in Gaul, or at the end of the Cicero to give a Latin outline of the third Catilinarian oration.\nThere is a place of course also for the translation work from English into Latin, but\nit must not be perfunctory, the manual must be merely the basis; the work done in class\nshould be largely extemporaneous, built upon this foundation. There is danger in following the manual too closely; if at any time it is found that the class needs special drill\nupon certain points, assignment of the special topics should be made and sentences provided by the teacher for that drill.\nIn presenting their work based upon assigned sentences there is danger that the\npupils may memorize their versions of the task, with a large possibility for error in those\nversions. Memorizing is good — ^probably we do not demand enough of it in our work — ■\nbut if the pupils are to memorize anything, let them memorize the text of the author,\nwith the certainty that they are then memorizing good Latin. The next step beyond\nmemorizing is the giving of the story in their own words. As soon as they become used\nto this they find that it is really easier than the translations of assigned English because\nthey are left entirely to their own choice of what should be said and the form in which\nit is said. We get of course very simple expressions at first, but there is no harm in this,\nprovided they are giving real Latin. It is easy enough then to suggest combination and\nsubordination of sentences.\nBy following such a plan we can develop the ability to present good Latin thru the\nstages of memorizing, translating, and finally composing, whether the latter be two\nwords or two pages.\nWe have gone from mere repetition to actual production.\nOf the value of our Latin composition, I think it works toward greater ability in\nreading — ^reading now being considered the principal end of our Latin work. Three\npoints are here to be mentioned: first, training, drill, even call it formal discipline — altho\nthat term is anathema to many — of a sort entirely different from that gained in reading ;\nsecond, a control of the forms that helps immensely the reading ability; and finally, a\nsimilar control of grammatical principles.\nDISCUSSION\nF. C. Taylor, Pacific University, Forest Grove, Ore. — The great value of the study\nof Latin has been its cultural and training effect. If, as there is reason to think, there is\na rising interest in classical study among educated people, is it not fair to suppose that\nthe call is for that developing and training of the mind secured by the classical study of\nthe fairly recent past ? The experienced and observant want for those in whom they are\ninterested what good they see has been gotten out of Latin study.\nIn this training process from study of Latin, the set translation of English into Latin\nwith definite points in mind to be illustrated has been a most searching exercise, particularly well calculated for strong mental drill; and a process that would develop, make\nplain, and fix in mind idioms, inflection, and syntax in a way to be most useful to the\nstudent in Latin and any other language he may use.\nOur need is not for a new, revolutionary way of coming at classical study. Is it not\nmore reasonable, using oral work, early sight-reading, etc., to relieve monotony and add\ninterest, to press on with enthusiasm along the general lines we have found so valuable ?\nThis will include, no doubt, considerable formal prose composition, and if there seems to\nbe somewhat of grind in the process, we may remember it as a necessity to the attendant\nsharpening.\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFINAL\n\nD.\n•\n\nAIM\n\nOF MODERN\n\nMODERN\n\nFOREIGN-LANGUAGE\n\nFOREIGN\n\nSENGER,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n639\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nTHE FINAL AIM OF MODERN FOREIGN-LANGUAGE\nSECONDARY EDUCATION\nJ. HENRY\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY,\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nCAL.\n\nThe introduction of Gerfiian as an integral part of the culture curriculum of secondary\nschools may be considered to have begun with the movement to raise the secondary\nschools to academies not necessarily contiguous to universities and not preparing for the\ndifferent courses of higher institutions. The gradual neglect of the study of Greek,\nagainst which even the best teachers found themselves powerless, made it necessary to\nutilize the modern languages for more than the utilitarian object which had led to their\nintroduction in our schools.\nIt is difficult to generalize the cultural effect of the study of languages upon the mass\nof our students; it is more to the point to state its effect upon individuals and examine\nhow far we can safely apply the case to what a decided majority of scholars may experience whom we subject to the preparatory discipline of the study of a language for the sake\nof culture of thought and development of character.\nI began the study of Latin in the fifth grade of a grammar school with a seven-year\ncourse when I was ten years old. No attempt was made to impress me with the beauty\nof the language and the importance of its literature. We were drilled in the declensions\nand conjugations as we drill our scholars in spelling; the rules of gender were memorized\nin rhymes as amusing as Mother Goose's wonderfully true stories; the study of the vocabulary began with a number of the most frequently employed words of ordinary, not necessarily classical, Latin. In this we were also as constantly drilled as we were drilled in our\nspelling. The vocabulary was systematically enlarged during the first three years of the\nstudy of the language. There was no rushing into Caesar with six months' preparation;\nthe readers began with detached sentences; their contents with their short morals, their\nquaint statements from the realms of history, ancient and mediaeval, geography, and\nmanners impressing imperceptibly the mind of the child with a wealth of facts never\nto be forgotten. At the high school the first authors used were the Lives of CorneUus\nNepos and the Fables of Phaedrus, the latter to be learned by heart in order to be recited\ncomplete. After that parts selected from Caesar's Commentaries (not the first four books\nof the Gallic War and considerably less in extent than they) and selection from Ovid's\nMetamorphoses, of which also large passages were memorized. In the same way the study\nof Latin was continued with Cicero, Virgil, Livy, Sallust, Tacitus, and Horace. I may\nalso mention that during the first three years there was as much translation into Latin\nas from Latin, and later on there was a well-graded and interesting course of Latin composition which led finally to the translation of contemporary newspaper articles, something of particular interest to all of us.\nA year after I had begun the study of Latin, the study of French began. The elementary part of the study did not differ very much from that of the former language.\nWe were drilled in the so-called irregular verbs, I might say, with a sportsmanlike emulation so that there was no doubt of the principal parts of acquirir and s'asseoir. As we\nbrought a considerable vocabulary to our first French author, Voltaire, his Charles XII\nwas really interesting to us.\nThe next year Greek was begim m the same manner as Latin, made easier than Latin\nby the acquaintance with the latter's mechanism? Xenophon's Anabasis was reached\nonly After a year and a half of elementary study, and Homer six months after that. Our\nfirst home lesson in Homer consisted of the first hundred lines of the third book of the\nOdyssey, a task which we did not consider excessive, notwithstanding the fact that we\nhad had no previous acquaintance with Homer's dialect. Our teacher actually succeeded\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin having those hundred lines read aloud and translated in the course of one recitation\nhour.\nLet me add that grammatical questions came up in the course of our reading only\nwhen called for by an insufl&cient or faulty translation; the more intricate points of grammar presented themselves quite naturally in the well-graded courses of translation into the\nforeign idiom.\nThat I was at an early age impressed with the beauty of ^thoughts as expressed in the\nforeign languages, ancient and modern, I attribute in the main to three circumstances:\nFirst, the elements of the language had been taught at an age when the kaleidoscopic\nvariety of forms was still amusing and every word seemed to cry out aloud, \"Look at me,\nwhat part of speech am I, where in the many drawers of your memory do you have to\nlook to find out the meaning of the tail I am dragging behind me ?\" Thus the translation from and into the new language before me appeared to be as interesting as putting\ntogether the parts of a dissected puzzle picture. Secondly, choice language was always\ninsisted upon in the employment of the vernacular for a final translation. Thirdly, the\nconstant and systematic memorizing of choice parts of our reading, when recited, especially\nby a gifted teacher, seemed to give real life to the thought of the author thru the evervarying shades of emphasis, which made colors appear where there had before been but a\nmere pen-and-ink sketch and allowed the mysterious over- and under-tones of the sentence\nmelody to have their silent effect on the ear of the astonished and pleased listener. Thus\nit was as much a matter of course that the grandest pieces of the different literatures\nshould impress me after my mind had been prepared to submit to their influence as the\nbeauties of nature resistlessly impress the minds of persons whose early surroundings have\nnot stunted their receptivity to the point that they see in a waterfall nothing but a waste\nof electric power and in the big trees of California a ridiculous conservation of many millions of cubic feet of lumber desirable for the manufacture of lead pencils.\nFar be it from me to deprecate the acquirement of the practical use of the principal\nmodern languages taught in our schools; my contention is directed against the merely\nutilitarian view which appears to be dominating in their teaching; whatever we teach our\nscholars ought to become a matter of conscious objective consideration on their part. A\nmerely oral method may be of immediate practical results, but its acquisition will neither\nlast nor have any cultural effect upon the language power of the pupil. And that we ought\nto consider the most important aim of our teaching of foreign languages, viz., the solicitous cultivation of the best English thru the deepened insight into the meaning of the words\nemployed and the critical consideration of the translation finally obtained with regard to\nthe melodious sequence and the proper emphasis of the members of the sentence. A German waiter acquainted with three or more foreign languages has as a rule no conscious\nknowledge of his mother-tongue and flounders pitifully when beyond the shallow depth\ncovering an area of a few hundred words combined into simple declarative and interrogative sentences only occasionally encumbered by a complex temporal or conditional\nclause.\nOn the other hand, it has been an invariable experience not only of myself but also\nof my colleagues in a very large girls' high school during quite an extended period of service\nthat scholars who at home were using languages other than English, mostly, however,\neither German or French, or both, had the greatest difficulties in obtaining passable\nmarks in English, tho proficient in all other branches of instruction. Quite natural; they\nhad never been trained to objectivate their home language and subject it to a conscious\nuse, which would have enabled them to observe that the difficulty to be overcome in\nEngUsh was not merely the employment of grammatically correct forms, but the proper\nregard for rhetorical expediency.\nIn one particular way I was able to remedy that shortcoming in the case of a boy in\nwhose home a faultless German was spoken. I began with him the study of Latin while\nhe was still in the seventh grade. The success of this attempt subsequently led me to the\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLITERARY\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nIN FOREIGN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\n641\n\nconviction that the proper teaching of Latin at an early age as a language-study and not\nas an introduction to a possible study of the classical writers would present to the youthful\nmind in their concrete forms logical functions which are not distinguished by form in\nEnghsh and can be discerned only thru abstract reasoning. In fact, correct parsing and\nits ultimate object seems to be entirely beyond the comprehension of some scholars who\nreach the university without having been subjected to the discipUne of systematic grammar\nthru the presentation of concrete and differentiated forms conveying the varying aspects\nof person, number, tense, mood, and voice. And thus I venture from an experience in\nteaching of many years and from the religious beUef that the preservation of our English\nlanguage in her purity and the organic development of her increasing power ought to\naffect the orientation of all our studies toward that goal,\n1. That the teaching of the critical use of English in the generally too large classes\nof our schools is materially improved by the study of a foreign language at an age when\nthe study of the latter forms is still amusing, and thus by a proper system there may be\nobtained lasting control of the necessary grammatical forms to assure facility in reading ;\n2. That to obtain sufficient ability to understand the foreign idiom in continued\ndiction and in order to develop a facility to speak it, a distinction should be made between\nthe lessons of practical exercises to be carried on exclusively in that language and the\nlessons for the study of formal grammar and of authors of firmly established literary value;\n3. That unless the student is impressed with the particular genius of the nations\nwhose language he studies, of the English political, of the French social, of the Italian\nartistic, of the Spanish chivalrous, of the German scientific we cannot hope to see that\nbarbarism diminish which believes the foreigner anyhow to be inferior, his language\nridiculous, his industry contemptible, his insistence upon outer forms of politeness the\nevident sign of the effeteness of the nation to which he belongs.\nIt will not be long before we shall be obliged to meet the competition of Germany\nfor an important share of the world's trade. She has forged to the head in spite of an\nunfavorable geographical position and inferior natural wealth by dint of her people's\norderly industry, by scientific methods, and last, but not least, by the reverent study\nof other people's manners, institutions, and languages.\nLet us educate our coming generation to do likewise, not merely for the sake of the\nmaterial benefits to be obtained, but to develop in the souls intrusted to our care, thru\nthe respect for others, a noble self-respect making for order, law, and justice, which cannot\nfail to bring us nearer to peace on earth and good will toward men.\nLITERARY APPRECIATION IN THE STUDY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES:\nITS OPPORTUNITIES AND LIMITATIONS; WITH SPECIAL\nREFERENCE TO THE STUDY OF FRENCH\nALBERT\n\nLEON\n\nGUERARD,\n\nASSISTANT\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nPROFESSOR\nSTANFORD\n\nOF FRENCH,\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nLELAND\nCAL.\n\nSTANFORD\n\nJUNIOR\n\nThe opportunites for literary appreciation in the study of foreign languages are very\nmeager indeed under existing conditions. In three years of high-school or two years of\ncollege French — a fair average for non-specialists — only the practical side of the work\ncan well be attended to. Much of our elementary work in grammar and pronunciation\nhas to be in the nature of a drill; the students have more to imitate and to memorize\nthan to understand. Of course, something can be done, even in that limited time, and\nwith the pressure of other work. Books of some Uterary value are placed in the hands of\nour pupils at an early stage. There is no excuse for having them read poor stuff, when\nthere are excellent French texts just as simple in plot and style. I confess that the\napparent favor of certain misrepresentative bools^ like Dosia, J. P. Ckoppart, and the\ninevitable Vahhe Constantin, puzzles me very greatly. If you run thru the catalogs of\nour great publishing houses, you will notice quite a few striking omissions, but many\nmore unjustifiable inclusions.\nOur first duty, therefore, is to choose good texts from\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe beginning; there is no lack of such, and the best as hterature are not the least satisfactory from the pedagogical standpoint.\nThese texts are generally preceded by an introduction, which is often enough a\nperfunctory piece of work, but not seldom a valuable summary of the literature on the\nsubject, and in a few cases a distinct addition to it: Olmsted's Marivaux, Babbitt's\nRenatiy Harper's Sainte-Beuve, quoted at random among many, are good instances in\npoint. Now we should see to it that our students read these Introductions, and read\nthem carefully, not \"by title only,\" as is too frequently the case. If the Introduction\nbe deemed inadequate, a short lecture should be substituted for it. In every case, the\nstudents ought to know something about the author whose work they are reading. All\nthis seems obvious enough, and yet few high-school graduates in our college courses seem\nto remember even the names of writers in whose company they have spent several weeks\nof their school life.\nWe should never read a story or a play without having our students quizzed — in\nEnghsh — on the plot, the setting, and the characters, so that we may be sure that they\nunderstand the book as a whole, and not merely each individual word. My colleagues\nand myself are periodically shocked by the discovery that good students, after carefully\ntranslating the whole of Hernani or Tartuffe, have very hazy notions about the story\nand the meaning of the play. This is a clear case of a forest not seen because of the trees.\nMuch fun is poked at the footnotes — ^in the old-fashioned editions: \"Admire this\nline — Notice the harmony of that one — Mark the beauty of this passage.\" The usual\nresult of such notes is to make the reader impatient; if they were effective, they would\nbut tend to conventionality and slavishness of taste. I shall certainly not propose\nreviving them to their full extent. Yet there is no reason why the teacher should not\ncall the untrained attention of his pupils to passages that bis own cultured sense of literary\nappreciation has singled out. No need of telling his class: \"Now admire!\" like the\nleader of the claqueurs in a Parisian theater. He simply asks them to stop and think:\n\"Is this beautiful, and why?\"\nThus some good can be achieved, under present circumstances, if only the teacher\nfeels his responsibility, and is himself a man of taste and culture. But I cannot help\nthinking that all the means proposed so far are but palliatives. We are able to introduce some literature into our language course, but so little that it hardly counts for real\ntraining. It is better to use good texts than poor ones: but while our students read them\nwith pleasure, I am afraid they are not able to appreciate their literary merits. All the\nfine points of style, thought, and feeling are lost on young readers who are not yet masters\nof grammar, vocabulary, and idiom. They enjoy the story, when they understand it,\nrather than the way in which it is told. When the plot is not clear and direct, they are\npuzzled and dissatisfied: thus I have found Anatole France's Sylvestre Bonnard and\nespecially his Histoire contemporaine: M. Bergeret extremely disappointing, even with\nadvanced college classes. Such, I believe, is the situation — with the limited time at\nour disposal, with the lack of vital interest in the subject on the part of our students,\nwith a general atmosphere not ideally favorable to Hterary studies, we can barely hope\nto teach languages well: can we spare any time or effort for the training of literary\nappreciation ? I feel sure we could and we should; but this would involve serious changes\nin the spirit and method of our teaching. Literary training is an end in itself, no less\nworthy of attainment than fluency of speech, and much more independent of it than is\ngenerally thought. If we can have both, well and good; but then we need more time,\nmore men, more books than at present. If it comes to a choice, let us not systematically\nsacrifice hterature. In many cases, let the language go, if need be, rather than the\nthought.\nIt is undoubtedly possible to give in this country an all-inclusive French course,\nbased on a thoro knowledge of grammar and pronunciation, affording ample practice in\nspeakmg and writing the language, and leading to the intelligent study of literature and,\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLITERARY\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\nIN FOREIGN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\n643\n\ncivilization. This is done in French high schools. I taught for a few weeks, as a substitute for Professor Kuhn, at the College Chaptal in Paris. There I saw boys of seventeen who were able to give in English an extremely interesting commentary on Tennyson's Morte d' Arthur. They had studied the language for five or six years, at the rate\nof three to five lessons a week. This is equivalent to what the French department in\nany good American college will do for its major students. But only for them, and they\nwill never be very numerous: in our busy democracy, cultural studies which cannot be\nturned to immediate, practical use will never be very popular. We shall keep in our\nbest universities a small and select clientele of disinterested investigators, prospective\nteachers, young men of wealth fond of traveling, and future diplomatists. These will\nwant to study French thoroly, in all its aspects. But what shall we do with the enormous\nmajority of professional and business men, who cannot devote more than a couple of\nyears to a foreign language? An all-round course is out of the question; should we\nadopt exclusively the Berlitz ideal, or try something dififerent?\nBecause every waiter in the world is able to jabber some English and to understand some American, there is a widespread prejudice that we of this Western Hemisphere need not study any foreign language at all. Now, as a teacher of the subject\nthus slighted, as a native of France, as a man whose culture centers in language work,\nI cannot but abhor such an opinion as a vulgar and illiberal heresy. After thus\nventing my personal feelings, I feel bound to confess that the \"average American\"\nhas some justification for his neglect of alien tongues. We should recognize that,\nwhilst America needs at least as much foreign-language study as any European nation,\nit does not need the same kind. A few geographical facts will illustrate my meaning. Texas is larger than Austro-Hungary, where twenty languages are spoken —\nwithout mentioning dialects. California would stretch on the map of Europe from\nParis to Buda-Pest. Paris and London are only half as far apart as San Francisco and\nLos Angeles. Western Europe — for Rdssia is almost an Asiatic nation — is a wonderful\nmosaic of countries, small in area and intensely individualized in culture. There a\npractical study of our neighbors' language, as it is spoken, is at the same time ahnost\nindispensable and comparatively easy. One can hardly move from one's native village\nwithout coming across some international boundary. Any Parisian teacher, any ambi\ntious young clerk, any small business man, can easily spend a fortnight's holidays in\nLondon: it is only a matter of seven hours and five dollars. Here we have thousands\nof our high-school and college graduates who will never go abroad at all; they can't\nafford it; they are too busy; they want to see America first. Many others will cross\nthe ocean four tunes in twenty years and do the whole of Europe in fifty-six days —\ngenerously devoting a whole week to gay Paree, which to them represents the whole of\nLa belle France. Their practical French, carefully dusted up on the steamer, will probably\nbe of little avail to them, for they will go the usual round, which is as American as Broadway.\nI sympathize with the busy man who cannot spare two or three years of effort for mastering spoken French. It does not pay, either in dollars or in culture. I wish it were\notherwise, but we must take facts as they are.\nOn the other hand, America needs the influence of European thought and cultmre\njust because she has no immediate neighbor from whom she has much to learn. Thus\nisolated from the original home of the race, America would run a great risk of becoming\nprovincial — for a province may be as large as a continent. Our duty as teachers of\nlanguages and literatures is to open as direct an avenue as possible between European\nthought and the American public; and I do not believe that Berlitz French is the straightest and widest avenue that could thus be openec^ My contention is this: let us leave\nspoken French to commercial schools, which will teach it in the measure they find a\nmarket for it; in our high schools and colleges let us insist on literature and civilization,\nstudied thru translations and original texts, with a strict minimum of composition and\noral work. In other words, let us teach French mainly for reading purposes.\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n■— —\n\nI\n\n— - I\n\nI know that to advocate the use of translation is a heresy; but I believe that a secondhand acquaintance with a foreign masterpiece thru the medium of your own language is\na good deal better than total ignorance; furthermore, I maintain that a lucid, carefully\nwritten translation will often give a man a truer idea of the original than the one he\nwould get thru his own painful blundering thru the original. I would rather have a\nman read Balzac in a translation than L'abbe Constantin or /. P. Chop part in the text.\nChantecler is unintelligible in English, I am told; but it is also unintelligible in French\nto anyone who has not several years of assiduous practice. I should like to see, in our\nhigh schools, the kind of books used in France — carefully prepared, well-translated selections of foreign masterpieces, such as the Delagrave and Armand Colin collections.\nThese anthologies and abridgments are used with great success even in the early stage\nof the course — at the age of twelve and thirteen. There have been individual attempts\nin this direction in America, but not enough in the way of a national movement.\nThe literature course based on reading is already a feature of our curriculum. I do\nnot think much of the mere reading-course, without lectures, reports, and papers. The\nlecture course without a sufficient amount of carefully supervised reading may be entertaining, but it is little else; it was the old type of French university lectures, now banished\nfrom the Sorbonne, and still given before a fashionable public under the auspices of\nreviews and literary societies. A combination of all these elements — lectures, readings,\nreports, papers — can be made extremely effective. I should also like to put in a word\nin favor of an old-fashioned exercise which I should like to see revived: I mean the\nversion, or careful, literary translation from a foreign language into our own. This has\nbeen very generally abandoned in favor of rapid, oral translation — too often slipshod,\nand of composition in the language studied. There is no better Uterary discipline than\nthe old version, if conscientiously done; no better way of getting right at the meaning\nof your author; no surer test of your mastery of your own language.\nIs this lowering the standard of language-study? Certainly not, since it means\nsubstituting the study of ideas for that of words. Is it yielding to the democratic demand\nfor short cuts and easy work ? Not exactly: it is abandoning a road that leads no whither\nfor one that can be made as hard as you please, but which is profitable and pleasant from\nthe beginning. Am I advocating a suicidal policy ? On the contrary, a course shaped\naccording to these ideas should appeal to a much larger public than the present one —\nnot because it is lower or easier, but because it suppUes an actual need. There should\nnot be a single doctor, teacher, preacher, or politician, in this wide land of ours, without\nan excellent reading knowledge of at least two modem languages, and a fair acquaintance\nwith the literature and the history of the nations that speak them. A high-school course\nwithout universal and compulsory French and German or Spanish ought to be as\ninconceivable in this country as it is in France or in Germany. It is both an upHfting\nand a broadening of our standards that I am pleading for — to be achieved thru the frank\nabandonment of work which is neither practical nor cultm-al.\nBut if we are to teach Uterature, we ourselves must not neglect the study of it, and\nwe have too often done so in the past. I have no time to dwell on this aspect of the\nquestion; but it is obvious that, especially in the Romanic field, literature in our leading\nuniversities has been woefully sacrificed to linguistics. Our best men have spent lives\nof unflagging energy in editing mediaeval texts which they knew to be of no Uterary value\nwhatever. I will not say anything against Romanic philology; it is a perfectly legitimate\nbranch of science, but a minor one, which should not be allowed to smother the much\nwider and cultural study of literature. That this smothering process has taken place —\nis still going on — is evident to anyone who reads the catalogs of our universities, or looks\nfor the titles of the works published by our best scholars. While every university professor of foreign languages in France has published at least one large book which is a\npermanent contribution to literary criticism and history, practically all the work of the\nsame kind in this country has been done by outsiders — men unconnected with any\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nARGUMENT\n\nFOR\n\nSIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\n64$\n\nuniversity, or professors of English. This neglect of literature sometimes goes to incredible\nlengths. In a rich institution, well equipped for mediaeval work, the following authors,\nthree or four years ago, were absolutely unrepresented in the library: Agrippa D'Aubign6,\nR6gnier, Bossuet, Montesquieu, Michelet, Taine, Renan. A reaction is coming: let us\nhope it will be sharp and thoro. At present, the higher study of Romanic languages,\nsupposed to prepare teachers for the schools of the nation, is scientific or pseudoscientific in character, and absolutely inadequate from the hterary point of view. It is\nboth un-French and un-American.\nI do not know whether the opinions expressed in this paper are those of a premature\nold fogy or of a hot-headed radical. I hope you will not doubt that whether paradoxical\nor commonplace, they are inspired by a sincere devotion to the cause of modern language\nteaching. A Frenchman by birth, an American by choice, the aim of my life is to see\nAmerica and France brought closer together. And for such a purpose, I believe that\nthe study of literature is the surest and pleasantest way.\n\nSIMPLIFIED\nWITH\n\nSPELLING\nFROM\nTHE\nSCHOLARLY\nREFERENCE\nTO THE MASSES:\nTHE\nFOR SIMPLIFIED\nSPELLING\n\nABRAM\n\nGIDEON,\n\nCOLORADO\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nSTANDPOINT\nARGUMENT\n\nGREELEY,\n\nAND\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe ability to spell correctly is frequently overestimated. In the estimation of some\npeople of a pedantic turn of mind it has come to be associated with a high degree of\nlearning or stands for unusual mental power. In reality, however, the habit of correct\nspelling is, for the most part, a purely mechanical process, due primarily to training\nof the visual memory; in less measure, tho differing in different individuals, to development of the 'auditory and the graphic memory. We have learned by observation that\na given set of symbols is associated with a given speech form, to which we have come\nto apply in writing the special combination of characters by which it is represented.\nNow, in this process no high degree of intellectual acumen is involved, and, so far as\nEnglish spelling is concerned, no great dependence upon the reasoning powers. Indeed,\nit might even be maintained with a fair degree of justice that, in the present state of\nour orthography, a child will the more readily learn to spell correctly the less it is accustomed to rely upon reason. It carmot be denied that in learning to spell the power\nof accurate observation must also be aroused and stimulated, and that we encounter\nin this particular a valuable educational asset. Too often inability to spell correctly\nanomalous or even regular forms goes hand in hand with a carelessness characteristic\nof the mental make-up of the individual. But on the whole it still remains true that\nhe who has mastered the orthographic peculiarities of his native or a foreign language does\nnot, on that account, possess an accompUshment of an especially high order.\nNevertheless, in spite of this contention, correct spelling, i.e., the written form generally accepted for all but a small number of the words of our speech in regard to which\nusage varies, is as desirable as correct speaking. Whoever insists upon it as one of the\nresults to be striven for in a system of education has weighty arguments to support his\nplan. The practical affairs of hfe demand a uniform medium of exchange in the written\nform of our intercourse as well as in the coinage of the land. Departure from the generally accepted standard acts as a disturbing factor in so far as it does not follow the line\nof least resistance. Moreover, orthographic blundering impresses us as being ugly; it\njars upon our sensibilities. But it is not only \\jgly to spell incorrectly, it is to a certain\nextent unsocial. The person who persists in doing so isolates himself in that respect\nfrom society. Refusal thru unwillingness to abide by accepted usage in one's intercourse\nwith his fellows — and the written word is only a form of human intercourse — is imsocial,\nand to that degree it is unethical.\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSecondary\n\nAdmitting, then, that the ability to write with orthographic accuracy does not represent an extraordinarily high acquisition in the scale of mental attainments; granting,\nfurthermore, that it is, from various points of view, important to conform to accepted\nusage, let us next turn to the problem which gave rise to the movement for simplified\nspelling. Primitive man first conununicated his thoughts, when he did not do so by\noral speech, by means of pictographs — that is to say, pictures or symbols representing\nideas of objects, attributes, or activities. Hunting, for example, would be represented\nby means of the picture of an animal familiar from the chase, the sun or day by means\nof an image of the sun, night by means of the picture of a reclining man. A further\nstep in the progress of writing is made when the picture or symbol no longer represents\nan idea but a sound, the component sounds of a word being then graphically portrayed\nby a combination of symbols. When the sounds have become suflSciently simple and\nthe characters by conventionalization have been stripped of all or the greater part of\nthe marks of their pictorial function, the alphabetic stage is reached. The alphabet is\ntherefore in origin phonetic: letters represent sounds. If, then, the invention of the\nalphabet is due to the need of advancing civilization for a system of graphic signs representing the sounds of language, it follows that written speech, properly so called, in\nits beginnings mirrors, and in its subsequent development tends to reflect, the actual\nconditions of oral speech. As spoken language changes, a corresponding change follows\nin the written form, with this difference, however, that the speech form alters more\nrapidly than its graphic equivalent. Because the written language does not keep pace\nwith the spoken, in course of time, especially after the rise and growth of Uterature,\nthere comes to be a wide divergence between spelling and pronunciation. This is\nmore or less true of all languages, but particularly so of English, the history of which\nfurnishes a most striking example of how the natural relation between speech and writing\nhas been disturbed.\nIn the early stages of our language, according to Skeat, phonetic spdling was the\nrule, orthography being based upon Latin models imtil about 1200. With the coming\nof the Normans there ensued a process of respelling \"the whole language upon French\nprinciples which did not always coincide with those that had been adopted previously.\"\nWhile this revision still left the language upon a phonetic basis, in the sixteenth century\ncame a \"pedantic revision,\" which introduced the principle of historical restoration\naccording to Greek and Latin originals. From now on the logical relation between the\ntwo expressions of language ceased and \"spelling became a mere instrument for the use\nof printers.\" Now, we are told, the early printers of English were not native, but Germans or Dutchmen, who knew little English. In consequence, the diversity of spelling\nprevalent before the invention of printing not only continued, but new variations, arising\nfrom the ignorance or caprice of the printers, were introduced. So great was the resultant\nconfusion that in the later part of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth century an attempt was made to secure uniformity. This effort, however, was not guided\nby persons cognizant of the history and principles of the language, the only authority\ncompetent to undertake such a task, but left to the judgment of ignorant or half-educated\nproof-readers. Johnson's Dictionary, published in the middle of the eighteenth century, accepted these spellings and gave them authority. Scholars are agreed that Dr.\nJohnson's influence has done more to fix English orthography in the mold it has assimied,\nto give permanence to the \"mismade\" spellings that had arisen, than any other single\ncause.\nI need not now attempt to tell the tale of the woes of English spelling; it will suflSce\nhere to notice a few of the most distressing manifestations. To the mode of procedure\nin fixing our orthography just outlined we owe:\ncomptroller (as tho it were related to Fr. compter), instead of the older and more\ncorrect controller =keepeT of the counter-roll or contreroU.\nsovereign (as if related to Lat. regnum), for the older saver ain.\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nARGUMENT\n\nFOR\n\nSIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\n647\n\ndebt and doubt (imitating distant Lat. originals), tho earlier English spellings were\ndetle, dotite.\nreceipt (again a restoration), tho we use deceit and others of like derivation.\naghast and ghastly,\nafter the analogy of ghost (from *A.S. gdst) where the A is a\nfifteenth-century\ninsertion.\nThe useless distinction between -cede and -ceed^ the first based on French models,\nthe latter to show the length of the e sound, as a result of which we write concede^ precede, secede, but exceed, proceed, and succeed.\n(Esthetic and mediceval, but demon, phenomenon, and era.\nA mere glance at the means we employ to represent one and the same vowel sound\nwill show how merited the charge is, that when one hears an EngUsh word he cannot\ntell how it is spelled and when he reads an English word he cannot say how it is pronounced.\nThe sound of long a in lake is represented by different characters in late, eight, break,\nstay, aid, aye, grey, potato.\nThe sound of long e in meet is variously assumed in meet, meat, mete, receive, believe,\nmachine, depot, cesophagus, coceval, people.\nThe sound of short e in bed employs different symbols in bed, bread, says, jeopardy,\nheifer, any, again, friend, bury.\nWith only a reference to the well-known fact that each of the s)mibols used to\ndenote any one of these sounds may itself have a variety of sound values, let me close\nthe indictment by simply reminding you of the equally well-known diversity of sound\nof the combination -ough in though, through, rough, cough, plough. Woe to the child\nwhose heritage it is to find his bearings in such a maze! True, he does master the perplexities of the traditional orthography, but with what herculean efforts, with what\nfrightful expenditure of energy!\nThis, then, is the situation which gave rise to the Simplified Spelling movement.\nThe English language is full of anomalies and perversities, useless letters and cumbrous\nforms which it is possible to eliminate without any loss. It has been estimated that\nabout two years of the school life of the child are consumed in learning to spell. Calvin\nThomas has pointedly observed that the time wasted on \"dead languages\" is but as\na drop in the bucket compared with that consumed on \"dead spelling.\" Recognizing\nthe waste involved in this process, aware of the burden imposed upon the adult mind\nin retaining what has been once acquired, estimating the loss of time, money, and energy\nincurred thereby in publication, realizing the needless load put upon the foreigner who\nattempts to learn EngUsh, the Board at the head of this movement has set itself the\ntask of improving the situation as far as practicable. It does not aim with revolutionary\nspirit to reform the language according to some abstract, Utopian idea, but to simplify\nit according to a process which has operated thruout the centuries and which it only\nproposes to accelerate. It does not attempt to apply to the EngUsh tongue thoroly\nand systematically the phonetic principle — each sound represented by but one sjonbol\nand each symbol representing but one sound — but only to seize upon certain tendencies,\nanalogies, rules, already in force and generalize them. In spite of the most emphatic\nprotestations of the Board to the contrary a widespread popular misconception, apparent\nin newspaper caricatures, advertising burlesques, and even magazine editorials, would\nhave it that the movement means people shall \"be allowed to speU just as they've a\nmind to.\" Nothing of the sort is intended. Not only does the Board refuse to sanction\nindiscriminate spelUng according to individual utterance, it has not even proposed any\nsimpUfications of its own without the authority of standard usage. Of course, the\nphonetic principle is recognized; but it is appUed only to the extent that it finds support\nin good writers or rests upon analogies. The first list, proposed in March, 1906, contains three hundred selected words \"speUed in t#o or more ways\" of which the simpler\nform is recommended. Many of these had already won all but universal acceptance,\nand all of them are supported by the usage of recognized authors. Who, after carefully\nexamining the hst and noting the ground for preferring the simpler speUing, could detect\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin a single instance any violent revolt against the traditions of our language or any phonetic\nmonstrosity? Yet the acceptance of them represents a substantial gain and marks an\nimportant step in the direction of simplification and order. In accordance with its\noriginal plan, the Board published in January, 1908, a second list, following the same\nprinciples that determined the selection of the original three hundred. This Ust contains\nthree classes of words, the first of which, consisting of seventy-five amended spellings,\nare largely restorations of earlier and more correct forms erroneously discarded. The\nsecond and third class comprise forms simphfied according to general rules, the operation\nof which is noticeable in numerous examples long current. The simpUfication of the\nwords belonging to the second class is secured by the omission of silent e final in unstressed\nsyllables containing short i; while the third class substitutes -t, when pronounced as\nSuch, for -ed in inflectional forms or derivatives of verbs that end in a voiceless consonant,\nunless the spelling -t would conflict with the pronunciation of the word. Altho the\nsecond list includes on the whole more unfamiliar forms than its predecessor, for one\nreason because it comprises a larger number of words, nevertheless it appeals to us for\nacceptance on equally strong grounds. The simphfied forms rest on good authority,\nthey are convenient and economical, they are genuine, in some cases more so than the\nones supplanted, they help to establish the principle of order in our chaotic orthography.\nA third Ust appeared January 25, 1909. If the address of the president of the Board\nat its second annual meeting in April, 1908, can be taken as a forecast, nothing radical\nwill be attempted. Should anyone fear great innovations before the ground is properly\ncleared, let him read with what emphasis warning is given against any change in the\npresent system of representing sounds until the whole matter has been thoroly investigated by a committee of experts equipped for this task by reason of special training\nand recognized scholarship, the report of this committee to be taken as a guide for further\naction. No alteration that does not with certainty indicate the pronunciation seems to\nbe the watchword. In Professor Lounsbury's own words: \"Every genuine simplification of the speUing which has ever taken place in our language has been of the nature\no^ an approach to the phonetic standard.\"\nI shall next consider some of the objections to the movement, since by answering\nthem the argument for simphfied spelling can be made all the stronger. Objection to\nthe proposed changes arises, in the first place, from the fear that if they are adopted and\ncome into general use we shall lose connection with our classic EngHsh authors — that\nthe hterature of the past will be for the generations to come a sealed book. But the\nargument is utterly groundless. It takes no account of the fact that the spelUng of\nShakespeare is not the spelling of today, any more than it was the spelUng of the Middle\nEngUsh authors. If the simphfied forms were to be adopted in toto and henceforth\nappeared in all books published, they would represent no wider departure from the speUing\nof the nineteenth century than this differs from the EUzabethan. We are used to reading our\nclassic authors in modernized versions and are therefore not aware of the difference. But\nlet anyone who doubts the justice of this claim examine the original editions or reprints,\nand he will find proof abundant in numerous unfamihar and bizarre spellings. He will\nencounter, on the other hand, many a form that coincides with the proposed simphfications.\nAnother form of this objection concerns itself with the supposed difl&culty experienced\nby the present generation who have learned to spell according to the method now in\nvogue. The amended spelUngs would confuse, so it is maintained, and divert attention\nfrom the thought of the written or printed page. The point would be well taken if the\nfacts supported the charge. Certain educational journals and other periodicals have\nfor some time been employing simphfied forms without disfiguring their pages or causing\nthe reader undue hardship. The proportion of changes to the words left intact is so\nsmall as to allow him to feel that he is still reading the same language. Even against\nsuch publications as employ all the amended words adopted to date, e.g., the circulars\nof the Simplified SpelUng Board and, among others, the catalogs and buUetins of the\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nARGUMENT\n\nFOR SIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\nIowa State Teachers College and of the Colorado Teachers College, the charge would\nnot hold good. We have yet to hear from a prospective student the first complaint that\nhis mind was so much occupied in deciphering the text as to prevent his understanding\nour requirements. It must not be forgotten that a reform of such magnitude cannot\nbe launched into universal use at one fell swoop, that it must work its way gradually,\nthat it need not appear in all books immediately, and must not be indiscriminately applicable to all circumstances. Unless one takes into account a special situation, there is\ndanger of defeating one's purposes by injudicious obtrusion. A candidate for a vacant\nschool position would act unwisely if in his application he should thrust upon the notice\nof a superintendent notorious as an unregenerate adherent of deformed spelling his\npreference for simplified spelling.\nThis brings us to an objection from the aesthetic point of view. Here we must\ndistinguish between a real aesthetic objection to misspeUing and a so-called aesthetic\nobjection to simplified spelling. It has previously been admitted that deviation from\ncommonly accepted orthography thru ignorance or carelessness is ugly, but' this does\nnot apply to a mode of writing that has a rational basis. The impression made upon\nan unsympathetic reader when he meets the simplified forms in print is not unlike the\nfeeling he experiences at the sight of a translation into foreign tongues accompanying\nthe English version of the same subject-matter. Meeting in such garb, say an advertisement describing the merits of \"Peruna,\" or a certain corn salve, or brand of stomach\nbitters, the unusual appearance of the text may strike the English reader as odd, it may\noccasion him some discomfort, but he is not for that reason warranted in calling the\npage ugly; else the same charge would apply with equal force to a page of phonetic\nscript as is now common in grammars and readers of foreign languages for indicating\nthe pronunciation. Would anyone, if he happened to be unacquainted with the language,\ncall a page of ItaUan ugly, simply because its unusual appearance disturbed his wonted\nassociations? It seems to me that if harmony is the essence of beauty the charge of\nugliness is merited rather by the traditional spelling. The fallacy involved in the opposite\ncontention is due to paying too much heed to mere habit. Our conception of beauty\nhas not only a psychological origin; it has a no less important logical basis. The old\nassociations that cluster about the familiar spelling and make it dear to us ought not\nto prevent us from seeing its defects. There is too much at stake here to be guided\nsolely by sentiment. In course of time, if not by us then by the generations that follow\nus, a rational spelling will be cherished as dearly as was the irrational spelling that it\nshall have superseded.\nThe apparently strongest objection of all appears in the shape of the etymological\nargument; however, it is no more cogent than the others. We are told by our opponents\nthat the proposed changes will obscure the derivation of words. But the alterations\nin spelling that have taken place in the several stages of the history of our language\nhave not had this result. Etymology is secure in the literature of the past and in the\nwork of the scholars whose intelligence and knowledge qualify them to trace along their\ndevious course successive modifications that words undergo. In laying so great stress\nupon the etymological argument the mistake is often made of paying too much regard\nto the visible symbol. Language is primarily spoken language. It does not exist as\na means of mummifying decayed roots that have lost their vital energy, but as a vehicle\nof thought and expression. Its changes are determined by practical needs. This is\nat bottom the source of Professor Miinsterberg's error. A foreigner who learns the language from books takes a subtle delight in discovering, in the forms of English words*\nin its prefixes and fossilized remains of an extinct pronunciation, faces already familiar\nto him from Greek and Latin, or other languages. For the sake of retaining \"the historical flavor of words,\" which Professor Miinsterberg asserts is destroyed when we cut\noff the useless ue in prologue, we ought to have preserved something nearer the original\nGreek 7rat5a7w76s than its modern frenchified pedagogue.\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nA few considerations will show that change of form does not necessarily obscure\nderivation. On the contrary, from what has been said of the early state of printing in\nEngland and the rise of our present orthography, it is apparent that the traditional form\nof a word is frequently no safe guide to its origin. Comptroller has nothing to do with\nthe Fr. compter, meaning to count; sovereign has no relation whatever to Lat. regniim.\nThese spellings are mistakes pure and simple, and mislead the amateur etymologist.\nOn the other hand, certain words mirror the change that has taken place in their utterance and yet their derivation has not been obscured by the alteration. Humble is derived\nthru Fr. from Lat. humilem, accusative of humilis. Our humility has the same origin.\nThe b of the adjective represents a phonetic change which did not take place in the\nsubstantive, where the vowel sound was retained between the m and its following /. Gender,\nthru the Fr. from Lat. genere, ablative of genus, has a d which does not occur in the original nor in the adjective generic, a phenomenon to be explained in the same way. In\nthese words, which are not isolated examples but members of a fairly large class, the\nspelUng has been made to conform to the pronunciation; the modification that has occurred\nin the course of their development to their present form is genuinely phonetic, yet their\nreal origin is apparent.\nMoreover, in Italian, the orthography of which is remarkable for its close correspondence to the pronunciation, Lat. clavis has become chiave, Lat. flumen has become\nfiume, in obedience to a phonetic law, the / not being pronounced, therefore not written;\nfilosofia, fotograo, fantasia, are spelled with plain / instead of with a clumsy substitute\nfor Gr. 0. As these changes have taken place without dulling the etymological conscience ofthe Italian people, need we fear that this calamity will befall the English-speaking peoples if we spell succeed as we do secede or if demagogue loses its caudal appendage ?\nLet me dose my argument with a brief summary of the progress of the movement\nup to the present time. In the ranks of simpUfied spelUng are actively enlisted: the\nModern Language Association of America, the members of which individually and collectively have done pioneer work in the cause; the National Education Association,\nto whose efforts the Simplified Spelling Board owes its initial impulse; normal schools\nin Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin; public schools\nin more than eleven states; a number of eastern business colleges. Simplified spelling\nhas been approved by the state teachers associations of Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Among the members of the Board and Council are to be found\nour most eminent specialists in English philology and EngUsh literature, writers and\nother professional men, scientists and men of affairs. It is a significant fact that the\nnames whose mention carries most weight in the domain of English scholarship figure\namong the most enthusiastic adherents of the cause. No authority in English in this\ncountry or abroad is known to have written or spoken against the movement, tho there\nmay be one or another who for practical reasons does not care to join the ranks of the\npropagandists. Editors of our leading dictionaries — ^Webster's, the Standard, the Century,\nand the Oxford English Dictionary — belong to the Board, as does also the eminent etymologist, Skeat, who has assumed the leadership of the Enghsh society recently organized\nfor the advancement of simplified spelUng in Great Britain. In order to promote- the\nuse of the simplified forms in print, a league of editors and pubUshers numbering more\nthan three hundred members has been organized in the East. It is reported that adjustments to the new conditions are made in the publishing business without any serious\ninconvenience to compositors or to proof-readers. One prominent publishing house\nuses the amended spellings in its business correspondence and has begun to do so in\nthe publication department proper.\nFrom this brief account you will see that considerable headway has been made —\nenough, it seems to me, to encourage anyone who hesitates to co-operate in the movement\nfor fear lest he be found in rash co apany. No teacher has a right to stand back solely\nbecause of the real or fancied inconvenience he may suffer in learning to apply the sim-\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nMASSES\n\n651\nplified forms. This hardship has been grossly exaggerated, as I know from personal\nexperience and from the documentary evidence of others. The attitude of this Conference will do much toward influencing the attitude of the teaching force thruout this\nstate; it will do much toward molding public opinion, toward silencing cheap ridicule\nand preparing the way for the triumph of reason and common-sense; but it will do\nmore for the children, who will derive the benefit of your courage and example.\n\nSIMPLIFIED\nHOMER\n\nSPELLING\n\nWITH\n\nREFERENCE\n\nH. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS\n\nTO THE\n\nMASSES\n\nCOLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nThe condition. — Popular education in the English language faces a condition and not\na theory. The problems involved in the undertaking, to give universal education and\ntraining to the masses, are so notably complex that their solution cannot be easily accomplished. Ifthey are ever to be solved at all, it means that educational methods and\nplans have been simplified very much beyond present-day experiences and that the processes and notions of the practice of teaching have been completely rationalized. The\nproblems of higher education are simple, because they deal with the intellectually\nsuperior, while the problems of elementary education are especially difficult because they\ndeal with all classes and kinds of men that make up the masses. Teaching practical\nEnglish to the whole people implies a mastery of capabihty and the comprehension of\nthe needs that are almost beyond realization.\nUniversal elementary education assumes that its mission is to make hfe better and\nmore serviceable for the many, rather than for the few; that its work reaches the actual\nfoundations of society and civilization rather than the specially cultured classes; and\nthat its ultimate success means the betterment and the happiness of the race thru the\nactual amelioration of the individual. If there were no other reasons for the simpUfication of English spelling than that of the universal need of the masses that are to be\neducated for serviceable and useful life, then this ought to be sufficient to destroy any\nopposition that could be proposed against the progress, acceptance, and adoption of the\nmovement.\nThe masses. — ^The success and permanence of a democracy very largely depend upon\nthe intelligence, the capability, and the character of its representatives. In all improvements, progress, and reforms that may be developed thru the evolutions that must occur\nin a democracy, the importance of the qualifications of the individual voter becomes\nmore and more evident, since the decisions of the voter at the polls become more and\nmore valuable as the years and the complexity of such civilization advance. Ignorance\nis a menace to institutional progress of every kind, and the only hope for such forms of\ngovernment is intellectual balance in the citizenship.\nThe endeavor successfully to teach the masses the irregular, conventional forms of\nEnglish spelling that exist has resulted in very unsatisfactory results, since hardly more\nthan half of the people are able to show capability in the limited vocabularies that their\nvocations and careers require. This incapability of knowing things for themselves has\nkept them unable to protect their own rights and has made them the creatures of circumstances that ought to be entirely removed by better quality of education and training.\nThe necessity of having a simpler spelling for the English language is absolutely required\nif the schools are to be able to train the majority of the people in a reasonable and essential Hteracy. There is no question but that the acquirement of reading and writing\nEnglish creditably is the right that should be conferred by receiving an elementary education such as the public schools are orgam'zed and conducted to give. There is no\nparticle of doubt but the simpUfication of the spelling will reduce very much the energy\nin application as well as the expenditure of time and money and also give a remarkable\nassistance to the progress essential to universal education.\nSince the^masses are always\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto be given first consideration and are to be preferred to the classes — even when the classes\nare produced by anomalies and inconsistencies in spelling alone, it is evident that any\nreform that would assist the masses to the attainment of capability in reading and writing the language is fully justified and should be truly and heartily welcomed.\nThe result. — The adoption of simpUfied spelhng, as the course of study for the elementary public schools, will not cripple the pubUc later in recognizing the conventional\nforms in our literature because the changes recommended are not serious enough in their\ndepartures from the conventional forms to mar the appearance of the printed page. The\nresult that would eventually take place would be the permanent substitution of the shorter\nform for the longer form, and progress in simpUfication would become universal in one\ngeneration. The work that is being accomphshed by the most notable linguistic scholars\nof America and England will make the printed language more phonetic and will reduce\nthe diflSiculty of learning it for both the native and the foreigner. It will give much\nprogress in making the English language a world language, as it will enable the usage\nof it to become more largely universal. Standardization of English spelling should\nnaturally be directed toward the phonetic type as any other plan is contrary to both\nsense and philology. The result of having two acceptable forms, the conventional and\nthe simplified, will eventually lead to the universal adoption of the simpler, shorter, and\neasier form for all practical purposes. The claim that the dictionary is to record usage\nrather than to improve usage is fallacious and unprogressive and should never be accepted\nas either judicious or rational by those who are directly working for the progress, the\nsuccess, and the welfare of the common people.\nThe urgency, — This great endeavor should not be postponed for a generation, because\nit is urgently needed now and its possibilities are rapidly being recognized by both linr\nguistic scholars and by elementary teachers. The National Education Association is\nassumed to be specially interested in the education of the masses. Its very principles\nof organization and management should compel its members to work on the problems\nthat are practical rather than those alone that are speculative. Real reforms should be\nwelcomed and accepted, real progress should be hastened, actual developments and improvements should be urged and compelled, and elementary education should be made\nsatisfactory and universal. If the National Education Association cannot accept such\nthings as these as its mission, it becomes thereby a mutual admiration society without\neffective object as an end and without genuine reasons for existence. Reforms and progress of every kind that pertain to public education should be its province and its purpose.\nThe using of the shorter forms. — Practice not profession should be the action of all\nadherents of the cause. Courage and conviction should be proven by usage and this\nusage should include the vast majority of spellings that are recommended. The change\nto the shorter forms is very easy to make, so easy that it seems discreditable to claim\nsuch a plea as any reasonable excuse for not so doing. The necessity for people of influence and scholarship setting the example of such accepted change to the common people\nis very important, since for the sake of progress even those who might get along without\nsimpHfication can afford to do no less than show their sympathy and co-operation by actual acceptance. The fact that certain pubUshers of great dictionaries have yielded the\npoint on giving recognition to these shorter forms commends the adoption and the usage\nto the public as never before. The fact that the most noted linguists are able to commend\nthe plans and the work accomplished at present; the fact that certain schools of high\nstanding have granted their co-operation without hesitation and without disrepute, all\ninake it evident that the right side for the educator to take is that of supporting and adopting the results that guarantee certain progress to universal education.\nThe key alphabet. — ^Joined with this great reform of. a simple spelling is that of a\nsensible, suitable, key alphabet to represent pronunciation. The report of the Committee of the Department of Superintendence, after seven years' co-operative labor\nwith the American Philological Association and the Modern Language Association,\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenl]\n\nSIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nMASSES\n\n653\n\ngives the best solution to this problem that has ever been presented. It is a simple key,\nit is suitable for public-school work, it is easily acquired, it is truly phonetic, it harmonizes\nthe use of the vowels with European, continental languages in many respects, it is not\ncopyrighted as the property of any publisher, it can be used by any and all publishers,\nit is of a character and kind that deserves commendation of scholars and teachers, and\nhence its acceptability is real and genuine. It gives promise also of going farther than a\nkey alphabet in time to come, since these key forms can very easily become the standard\nforms after the key is universally used and the masses become thoroly acquainted with\nit as they will be. It will eliminate a multitude of difficulties that are now existing in\nthe conventional forms in common use by giving a key that can safely serve as a method\nof transition from an irregular and unscientific spelling to a purely phonetic spelling.\nIt does this also without abandoning the actual letters of the standard alphabet and\nwithout making actual new ones, and therefore it keeps the traditions and customs\nthat have governed the English-speaking races for many generations.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam T. Foster, president. Reed College, Portland, Ore. — I asked permission to\nhave my name last on the program in order that I might make the afternoon shorter than\nit otherwise would be. I leave it in your hands. If there are any topics in connection\nwith the movement for simplified spelling, any questions connected with it, that you\nwould like to hear about now, you may ask these questions. The responsibility is with you.\nEveryone here uses or does not use the simplified forms recommended by the Simplified Spelling Board. Everyone present is supposedly a rational being. If he does use\nthose simplified forms, he has reasons for using them. If he does not use those forms,\nrecommend, and teach them, he has reasons for so doing, he has objections to the movement. Ifyou have objections, I would like to hear them now.\nJ. Henry Senger, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. — I am fully convinced,\nfirst, that our children are handicapped at least one year by the present spelling compared\nwith children of nations who have rational spelling. Secondly, I have seen the introduction of an improved spelling by the three governments of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland effectually carried out within a very short time. We have all more or less accepted\nit, with the exception of a few fogies, who continue to spell thru with an o-u-g-h. However,\nit seems to me that the missionary business has been done successfully already by our\nAssociation. The next step is a great meeting of representatives of the English-speaking\nnations in London to deliberate on what has been done and what changes should now be\nintroduced by the governments of all English-speaking nations. Leave the newspapers\nalone. Many of them will not change except under special circumstances. But I think\nthe next step we ought to advocate is to insist upon the practical solution now by the governments of the English-speaking nations.\nH. C. Hall, principal, Irving M. Scott Evening School, San Francisco, Cal. — I\nwant to relate a little incident that happened to me as a school teacher in San Francisco,\nand then will state an objection that confronts us in California. I had occasion to teach\na Russian peasant class for one year, and when I gave them the word \"spell\" or taught\nthe word \"spell,\" they all looked at me with a blank expression. When I asked what the\nmatter was the most intelligent Russian said: \"Mr. Hall, we don't understand what you\nmean by that word 'spell.' \" I tried to explain to them and then they realized what I\nwas getting at, and asserted that such a word was not in the Russian language, that the\nRussian language was constructed so strictly upthi sound that there is no necessity for\nsuch a word as \"spell\" and no spelling required. Later on, thru my experience, whenever Icame across words such as you illustrate on the chart, there was also a grimace and\na little sly laughter in the class, and I had to stand for having fun poked at me.\nBut let\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nme tell the objection language teachers are meeting with. The State Board of Education\nproposes a textbook on spelling and then every teacher in the state is required to use that\ntextbook, and at the end of the year when we are making our annual reports we have to\nmake an affidavit to the effect that we have used the state textbook. Consequently, we\nare bound down by that iron-clad tradition to stick to the old form as expressed in the\ntextbook, and we are not allowed by law and by our oath to vary and go along the lines as\nyou suggested today. I wish to ask the speaker what remedy he would give us in that case.\nMr. Foster. — ^There are occasions when a teacher should not rebel against the\nauthority of the school board. If the law requires that a teacher shall perpetuate the\nmistakes of the Middle Ages the teacher has to perpetuate them in the school, or resign.\nI should be inclined to resign, or try it, and see what happened, but others are not at\nliberty to do so. I have no quarrel with them if they continue to teach the old forms.\nThey might use an antiquated spelHng-book and at the same time point out the antiquities and arouse interest in newer, simpler, and more sensible forms. If that is objectionable, the teachers could at least teach something of the history of the language. That\nis a mere matter of fact, whether anybody likes it or not. Every teacher is at Uberty to\ngive some insight in the development of the language. That at least would help in our\nschools. We might go a little farther back and say that it would do teachers themselves\nconsiderable good — especially those who are not interested to the extent of attending\nconventions — if they themselves would learn something of the history of the langug.ge\nand thus illuminate their teaching of spelling. Furthermore, they could at least use\nsimplified forms in their personal correspondence and could personally advocate it. The\ngreat trouble, as we all know, is not that we are prevented from doing things but that\nwe don't care enough to do that which we are able to do. If all the teachers of the\nUnited States today who are at perfect hberty to spell sensibly would do so, and express\ntheir opinions to those less competent to judge, I believe the whole question would be\nsettled. The newspapers will do whatever we wish. If you want simplified spelUng you\nwill get it. The teachers of the United States have not yet given sufficient evidence that\nthey want simplified spelling. As for the suggestion that a national conference should\ndecide this matter by the government, it is a capital way of doing things in the German\nEmpire. It is impossible in the United States. We have one of the largest, most competent, and most practical bodies of men that the world has ever seen addressing itself\nto an educational question. Nothing comparable to the Simplified Spelling Board has\nbeen known in the history of the world. And there is a further significant fact, that the\npresent board is the only one in the history of the world that has ever had sufficient\nfinancial support to make known the results of its work. I believe, as I believe in the\npossibihty of the progressive intellectual development of the human race, that this simplified-spelUng movement will dominate, and that most of us who are here today will be\nfollowing this method of spelling as a matter of course, and wiU be looking back on those\ncurious old days when we attempted to prolong the mistakes of our mediaeval ancestors.\nI believe this because I believe that the present generation, the generation in which you\nand I live, is the most scientific generation that the world has ever seen. We began first\nby introducing the study of science in our schools. We have gone even farther. We\nare now addressing ourselves in a scientific spirit to the study of education itself. More\nthan that, we are not only doing that in the lower schools, we are not only doing it in the\nsecondary schools, but colleges are now addressing themselves in increasing numbers to\nthe scientific study of education. They are willing to study the situation scientifically;\nto find the evidence, and to follow it wherever it leads. Within the past twelve months\nI have been all over the United States, and have visited over one hundred and fifty universities and colleges. One of the most interesting points has been my observation of\na scientific attitude toward problems of education. As you know, in the days of our\nforefathers, nearly all questions of education were settled by tradition and authority.\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nMASSES\n\n655\n\nThe rule was, what has been, should be. Our schools and colleges were little more than\nimitations of what had gone before. Down to the present time there has been little\nattempt to look the facts squarely in the face and find out what conclusions could be\nlogically drawn from the facts. Questions have been settled by the opinion of somebody who happened to be suiEciently aggressive or sufficiently dignified. But the time\nhas come when we are wary of any opinion which is not the result of scientific investigation. do\nI not care what you think about simplified spelling. I do not much care what\nyou think about any question of education. Your opinion is not worth much. Mine is\nworth less. The whole batch of opinions can be swept aside and an efifort made to get\nat the facts and interpret them. I find in every university of any standing whatever,\nevidence that they are addressing themselves to the problems of education in a scientific\nspirit in an endeavor to face the facts and find out where the facts lead. I cannot but\nbelieve that anything which is logically defensible will triumph, and simplified spelling is\nlogically defensible.\nMr. Garlick. — I should like to ask the speaker a question: Will you be kind enough\nto tell these people how for one cent they could get this literature and read these splendid\npapers that have been published, literature that is so instructive ? I should like to ask this\nquestion before you answer the other: How many of the teachers here have this literature ? Every one of them ought to have it. They can get it without money and without\neffort, excepting a one-cent postage stamp.\nMr. Foster. — If anybody here wishes to know the truth about the movement and\nnot to depend on what he has heard about it, or how the newspapers may have represented it,he may receive the information by sending his name to the Simplified Spelling\nBoard, New York City. Or you may give your name and address to Mr. Seerley, or to\nMr. Gideon, or to me. I am sure we shall be glad to see that your names are put\nupon the permanent mailing list and that you receive not only previous publications of\nthe board, but those which may come out from time to time. If you want to receive also\nthe bulletin — that is, the little magazine which is published from time to time, you may\nbecome subscribers to that by the payment of ten cents. If you do believe in it— and\nI think that you, as rational human beings and as teachers, ought to help in the movement— it seems to me it is your plain duty not only to ask for information but to enroll\nyourselves as users of simplified forms and have your names placed upon that list.\nWilliam J. Drew, Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, Cal. — I am at the head\nof the Department of Mechanical Drawing and Applied Science in the Polytechnic High\nSchool of this city; so you may think I have no business in this room, where you are talking\nabout modern languages. But I have had the honor of being a student of German under\nDr. Senger, at the University of California, several years ago, and ascribe some of my\ninterest in this subject to him. Also, having been a stident of phonography since boyhood, under my father, who studied with Ben Pitman, naturally my interest in simplified\nspelling is of long standing. About three years ago I had the pleasure of signing a card\nand joining the simplified spelling movement, and since that time have induced twenty\nothers to do likewise. I use the simplified-spelling forms in my correspondence as much\nas possible, and take a great deal of pleasure in going farther than that in a private way.\nMy father, Mr. J. R. Drew, and I have devised a system of fonetic spelling which we have\nused in correspondence for one year. We think it a logical system, find it to be easily\nacquired and simple to use. Correspondence is invited.\nGeorge R. Noyes, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. — I have a very few words\nto say. I have been impressed in listening to the arguments that have been presented,\nand I think all of us must feel that the campaign of the Simplified Spelling Board has\ndone some good in the community and has made some headway. Against the general idea\nthat spelling needs reform there is no more objection than that the tariff needs reform.\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThere is an analogy, I think, between spelling and custom. We, all of us, hate starched\nshirt bosoms and stiff collars, at least, I think most of us do; but none of us are anxious\nto be the first to discard them. Dress reform is not in our Une. Spelling reform is in\nour line and we have a right to take an active part in it, I know very little about\nprimary instruction, but I think that something could be done to teach English spelling\nin much the same spirit as we teach civic government, as a subject in which reforms are\nneeded and in which they are practicable. I wish to close with one contribution to the\nlighter literature on spelling reform. I gave some of the pamphlets to a student in the\nuniversity, who was studying botany. He came to me a few weeks later and said: \"Say,\nyou got me into trouble with that new spelling of yours. I used it in my thesis, in which\nthere were Latin words — and I simplified the spelling of them. But the professor told me\nthat Latin was a dead language and could not be simplified.\" Now EngUsh is a live\nlanguage and we can help to simpHfy it.\nGrace Davis, Oregon State Normal School, Monmouth, Ore. — I had very little\nknowledge of simplified spelling until about a year ago. I had heard several people\nspeak about it, but they had told me that it was simply a foolish fad that would pass\naway in time. So I had no interest in it and had never taken the trouble to study the\nmatter until suddenly I found myself editor-in-chief of the Crucible, the school paper of\nthe Colorado Teachers College. Then I was in a peculiar situation. I had no interest in\nsimplified spelling, yet the editors of the paper had been in the habit of using simplified\nspelling thruout its issues. So it was necessary for me to learn simplified forms. I\nstarted out on my first month's work with little knowledge of simplified spelling. I took\nthe hst which the board had published and which I had secured and tried to learn the\nnew forms merely by means of the Ust, without a knowledge of the rules. I do not know\nhow long I continued that method, but I found that I got into all sorts of difficulties. For\ninstance, I could not tell exactly when to leave off the e's after il, in, is, and it. As soon\nas I found what difificulty I had, I took the pamphlet and expected to devote several\nhours to the study of rules. I thought it was going to be a terrible task to learn them ,\nbecause they covered over three pages, but when I came to settle down to the work\nthey seemed most sensible. All that was necessary was to find exactly how far the\nboard had gone in simplification. As soon as I learned that the rest came easily, for\nthe rules are nothing but common-sense facts. The use of the simplified forms at\nfirst gave me a Httle difficulty because of the fact that it took a conscious effort on my\npart to keep the rules in mind and not lose sight of the text of the work which it was\nmy business to read before pubHcation. But this diflSculty soon vanished also and I\nwas able to devote my time entirely to the contents of the paper I was reading, the\nsimplification coming just as easily as the regular spelling had come formerly.\nNeither did it interfere at all with the old forms of spelling. I can use them just as\nreadily as I can the simplified forms, and if I wish to use the simplified forms in my\ncorrespondence or in writing, I find no difl&culty in so doing. In fact, I heartily believe\nin the movement of the Simplified Spelhng Board, and think that it is the duty of all\nteachers to try to spread this movement abroad and make it known to the different\npeople with whom they come in contact. I secm-ed several copies of the literature of the\nSimplified Spelling Board and furnished them to the staff on the Crucible, and by that\nmeans enabled them to use simplified spelhng. It seems to me in these days when the\nteachers are so progressive in other ways, it is too bad that so many of them should be\nso unprogressive as not to use simphfied spelhng. When you are trying to save time for\nchildren in other ways, why should you not save time in spelling ? The children would\nnot have to spend hours and hours in trying to master our language if really they ever\ndo master it. For I think almost every one of us at times is incUned to make mistakes ,\neven on forms with which we think we are perfectly famihar. I know that some people\nhave strange ideas on simphfied spelhng.\nFor instance, one girl picked up some of the\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nMASSES\n\n657\n\nliterature one day and said: \"Now see, here is the word \"hart\" and the word \"kist.'»\nWhy that takes all the romance out of it. I don't like it at all.\" I want to say that I\nam heartily in favor of the movement and I hope that many people will take it up.\nR. W. CoRWiN, M.D., Colorado Fuel & Iron Co., Pueblo, Colo. — I feel entirely out\nof place in attempting to talk to you about simplified speUing. I came here to listen to\nthe discussion, and among other speakers, to hear Dr. Jordan, not with the intention of\nspeaking upon this subject myself; and, judging from the condition of the air in the room\nyou should be out of doors instead of confined longer in this atmosphere.\nThere is no doubt but that there is reason for continuing the old methods of spelling\nscientific names if we wish to consider the origin of words, but if we intend to simplify\nspelling, certainly we must consider it phonetically rather than etymologically.\nA few examples will suffice to illustrate my point:\nPneumonia\nPhlegm\nCheihtis\nPhthisis\nCholic\nPhenyl\nPhysic\nChloral\nPhesin\nChemolysis\nThe last speaker said that we were dealing with a dead language. If that be the\ncase let us bury some of the ancient ways of spelling and adopt a language more consistent with the living.\nM. R. Kerr, principal, Union High School, Inglewood, Cal. — I am very much\ninterested in this movement and feel that we are at point now where we can help the\ncause. If I should follow out my speech we would inunediately become revolutionists,\nand then there would be trouble, but I thank you just the same.\nDavid Felmley, president, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111. — ^There\nis one point in connection with this meeting which it appears to me has not been touched\nupon, and that is that if we had more phonetic spelUng we could have better pronunciation of the English language. As it is now, the pronunciation goes along one Une,\nchiefly by ear, and the spelling along another line, learned by the eye. If our language\nwas thoroly phonetic I think each would help the other. You know it is often pointed\nout that American people pronounce words as they are spelled, especially geographical\nwords and other proper names, more than the EngUsh people do, because American\npeople, having been pioneers, have studied oftener in solitude, without conversation\nwith others, and so a very large proportion of our words come to us as in their printed\nform and we guess at their pronunciation. Last week I was in Yellowstone Park for a\nwhole week, and we had ten men who went along in charge of the party. I talked a\ngood deal with these men and I found that the leader was a man very widely read. He\nhad read Herbert Spencer and a great deal of the best scientific literature of our generation, but his pronunciation was awful. He had a wide vocabulary and spoke well, but\nhe had read those words in the long Idaho winters and had picked up that pronunciation.\nIt brought home to me the truth — for I believe it is a truth — that if we had a better\nspelling we could master English better, speak it more distinctly and in all ways more\nbeautifully than we do now.\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nHIGHER\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Jas£ES H. Baker, president, University of Colorado\nVice-President — ^James A. MacLean, president, University of Idaho\nSecretary — Frederick P. Keppel, dean, Columbia College\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nBoulder, Colo.\nMoscow, Idaho\nNew York. N.Y.\n\nForenoon, July 12, 191 1\n\nThe meeting of the department was called to order at 9:45 a.m. by the president,\nJames H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. In the absence\nof the secretary, M. E. Deutsch, of the University of California, was chosen temporal y\nsecretary.\nThe department at once proceeded to the program set for the day, and the following papers were read:\n\"The Separation and Development of the Junior College as Distinct from the\nUniversity,\" by C. A. Duniway, president. University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\n\" The Relation of the College of Liberal Arts to the Professional and Practical\nSchools,\" by Thomas F. Kane, president. University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.\n\"The Building Up of Professional Education on a Collegiate Foundation from the\nViewpoint of the Professional Schools,\" by David Starr Jordan, president of Leland\nStanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the chair, to present\nits report at the meeting of the department on July 14:\nThomas F. Kane, president, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.\nC. A. Duniway, president, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nA. Grant Evans, president, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.\nThe department then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 14, 191 1\n\nThe department was called to order at 9:45 A.M., President Baker in the chair.\nA paper entitled \"Some Phases of University Efl&ciency\" was read by Alexis F.\nLange, professor of education. University of California, Berkeley, Cal., and was discussed by Lewis B. Avery, principal of the High School, San Jos6, Cal., and Abram\nGideon, professor of modem languages, Colorado Teachers College, Greeley, Colo.\nC. N. Little, professor of civil engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho,\npresented a paper on \"The Supply of and Demand for Engineering Graduates in the\nUm\"ted States.\"\nP. L, Campbell, president of the University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore., read a\npaper on \"The Future of Intercollegiate Athletics in the Western States.\" The latter\npaper was discussed by J. C. Templeton, superintendent of schools, Palo Alto, Cal.;\nThomas F. Kane, president. University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.; and C. N. Little,\nprofessor of civil engineering, University of Idaho,\n659 Moscow, Idaho.\nThe business of the department was then taken up. The president deplored the\n^oor attendance, and urged a consideration of what could be done to make the department contribute most to the work it represents.\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following nominations for officers for\nthe ensuing year:\nFor President — Samuel Avery, chancellor, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nFor Vice-President — John H. T. Main, president, Iowa College, Grinnell, Iowa.\nFor Secretary — Fletcher H. Swift, professor of education, University of Minnesota,\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nThe report was unanimously adopted.\nThe suggestion of the president was brought up by President Kane, of the University of Washington, who urged that a committee be appointed to consider means of\nenlarging the department's usefulness. Professor G. W. A. Luckey, of the University\nof Nebraska, moved that a committee be appointed by the chair to consider the time\nand place of meeting of the department, and also to discuss any modifications of its\npoUcy. The motion was adopted. The following were appointed to constitute this\nCommittee on Policy of the Department of Higher Education:\nG. W. A. Luckey, professor of education. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nFrank Strong, president. University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.\nC. A. Duniway, president, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nOn motion of President Kane, of the University of Washington, the department\ntendered the authors of the various papers read a vote of appreciation of their services.\nThe session then adjourned.\nMonroe E. Deutsch, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSEPARATION\nAND\nDEVELOPMENT\nCOLLEGE AS DISTINCT FROM THE\nC. A.\n\nDUNIWAY,\n\nOF THE\nJUNIOR\nUNIVERSITY\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE UNIVERSITY\nAnSSOULA,\nMONT.\n\nOF\n\nMONTANA,\n\nThis paper is partly a report upon, and partly a discussion of, its topic\n— the separation and development of the Junior college as distinct from\nthe university. On the principle of doing unto others as they do unto\nme, I have inflicted upon the presidents of all the state universities a\nquestionnaire requesting information on present practice and especially on\nnew developments of the year just closing. About three-fourths of the\nofficers thus addressed have favored me with their answers. With collective acknowledgment to them for their courtesy, I make their letters\nlargely the basis for my paper.\nAt the outset it must be recognized that the subject of the Junior\ncollege may be approached from several different standpoints. In some\ncases it may appear to be a device to relieve congestion caused by the\ninflux of undergraduate students. The hope may be that the public high\nschools will develop into popular schools of the people, retaining their\nstudents thru a period of six years beyond the common schools; it may\nbe a policy to encourage similar schools already in existence, generally\nunder some denominational control, to put the emphasis of their work\nupon the thirteenth and fourteenth years of educational training.\nIf\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] SEPARATION\n\nAND\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF JUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n66i\n\nthese steps can be taken, then the university, relieved from the necessity\nof providing for crowds of Freshmen and Sophomores, would give its best\nservices to the persistent students who wish to pursue their courses to\nsome professional purpose.\nIn other cases, the desire to develop separate Junior colleges has sprung\nfrom the avowed purpose to shut out from the university the too youthful,\npleasure-loving crowd, who bring problems of discipline foreign to the\ninterest of a scholarly faculty and their studious disciples. Only those\npersons should be tolerated in a university, it has been said, who have a\ndefinite purpose and a recognized ability to order their lives as responsible\ncitizens in a free republic of science and letters.\nThe real problems of Junior colleges, however, lie deeper than the\nissues involved in such administrative considerations as have been just\ndescribed. We have here something more than the need to relieve our\ngreat public universities from a part of their difficulties in caring for college\nstudents. We must test the value of Junior colleges, whether existing or\nproposed, by a judgment of their actual or probable educational service\nto young men and women between the ages of seventeen and twenty-one.\nWill it not conduce to clearness if we attempt a definition of a separate\nJunior college — the particular variety of college institution which is the\nsubject of this paper? A Junior college, then, is a college providing\ninstruction and proper administration for the two years of higher education traditionally covered now by the Freshman and Sophomore years\nof the standard American college or university. Such a Junior college\nwould not carry its students beyond the point thus assumed to be the\ngoal of its work, while it starts its instruction with the usual thirteenth\nyear of a course which presupposes twelve years of training extending\nthru elementary, intermediate, and secondary grades. We have then to\nconsider whether the separate Junior college as thus defined, and as existing\nin more or less completeness in a few institutions, will find its proper place\nin our American educational system as a permanent and valuable feature.\nThe responses to my letters of inquiry develop the fact that the movement to the separation and development of Junior colleges has not made\nsignificant progress during the year just past. A long list of university\npresidents answer in effect that the subject has not been up for a serious\ndiscussion, and that no measures tending toward the establishment of a\nseparate Junior college are in contemplation. A very few venture the\nopinion that the failure of their institutions to take any active steps toward\nthe establishment of separate Junior colleges may not be indicative fo\ncontinued inactivity on this subject. They remark that progressive steps\nin the better organizations of higher education may possibly bring about\nsomething of the sort.\nIn a number of institutions, the past year has witnessed a considerable\ndegree of attention to the better organization and administration of the\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nwork of the first two years of higher education. One may recognize the\neffects of a current reaction against the administrative looseness of the\nfree elective system. It is found in the practices of all too many college\nmen and women — who are after all but boys and girls — with respect to\ntheir higher educational opportunities. With the characteristics of boys\nand girls, they are prone to take advantage of the possibilities of a free\nelective system by absorbing an intellectual diet of the greatest diversity,\nbut not chosen with a view to intellectual good digestion and mental\nvigor. President Lowell took the lead in Harvard to bring about some\nregulation of the freedom of election hitherto enjoyed in that institution.\nHis results preserve the integrity of the elective system quite unimpaired.\nTheir practical effect is to give Harvard students advice and guidance\nin a system which remains essentially elective. Many of our institutions\nhave been solving the same problem upon the principles of supervision\nthus adopted at Harvard — many of them, it should be added, having worked\nout their results before the cumbersome Harvard legislative machinery\ncould produce its statutes on the subject. It is interesting to notice that\nthe University of Kansas, with its system of group prescriptions, has worked\nout a system upon the basis of experience with Kansas students which is\nanimated by a similar spirit. In the institution with which I am connected, the University of Montana, a group system, with quite close\nregulation of student propensities in electing courses, gave way two years\nago to a system of restricted electives in the Freshmen and Sophomore\nyears, which is strikingly like the system afterward adopted at Harvard,\nand for some time found in Chicago May it not be that right here is the\ndistinctly valuable and relatively permanent contribution to educational\norganization produced by the suggestion of so-called Junior colleges ? If\nJunior colleges are not to be extensively organized and separately maintained, we shall at least have the benefit of candid consideration of the\nneeds of students in the first two years of their higher education. Systems\ndiffering somewhat in content, but very similar in purport, will prevail\namong our various institutions. The heart of such systems is the determination to have these college students make their choice of courses under\nexpert guidance. In one method or another, each of the students will\nbe put in charge of, and made responsible to, an appointed adviser. The\nfaculty will define in general terms the fields of knowledge within which\nthe adviser and his student should seek to arrange the student's course.\nThe adviser as an administrative officer, acting upon the legislation of\nthe faculty, will still have a considerable range of choice within which to\nassist the student in the election of particlar courses within the several\ndepartments. I imagine, and am practically willing to prophesy, that\nthe older and more closely prescribed group courses of the typical New\nEngland college will be liberalized in this direction. I likewise imagine,\nand am ready to prophesy, that institutions which have been proud of\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSEPARATION\n\nAND\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF JUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n663\n\nhaving elective systems will rapidly introduce some such administrative\nregulations as have just been described.\nThis paper might well stop at this point, because I have given, first,\nthe substantial results of my inquiries on the tendencies and practice of\nthe year just closing with respect to Junior colleges, and I have stated,\nsecond, my conviction upon the heart of the problem. I feel, however,\nthat I should add, for the sake of completeness, some remarks upon other\nphases of the general subject. Probably all of my audience are familiar\nwith the Junior colleges, such as organized in the University of Chicago,\nthe University of California, and the University of Nevada. Here it should\nbe njDticed that there is not a complete separation and development of\nJunior colleges as distinct from the university. I believe I am right in\nasserting that these are but convenient administrative devices for the\nmanagement of the first two years of higher education. A separate Junior\ncollege, to be really an institution bearing that name, should have a separate\nfaculty, should have separate classrooms, should have separate equipment.\nThe meeting in the same classroom and laboratory of students of Junior\ncollege rank and Senior college rank would not be permitted under a real\nseparate Junior college system. The varying needs and attainments of\nuniversity students, however, scarcely makes such separation possible,\nand if it were possible, the process probably should not be carried out.\nBetween the ages of eighteen and twenty-two differences between students\nare much more a matter of temperament and of previous opportunity than\nof mere age, and certainly a younger man gains much from being allowed\nto work in the same classroom or laboratory with a man of a little more\nmaturity.\n\nI\n\nThere are not a few institutions calling themselves colleges and universities, and only half deserving their name, .which are now tending,\nor are at least being urged, to become Junior colleges. Mostly, however,\nthey do not deserve this new title, inasmuch as they receive into the same\ninstitution, and often into the same classes, students who have not finished\ntheir secondary training; then if they are able to hold them, they are\nmore than willing to induce the students to remain beyond their fourteenth\nyear of instruction.\nThe movement, which finds many advocates and some examples, to\ninduce public high schools to give six-year courses, likewise seems to require\nnotice in a treatment of Junior colleges. But if what has just been said\nis essentially right, then the mere prolongation of the work of a given\nhigh school to keep its students busy for six years does not really make\nof that high school a Junior college.\nFinally, at the risk of inviting criticism by dififering from many of my\nassociates, I must record my opinion that the movement to mark a clear\ndistinction between two parts of higher education at the end of the fourteenth year seems to me unsound and destined to have only a passing\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nvogue. When young men or young women reach the age of eighteen or\nninteen years, it is time to recognize that most of them are ready to undertake a man's work or a woman's work. If they are in an institution of\nlearning, this principle must be applied as it is applied in vocational life.\nSuch students demand processes, points of view, and methods differing\nfrom those of the secondary school. I would not draw a hard and fast\nline at the thirteenth year of educational training, but that appears to\n•be a reasonable point of departure, traditionally and psychologically, for\nthe inception of mature work. The student needs more expert guidance\nby college officers and in the general provisions of university statutes than\nhe will require two or three years later, but he should be essentially doing\nwork with the motives of a mature person. In our professional schools\nthis principle has sway. It should likewise control our educational policy\nin other departments. I conclude, therefore, with the statement that I\nsee no reason to expect the separate and distinct Junior college to be a\ntypical feature of American higher education.\nTHE\nTHOMAS\n\nRELATION OF THE COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS\nTHE PROFESSIONAL AND PRACTICAL SCHOOLS\nF. KANE,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF WASHINGTON,\n\nSEATTLE,\n\nTO\nWASH.\n\nIn this paper we are to deal with the relation of the college of liberal\narts to the professional and practical schools. We shall interpret this subject as tho it read, \"The College of Liberal Arts and Its Relations to the\nOther Schools of the University.\" Again, we shall look at these relations\nfrom the point of view of the college of liberal arts and we shall take the\nposition that the observations are made primarily for the benefit of that\ncollege. We are assuming two years of training in the college of liberal\narts for admission to the other schools, which is the standard set up by\nthe National Association of State Universities and the Association of\nAmerican Universities. Hence the relation of the admission from the\ncollege of liberal arts to the schools will not be considered in this paper.\nSome of the relations to be considered are not so obvious as the ones\njust mentioned and so may not in the same degree force our attention.\nAt the same time they are important in their influence on the college of\nliberal arts and affect vitally the service which that college is to render in\nthe work of the university.\nIn the first place, the college of liberal arts, strictly speaking, is related\nto elements in its own organization that are not a part of itself. There\nare grouped under the name of the college of liberal arts, not only the college proper, but with it all the undifferentiated parts of the university.\nFor example, the college of liberal arts has in its organization practically\nall the special courses that have been provided for women. The college\nof liberal arts should be relieved of this demand for work which is not\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nOF LIBERAL\n\nARTS\n\n665\n\nliberal arts work, but is in fact the work of departments that are to be for\nwomen.\nOn the other hand, women in co-educational universities should logically have the same provision made for their needs as has been made for\nthe needs of the men. These departments should include such courses\nas training for teaching, household economics, training for clerical positions,\nfor library work, for different lines of modern civic and philanthropic work,\ncourses in music, courses in the fine arts, and other lines of special training\nfor which there is a valid demand.\nNot only should courses be provided specifically for women, but in\nevery co-educational college of liberal arts there should be at least a small\ngroup of women teachers qualified on a par with their colleagues to serve\nas a nucleus of advisers and counsellors for the women students the same\nas the men teachers serve as counsellors for the young men. This provision at present is almost entirely lacking in the co-educational liberal\narts colleges in the state universities.\nFurthermore, the crowding of practically all the women in the university into the college of liberal arts creates a feeling that the college of\nliberal arts is a woman's college. The result is not simply that the college under these circumstances has the appearance of being a woman's\ncollege, but logically it must take on more or less of the nature of a woman's\ncollege. The remedy here is the annex of the older universities as Harvard, Yale, and Columbia, the separate department as recently established\nat Tufts, the plan of uniform segregation in the Junior college as at Chicago,\nthe plan of separate sections of class work by election as at Cornell, or the\nplan followed in our university of allowing the departments to have separate\nsections in courses in which the work is at a disadvantage, either for the\nmen or for the women, on account of mixed classes.\nThe plan of separate sections helps not alone in making liberal arts\nappeal more strongly to men as well as to women, but it will, in a large\nmeasure, do away with the growing prejudice against co-education. It\nshould avoid a repetition of the experience at Wesleyan University. It\nis the way in the larger colleges of liberal arts to preserve co-education, at\nleast in its best form.\nPerhaps the best example of professional work in the college of liberal\narts, in the average university, is the department of education. In our\ngraduating class of 191 1 in the college of liberal arts, of one hundred and\nforty-five members, seventy-seven, almost exactly one-half, took in our\ndepartment of education the normal diploma, which is equivalent to a\nstate teacher's certificate. This means that half of the supposed class of\nliberal-arts students were working for a jwofessional degree, in addition\nto their liberal-arts degree, and that the work taken and the spirit of\nthe work were determined, in part and perhaps in a large part, by the\nrequirements for the professional diploma.\nIn this way many of our col-\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nleges of liberal arts are almost teachers' colleges. The remedy here is that\nfollowed by the state university of this state in which we meet, in making\nthe department of education a professional school and requiring a full\nyear of professional training for its degree.\nWe assumed, in this paper, that the college of liberal arts is to furnish\"\npart of the preparation for admission to the professional and practical\nschools. In this relation, the college of liberal arts inherits one of the most\nperplexing problems with which the university and this association have\nhad to deal, namely, admission requirements.\nThere are three steps which the college of liberal arts may take to\nbetter its relations with the high school. In our state of Washington,\nfor example, students are admitted without examination to the university\nfrom schools put on the accredited list by the state board of education, of\nwhich the president of the university is ex officio a member. We may in\nsuch cases have the awkward situation that a high-school graduate is\nadmitted to the university and yet he is not qualified to register unconditioned for any degree course in the university. The college of liberal\narts, in such cases, may well make the adjustments by giving these students who have their fifteen acceptable entrance units the preliminary\ntraining they need to enable them to register unconditioned for the degree\ncourse which they wish to take.\nAgain, in our college of liberal arts there is required of all candidates\nfor degrees work in all the larger divisions of knowledge. In each required\nsubject, where the work is represented in the high school, there is a concession scheduled for the student who presents a specified amount of highschool credit in the work. This concession, altho it does not aflfect the\ntotal of the credits required in college, enables a student to do extra work\nin some subject in which his high-school credits were short.\nAgain, the college of liberal arts, having sole charge of these university\nrelations with the high schools, may comparatively easily keep a duplicate set of records of its Freshmen, by high schools, and report to highschool principals, regularly or on occasion, the standing of their highschool graduates in college.\nHence, in serving as a clearing-house for the university, as it must\nserve under present organization, the college of liberal arts is spending\npart of its energies in the interest of its relations to the whole university '\nand not for itself distinctly.\nAgain, with present university organization, departments of the college of liberal arts do the foundation work of the other schools, all of their\ncourses that are not technically a part of the respective schools. These\ncommon departments are in organization assigned to the college of liberal\narts, in its capacity of representing all the parts of the university not\nspecifically assigned to some other college.\nOne essential thing is that the work for these various schools should\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nOF^LIBERAL\n\nARTS\n\n667\n\nbe done efficiently. There is no disadvantage to the work for the schools,\nso far as our university is concerned, in the present organization. The\nnext essential point is that the influence of the college of liberal arts should\nbe strong enough to keep the work in these courses from becoming too\nnarrowly specialized and, in the end, not being so good for the special\nschools as a broader course more nearly like that given in the college of\nliberal arts.\nAnother essential consideraticwi, from the standpoint of the college of\nliberal arts, is that the work for the liberal-arts students should not be\ndetermined in these departments by the technical courses, often attended\nby more students than the liberal-arts courses in the department, and that\nthe liberal-arts courses should not be swallowed up by courses that are\nreally planned for the professional or technical schools. In other words,\nthe efficiency of the work in the college of liberal arts for its own students\nshould not be reduced on account of other work incorporated within the\norganization of the college.\nThe relation of the college of liberal arts to the other schools of the\nuniversity may change but its relation to the graduate school is fixed. It\nis the first story on which the graduate school builds its superstructure.\nThis is a very important relation in its potential influences on the college\nof liberal arts.\nThe first essential here is that there be no confusion between the work\nof the college of liberal arts and that of the graduate school. It is not\nespecially objectionable for the two classes of students to work in part\ntogether, but the work itself ought to be either graduate work or undergraduate work. If the relations are kept clear and distinct, the influence\non the college of liberal arts of the graduate school should be highly beneficial. Ithelps to foster the spirit of scholarship and the spirit of investigation. It inspires the undergraduate to look forward to something\nbeyond the bounds of the college. It is beneficial for the undergraduate\nto be in the atmosphere of scholarship and original work.\nThe disadvantage to the college from this relation to the graduate\nschool may not have been so apparent. There is danger, in the first place,\nthat the men formulating the courses for the undergraduates may plan\ncourses that would be for the 10 per cent of the men who are going into the\ngraduate school and only secondarily for the 90 per cent of the men who\nare not going into the graduate school. The courses, in other words, as in\nthe case of the other schools, may be too much specialized and take away\nfrom the college of liberal arts the distinctive courses of that college.\nAgain, we have brought into the college of liberal arts methods of\ninstruction and plans of work that are suited to the plans of the graduate\nschool, but which do not give the best results in the undergraduate school.\nAn illustration of this is the lecture method used now even with lower\nclasses in undergraduate work.\nThis is one of the most common causes\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(Higher\n\nof poor work in the college of liberal arts. This will serve as an illustration of the bad effect that may come to the college of liberal arts from its\nrelation to the graduate school. Its work and methods of work should\nbe kept distinct and its purposes should not be thwarted by its relations\nto the graduate school or any other school.\nThe college of liberal arts is one of our largest colleges, the largest college in most of our universities. In our university, the enrollment (191011) in the college was 1,244, out of a total enrollment of 2,427, being in\npoint of size half the entire university. If the undifferentiated parts in\nthis college were differentiated, the college of liberal arts would be much\nsmaller. It would still be representing the interests of more students\nthan any other college in our university. Hence, provision should be made\nfor this college in keeping with its importance.\nThe special purpose of this paper is to point out that the college of\nliberal arts should not be hampered by its relations. It must not be submerged by the undifferentiated work of the university. It must not have\nall of its energies used in its work as a university clearing-house. It must\nnot have its courses determined by its service as a fitting school for the\nother schools of the university. These interests may be taken care of\nunder the organization of the college of liberal arts, but this college must\nbe left to its distinctive work, in the same way that the other colleges are\nallowed to do their specific work. Even in comparison with these services\nto the university generally, which have been enumerated, the greatest\nservice of the college of liberal arts to the university will be thru its own\ndistinctive work. It must do the work for the university which President\nFaunce points out has not yet been fully done, when he says:\nAmerica does not yet reaUy believe in the disinterested pursuit of truth, knowledge,\nscholarship. Hence, we have no scientists, philosophers, or writers of the first rank.\nIf the universities surrender to the craze for immediate tangible efl&ciency, we shall be\nin evil case.\n\nThe college of liberal arts stands then for this disinterested pursuit of\ntruth, knowledge, scholarship, and preparation for complete living. Toward\nthe attainment of these aims it must first of all have inspiring teachers.\nTeaching in the college of liberal arts is more difficult than in the other\nschools of the university, for the reason that the ends sought in the work\nare less easily seen. The purposes of the college are not so easily grasped,\nespecially by the mind in its earlier processes of training. Hence, from the\nneeds of the college, the teachers should be among the very best in the\nuniversity.\nIts object is to make thinkers and persons of broad sympathies. The\nstudent becomes a thinker thru acquainting himself with the extended\nand advanced processes of thought in a limited number of subjects. On\nthe other hand he should acquire a breadth of view and a breadth of sym-\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nOF LIBERAL\n\nARTS\n\n669\n\npathy thru an outline survey of subjects in all the great divisions of knowledge. A student with us, having half the work of his course specified in\ngroup requirements, concentrates his efforts thru at least three years continuous work in his major department and he is given an acquaintance in\nall the other main divisions of knowledge by group requirements in all\nthese divisions.\nWith the object of the college of liberal arts to fix habits of mind and\nto make thinkers, it must be- understood that the manner of doing work\nis even more important than the ground covered. Hence, the University of\nMissouri is taking an advanced step when it puts a definite premium, in extra\ncredits, on the excellence of work done by students and a discount on work\nwith a passing mark that is still inferior in quality. Our college faculty\nhas sought the same end by the regulation, not yet applied, that a candidate for a degree may count only a proportion of credits of the lower grades.\nFurther than this, the scientific grading system, based on the average\nwork of college students, should be adopted, especially in the college of\nliberal arts. Our faculty, thru a committee, has been testing department\nreports by this principle of grading for two years. It has exerted a strong\ninfluence toward uniformity of grading and toward giving the student's\nwork a rating that has a definite meaning.\nAgain, as the college stands for the student's personal development,\nspecial emphasis should be laid on the fact that the student in the college\nof liberal arts must work. This end should be sought primarily thru the\nskillful work of the teachers, but in support of the teachers our faculty\nhas the regulation that\nany student, who, in any Semester, is reported as doing unsatisfactory work in more\nthan half of his registered hours, will be dropped and any student who, in any semester,\nis reported as doing unsatisfactory work in more than one quarter of his registered\nhours should be placed on probation.\n\nFurthermore, our examinations in the college of liberal arts are year\nexaminations, with final examinations for graduation covering all the subjects taken in the major department. Again, in some of the large departments the questions for the examination for different sections of similar\nwork are made up by the department faculty, as a committee, and the\npapers are examined by the instructors in the department who do not know\nwhose paper they are examining, or the student of what instructor is\nbeing examined.\nThe work of the college, carried out earnestly to gain the chief ends of\nthe college, will appeal to the student and arouse him to as serious effort\nas the schedule of any other college. Th^ universities should favor in\nevery way the college of liberal arts toward the attaining of these ends.\nIt is to the interest of our whole people, as well as of scholars, that the\ncollege of liberal arts should be enabled to do its peculiar work, distinct\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIHigher\n\nfrom that of all the other schools. This interest is pointed out by President Lowell, quoted with approval by President Finley {North American\nReview, 19 10, p. 436), in these words:\nThe college of the future has a great work to do for the American people — a college\nwhich can give freedom of thought, a breadth of outlook, a training for citizenship, which\nneither the secondary nor professional school in this country can give.\n\nTHE\n\nDAVID\n\nBUILDING\nUP OF PROFESSIONAL\nEDUCATION\nON\nCOLLEGIATE FOUNDATION FROM THE VIEWPOINT\nOF THE PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS\nSTARR JORDAN,\n\nPRESIDENT, LELAND STANFORD\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nA\n\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\n\n\\An Abstract]\n\nIn the early days of the development of the European universities\nworthy of the name there were four departments, philosophy, theology,\nlaw, and medicine. Philosophy and the subjects associated with it have\nin many cases since come to occupy the main attention of the universities; theology has taken a special path that does not concern us now;\nwhile medicine and law, after a period outside of the university, are again\nfinding their true place in it. German universities have set the pace for\nthe educational world and have retained their intimate association with\nthe so-called professional studies. In England, the universities are not\nuniversities in fact but only a number of schools collected together, the\nexaminations of which are given under the direction of university professors. The relations of these colleges to science .have been ridiculous,\nwhile their relations to philosophy and general education have been very\nnoble. Chemical laboratories are almost absent from the colleges of Oxford, and one that I saw there was not so large or as well equipped as the\none in the little village of Palo Alto. The ideal of developing gentlemen\nby teaching them things that were perhaps cultural but not practical or\nuseful has had much to do with the attitude of many of the English, who\neither do no work or work looking forward only to the time when its rewards\nwill place them where they do not have to work. Engineering was the\nfirst truly modern profession because the foundation for it had to be laid\nsoundly, and while a physician could perhaps hide his ignorance or mistakes and a lawyer get behind the intricacies of the law, the natural forces\nconfronting the engineer had to be met by accurate knowledge, accurately\napplied, and the results were obvious to all. In England much of this\nteaching has been in the hands of the various city universities and has not\nbeen a part of the greater and older seats of learning.\nIn this country for many years the education of the lawyer and physician was most unsatisfactory. In law the student often read law in some\noffices where he handled minor cases and ran errands and gradually ac-\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nFOUNDATION\n\n671\n\nquired some insight into the forms of legal procedure. The lectures given\nin the various law schools with which he at times supplemented his work,\nwere, except where some rare mind filled him with inspiration, of little\nreal value. In medicine the conditions were similar. There seemed to\nbe no good way to give medical education, so physicians banded themselves\ntogether into the so-called proprietary medical schools. At first it was an\norganization founded upon love of the profession, but in many instances\nan institution founded upon such love drifted gradually toward advertising its faculty in various ways.- Besides, medicine became a most difficult\nprofession, requiring years of expensive laboratory work in preparation\nfor it. Not many years ago there was no science of bacteriology, no microscope, no understanding of the chemical processes of the boay. Since the\nhuman body is the most complicated chemical machine known, the physician must know much biology, physiology, and chemistry in order to\nattempt to interfere with it. At best he can only hope to direct or control\nit, for the days of specific drug therapy of disease have largely gone by.\nExcept for a few striking exceptions, such as the lethal effect of quinine\nupon the malarial organism, the most that can be done is to modify by\ndrugs the natural body functions and reactions, by producing one effect,\nmodify another. With medicine always upon the firing line of advance,\ndepending upon all that has gone before and even penetr-ating into dark\ncorners, it is especially important that it should be intimately associated\nwith our universities. The foundation work required for it has become\nso much more elaborate and so expensive that only universities can properly handle it. The principal duty of the university is to set standards\nand in no other field of knowledge is this more important than in medicine.\nAbout twenty years ago Johns Hopkins University Medical School\nwas founded in Baltimore to further the teaching of medicine in the United\nStates and bring it to the level of the German universities. One of the\nfirst requirements that it exacted from the prospective student was that\nhe was to have a degree from the liberal-arts department of some accredited university. This brought the standard above any medical college in\nthe country. This was the first step that was taken in this country to\neliminate the proprietary medical school, and the other universities had to\nfollow the lead of this action, until at the present time every reputable\nmedical college in the country demands that the student have at least an\neducation sufficient to understand what he is being taught.\nHarvard, Cornell, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Washington University in\nSt. Louis, have with others followed along the lines laid down by Johns\nHopkins to bring the medical schools back into true university ways, for\nteaching medicine and law is a true university function. If the universities graduated only one hundred physicians or lawyers of the right\nstamp it would be better than to have a great number of poorly trained\nones turned loose upon the commimity.\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nAn education in the liberal arts is not sufficient foundation for anyuniversity to attempt to teach medicine upon. Chemistry, biology, physics, and German or French should be taught to the student who is about\nto enter upon a medical career before he enters a medical college. With\nthis foimdation and a four years' course in a first-class medical college he\nwill be prepared to minister to the needs that are demanded of him.\nThe .requisite preparation for the four years of medical instruction\nshould be, then, three years of university work, about two-thirds of the\ntime of which should go to the sciences upon which medicine is based and\nthe languages which one needs to study medical literature, and about\none-third to courses of liberal arts. In law about the same amount of\nbasic preparatory work should be done before the three years of actual\nlaw study leading up to the Juris Doctor degree. Only so can the lawyer\nbecome an expert in justice, for that is what he should be. University\ntraining is practically requisite for the ordinary man in order to grasp the\ngreat basic principles of the law and to become a real expert in equity.\nUniversities should recognize their duties to professional training and take\nback medicine and law and make the degrees of Doctor of Medicine and\nDoctor of Law correspond in university importance and in training with\nthe Doctorate of Philosophy.\nSOME\nALEXIS\n\nF. LANGE,\n\nPHASES\n\nOF UNIVERSITY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nBERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\n\"Lest we forget,\" we do well now and then to remind ourselves — and\nothers — that a university is not a formula of Pure Reason nor a soulless\nmechanism, run perhaps for revenue only, but a social institution. As\nsuch it consists, in any given instance, of a living group of human adults\nand near-adults functioning together as a social organ. Its members,\nwith their co-operative plans and practices, belong to a definite day and\ngeneration of a particular people, which thru them especially expects to\nlead and be led, to safeguard its cultural identity, and, more or less rationally, to mold its own future. Only the dawn of the millennium can usher\nin a world university. Until then, whatever essential type-marks set off\nuniversities from other social agencies, each university is at least a national\nvariant — if not a \"sport\" — and even as such a variant need not be the\ntwin of any other in order to function wisely and well. It follows, of course,\nthat the directive ideas and ideals include those bearing particularly on\nthe institutional as a phase of the national life. Ideally, an American\nuniversity exemplifies American democracy, not only in its dealings with\nthe world's heritage of knowledge and human aspirations and in training\nyoung men and women for making a life and a living on the highest plane,\nbut also, and chiefly, in constituting an educational environment most\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment)\n\nSOME\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n673\n\nclearly and fully expressive of the faith in which the nation is built. Ideally,\nAmerican academic citizenship conforms to the highest type of American\ncitizenship in general. Ideally, the spirit of the university, university spirit,\npublic spirit, patriotism, the spirit of social service, are only different aspects\nof the same thing.\nWhile obvious, the implications of this organic conception will bear\nemphasis. One is that a university, like an individual, grows eflScient as\nit ceases to \"muddle along.\" It must know itself and its place in the\nbody politic. The institutional sense due to use and wont needs to develop\ninto the institutional consciousness that springs from insight into the\nlaws of social progress and from the endeavor to organize and realize a\ncorrespondent system or hierarchy of aims. Another implication is, of\ncourse, increasingly aimful self-direction, which will involve more or less\nradical modification of the institutional adaptations of means to ends\nwhich have come down from the past. And growing thus by self-directed\noutgrowing implies self -management. No university can be efl&cient in a\nstate of tutelage. Its conduct must be determined from within. Efficiency\ncovers both being and doing. It is this sort of self-direction and selfmanagement that constitutes academic freedom.\nAgain, the university being a social organ, its attitude toward itself\nand the highest utilities of the nation cannot — from the viewpoint of\nefficient functioning — ^be that of either standpatter or revolutionist; but\nmust be that of the practical evolutionist.\nLastly, just as according to Lowell a republic can be truly successful\nonly if every citizen is in some measure a statesman and thinker, so a\nrepublic of letters cannot fully realize itself if university consciousness,\nif the self-directive force, if the evolutionary attitude, are attributes of\nonly one man or of an oligarchy. The more efficaciously the whole system\nof university aims works in the mind and heart of each member of the\nuniversity group, the more truly will the leaders be leaders and the sooner\nwill the solution be found of the problem of keeping abreast with and in\nadvance of the society of which the university forms a part. I say \"in\nadvance of,\" because no progress is possible if a university tries merely to\nsatisfy a popular demand, instead of endeavoring to discover what is\nneeded and then to persuade the older as well as the younger generation\nof contemporaries to want what they need. As compared with the schools\nbelow it, a university, it should be added, is in an exceptionally fortunate\nposition to further that teamwork which is the ideal resultant of institutional consciousness, self-direction, and self-management, because the\nmajority of its members are of age and can understand and attain to the\nattitude and conduct that square with university purposes, cultural, vocational, civic.\nIt is from this point of view and by the criteria immanent in the university as society's organ of leadership that efficiency must be tested.\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nOutside standards are manifestly for the most part inapplicable. The\nmain question always is: \"Is this particular university self -directing its\ndevelopment efficiently?\" To answer it the comparative method alone\nwill not do. Piecemeal comparisons as to government, administration,\nteaching, research, student life, etc., are inadequate to safe generalizations\nunless made in conjunction with an all-around examination of all of these\nfactors in their connection with the institution's own historical and social\nsetting. One reason why it is at present rather absurd either to affirm or\ndeny that American universities are efficient, is that complete critical\nreviews of this sort are as yet among the things hoped for but not seen.\nMost of the current criticism of university conditions is partial, or partisan,\nor impressionistic. Its value lies in promoting institutional introspection\nand constructive self-criticism.\nIn view of this situation the safer course plainly consists in indicating\nby the light of the foregoing conceptions a few next steps, some nearer\nand remoter goals of self-directed effort toward greater effi:iency. In\ndoing so I shall often refer to the university I know best, without losing\nsight, I hope, of the representative values of such references.\nThe first need, country-wide, is obviously to endeavor with might and\nmain to clear up the present confusion of ideas concerning university and\ncollege aims. As long as this confusion lasts the university house will be\ndivided against itself. Owing to a course of development too familiar to\nbe rehearsed here, American universities, the state universities without\nexception, have become university-colleges. And the union of the two\ntypes of institution is thus far rather mechanical than organic. Moreover, the tendency is to subordinate the cultural or man-centered aim of\nthe traditional college of liberal arts to the work-centered or professional\naims of a German university. My conviction is that an organic union of\npurposes and types of organization can be effected and is being effected,\nnot, however, by relegating all professional training to the graduate school,\nnor by maintaining any other rigid line of demarkation. Practical, and\ntheoretical considerations no less, favor a pretty thorogoing dovetailing.\nThe vocational training which is only that can never be as fully efficient\nas one which allows ample opportunity for personal culture. It is not\nonly too early specialization that defeats itself but all specialization that\nabsorbs the whole man. Wherever professional training begins — and this\nincludes training for research — ^breadth of outlook, richness of ideas and\nsympathies, and an all-around appreciation of the forces of civilization,\nincluding the specialty, must not be sacrificed, if the nation is to have leaders. Hence the desirability of what may for short be called college courses,\neven in the curricula of all professional schools. On the other hand, college aims are one-sidedly carried out unless the student realizes thru actual\ntraining in the foundation disciplines of a profession what modern scholarship means to modern civilization. At the University of California such\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "t\n\nDepartmentl\n\nSOME\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n675\n\nconsiderations as these have led to a reorganization in which the mancentered college aims are meant to be uppermost during the first two years.\nThese two years are supposed to be sacred to the student's further enlargement of his outlook and to his endeavor to find himself. From there\nforward the emphasis is supposed to shift to progressively work-centered\nor professional pursuits. Beyond the Bachelor's degree come the courses\ndevoted largely to the mastery of professional applications and technique.\nPractice does not, of course, always follow closely on the heels of policy.\nBut when these organic adjustments are complete, the lines of articulation\nwill be diagonal rather than horizontal. Professional training will appear\nnot mechanically superimposed on either the middle line of the old-time\ncollege nor on that fixed by the Bachelor's degree, but organically adjusted\nas a new branch is grafted slantwise into the stem of a plant. The traditional Bachelor's degree becomes thus not less but more significant as\nrepresentative of modern liberal culture, as representative of the union\nof efiiciency of being and efficiency of doing.\nBut a university will not improve its efficiency by reshaping and correlating anew merely its own structural parts in accordance with the organized purposes of a university-college. It functions at its best only if vitally\nadjusted to and correlated with the high school, indeed every other part\nof the state's educational system. Guided by this principle and its corollaries, the University of California has reshaped its entrance requirements\nwith reference to the beginning of the Junior rather than the Freshman\nyear. While thus the university in the narrower sense rises from and out\nof the middle of the traditional four-year course and extends upward by\norganic transitions to the various professional termini, secondary education by equally organic transitions extends, at least is meant to extend,\nwithout a shifting of aims or emphasis or radical change of methods, to\nthe same median points marked by what is known as the Junior Certificate. As a part of the same policy, the university has strenuously supported a professional standard of preparation for high-school teaching,\nwhich in California calls at present for at least a year of graduate training.\nFurthermore, the university and the normal schools of the state have\narrived at various methods of co-operation which are furthering, in increasingly effective ways, the solidarity and efficiency of the whole teaching\nbody.\nAs an integral part of the same policy, the university has for more\nthan a decade urged the upward extension of the four-year high schools,\nnot only as a means of checking the hypertrophy of its lower classes but\nalso as a method of extending the reach of secondary training. Many\nmore than at present would be enabled 1^ continue the formal educational\nprocess to the very close of adolescense. Fewer by far would have to be\nsatisfied with a secondary course which not only begins too late but stops\ntoo early as well. More important still in its bearings upon efficiency is\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthe fact that by making the additional two years not only a cultural connecting link with the upper division of the university but also and especially afinal vocational opportunity, a bridge from school to life would be\nconstructed for thousands that now either receive no vocational training\nor else are misdirected by way of the university into professions in which\nthey will always be misfits. Not less than 25 per cent, I believe, of university students consist of those who should, and probably would, never\nhave entered if a vocational school had been open to them, more advanced\nthan that based on the grammar grades or perhaps on two years of highschool preparation. We should thus assist, on the one hand, in making\nthe school system a better selective agency for efficient social service, and\nshould, on the other hai^d, relieve the university of students intended for\nlife-work just as noble but different from that for which a university prepares. Such reorganization, I would add with emphasis, does not involve\nthe extinction now or in the future of the lower division of the universitycollege. It would mean simply smaller and presumably better-selected\nFreshman and Sophomore classes. It does involve, of course, standards\nof scholarship for such high-school teaching equivalent to those maintained for college work.\nThese adjustments of aims, leading to a more perfect union of now\nfrequently conflicting college and university purposes, and the structural\nadaptations necessitated thereby, raise the question of efficient instruction and scholarship. It seems clear that the present method of training\nand selecting the university staff must be modified. In my judgment no\nsingle factor would make more for efficiency than a functional differentiation\nof professors into college and university professors without discrimination against either class as to honor, emolument, or position. No minute\nanalysis of the present situation is required to reveal how the current onesided emphasis on research and the training for research impairs the efficiency ofthe university. The newly made Doctor of Philosophy is usually\nthe last person to be intrusted with the carrying out of college aims. In\nthis respect our imitation of Germany has not gone far enough. In Germany the man-centered purposes of education remain from first to last\nin the hands of men of approved fitness. In the Gymnasium it is the most\nexperienced and the most successful teachers that have charge of the work\ncorresponding to that of the Freshman and Sophomore years, while in the\nGerman university it is not the young privat Dozent but the broadest and\nripest master of his field who gives the lectures designed to orient the student on the basis of a coherent Weltanschauung. With us the same task\ndevolves on young men presumably well qualified to lead broadly trained\nmature students up to and across the frontier of knowledge in fields in\nwhich these students are presumably seeking their self-realization as expert\nmembers of society. In other words, they are prepared to give vocational\nrather than college training.\nTheir college work naturally often appears\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n677\n\nto them in the light of a dull and dreary but inevitable preliminary to a\nprofessorship. A very common result is that they become neither good\nteachers nor productive scholars. Clearly, if they are to become the latter,\nthe way must be opened for them during the earlier years of their service.\nAnd this is not done by making productive scholarship incidental. On the\nother hand, Freshmen and Sophomores do not get the guidance and discipline to which they are entitled. They should have something more\nadequate to liberal-culture aims. Nor can one escape the conviction that\nsome method must be found whereby all candidates for a university career\nmay be made thoroly familiar with the history, problems, principles,\nand present status of both secondary and university education. Their\nefficiency depends on whether or not they find themselves as college or\nuniversity teachers and as university citizens with an intelligent grasp of\nthe university organism as a whole and its relation to the larger social\nwhole. From this point of view it rnust be admitted that our universities are not completely institutions in any organic sense. Often the tendency of evolution seems to be rather toward mechanical aggregates of\nmutually repellent particles.\nIt is often asserted, and as often indignantly denied, that university\ninstruction is of poorer quality than that found in any other part of the\nschool system. Both parties to the controversy, it happens, are right and\nboth are wrong. If college teaching alone is considered, the charge cannot easily be refuted. If, on the other hand, the professional teaching of\nthe university, the training for research included, is under examination,\nour universities will bear comparison even with the methods and results\nof German universities and with good teaching anywhere.\nClosely connected with this matter of getting the best men for what\neach can do best is the problem of adequate working conditions. The\ncentral functions of the university demand the utmost economy of the time\nand energy of the teaching staff. Here more than one of the suggestions\nprescribed by business doctors may well be adopted, an increase, for example,\nin the staff of experts in routine administration. The staunchest upholder\nof faculty autonomy cannot reasonably object to methods meant to conserve the university teacher's energies in order that these may be concentrated on teaching and research. It is however equally desirable to\nrealize that the legislative and judicial functions of a university by which\nthe educational policy is determined and its execution assured and tested\nwill not be exercised in a vital way unless each faculty member is given\nor finds his opportunity for service as academic citizen. Without this he\nis not likely to be a good citizen. Only by active participation in directing the evolution of the university can there be created what may be called\nintelligent university opinion. Only in this way can there come that institutional consciousness, that self-direction and self -management which wdll\nkeep the university an efficient social organ.\nThe more closely this ideal\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nis approached the less occasion will there be to fear university despotism\nor, what is worse, faculty oligarchies, and the more easily will that\nsort of social co-operation be reached which is perhaps best symbolized\nby the teamwork of a football team. The team is a unit. Each member\nof it understands the game as a whole. Each functions in his position —\nhis specialty — as a part of the whole. Each contributes intelligently and\nloyally to the success of the whole. All follow the captain and submit to\nhis decision because they want to win the game. This is said with all due\nregard to the distance between a university sheepskin and a university\npigskin.\nBut if the university is to become an organic whole, clear-eyed as to\nits aims and sure-footed as to their execution, the student body must\nparticipate as fully as possible in the self-direction of institutional policies\nand life. The so-called student activities constitute a large part of the\neducational curriculum. They cannot and should not be eliminated. They\nshould and can be brought into harmony with the central purposes of the\nuniversity. What lends emphasis to this view is the newness of the university-college and its confusing transitional status. The students who\nunderwent a college course fifty years ago could not escape the acquiring\nof the institutional sense. At present no two graduates need carry away\ncoincident notions of their alma mater. Obviously such alumni are not in\na position to assist intelligently in the preservation and further development of an institution that they know at best only in one of its multitudinous aspects. Sentimental loyalty, however intense and voluble, must\nalways be inferior by many degrees to a rationalized loyalty rooted in a\ncomprehensive view of the university as one co-operative body of professors\nand students. The university needs to interpret itself to the student,\ndeliberately and planfully. Among the courses offered should always be\none which would introduce the student to his alma mater, which would\ntrace the development of his university, make clear its complex nature,\nexplain what the president and the faculty are trying to do, reveal the\nrelations of college to university aims and methods, and the functions of\nthe whole institution as an organ of the commonwealth, and would bring\nhome to the student his social responsibility. If this were done in the same\nspirit of sympathetic inquiry and criticism as that which is supposed to be\ncharacteristic of university teaching, such a course would tend to produce\nmore helpful because more intelligent alumni. It would assist the student\nin finding himself. It would make for better citizenship within and outside of the university.\nIn corroboration I might cite the form of student self-government\ndeveloped during the past decade at the University of California. Altho\nperhaps not very consciously due to such university policies and institutional embodiments as I have discussed, their shaping influences are never-\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n679\n\ntheless unmistakable. The obvious success of what has come to be known\nas Senior control is explicable only by a growing university consciousness.\nIts sanction is not derived from a written constitution but from a public\nopinion in accord with an intelligent conception of university development.\nAmong the gratifying results two deserve special mention. One is that\nit has not been found necessary for the faculty and the president to deal\nin any but a formal way with cases of discipline, during the past three\nyears. The other is that the student body is itself endeavoring to subordinate \"student activities\" to the central purposes of the university\nand to avail itself of these things not as by-products or side-shows — which\nindeed they are not in the larger view — but as legitimate, wholesomely\nsocializing agencies.\nThe universities must plan for the future. Only by doing so can they\njustify their claim to efficient leadership. To do so effectively they must\nprovide for social needs as soon as they can be provided for by organized\ncourses of training. I would lay it down as a principle of efficiency that\ncollectively and thru a sensible division of labor the universities must care\nfor and should pioneer for all vocations that are rising or may be raised to\nthe rank of a profession. The carrying out of this principle would seem\nto call at the present day, for example, for new departments or subdepartments of public health, of public and business administration, of domestic\nscience, in so far as this stands for or can be made to stand for professions\nfor women, and of education, as far as the teaching of applied science is\nconcerned, in order that in this field too there may be leaders just as broad\nand scholarly and as expert as those in the older fields — ought to be. But\nwhat we need for such purposes is not a further vocation alization of undergraduate courses, but professional projections beyond the Bachelor's degree.\nFor it must be insisted that university efficiency depends, in a large measure, on the number of young men and women who can and are willing to\ngive sufficient time to the general as well as the professional preparation.\nPropaedeutic courses, however, I repeat, may well come in, in fact must\ncome in, before the traditional graduation, as an essential aid to that potential efficiency which can legitimately be demanded of the holder of the\nBachelor's degree. The university, no more than the secondary school,\ncan increase its efficiency by becoming a trade school or by arresting the\ndevelopment of wholeness of manhood and womanhood.\nThis skeleton review has made it plain, I hope, that my conclusions\nare of an optimistic nature. All things considered, our American universities are more efficient than any other social institutions of the land.\nTheir pains are for the most part growing-pains. They are steadily\napproaching that state which I have described as conscious, self-directed,\nself-managed; they are year by year worthier organs of leadership for\nthe nation.\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nDISCUSSION\nAbram GroEON, Colorado Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. — In conversation with\nthe president of this department after the Conference in Modem Foreign Languages, over\nwhich I had the honor to preside. President Baker and I agreed upon the desirability of a\ndivision of the work of this department corresponding to that now obtaining in the\nDepartment of Secondary Education. There the program includes one or more sessions\nin which problems pertaining to secondary education are discussed. Then there are\nround tables or conferences, in which topics that deal with the subject-matter of the\ncurriculum are treated. Thus we have in the Department of Secondary Education a\nround-table conference in EngUsh, one in mathematics, a classical conference, and a conference inmodern foreign languages. Some such division would be advantageous in the\nwork of the. Department of Higher Education. One or more sessions could properly\nbe devoted to general questions pertaining to administration, management, etc., while\nsections or conferences could take up specific subjects in the course of study.\nExamination of the program of this department reveals recognition of the principle\nof division I suggest. All the topics discussed are problems of management, and the topic\nunder discussion is specifically a problem of this nature. Moreover, the three ofl&cers of\nthe department and at least three of the six speakers of the two sessions held are administrative heads.\nHowever, the constitution of this program, according to which the administrative\nfactor has received separate consideration, has not only an obvious logical basis; it has\nalso a psychological foundation in consequence of which the administrative factor is\naccorded dominating emphasis. Efficiency of management in higher education appears\nto be the end and aim of higher education, if prevalent practice can be relied upon as a\nguide. This seems to be apparent not only from the make-up of our program this morning, but also from the life of the college. While we are not in other respects like the\nPythagoreans of old, nevertheless we too are to a certain extent number- worshipers.\nWhen we estimate the efficiency of an institution of learning we give paramount significance to the roll of enlisted students.\nIn the same connection it might be asked whether the undue emphasis given to the\nadministrative element has for the best influenced the relation of the faculty to the administration. Efficiency is a catchword current in modern days, but I suspect it had wide\ncurrency also among the ancients. Even Aristotle, in his hierarchy of causes, made room\nfor something beyond and above an efficient cause, namely, a final cause. Not only How\nmuch? or How many? — but What for? — ^is a vital interest. Efficiency is meaningless\nunless we know the answer to the question, Efficient for what ? If efficiency is secured\nat the expense of the independence of moral backbone of the members of the faculty in\ntheir dealings with the administration, then it is worthless. For such loss of virility will\nsurely react upon the independence and moral backbone of the students. To my mind,\nthere seems to be little ground for fear of the situation apprehended by the preceding\nspeaker, the state of affairs designated by him as a \"faculty oligarchy,\" at least so far\nas this country is concerned. Under the despotic age of presidents there is really more\nground for fear of faculty emasculation.\nAgain, in the matter of emoluments, it might be asked whether executive ability, the\ncondition of efficiency, manifests itself only in the office. What is questioned about\nhigher institutions in this particular might also be asked with reference to principals and\nsuperintendents, as contrasted with the teaching force, the workers in the ranks. Is not\ngrasp of one's subject or the control of the classroom, is not the ability to inspire a body of\nstudents in a lecture course or the gift of equipping young people to go out into the world\nand do their life's task — ^is not this as much a mark of executive abihty as the work done\nin the office of the president, or the superintendent, or the principal? Why then the\ntremendous discrepancy between the compensation the one receives and that which the\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nENGINEERING\n\nGRADUATES\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n68i\n\nother obtains?\nWhy should there rest upon the brow of one a crown of thorns while\nupon the head of the other is pressed a gilded if not a golden crown ?\nMr. President, I ask these questions with all due humility, not with any undue humility, but with becoming respect, for I am not an administrator and hence cannot presume\nto know intimately the technique or the mysteries of school administration. Nor can I\nappreciate, except with the aid of my imagination, the tremendous burden which it\nimposes and in return for which it is accorded so great prestige. I only help, in so far\nas I am able, to train teachers.\n\nTHE SUPPLY OF AND DEMAND FOR ENGINEERING\nGRADUATES IN THE UNITED STATES\nC. N.\n\nLITTLE,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF ENGINEERING,\nMOSCOW,\nIDAHO\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF IDAHO,\n\nA paper on the supply of and demand for engineering graduates\nmust be statistical. It would seem to be a very easy matter to turn to\nthose agencies which are actively engaged in collecting educational statistics\nfor the facts pertinent to this inquiry, and having received the desired information, tobase the discussion upon it.\nThe matter is not so simple as it seems, nor is it so easily disposed of as\njust indicated. I wished to know as a primary fact the number of engineering graduates in the United States for the school year 1909-10. In the\nfirst place what is an engineering graduate ? A committee of the Society\nfor the Promotion of Engineering Education, appointed in 1908, found\nthat ninety-two institutions confer fifty-seven different degrees on engineering students who complete courses of three, four, or five (usually four)\nyears of undergraduate study; and fifteen degrees for distinctively graduate\nwork. In this paper I shall use the term engineering graduate to mean a\nstudent who has completed his undergraduate course of study and received\nany one of the fifty-seven degrees of the first-mentioned group.\nIn beginning this inquiry I sent to the United States Commissioner of\nEducation and to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching for lists of institutions in the United States conferring degrees in engineering in 1 9 10, and for the number of engineering graduates from these institutions for the same year. Very courteously both sent replies and manuscript\nlists, which were not regarded, however, by their senders as complete.\nThese lists have been of much service to me, and I wish here to express my\nhearty appreciation of my obligation for them; but a few days' work on\nfiles of catalogs in the University Library, and later an examination\nof replies by return-card postals, showed me that there is no easy road to\neven a small bit of educational statistics, and that such information as I had\nreceived must be carefully checked as well as completed.\nIn this country engineering was hardly recognized as a profession before\nthe middle of the last century. The census of 1850 enumerated 512 civil\nengineers and surveyors in the United States. In 1870 this number became\n4,703, which increased to 31,697 in 1880, and 43,239 in 1890. Now comes\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n682\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Higher\n\na statistical jolt. The 1900 census gives for precisely the same class, namely\ncivil, mechanical, mining, and electrical engineers, and surveyors 43,533 as\nagainst 43,239 in 1890. Whatever may be the explanation of this curious\nfact it is clear that the engineering profession is of comparatively recent\norigin and of pretty rapid growth.\nWith its development have come the establishment and growth of engineering schools, where young men can secure instruction in the principles\nof the profession. The Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute opened its doors\nas a school of applied science in 1825 and in 1828 gave lectures on surveying\nand engineering. This was the beginning of engineering instruction in\nschools in any English speaking country. The Sheffield Scientific School\nwas opened at Yale in 1847 and the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard\nin the same year. Michigan was the first of the state universities to offer\nengineering courses, which were begun in 1853.\nIn 1892-93 A. M. Wellington, author of that monumental work The\nEconomic Theory of Railway Location^ made a protracted investigation of\nthe technical schools of this country, publishing his results in a series of\nforty-one articles in the Engineering News, of which he was at the time one\nof the editors. Upon the numbers of graduates given in his article in the\nEngineering News for August 4, 1892, Vol. XXVIII, p. 112, I base the\nfollowing table of graduates per miUion population\nin the continental\n13\nUnited States.\nTABLE I\nGraduates of Engineering Schools in Census Years\nYear\n184.0\ni8«;o\ni860\n1870\n1880\n1800\n\nNumber of\nSchools\nReporting\n\nTotal Number\nof Graduates\n107\n\nI\n183\n\n12\n\n5\n\nGraduates per\nMiUion\nPopulation\n\n8\n6\n2 8\n\n226\n\n4.5\n\n666\n\nI find that in 1910, 118 schools reported 4,645 graduates or 50.5 per\nmillion inhabitants.\nThese figures show that during the41 past fifty years\nthere has been an\n31\n2\nastonishingly rapid increase both in 5schools\nand in graauates. In the\nfuture the increase in schools 'will be slower. Over half the number now\nestablished are state-supported schools and there are not likely to be many\nmore of these. On the other hand, I look to see the increase in number of\ngraduates continue but not at such a rapid rate as in the recent past.\nConsidering this rapid increase in output of technical graduates the\nquestion is very naturally asked: Is it possible that the demand is increasing\nwith corresponding rapidity? That the number of graduates is quite\nresponsive to changing demand is made evident by studying Wellington's\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nENGINEERING\n\nGRADUATES\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n683\n\nchart of graduates for each year from i860 to 1892, Engineering News,\nVol. XXVIII, p. 113. The entering class for every year following a time\nof commercial depression shows a marked decrease. In the hard times\nfollowing the panic of 1873 the number fell off fully one-fourth. These\ndrops are quickly recovered when good times come again, and the rapid\nincrease in numbers sets in anew.\nI cannot hope to answer very confidently the various questions that\ncluster about the relation of the supply of graduates to the demand. I\nmust be content if from one or another angle I can throw a little light upon\nthis interesting subject.\nQuestion i. — How readily does an engineering graduate get a foothold\nwhich may lead to professional standing? Certain schools publish in\nevery catalog lists of alumni by years, with their occupations. From the\nlists which include classes that have been out one year or less, it is possible\nto get some answer to the question just asked and from the catalogs of a\nhalf dozen representative institutions of good standing I have constructed\nthe follow^ing table. Any engineering occupation no matter how humble is\"\nincluded in these numbers, for it should be remembered that a graduate O\nis not an engineer, but the material from which an engineer may be developed \"^d\nin practical life. It is highly desirable that, on the practical side, he should\nbegin at the foot of the ladder. Many men, at least in western schools,\nmake this beginning in summer-vacation work, and have a corresponding\nadvantage over their fellows on Commencement Day.\n•la 83\nIS8\nTABLE II\nS\nI\nPercentage of Graduates Securing Engineerin g Occupations the First\n69 87\nYear after Graduation\n\n=1\n\n0 b\n\n24\nName of Institution\n\nStevens Institute of Technology\nLehigh University\nUniversity of Pittsburgh\nCase School of Applied Science\nSheflSeld Scientific School\nArmour Institute.\nGeorgia School of Technology . .\n\nPlace of Institution\n\n0\n\n1-4\n\n1909\nQ\n\nQ\n\n^\n\n^\n\n:?\n\ng 13\nHoboken, N J\n^-^ no\n126\nSouth Bethlehem, Pa. .\n1910\n1910J1911 20\noW\nPittsburgh, Pa\n43\n1905 1911\n1910\nIS68 59\nCleveland, Ohio\n1909\n1910 1911 151\nNew Haven, Conn. . . . 1910 1911\nChicago, 111\nAtlanta, Ga\n1906 26\n\n75\n\nk'no\n\n1910\n\nThis table is sufficient to show that most engineering graduates find\nan opportunity to begin engineering work almost immediately after graduation. %\nQuestion 2. — What is the attitude of employers toward technical\ngraduates ? It would be easy to quote individuals of all shades of opinions,\nfrom those who will have nothing to do with engineering graduates 4to\n8\n\n71\n\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthose who make it a rule to give them the preference. I have sought for\nsome indication of the estimate that employers put upon technical education\nin the columns of advertisements of situations open in three leading engineering papers, to see what percentage of advertisers either required or preferred\nas applicants men with an engineering-school training. In making this count\nI have omitted advertisements for foremen, salesmen, draftsmen, instructors\nof engineering, and those positions requiring investments of capital, as for\nobvious reasons these positions are not fairly representative, on the one\nside or the other of this question.\nIn the Engineering and Mining Journal, from January to June, 191 1,\n20 per cent; in the Electrical World, from January to July, 1910, 23 per cent;\nand in the Engineering News, from July, 1910, to June, 191 1, 35 per cent\nof the advertisers either required or preferred technical education.\nPerhaps the individual opinion most interesting to me is that of Mr.\nFrederick W. Taylor, known to engineers as the man who after a lifetime\nof experiment has completely revolutionized the art of cutting metals. In\na contribution to the discussion on the relation of education to industries\nat the meeting of the American Society for the Promotion of Engineering\nEducation, held in New York, June, 1909, Mr. Taylor, who has been a large\nemployer of engineering graduates, said that ten years before, he made up\nhis mind never to employ, if he could help himself, graduates who had not\nbeen out two years at least.\nA part of his explanation is, that up to graduation the student has the\nattitude of a sponge or absorber; when he begins to do things the process\nis reversed and he finds the squeeze painful; it takes about two years for\nthe graduate to accustom himself to this reversal of function, and during\nthis time his employer and himself are mutually dissatisfied.\nIn 1909, Profesiior Diemer, of Pennsylvania State College, reported that\nof 122 manufacturers of machinery, each employing over 100 men and\nhaving had experience with technical graduates, 98 returned answers to\nthe question \"Have you found technical graduates satisfactory?\" — ^which\nhe summarized as follows: \"affirmative, 60; undecided, 15; negative, 22.\"\nIn civil engineering and surveying there are many subordinate positions\ninto which graduates drop without friction; if these graduates have had\npractical experience in summer vacations the positions that may be obtained\nare well paid. From $75 to $100 per month, and expenses in the field, are\nfreely paid to such graduates in the West in prosperous times.\nOn the other hand, Dr. Waddell, the eminent consulting engineer, of\nKansas City, has said that in the office of a civil engineer who is doing a\nlarge amount of practical work the new alumnus is worth less than nothing;\nhe argues that even an unpaid place in such an office will ultimately prove\nmore profitable to the new graduate than a well-paid position lacking the\nopportunity for a broad experience.\nIt is clear that a real objection exists in the minds of many employers\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGINEERING\n\nGRADUATES\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n68$\n\nto some engineering graduates for a year or two after graduation. Those\nwho have had the most experience with technical graduates, however,\nwould agree with Mr. Taylor and Dr. Waddell as to the ultimate value of\nengineering-school training, when it is supplemented by practical experience\nin the shop, field, or ofiice, either before or immediately after graduation.\nAs to Mr. R. T. Crane's condemnation of every form of instruction\nbeyond that of the common school, an examination of some of the things\nhe has written discloses such a bias and narrowness of mind as to make it\nunprofitable to discuss his opinions.\nQuestion j. — Are engineering graduates successful ? To answer this\nquestion I can turn to two careful investigations. In each case they include\npractically all of the graduates of a technical school where the number was\nsufficiently large to warrant general conclusions.\nProfessor Furman has published in the Proceedings of the Society for the\nPromotion of Engineering for 1908, Vol. XVI, p. 307, his investigation of\nthe records of the graduates of Stevens Institute of Technology, at Hoboken,\nN.J., a leading school of mechanical engineering. The number of graduates,\nincluding the class of 1908, is 1,394 men.\nTwo of the conclusions are the following:\n1. The graduates rise rapidly into positions of responsibility. Nearly 50 per cent of\nthe graduates then living aie classed as successful at the end of five years after graduation,\n90 per cent reach success after fifteen years, and 98 per cent after thirty years.\n2. An apprenticeship course of one or two years immediately following graduation\nhas proved itself a sure road to eminent success in later years.\n\nThe second investigation was made by Dean Cooley and Professor\nMoyer of the University of Michigan. It was published in the Proceedings\nof the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education for 1909, Vol.\nXVII, p. 179. It consists of two parts. The first part is based upon\nannual letters from 1,234 of the 1,289 living graduates in engineering of\nMichigan University, including the class of 1907.\n6\nI have copied Table III, p. 182, of the article quoted which5 shows the\n84\npercentage classification of living graduates by five-year\ngroups.\n14\nTABLE III\nPercentage Classification of Living Graduates by Five- Year Groups\n1893-97\n1888-92\nInclusive\n\n1903-07\nInclusive\nInclusive\nInclusive\n1898-02\nPercentage\nPercentage Percentage\nPercentage Percentage Percentage\n45\n93\n5\n3\nI\nI\n94\n2\nInclusive\n1878-82\n\nResponsible positions\nNon-responsible positions ,\nRetired\nNo record available\n\n1883-87\nInclusive\n\nIn making out this table a graduate was considered to occupy a responsible\nposition whenever his work was of such a character as to require him to\nexercise his own judgment rather than follow that of another.\n\n24\n\n69\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nIt would hardly seem possible to bring forward more striking or conclusive evidence as to the ultimate success of engineering graduates than that\nafforded by these thoroly reliable investigations.\nThe second part of the investigation of Michigan University engineering\ngraduates is concerned with their salaries and total incomes. This information isbased on returns of unsigned cards from 980 of the 1,234 graduates\nwho regularly gave information for the university record of graduates.\nIt appears that for the first year after leaving college, the average annual salary is a\nlittle more than $900. A steady and fairly uniform increase is shown each year for fifteen\nyears, at which time the average salary was between $4,300 and $4,400. If a few very\nlarge salaries of men who have been out from fifteen to twenty years were eUminated the\nincrease would be fairly uniform up to $6,000 at twenty years. After twenty years the\naverage annual salary was about $5,600.\n\nQuestion 4. — To what extent do the graduates from engineering schools\nfollow engineering as a profession ? Professor Furman in his investigation\nof the careers of graduates of Stevens Institute of Technology reached the\nfollowing conclusion;\nForty per cent reach executive or managerial positions, nearly all in\nengineering or commercial manufacturing lines; 37 per cent, broad technical\npositions such as consulting engineers, etc. ; 1 1 per cent settle into positions\ncalling for technical detail; 10 per cent go upon the retired list, and the\noccupations of 2 per cent are unknown.\nDean Cooley in the article cited above gives the occupations of 1,378\nengineering graduates of Michigan.\nIncluding professors, presidents of corporations, managers, and superintendents, 73per cent are in occupations for which the university training\nof the graduates may be regarded as direct preparation.\nOther institutions, notably the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,\nat Boston, publish tables of occupations of graduates. A study of these\nlists discloses the fact that a considerable number of graduates do not\nadhere closely to the professions corresponding to their undergraduate\ncourses. I regard this ease of adjustment to environment and opportunity\nas an evidence of the breadth of their preparation rather than of defect in\ntheir undergraduate courses.\nObviously education and schooling are two things not necessarily joined\nand it is freely granted that one may obtain the former entirely apart from\nthe latter. Nevertheless it is clear that in most cases a school training is a\nwise investment. As Henry L. Doherty, a prominent manager of electrical\nproperties, has put it, such an education backed up by proper practical\ntraining is a capital that cannot be spent or mortgaged and may often be\nmade to have an earning power of $500,000 in cash.\nQuestion 5. — Do engineering graduates have an advantage over nongraduates? In the Engineering News for 1902, Vol. XL VIII, p. 112, an\neditorial note quotes from the Report of William Barclay Parsons, chief\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGINEERING\n\nGRADUATES\n\nIN THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n687\n\nengineer of the Rapid Transit Commission of New York City, the following\ntable:\nTABLE\n\nIV\n\nPercentage of Graduates among Employees of the New York City19 Rapid Transit\nCommission\nGraduates of\nTechnical Schools\n\nChief engineer\nDeputy chief engineer\nDivision engineer\nAssistant\nRodmen\nAxmen\nTotal\n>. . .\nOmitting rodmen and axmen\n\nI\nI\n5\n144\n93\nII\n33\n\nNon-graduates\n\n100\n85.3\n100\n2\n\n16\n\n71-4\n\n12\n\n49\n\n100\n\nPercentage of\nGraduates\n\n84.7\n73-3\n\n18\n36.6\n\nAll of these positions below the grade of division engineer were filled\nafter competitive examination by the Municipal Civil Service Commission.\n74.6\nThe editorial goes on to say that few engineers will dispute the value\nof a technical education and such figures as those above demonstrate that\ntechnical-school graduates succeed in obtaining positions in open competition with the men who have not had such training.\nIt would be an interesting question to investigate what percentage of\nthe members of the different engineering societies of the United States are\ntechnical graduates. On the assumption that the members of these societies\nare successful practitioners, an answer to this question would give an indication as to what extent the possession of a technical education is necessary\nto success in the engineering profession.\nFor the American Society of Civil Engineers this was done in 1892 by\nWellington, and his results were published in the issue of Engineering News\nfor November 17, 1892. He included among the graduates all those\nwho had taken over two years of the regular course at an engineering school.\nThese cases were few. Of the total of 1,073 whose records on this point\nwere available 55 per cent were graduates. It would be instructive to compare this percentage with that existing at the present time. The number\nhas undoubtedly increased in view of the tremendous increase in the\nnumber of engineering graduates in the last eighteen years. I was not,\nhowever, able to get the necessary information. A letter from Charles\nWarren Hunt, the secretary of the society under date of June 21, 191 1,\nreads as follows:\nIt would be a large task to get the figures showing the ratio of members of this society\nwho are graduates of technical schools to those who are non-graduates, and we have no\nstatistics on the point. There is no doubt, ho\\A^ver, that a very large percentage of our\nmembership are technical graduates, but just what that percentage is I am unable to say.\n\nI have shown that the phenomenal increase of engineering graduates\nof recent years continues in full force and amounts now to a yearly\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ncontribution of approximately 5,000 young men who have been taught the\nprinciples underlying the engineering profession.\nThese graduates quickly find opportunities to add to their training\nacquired in the schools a practical experience gained for the most part in the\nsubordinate posts of the engineering calling. It has been seen that their\nrise to responsible positions is rapid and that ultimately they achieve success in numbers that without proof would seem impossible. From these\nfacts, and others deduced in the body of this paper, I conclude that the\nsupply of engineering graduates has not outrun the demand, and that\nAmerican education is to be congratulated on the present development\nof engineering instruction in colleges and universities.\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS\nWESTERN STATES\n\np. L. CAMPBELL,\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY\nEUGENE,\nORE.\n\nIN THE\n\nOF OREGON,\n\nThat recent years show great improvement in the management of\nintercollegiate athletics, there can be no reasonable doubt. Faculties and\nstudents alike have been squarely facing the serious problems which beset\nthem in the development and control of athletic relationships both within\nand between colleges, and the good results have come with most gratifying rapidity. Faculty and student athletic conferences have sprung up\nall over the country, such as the Intercollegiate Conference Athletic Association of the Mississippi Valley States, the Missouri Valley Conference,\nthe Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association, the Rocky Mountain\nFaculty Athletic Conference, the Pacific Northwest Conference, and many\nsmaller organizations in which but two or three universities are concerned.\nA still more important movement has been the organization of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States, in which seventy-one\ncolleges and universities, enrolling over one hundred thousand students,\nhave membership. The rules adopted by these conferences, pretty generally much the same both in spirit and in letter, have happily resulted in\nfreeing college athletics from at least the grosser abuses to which they were\nsubject in the old days of undisciplined rivalry and go-as-you-please methods\nof securing invincible teams.\nThe amateur standard has been pretty clearly defined, and is now very\ngenerally accepted, in practice as well as in theory. Bona-fide student\nstanding, of honorable grade, in courses leading to a degree, is required,\nand the number of years of participation in athletics is limited to a maxi;num of four. In many colleges. Freshmen are barred from intercollegiate\ncontests, and in practically all the reputable colleges a student coming\nfrom another institution is not allowed to play the first year. The \"tramp\nathlete\" is pretty well put out of business, and the man who is in college\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF INTERCOLLEGIATE\n\nATHLETICS\n\n689\n\nfor athletics alone, cannot, under the new scholarship requirements, remain\nlong on the team. Best of all, the spirit of pure amateur sport and the\nstandards of sportsmanlike conduct are gaining such a widespread and\ncontrolling influence among college students that semi-professionalism and\nunfair advantage in competition cannot hope to find any considerable\nmeasure of even secret support.\nIt is quite true that there are some serious problems of college athletics\nyet to be solved, but they are not in the main of the unhappy nature of\nthose which confronted the reformers of a decade ago.\nPassing by questions of schedules, of expenses, of training- tables, and\nthe like, most of which are already well on the way to settlement, and all\nof which can easily be taken care of when the more important matters\nhave been adjusted, it may broadly be said that our problems in athletics\nfrom now on will be of the large, constructive type. They are essentially\nthe same, both West and East.\nThe first of these problems is to secure for the Department of Physical\nEducation the same recognition and support as that given to any other\ndepartment of the university; and the second is to make athletics effective\nnot only as a physical discipline, but as a great moral discipline as well.\nToward solving the first of these problems, the University of Chicago\ntook a long step when it gave the rank of full professor to the head of the\nDepartment of Physical Education. Very recently the University of Wisconsin has gone still farther, by making the election of all members of the\ndepartment a matter of board action, with assignments of rank the same\nas those made in other departments.\nThe salaries are all paid from the general university funds, and are in\nno way connected with the receipts from the university games.\nThe university recognizes the great educational value of the work of\nthe department, gives the department equal rank with the other departments of the university, and provides it with adequate and dignified maintenance.\nMost of our Western universities have taken athletics more or less\nunder direct university control, and have granted more or less of recognition in the way of academic rank to the director of physical education;\nbut they yet have a considerable distance to go before they reach the high\nmark of appreciation and organization of physical education set by the\nUniversity of Wisconsin.\nIt is in this direction, in my judgment, that we must move more vigorously. Large and dignified organization, full and generous recognition in\nacademic rank, and the high aims to which the department will be directing its efforts, will attract in rapidly incre^^sing numbers the most effective\nand desirable type of men into the direction and control of the athletic\nactivities of the universities. There, as everywhere else, it is personality\nthat counts.\nMen of high ideals and broad views, thoroly well prepared\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nfor this work, and fired with a missionary zeal to make physical education\na means of spiritual grace as well as of physical strength, could enter on\nsuch a field of influence and achievement as is granted to but a favored\nfew in education;\nFirst of all, they would include within the range of their work every\nstudent of the university, and not leave athletics as the special interest of\nthe few who are being highly trained for places on university teams. Intracollegiate, instead of intercollegiate, sport would come to be the broad\nbasis of athletic organization and development. Already interclass, interclub, and various other forms of \"scrub\" games, which enlist the interest\nand energies of all t3^es of university students, are growing in popularity,\nand are stimulating the physical activities of multitudes of students who\nformerly were content to limit their exertions to the \"encouragement\" of\n'varsity teams from the bleachers. All this means the healthy exercise\nand wholesome relaxation of \"free play,\" instead of the grinding work\nand the nerve-exhaustion often attendant on 'varsity practice. These voluntary activities need simply to be encouraged and directed in order that\nthey may become the highly effective laboratory practice for the systematic instruction given in health and hygiene. Carefully planned and\nscientifically accurate courses in theory should constitute the directing\ninfluence back of all forms of college athletics. Here we reverse the formula, and say that students should know as well as do. Nor should they\nbe limited to theory on the purely physical side; but efficiency, courage,\ncheerfulness, and generosity in the large sense of the word, are some of the\nideals in which they should be instructed and toward which they should\nbe trained.\nThe growth of the intracollegiate sports need not be at all at the expense\nof interest in the intercollegiate contests. On the contrary, out of the\ngreat wealth of material furnished by the class and club teams, many more\nlegitimate aspirants to 'varsity honors may be discovered than at present,\nand a keener and more intelligent appreciation of the fine points of the\ngreat games may be developed thruout the student body. The real enthusiasts are those who know the game by playing it. Quickness of thought\nand decisiveness of action will gain in premium thru the instant recognition which they will command from a body of semi-experts. There\nwill be a real incentive to the highest type of skill, based upon headwork\nand swiftness of execution rather than upon sheer weight and brute strength.\nThe game will take on more of the lightning-like rapidity of expert swordplay, and the trained body will become the perfect instrument of the quick\nintellect and the determined will. Our 'varsity games are now too often\nheavy and slow: a properly educated body of \"rooters, \" themselves keenly\naware, thru personal experience, of the \"values\" in the game, would soon\nbring up the standard of play to a point seldom now attained.\nWhile the quality of the intercollegiate games would become better,\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF INTERCOLLEGIATE\n\nATHLETICS\n\n691\n\nthe number would be held easily in control under the management of a\nuniversity department. Excesses of all kinds could be avoided, and the\ndanger of athletics becoming an unduly dominating college interest, to\nthe detriment of the time-honored ideals of scholarship, could be averted.\nIn the hands of responsible members of the university faculty, athletics\nwould be made to serve their true educational purposes, and to keep a\nright proportion in university life.\nBut the question may be asked whether this formal and serious takingover of athletics by the university will not kill the old interest which was\nso keen in university sports when they were under the exclusive promotion and control of the students themselves. Sport is sport, some one may\nsay, and it loses its characteristic hold the moment it is turned to serious\naccount for tiresome educational purposes. When we work, let us work;\nand when we play, let us play.\nUndoubtedly this indictment of university control of athletics would\nbe apt to be a just one if the Department of Physical Education were so\nstupid as to try to secure results without recognizing in this very factor\nof student interest the most important one of its whole problem. It must\nbe skillful enough to seize upon natural interests in sport and stimulate\nthem by providing right conditions, rather than impose new tasks in\nthe form of games required or exercises set by the department. It must\npractice above all other departments the fine art of co-operation. It must\nencourage voluntary organizations of all sorts, and help to find times and\nplaces for the working out of schedules planned by the students themselves.\nIt must be wise enough to make the student forget the seriousness of purpose while the game is on. Sport must still be sport, if it is to retain the\nvalues which came to it thru the sense of relaxation and the sheer joyousness of physical activity.\nAnd herein lies the necessity of wisdom in the selection of the directing head of a department of physical education. He must himself be\nskillful in management, and he must know how to select assistants who\nare expert in practice. One supreme virtue, at least, was found in the\nrough-and-ready management of athletics under student control — the\ncoaches were judged by the uncompromising standard of getting results,\nand there was no uncertain ring in the demand for the removal of the\nincompetent. What marvels of high skill in training and whole-hearted\ndevotion to the interests of their teams many of these coaches have been!\nIs it any wonder that athletics under their direction have too often claimed\ntoo great a share of student energy and enthusiasm! While the selfish\nand narrow motives which, it is claimed, actuated the old-ti me professional\ncoach, must be eliminated, the standard of real efficiency must be retained,\nif the coaching is to continue to command the respect and confidence of\nthe men. The danger of all departmental work is that of falling into ruts,\nand retaining men after they have allowed themselves to fall below their\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nown best standard of efficiency. The new system of control must be as\nfree from this danger as was the old — and it can be made so mider good\nadministration.\nBut departmental direction of athletics does not by any means necessarily exclude student participation in the selection of coaches and planning of schedules. A student athletic association should be maintained\nfor the promotion of interest in athletic affairs, and special committees of\nthe association can work to good advantage, in an advisory way, with the\nmembers of the department in all matters affecting the general athletic\nwelfare. Already the University of Wisconsin is finding its way safely\nthru whatever difficulties may arise from departmental control of athletics,\nand so far no note of doubt or disappointment has come from the administration.\nThe second of the constructive movements of which I have spoken,\nthat of making athletics a means of moral as well as of physical discipline,\nis closely connected with the first, and should follow easily from it. Dr.\nParkin, secretary of the Rhodes Scholarship Trust, says that William\nStead believes the athletic count in determining the winner of a Rhodes\nScholarship was meant by Rhodes to amount almost to a religious test.\nRhodes had in mind, according to Stead, not only physical strength and\nathletic skill, but even more clearly all the fine qualities of good sportsmanship to which the boy of the great English schools, such as Eton and\nHarrow, is trained. If the father of the captain of one of the cricket teams\nengaged in the great annual match between Eton and Harrow were watching the play, he would be more concerned, says Dr. Parkin, in the sportsmanship showTi by his son than in the outcome of the match. Would\nthe boy keep his temper under all conditions; would he yield instantly\nto the decision of the officials; would he give rather than take the advantage in a situation involving doubt; in short, would he measure up to the\nstandard of an English gentleman engaged in amateur sport? This certainly constitutes a test of morals and manners, if not quite of religion.\nIt was this type of athlete that Rhodes felt might be trusted to work with\nheart and soul for international friendship based upon fair play and personal good feeling.\nThis view of athletics fits in very well with the idea that the athletic\nfield may be very justly looked upon as one of the most important laboratories of the department of ethics.\nHere are tried out in hard practice all the fine ethical principles of justice\nand generosity, courage and courtesy, honor, honesty, and humanity —\nnot to carry the tempting alliterations too far. In the stress of excitement\nand under all incentives to win, the boy who yet proves a good sportsman\nand plays fair is building up moral fiber that will stand him in good stead\nin many more serious crises of his life.\nThe right spirit is already in our American college student.\nAll that\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF INTERCOLLEGIATE\n\nATHLETICS\n\n693\n\nis needed is that we set ourselves a little more consciously and definitely\nat the task of formulating athletics into the splendid moral discipline that\nit may easily become. Viewed from the standpoint of the large moral\npurpose, which will soon be the one very generally taken, all doubts which\nnow beset athletic questions involving taint of professionalism, will speedily\ndisappear, and we shall have amateur sport pure and simple, for the reason\nthat it is amateur sport, and not professional, that best lends itself to the\npurposes of the moral laboratory. The great motive of building character\nwill purify and ennoble sport, and place the department that deals with\nathletics beyond the question of a doubt as to its right to rank with the\nother great departments of the university.\nTo summarize then, we have passed in the West pretty well beyond\nprofessionalism in college athletics, unless possibly it be in the playing\nof summer baseball; we have eliminated the tramp athlete; thru more\nrigid rules regulating scholarship and attendance, we have removed \"flunkers\" from our college teams, so that the average standing of the university\nathletes compares favorably with that of any other equally large body of\nstudents; we have reduced our schedules in number of games, and brought\ndown to a reasonable limit the time a student may lose thru being absent\non trips; and we have recently been stimulating intracollegiate contests\nand interesting a much larger number of students than ever before in\nactive participation in out-of-door sports.\nAll this indicates a very great gain, and giyes promise of a still brighter\nfuture.\nOur need, now, is more generally to give full university recognition\nto the Department of Physical Education, and to broaden the aims of the\ndepartment as to culture values of character as well as training values of\nbody.\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— D. B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal College\nVice-President — W. J. Hawkins, president. State Normal School\nSecretary — GtJY E. Maxwell, president. State Normal School\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nRock Hill, S.C,\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nWinona, Minn.\n\nForenoon, JtUy 12, 191 1\n\nThe opening session of the Department of Normal Schools was held in Golden Gate\nHall, San Francisco, on Wednesday, July 12.\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 . 45 a.m. by the vice-president, William J. Hawkins, president of the State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo. In the absence of the\nsecretary. Miss May A. Ward was appointed secretary pro tempore.\nThe chairman then appointed the following committees:\ncommittee on nominations\nE. Oram Lyte, president. First Pennsylvania State Normal School, Millersville, Pa.\nJohn R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\nA. J. Matthews, president. Territorial Normal School, Tempe, Ariz.\ncommittee on resolutions\nDavid Felmley, president, State Normal University, Normal, III.\nN. D. Showalter, president. State Normal School, Cheney, Wash.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, president, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe first address, \"The Preparation of Teachers for Moral Training in the Public\nSchools,\" was delivered by John R. Klirk, president. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"The Relation of the Academic and Professional\nWork in a Normal School,\" by Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers College,\nCedar Falls, Iowa.\n\"The Normal School and the Training School\" was the subject treated by David\nFelmley, president, State Normal University, Normal, 111.\nThe papers were discussed by the following: Agnes E. Howe, instructor in history.\nState Normal School, San Jos6, Cal.; John R. Kirk, president. State Normal School,\nKirksville, Mo.; Alva W. Stamper, head of Department of Mathematics, State Normal\nSchool, Chico, Cal.; Helen F. Burke, superintendent of Holy Name Normal School,\nSfX)kane, Wash.; Martha Buck, Southern Illinois State Normal School, Carbondale, III.;\nGeorge H. Brumhall, president of Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah; Cree T.\nWork, Fort Morgan, Colo.; and others.\nThe reports of the Committee on Simplified Spelling and the Committee on Agricultural Education were read by Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers\nCollege, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nIt was moved and carried that the reports be accepted as read and printed in the\nrecords of the session.\nIt was moved by John R. Kirk, president. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.,\nthat two meetings of the Department of Normal Schools be held each year: one session\nin February with the Department of Superintendence, and the other during the regular\nconvention of the National Education Association.\nThe motion was adopted.\n69s\ntt\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nA motion was made and carried that the president of the Department of Normal\nSchools appoint a committee of eleven, representing the whole country, to report at the\nnext meeting of the department just what statistics normal schools should keep.\nThe following named were subsequently appointed by the president, W. J. Hawkins:\nHomer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa,\nChairman.\nJames E. Klock, principal of State Normal School, Plymouth, N.H.\nJames M. Green, principal of State Normal School, Trenton, NJ.\nDavid B, Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Indust. College, Rock Hill, S.C.\nE. Oram Lyte, principal. First Pennsylvania State Normal School, Millersville, Pa.\nDavid Felmley, president, lUinois State Normal University, Normal, 111.\nW. S. Dearmont, president. State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo.\nW. A. Shoemaker, president. State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn.\nH. F. Estill, principal, Sam Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville, Tex.\nZ. X. Snyder, president. State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo.\nJ. F. Millspaugh, president. State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was then given, as follows:\nThe Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association hereby\nexpresses its gratification in the assurance that is received from every quarter of the\nnation of an increased interest in the adequate preparation of teachers thru special instruction and training for the great work of teaching the children and youth committed to\ntheir care.\nWith a fitting sense of the obligation which rests upon them, and mindful of the\nserious duties which it involves, the normal schools of the United States believe that\nunder proper conditions and equipment they have no right to refuse to undertake the\nresponsibility of preparing teachers for every department of the public school service.\nWe rejoice in the rapidly increasing interest on the part of the educational workers\neverywhere and of the general public in the great movement which aims to secure for our\nchildren the benefits and blessings, moral, social, and physical, of play, of life and growth\nin the great out-of-doors, and of an uprearing in an atmosphere of kindliness and sympathy.\nWe wish to register our unqualified approval of measures which have for their purpose the inculcation in the minds of candidates for the profession, not merely of ethical\nprinciples, academically determined, but of ethical practices, determined by habits of\nright conduct in all human relations.\nWe believe that the time is fully ripe for the enlargement of the curricula of normalschool subjects by the addition to them of carefully organized courses of study in biology\nhaving reference to the essential facts of sex physiology and hygiene, to the end that our\nteachers may enter upon their work properly equipped to fight the great battle for purity\nand decency in our social life.\nWe urge on the part of the administration of normal schools a more perfect correlation ofthe two departments of instruction, the theoretical and the practical, in order\nthat there may result greater unification of efifort, a better adaptation of means to ends,\nand a lessening of cross-purpose effort in all the work of our schools.\n( Jesse F. Millspaugh, of California\nCommittee j N. D. Showalter, of Washington\n( David Felmley, of Illinois\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows:\nFor President — W. J. Hawkins, president. State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo;\nFor Vice-President — A. J. Matthews, president, Tempe Normal School, Tempe, Ariz.\nFor Secretary — Miss Martha Buck, Southern lUinois State Normal School, Carbondale, 111.\nIt was moved and carried that the reports be accepted as read and printed in the\nrecords of the department.\nThe department then adjourned.\nMay a. Ward. Secretary pro tempore\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nACADEMIC\n\nAND\n\nAND\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nWORK\n\n697\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL\nIN A NORMAL SCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\nHOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE,\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA.\n\nScholarship of the highest and best type is fundamental to the real\nefficiency and the certain success of all teachers of every grade in all kinds\nof public schools. This required scholarship must include all branches\nof study that give perfect insight into the work designated as appropriate\nfor elementary and secondary schools. This indicates that the amount\nof work to be done is neither meager nor minor, since the person thus prepared must be superior to the standards exacted of students who complete\nhigh-school and college courses. The degree of perfection that is essential\nof attainment has exceeded any of the standards expected of cultural and\nliberal education and has developed the special-teacher school in which\ntraining, development, and scholarship have all received extraordinary\nattention and commendation. The results that have been reached have\nbeen of such a notable character that the state normal schools have been\nhonored, supported, and improved with a zeal and an appreciation that\nno other kind of popular education has experienced, while their graduates\noccupy a place in public esteem for their efficiency and for their practical\nservice that is sufficient to prove the reality and the perpetuity of their\nprovince. This development and recognition has come more from the\nabsolute value and serviceableness of the scholarship these teachers'\nschools require than from any other reason, since experience has proven\nthat the differences between the decidedly well-prepared and the moderately well-prepared are very great indeed.\nFor these reasons the normal schools have a province that is not invaded\nby other classes of schools and colleges, however great or distinguished\nthese may be, because they need not fear the results of time or of change\nas long as their preparation for a career maintains this high grade of superiority and excellence. The limits of the subjects that will be taught and\nthat will properly belong to the normal-school program of studies depend\nentirely upon the breadth of the function accented, the largeness of the\nfield of service that is undertaken to be supplied, and the greatness of conception that educational work as a profession assumes to those who hold\nthe destiny of the institution in their control.\nThere can be no such thing as \"full educated\" and \"part educated'*\nas truly applied to the right training of teachers for an effective career.\nDefining \"full\" and \"part\" as implying any certain length of course or\nany certain varieties of knowledge is a ialse^assumption and should be\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nrepudiated. All grades of schools need thoroly trained and thoroly educated teachers, specially adapted and decidedly skilled in the particular\nfield of activity where they have their greatest power and their largest\npersonal fitness.\nThe academic preparation of the kindergartner, the primary teacher,\nthe elementary teacher, the music teacher, the commercial teacher, the\ndrawing teacher, the domestic-science teacher, and the department highschool teacher are notably different in many particulars if they are each\nto be skillfully trained and fully equipped for a distinguished success, but\neach needs as full development of mind, as large a capacity for usable\nknowledge, as much greatness of character and as profound an efficiency\nas an instructor as any of the others. The true province of academic\ntraining in a normal school is breadth of knowledge, comprehensiveness\nof intelligence, magnificence of power of presentation of truth to others\nand marvelous depths of capability in the understanding of human nature\nso as to guide it to the supreme good.\nThere is special need for a scholarly environment, for sterling yet\nmoderate surroundings, for heroic personal bearing and for a spirit of loving\nsacrifice in the atmosphere of a teachers' school. If it is to reach the student body and cause the members to want to possess scholarship in this\nsupreme fullness, then the atmosphere of intellectuality, of morality, and\nof the higher life must be marked in great abundance and in definite permanence, while the glorious spirit of the school must possess such convincing and living characteristics that they inspire everyone whom it\ntouches to attain to the supreme and the complete for the sake of the\ngreatness of the work to be done. In this regard the genuine teachers'\nschool cannot be surpassed, as it wields an influence, compels an attitude,\nand reaches a standard that cannot be fully realized by those who have\nnever known its marvelousness of province or its capability as a trainer of\nmen and women. It is such things as these that make unusual scholarship a possibility, remarkable application an actuality, and positive efficiency a constant reality. It is here that scholarship of every kind reaches\nits highest natural resourcefulness; that the teaching conception of service\nto others attains its greatest rank of productiveness; and that the magnificence ofthe importance of usableness has its broadest application.\nTeaching that is worth the while is a great profession, not a technical\ntrade. Its province is determined more by sincerity and by personality\nthan by philosophy and by method. It reaches its highest rank when it\nshows the evangelical note, seeks the salvation of the human family, and\nsupremely loves righteousness and truth as ends, not means to ends.\nMental science, school management,, historical progress in educational\nideas and practice, philosophy of adriiinist ration, and application of knowledge and experience in actual instruction of others are but terms to define\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACADEMIC\n\nAND\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nWORK\n\n699\n\nthe development, enlargement, and uplift of personality and character.\nThey are the touches of the profession which give birth to ideas that rule\nthe worlds of thought and action. They are the phases of civilization\nwhich the experience of the past has taught mankind are essential to the\nnovitiate. Such training in professional thinking and acting sets him at\nthe outset on the shoulders of the race, and from this high station of preparation his vision reaches the promised land of human progress and supreme\nhappiness. This growth in professional ideas and ideals needs time for\nproper expansion. It takes the four years of mind expansion and scholasticequilibrium development to create the attitude that the trained teacher\nmust possess. There must be a gradual growth of the professional spirit\nin order to reach full maturity and complete effectiveness. It is the old\nstory of tarrying in the Jerusalem of educational conceptions and practices until power is conferred from on high. Hence the work of the normal\nschool is a greater undertaking than is often realized, as it is not only\nformal, but also spiritual, not only scholastic and knowledge-giving, but\nalso professional and spirit-giving.\nThat there is a definite, absolute relation between the scholastic and\nthe professional work of the teachers' school that must be discovered is\npositively certain. The vast majority of students come to such a school\nfor the knowledge offered by the program of studies and for the experience\nthat living in a rare and ennobling atmosphere can give. They thus\ncombine duty and pleasure and enter upon experiences that reorganize\ntheir lives and reconstruct their ideals. The normal school without the\nacademic side of power can never become the true alma niater of its graduates since it would not be deserving of their first love. It must have the\nreal part in training them \"to dream dreams and see visions\" before professional instruction has definite value or lasting impression. The student\nmust learn to love knowledge, must acquire the ability to talk interestingly\nabout knowledge, must feel the desire to help others thru his knowledge,\nand must recognize the great importance of knowledge to a better civilization before he has the burning desire to comprehend the philosophy of\nteaching or to apply himself with fervid zeal to the acquirement of skill\nand capability as an educator. For this cause, it does matter whether the\nindividual members of a teachers' school faculty are remarkably successful\ninstructors and inspirers in their class work. For these ends, the selection\nof those with power to teach admirably and most effectively the academic\nlines of preparation is highly important, because the first impulse that a\nstudent ever receives to decide to follow a teaching career comes to him\nwhen he is under the influence and enjoys the masterfulness of those who\n\"teach with authority and not as scribes.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "TOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE NORMAL\nDAVID\n\nFELMLEY,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTHE TRAINING\n\nPRESIDENT,\nSTATE\nNORMAL,\nILL.\n\nNORMAL\n\n[NormaJ\n\nSCHOOL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIn order that any institution may do its work there must be unity in\nits organization; all parts must co-operate for a common end. The functions or relations of the various parts cannot be seen without considering\nthe law of the organization as a whole.\nThe law, or organizmg principle,\nof an organization is to be found in its purpose.\nThe purpose of the normal\nschool is to fit its students for teaching children.\nIt is a technical school\nin which knowledge is of value as it ministers to an art. The teacher stands\ncommitted to the biological conception that knowledge is of value as it\ndetermines conduct.\nHence what anatomy is to the surgeon, or mathematics to the engineer, the various branches of study are to the teacher.\nIn a sense they are the instruments of his art. No teacher is really firmly\ngrounded in his profession until he feels that the value of every subject,\ntopic, or question is to be found in its influence upon the development of\nthe child. Lessons are to be judged, not in their individual nature, but in\ntheir final outcome.\nIn the normal school the various branches of study\nare to be organized not so much with regard to their inner, logical relations\nas with regard to the interests and aptitudes of children.\nThe question\nis not merely, What is this body of thought that we call arithmetic, nor\nyet what portions of it are of greatest practical worth, but rather, How\nshall the child proceed to acquire this knowledge ? In the normal school\nthe child occupies the center of the stage. The institution exists not for\nthe normal students, but for the children whom these students are to teach.\nThe early normal schools had no training department.\nThe instructors\nwere men of tremendous enthusiasm who had already won distinction as\nbrilliant teachers. The glowing imagination would picture actual school\nconditions with extraordinary vividness.\nThe memories of their own early\nexperience as teachers of children guided them in their work.\nThe students,\nif they had taught, could not have before them the same children, or children\nunder the same conditions, as their instructor; while the younger students\nhad never looked upon children from the standpoint of the instructor.\nIt was not long in the history of all public normal schools before the need\nof a training school was keenly felt. The children discussed in the classroom must be no mere abstractions, but living, concrete, realities.\nUpon\nthese the thought of student and teacher may focus.\nIt is about them\nthat the activities of the normal school must revolve.\nHence the training\nschool has come to be an essential part of the American normal school.\nIt serves in part as a model school where skilled instructors exemplify\nsuperior teaching before classes who have been taught what points to\nobserve; it serves in part as a school of experiment where some plans and\nmethods may be tested and compared; but its chief function is to afford\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n701\n\nyoung teachers an opportunity to acquire good habits of teaching thru\npractice under the supervision of a wise and sympathetic training teacher.\nNormal-school instructors should feel that their departments exist\nonly that their students may be fitted to teach children. They must see\nnot merely the young men and women on the benches before them, but\nthe children waiting beyond. Hence no one can hope to attain high\nexcellence as a teacher in a normal school unless he has taught children.\nThis experience must energize and color all his work.\nHere I may state in passing, that some of us who are normal-school\nprincipals betray that we are ashamed of our high calling. In filling our\nfaculties we care more for academic degrees than for professional training,\nskill, or experience. Young doctors of philosophy with no teaching record,\nor a record of failure, seem to be in high demand. In a normal-school\ncatalog before me, along with the name of each teacher, is printed the name\nof the institution responsible for his education. Two of the subordinates\nnear the foot of the list have evidently had normal-school training. The\nothers have apparently attended only colleges and universities, sometimes\ntwo or three of them. Yet I happen to know that the president, the vicepresident, and some others in this faculty are graduates of normal schools.\nThey apparently believe that their professional training is to be concealed\nrather than displayed when appealing for the confidence and patronage\nof students. So I repeat, normal-school instructors should have been\nsuccessful teachers of children for a period long enough to keep the conditions ofthe common school always in sight and to insure a living interest\nin its problems.\nThis position does not mean that the instructor's vision is to be bounded\nby these conditions, or that normal-school instruction is to consist of\nhand-to-mouth devices for immediate use in the training school. It is\njust as important that the primary teacher read Browning and Wordsworth, that she study sociology and the theory of evolution, as that she\ntake primary handwork or primary reading. The broader outlook^ and\ndeeper sympathies must count for something in her work. Still it is\nmaintained that the so-called \"general-culture\" courses have no place in\nthe normal-school curriculum unless they result in better teachers and\nbetter teaching. Such a result surely is more likely if the instructor\nhimself is keenly alive to the needs of children and the conditions of\nschool life.\nIt seems superfluous to state that the general doctrines of instruction\nand management taught in the department of pedagogy should prevail\nin the training school. This can be secured best by having the director\nof the training school serve as instructor ii^general method. In his class\nshould be discussed the various questions of classroom technique — ^lessonplanning, assignments, questioning, drills, reviews. This work should\nprecede or run parallel to the student's first practice-teaching and be\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nreinforced in interviews with training teachers, the weekly teachers' meetings, and the discussion of the model lessons.\nThere have been normal schools in which no special effort was made to\nmake the practice of the training school square with the theory of the normal\nclassrooms. The divorce has been justified as developing an eclectic\nspirit in the normal student; when the doctors disagree, he must think\nfor himself.\nIt has been claimed, too, that where a consistent system is followed\nthruout all departments of the normal school it begets a system of narrowness, of cocksureness, incompatible with that humility of spirit that is\nthe prime condition of all progress.\nIt is true enough that there is a vast area of unexplored territory all\nabout us. Still if we have made no progress in the science of education,\nthere is no place for the normal school. As we are sincere men and women,\nwe must believe there is a body of educational doctrine, rational in theory\nand sound in practice. If we do not believe this we have no place in the\nnormal school. It is the function of the normal school to expound and\nexemplify this doctrine. It must be done clearly and consistently. It is\nthe right of the young teacher, as truly as of the young physician or the\nyoung engineer, to come into his professional inheritance unembarrassed\nby clouds upon the title. It is primarily the duty of the department of\npedagogy to declare what this general doctrine is. The training department must consistently carry out this doctrine.\nThe unity of the normal school demands that the instructors shall\nknow what is going on in the training school — in their own departments\nminutely, in all departments somewhat. In planning the daily program\nof the various instructors, time should be allowed for frequent visits to\nthe training school at the hour when many classes may be found at work\nin his branch.\nUnless a course of study has been imposed upon the normal schools\nby s^te authority, the head of each department should plan the trainingschool course in his branch. If the faculty is well balanced and competent, we may presume that no one else about the school is so well qualified\nto do so. It will make him feel responsible for this work in the training\nschool, will give point and interest to his visits, and will add new zest to\nhis instruction of the young teachers who are to teach his course.\nThe course as outlined will provide a list of topics in due order of sequence,\na catalog of available material for reference and illustration, and directions\nas to the special method of particular topics. This course will not be\nfinal. The principal of the school and the director of the training school\nwill suggest changes in the interests of co-ordination. It will probably\nbe necessary to reduce the time demanded. Frequent revision of the\ncourse will be necessary in the light of the experience of the training school.\nIn order that the training teacher may follow the course wisely, she\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n703\n\nmust know what it is. She must know the general scope of the work in\nall grades, and thoroly the work of her own grade. She must feel under\nobligation to understand the plan of each department, and to contribute\nfrom her experience toward the promotion and perfection of this plan.\nThis co-operation cannot be secured without frequent conferences between\ninstructor and training teacher. The normal-school instructor has reciprocal duties. He must explain his course and methods to the training\nteachers, and counsel and advise with them in regard to difficulties.\nIt may be objected to this that it reduces the training teachers to mere\n\"subs\" to the heads of departments. They must take their methods from\nthe department of pedagogy and their subject-matter from the other\ndepartments. Training teachers are not without scholarship, and they\nare abundantly able to plan the curriculum that they must teach and supervise. To this objection there are three replies:\n1. Training teachers are not alone in being subordinates. All parts of a working\norganization must be subordinate to the law of the organization as determined by its\npurpose. The objection at the bottom is only a personal one, an. objection that would\nnot occur to one devoted to the institution.\n2. If the training teachers are to determine subject-matter and method, the normal\nschool falls apart.\nWe straightway have two schools which may or may not agree in theory.\n3. The normal school suffers from the lack of vital contact with the children in the\ntraining school.\n\nThe frequent visits of the normal instructor to the training school\ncannot fail to react upon his teaching. Not the least of the advantages\nof the ordinary written examination is that in it we examine ourselves as\nwell as our pupils. We test the quality of the instruction as well as the\ndiligence of the students. In these visits the normal instructor receives a\nkindred benefit; he measures his instruction by its results. Then, too, he\ncan afford great help and inspiration to the student teachers. He knows\nbest what illustrative material is available, the resources of his department in library and apparatus. He can suggest needed study where he\nfinds that defective knowledge of the subject is the chief obstacle to success.\nHis criticism of the teaching should usually be made thru the training\nteacher, partly to recognize her responsibility, partly to preserve harmony\nin the criticisms and suggestions that may reach the student teacher.\nThe normal instructor should occasionally teadh classes of children.\nHe must keep alive in his experience just what the problems of teaching\nand management are. He must know the practicable and the possible\nin the schools of this generation. Teachers of the normal school must be\nmen of ideals who with prophetic vision behold what ought to be and is\nto be in education, but only as they comprehend present conditions and\ntendencies can they intelligently direct the line of advance.\nWhen the program permits, the normal instructor should occasionally\nteach a class of children for an entire term. It gives opportunity to conduct some needed experiment or try out some promi^iing innovation.\nHe\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nshould also from time to time teach a model lesson of observation and\ncriticism. This will require him to teach the class for a week in advance\nthat he may get on easy terms with the children, discover something of the\nrange of their knowledge and lay a proper foundation for the lesson proposed.\nWhen normal-school teachers are asked to teach classes of children a\ngood deal of inertia is sometimes revealed. This is not because they are\ncontent to be mere guideposts, poi nting the way they never travel themselves. Itis due to the haunting suspicion that they cannot carry out the\nlesson as planned. They fear the personal humiliation attendant upon\npartial failure.\nIt must appear from the foregoing discussion that much good may\nresult from bringing the normal instructors into intimate relations with\nthe training school. But such co-operation must be hearty and continuous, itmust not be constrained; in fact, Httle will come of it unless\nthe normal instructors are in the mood to ask the privilege of such cooperation as a necessary condition for developing their own work.\nThe question thus becomes one of the attitude of the teacher. This\nattitude depends upon his education, his acquired habits, his point of\nview. So long as our normal instructors are mere university products we\nmay expect little of this eagerness to function in the training school; for\nthere is little in the atmosphere of most university classrooms to exalt the\nimportance or the dignity of the elementary school. But when our faculties are made up, as they should be, of men and women of practical school\nexperience, who are really proud of their professional training and of their\nprofessional ministry, we shall find the training school the central fact of\nthe normal-school organization, and all the teachers participants in its\norganization and work.\nREPORTS\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nOF COMMITTEES\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\nTo the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association:\nYour committee appointed in 1909 presents her ewith its second amiual\nreport on the progress^ of the movement for a simpler and more rational\nspelling of the English language.\nI. The special work of the p ast year has been done by the Simplified\nSpelling Board's Executive Commit tee in selecting simplified forms for the\nbadly spelled words in the entire dictionary vocabulary. The task has been\npartly completed. The more difi&cult cases, including chiefly words of\nthe Teutonic type, have been left for further consideration and adjustment\nafter selected representatives of the Simplified Spelluig Board of America\nand the Simplified Spelling Society of Great Britain have held a joiat\nconference in London and decided the solution of the chief difficulties\ninvolved. This conference will be held in September of this year.\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeat)\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSIMPLIFIED\n\nSPELLING\n\n705\n\n2. The Simplified Spelling Board has authorized the organization of\nthe North Central States Branch, to serve as a body of scholars to promote\nthe use of the simpler forms in the normal schools, colleges, and public\nschools of that part of the United States. To enable this propaganda\nto be more widely conducted, six additional members of the Simplified\nSpelling Board have recently been nominated from these states.\n3. The state normal schools at Cedar Falls, Iowa, Normal, 111., Greeley,\nColo., and the provincial normal school at Truro, Nova Scotia, now use\nall the simpler forms adopted by the Simplified Spelling Board: (i) in\ntheir official correspondence, (2) in their mimeographed circulars distributed among their students, and (3) in their printed bulletins and catalogs\ngiven to the public. Such action has done much to call public attention\nto these schools, has given them special prominence as educational centers\nof public opinion on school reform, and has enabled them to assume a\ncreditable leadership in other lines.\n4. The hope of reform and of improvement in every line of elementary\nand secondary public education depends upon the state normal schools, if\nthey are willing to be progressive and enterprising. This opportunity\nto take the initiative in developing interest and in aggressively promoting\nreal reforms and improvements in sane and sensible ways is a privilege\nthat cannot well be neglected, since the decision that is made by them will\nsettle more or less permanently the actual province that normal-school\neducation and training are to be granted in the coming years. Few reforms\nthat have been undertaken by the present age promise better results for\nelementary and secondary education than does this of a simpler and a\nsaner spelling of the mother-tongue.\n5. Joined with these things must be mentioned the importance of the\n\"phonetic key alphabet\" adopted by the Department of Superintendence\nof the National Education Association and recommended to that great\nbody. This is recommended as a key and not as a new alphabet for general\nuse. It is a practical solution of an acknowledged difficulty in the notation for pronunciation of the sounds actually used by English-speaking\npeoples; and a careful and scholarly investigation of its merits will secure\nfor it a recognition of its serviceableness.\n^\n6. The considerable success of the Simplified Spelling Board within a\nfew years of its organization guarantees the completion of the undertaken\nwork in both America anc^ England and promises educational results that\nwill be notable in history, as the work in progress is the greatest endeavor\nof the kind that civilization has seen.\nRespectfully submitted,\n( Charles ^cKenny, Milwaukee, Wis.\nCommittee • Homer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\n( David Felmley, Normal, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nREPORT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE\nEDUCATION\n\n[Norma\n\nON AGRICULTURAL\n\nTo the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association:\nYour committee files herewith its second annual report of the progress\nthat is shown in securing national legislation on the subject of \"Vocational\nEducation\":\n1. During the past year the committee has co-operated continually\nwith special friends of the Vocational Bill in the Senate and in the House\nof Representatives. Many letters have been written at the suggestion of\nthe committee by the state normal schools and by the state superintendents\nof public instruction to members of Congress, urging early action on this\nmeasure. The committee has kept in touch with the situation and its\nmembers have personally done everything they could to bring about a\nwider public interest.\n2. The conflicts that have existed in congressional business, as well\nas the executive pressure that has appeared to compel legislation that has\nto do with other classes of political problems, have prevented any real\nconsideration being given to the greater problems of the education of the\nmasses. The difference of opinion that has existed regarding the place\nof the nation in public education has gradually disappeared and today the\nsentiment of the masses assumes that popular education deserves as much\nattention from Congress as any other public interest. It seems, therefore,\nthat the movement for national aid is continually growing in favor where\nproperly understood and where its advantages are fully realized.\n3. There was a time following the death of Senator Jonathan P. DoUiver,\nof Iowa, the sponsor for the Vocational Bill in the Senate, that no other\nsenator seemed ready to take his place and devote time and energy to\nsecuring action necessary to bring the bill to a vote, but now Senator\nCarroll S. Page, of Vermont, assumes that privilege and will give his experience, support, and activity to securing an early decision.\n4. At the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Mobile,\nthe committee held two sessions and made an exhibit of products. At\nthese sessions, plans, policies, and methods of work were discussed and\nmuch interest was aroused among the members. It was decided to enlarge\nthe membership of the full committee so as to have a live and active representative inevery state. It was also decided to have a full meeting of\nthe committee at St. Louis next February and thus be prepared to get more\nefl&cient service in pushing the agitation among the people the coming\ncongressional year. Nominations are now in order for the several states\nnot represented on the committee and the Executive Committee stands\nready to accept those who are enough interested to take charge of the campaign in their respective states. The following states are now organized:\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON AGRICULTURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n707\n\nIowa, Rhode Island, Nebraska, Ohio, South Carolina, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Maryland, Louisiana, North Carolina, Missouri, Pennsylvania,\nIllinois, Utah, Massachusetts, Maine, Vermont, Texas, Tennessee, Michigan. The new members needed should be persons who are prominent and\nenterprising educators who are in sympathy with the purpose of the Vocational Bill now in Congress, and should be preferably superintendents of\npublic instruction or representatives of state normal schools, as these\npersons are naturally more interested in the measure.\nRespectfully submitted,\nHomer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa\nE. E. Balcomb, Providence, R.I.\nExecutive Committee { H. G. Williams, Athens, Ohio\nD. B. Johnson, Rock Hill. S.C.\nThos. C. Miller, Shepherdstown, W.Va.\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL TRAINING\nART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nAND\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Clifford B. Connelley, dean, Carnegie Technical Schools\nVice-President — Mrs. Ellen H. Richards*\nSecretary — Miss May Gearhart, supervisor of drawing\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nBoston, Mass.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July ii, 191 i\nThe meeting was called to order in the San Francisco Institute of Art at 9:40 a.m.\nby President Clifford B. Connelley, dean of Carnegie Technical Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nIn the absence of the secretary Miss Helen Louise Johnson was appointed secretary\npro tempore.\nMr. Connelley read his own paper on \"To What Extent Does Manual Training\nAid in Adjustment to Environment?\"\nThe third paper on the program, \"The Requisites of the Efl&cient Teacher in Industrial Schools,\" prepared by George W. Gerwig, secretary. Board of School Controllers,\nAllegheny High Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa., was presented by Mr. J. M. Berkey, principal\nof Liberty sub-District Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa., in the absence of Mr. Gerwig.\nThe paper on \"The Dynamic Value of Manual Arts in the Public-School System\nof Education,\" prepared by T. D. Sensor, Department of Public Instruction, Trenton,\nN. J., was presented by Mr. Cree T. Work, of Colorado.\nMr. Connelley then presented the papers for discussion, introducing Mr. E. Athelstan\nRoss, supervisor of manual training. El Paso, Tex., in place of James Edwin Addicott,\nwho was unable to be present. Open discussion followed, Mr. Paul Kreuzpointner being\nfirst given the floor.\nThe Report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements was then called\nfor. Mr. Connelley explained that the Carnegie Fotmdation had made it possible to\nuse funds for the investigation of certain educational questions and had it not been for\nthis, this report could not have been prepared.\nIt was explained that the resolutions adopted by the Department of Manual Training and Art at the National Education Association Convention held in Boston, in 1910,\nregarding College Entrance Requirements brought into being a committee which had\nprepared the following report. In the report is embodied a resolution requesting the\namount of $60 to be appropriated for the continuation of the work of the committee.\nIt was moved and carried that the report in full be accepted. This indicates that a\nrequest is or should be made of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association for the amoimt indicated in the report, in order to further the work of the committee.\nThe chair then appointed the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nW. A. Dunn, principal. Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nS. Maria Elliott, instructor in Simmons College, Boston, Mass.\nF. N. Cauch, Oakland, Cal.\n•Deceased.\n709\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nE. Athelstan Ross, supervisor of manual training, El Paso, Tex.\nMiss May Gearhart, supervisor of drawing, Los Angeles, Cal.\nMiss Helen Louise Johnson, associate editor. Good Housekeeping, New York, N.Y.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION, Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 12, 191 1\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 9:40 a.m.\nMr. Paul Kreuzpointner, chairman. Industrial Committee of the American Foundrymen's Association, Altoona, Pa., was introduced. He read a paper on \"The New\nStandard of Present-Day Industrial Education in Europe.\"\nThe second paper, on \"The Requisites of Effective Teaching in the Manual and\nHousehold Arts,\" was then presented by Helen Louise Johnson, associate editor, Good\nHousekeeping, New York, N.Y.\nThe third paper, on \"Present Problems in the Literature of the Manual Arts and\nVocational Education, \" by Alfred Guillou of Berkeley, Cal., was then given.\nDiscussions followed, after which the meeting was adjourned.\n\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 13, 191 1\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:40 a.m. by the president, and Miss Ednah A.\nRich, president of State Normal School of Manual Arts and Home Economics, Santa\nBarbara, Cal., presided as chairman, this being the session devoted to the subject of\nhome economics.\nTwo papers were read, as follows:\n\"The Public-School Domestic Science Department as an Influence in the Commimity\nfor Enforcing the Observance of Pure Food Laws, Civic Cleanliness,\" etc., by Matie P.\nClark, head of Departments of Domestic Science and Manual Training, Commercial\nHigh School, Oakland, Cal., and \"Some Actual Needs for Intelhgent Purchasing of Household Commodities and Practical Methods for Keeping Household Accounts,\" by Miss\nEtta P. Flagg, supervisor of Home Economics, public schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nMiss Isabel Bevier, head of the Department of Household Science, University of\nIllinois, Urbana, HI., then presented the report of the Committee on Nomenclature.\nPresident Connelley moved that tht report be adopted, and after some discussion\nthe motion was carried.\nThe meeting then proceeded to the discussion of the papers. This was opened by\nWilliam H. Snyder, principal of the Hollywood High School, Hollywood, Cal. He was\nfollowed by Harriet A. Boyer, Sophie Newcomb College, New Orleans, La., and Dr.\nCorwin, of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Hospital, Pueblo, Colo.\nMiss Rich then retired to give the chair to President Connelley and the reports of\nthe committees were called for.\nMr. Dunn, the chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, presented the following:\nWhereas, This session of the Department of Manual Training and Art Education\nhas been most profitable; therefore be it\nResolved, That a cordial vote of thanks be extended to the local committee and to\nthose in charge of the San Francisco Institute of Art for all efforts contributing to this\nsuccess; to Dean Connelley for his efficient preparation for, and able direction of, this\nDepartment of the National Education Association, convened in its present session; to\nMiss Helen Louise Johnson for her efficient service as secretary.\nWhereas, The present-day tendencies have brought about their recognition of the\ngrowing importance of the work for which the Department of Manual Training, Art\nEducation, and Home Economics, stands; be it\nResolved, That a closer affiliation is necessary between this body and the related\norganizations in the several states in order that the central organization may be available\nfor the solution of local problems.\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n711\n\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report:\nThe first part of the resolution presented by the foregoing committee is most important. If we consider present conditions of education, we need to take some definite\naction to forward this closer affiliation. We therefore desire to make a precedent and\nhave to report for nomination for president of this section a man in whose hands we\nbelieve these closer relations will be made possible. The Nominating Committee desires\nto present the following:\nFor President — Clifford B. Connelley, dean of the School of Applied Industries,\nCarnegie Technical Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Isabel Bevier, president of the American Home Economics Association, Urbana, 111.\nFor Secretary — ^W. A, Dunn, principal Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThe report of the Nominating Committee was unanimously accepted.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 14, 191 1\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 9:40 a.m.. Mr. Connelley\npresented as chairman of the meeting, Mr. A. B. Clark, associate professor of art, Leland\nStanford Junior University, and introduced him as the first speaker on the program.\nMr. Clark then presented his paper on \"Art Education in the Public Schools, an\nEssential Civic of Perfection. \"\nChairman Clark then introduced Mr. Cheshire L. Boone, director, Department of\nArt and Handwork, Public Schools, Montclair, N. J., who read a paper on \"Art Service\nas a Basis for Classified Knowledge.\"\nMiss May Gearhart, supervisor of drawing, Los Angeles, Cal., presented her paper\non \"What Has Art in the Schools Done to Preserve and Cultivate the Imagination?\"\nDiscussion was opened by Katherine M. Ball, supervisor of drawing, San Francisco,\nCal., who was followed by: Harriet N. Morris, San Diego, Cal.; Clara Robbins, Billings,\nMont.; and Paul Kreuzpointner, chairman. Industrial Committee of American Foundrymen's Association, Altoona, Pa.\nAfter the discussion the meeting was adjourned.\nHelen Louise Johnson, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\nTO\n\nWHAT\n\nCLIFFORD\n\nAND\n\nEXTENT\nDOES\nADJUSTMENT\nB.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nMANUAL\nTRAINING\nTO ENVIRONMENT\n\nAID\n\nIN\n\nCONNELLEY,\nDEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF APPLIED INDUSTRIES,\nCARNEGIE\nTECHNICAL SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nWe have been given a royal welcome to the Golden State, a state\nwhich has stood for great things and royal welcomes from the present\ntime back to the days when the weary seekers after gold crossed desert\nand mountain that they might arrive here.\nToday, this magnificent city is to be a forum and the many thousands\nhere assembled have been empowered to hear and decide cases in this\neducational court. We have passed thru the evolution of the stone,\nbronze, and iron ages, each one contributing generously to the civilization\nto which we belong. Today we assemble in the Golden State so rich\nin possibilities that conservation must guide us in all action.\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThere are few educated people today who do not possess some stock\nnotion regardmg our work. There are also few educators engaged in\nspecial work who do not at times make the special side a rival fetish to\nsome other line of work. Between these two classes, in every possible\ngradation of opinion, are those who aid in training the future citizens.\nThe kindergarten movement was the first force to awaken educators\nto realize that our schools owe the children more than mere intellectual\ntraining and memory drills. This was the entering wedge to make the\npublic school a strong factor in developing the school and industrial progress\nof our nation.\nAccording to the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education,\nfor the year ending June 30, 19 10, manual training was taught in the\ncommon schools of more than one-half of the cities of the United States.\nThere were 257 schools devoted entirely to manual training, or the manual\narts. In these schools 16,834 boys and 9,803 girls received manual or\ntechnical training; and altogether in the entire country 58,354 males and\n30,077 females of high-school grade received instruction in the manual\narts. Also, there were 74 Indian industrial schools.\nThe educational exhibits of our world's fairs, namely, at Philadelphia,\nChicago, Buffalo, and St. Louis, have proved to the people of the United\nStates and foreign countries what industrial education has done for our\nboys and girls.\nSince manual training is spreading so rapidly thru our entire country\nand is obtaining fuller recognition in the school systems of all our states,\nit is not only fitting but most necessary that the place of the manual arts\nin our educational system be never lost sight of and that we consider\ncarefully today \"to what extent does manual training aid in adjustment\nto environment?\"\nNo man can escape the influence of environment. He may battle\nwith conditions that surround him, he may fight against things as they,\nexist in his community, he may go even farther than this and endeavor\nto remodel the social and economic status, but in the ultimate analysis\nhe will find that the most that he can do is to combat the evil and adjust\nhimself to the good in the environment which is his. It is this adjustment\nto the substantial and the worthy elements in the community which is\nthe solution for the social problem of today. So long as nations are founded\nupon the collective system, so long will men and women find it necessary\nto sacrifice to some measure the characteristics of the individual unit for\nthe welfare of the mass. Society exists today because men of earlier\nperiods realized that security comes from union and that each must give\nto the collective body something from the storerooms of the individual.\nAnd because society has thus been established and continued, it behooves\nthose of us who believe in the stability of social and economic forms so\nto adjust ourselves and our callings to our environments that the compact\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n713\n\n«\nbody of citizens shall rise higher and higher in the social and intellectual\nscale as the years go by, with a final perfect relation as our ultimate aim.\nHow can this adjustment to environments best be accomplished?\nThis is the question with which educators must deal. It is the problem\nwhich confronts the men and women who today are endeavoring to point\nout the paths which must lead to the solution of much that is vexing the\nfar-seeing and the thoughtful. An indiscriminate grasping for solutions\nwill hardly be of much help to us. An indefinite tendency to adjust matters\nwill not avail us much. Speaking of things as they today exist, we may\nsafely say that we now find two roads which lead to the adjustment to\nenvironment. The first of these — and I speak of it first because it is\nmost frequently traveled — is the road of non-resistance. It is the course\nof the aimless and the slothful, it is the path of the shiftless and the thoughtless. It is the shortest line between bare sustenance and labor, and therefore the most readily adopted. To the class of persons who travel along\nthis road, conditions exist simply because they do exist, and for no other\nreason. A man finds himself in a manufacturing community and adjustment to such environment means to him a toleration of conditions merely\nto the extent that daily food is a necessity. Self-preservation is his only\nguide — ^he knows that he must fall into line with the community if he\nis to live in its midst, whether it be a community of agriculture, commerce, or manufacture. From this man we can expect little, if anything,\nin the ultimate solution of our social and economic problem.\nThen there is the second and the more desirable road. It is the path\ninto which educators are today endeavoring to lead the student and the\nlaborer. It is the current into which leading thinkers are attempting to direct\nthe man of might and muscle by developing his mental capacities in the\nproper relation to his physical prowess. This is the path of scientific adjustment, the course which eliminates the evil in the environment and brings\nabout a proper adjustment between good conditions and good men. Everything that is educational has more or less of this tendency to adjustment.\nEverything that makes for the welfare of the race is founded in some\ndegree on this fundamental principle of adjustment, the adjustment of\nmen to conditions, and of men to each other's needs and desires. It is\none of the rocks upon which the social body is founded, one of the staffs\nby which the economic whole is supported.\nIn the early days, the force of education was directed almost wholly\nin this country to the development of mere mental attainment and the\nprogress of cultural arts. Hand skill and physical competence were left\nto drift for themselves as best they might and to work out their own solutions in the ways which most readily appealed to their followers. As a\nresult, the line of least resistance was followed. There were no thinkers\nto formulate systems, no leaders to establish methods, for the scientific\napplication of the proper principles.\nBut this could not go on forever\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nin a 'country where commerce and manufacture are the chief sources of\nwealth, where millions of citizens are daily engaged in mechanical and\nindustrial pursuits. Men began to think of these things and to analyze\nconditions. They saw that unless methodical principles were applied to\nthe crafts and industries there would eventually be naught but chaos\nin the commercial and manufacturing world. They looked about them\nand studied the attempts of other nations to meet just such problems.\nThey found the guild system and the apprenticeship idea of other lands\nand they began to apply them to their own conditions. Large manufacturers endeavored to offer their unskilled youths some of the advantages\nwhich such systems had to give. But the feeling of unrest was too great\nto be satisfied by this one attempted solution. The far-sighted leaders\nsaw that the true answer to the problem was a method by which the training of the hand could be carried on simultaneously with the training of\nthe mind. They began to realize that the public school, the very foundation of American democracy and republican strength, must be utilized\nin the ultimate solution of this problem of adjustment. Hence, slowly\nbut gradually and surely, the manual-training department became established inthe public schools of the land; and then came the more advanced\nschools and the vocational and technical institutions covering our entire\ncountry. Now that the experimental stage is largely a thing of yesterday,\nand that manual-training schools are here to remain with us for generations\nat least, we may ask to what extent do these schools aid in adjustment\nto environment, to what degree have they solved the problem which\nhelped to give them birth ?\nIf all the world could be made up of followers of the old professional\ncareers, manual-training schools would have no legitimate reason for\nexistence. But simply because the needs and the pursuits of men are more\ndiversified than this, manual training and vocational schools have been\ncalled into being. Men must be housed and clothed, buildings must be\nreared into space, building products must be manufactured, and hundreds\nof other necessities call for the labor and the skill of trained workmen, men\nwhose hands are as skillful as their minds are fertile. If society is to\nprogress and nations grow, the hand of the man must be trained, his eye\nmust be developed, and all his abilities brought into play. What, then, is\nmore appropriate than that these developments should be started while\nthe man is yet young — yea, while the child is still in the growing age ?\nYouth responds to treatment more readily than maturity, and the nation\nof most skilled workmen will be that nation whose children have been\ntaught the elements of this same skill. It is this endeavor to find out\nfor just what career the child is best suited that has so much justified\nthe continued existence of the manual-training school.\nMere cultural training or mental development will not inform the\nteacher as to whether his young pupil is possessed of the quick eye and\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n715\n\nready hand which are the evidences of a future skilled workman. Nor\ncan the community afford them. Every community has need for a greater\nor a less number of skilled workmen and men whose mechanical abilities\ncan contribute to the progress of the district. The problem is to discover\nthese men at an early enough age to enable the adjustment of their abilities\nto the needs of the community in which they live and which is to be the\nhome of their mature years. Manual training is an easy and desirable\nmethod of arriving at this discovery. The child who is eminently fitted\nto perform, in future years, a commendable part in the industrial life of\nthe city or town in which he is to live, will soon have his dormant abilities\nmade obvious to himself and his teachers, and, by the gradual development\nof these talents, first thru the manual-training school and then thru the\nvocational and technical institutions, the man who has grown out of this\nchild will become an important factor in the progress of the community;\nhe will have no difliculty in adjusting his abilities to the needs of his surroundings.\nManual training is the keystone by which the growing student is brought\nover into the field of useful industry. It is the link by which the children\nof today become parts of the chain which spells progress for the community.\nIt enables a scientific adjustment to environment and tends to industry\nand growth. It is the broad avenue by which young men and women\nmay travel to mechanical and vocational success. It is true that manual\ntraining by itself could not accomplish all that is desired. It is rather\nbut the beginning, the weeding out process, where the latent talents of\nthe youth are discovered and the boy is prepared to continue his work\nin the higher school or advanced institution. But it is, after all, the first\nstepping-stone to industrial adjustment.\nWithout manual training and its associated schools of advanced work,\nthe nation's young people will not attain their fullest development. Added\nto classical and cultural studies, this training comes to broaden and to\nwiden, to enlighten and to prepare the student for the work which best\nsuits him. We do not get everything out of our children that should be\nbrought to the surface unless we offer them a course in manual training\nalong with the book learning that we give them. We cannot adjust education to the needs of our communities unless we make manual training a\npart of our curriculum.\nGermany is a classical example of a nation that has not neglected the\ndevelopment of its most valuable resources— its young men and young\nwomen. For example, in one city there are forty different kinds of industrial continuation schools — schools for chimney-sweeps, coachmen, hotel\nand restaurant waiters, jewelers, shoemakers, carpenters, machinists,\nblacksmiths, tinsmiths, printers, bookbinders, and many others. The\nname \"continuation school\" — Fortbildungschule — ^is chosen advisedly, for\nevery youth who graduates only from an elementary school is obliged by\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "7l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nlaw to continue his education in some such continuation school during\nthe period of his apprenticeship to his trade, and he is sure to find a continuation school appropriate to his vocation. Employers are by law\nrequired to give their employees the time to attend these schools, from\nsix to twelve hours a week, depending on the trade, and for from three to\nfive years. These continuation schools are not evening schools, because\nit is well known that boys from fourteen to fifteen years of age are unable,\nafter a hard day's work in a shop or factory, to profit by evening instruction\nto the same extent as if this instruction were given to them during the day.\nWe have found from experience that after a boy reaches seventeen or eighteen years of age he is very much more able to carry this night instruction.\nIn these continuation schools, one of the most suggestive arrangements\nis the close correlation of the theoretical foundations of each trade with\nthe instruction in the processes of the trade. For instance, the mathematics of the school is mathematics of the shop, whether the trade is\njewelry, shoemaking, or carpentry. The same is true of the machinist's\nmathematics. Similarly, the drawing of the school is the drawing of the\nshop. The problems which the boy finds in the shop today are dwelt\nupon at length in the school tomorrow. In the same way the closest\npossible relation of the sciences, physical or biological, to the trade, is\nmaintained. The youth learns also the history of his trade. He studies\ncivics and the proper use of his mother-tongue in relation to his calling.\nFrom the continuation school the youth, at eighteen or nineteen years\nof age, enters the army, where, for at least two years, he is under systematic educational influences. The German nation has been unwilling\nto allow the youth after he leaves the elementary school to be without\nsome systematic education until he reaches the age of citizenship.\nI mention this German system because it is an example of the most\nintense endeavor to adjust men and women to their environments. For\nmore than a generation past, Germany has realized its responsibility in\nthis direction and it has endeavored to solve its problem in a most thoro\nmethod. The effect of the extraordinary system of technical and industrial education which it is following has made its presence felt on the\nprogress of German industry and commerce. Before the Franco-Prussian\nWar Germany was, industrially and commercially, a rather unimportant\nnation. After German unity had been accomplished, the nation devoted\nitself to the development of its educational system and to the elevation\nof its industry and commerce. As a result, the nation has become one of\nthe most important manufacturing and commercial countries of the world,\na tremendous rival in that respect of other progressive nations. While\nGermany's educational system is not the sole cause of its prosperity, it\nis, nevertheless, one of the most important causes and, by the Germans\nthemselves, it is regarded as the leading cause. And what is true of Germany is also true to a great extent of several other European countries.\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment)\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\n717\n\nManual training, as pursued in the United States, is but an elementary\nconception of the German idea, a system more desirably adapted to a\ndemocracy. Our absence of monarchical institutions and our dislike for\nthem would not permit us to pursue the forced methods that are in vogue\nin foreign lands. Nevertheless, the underlying motive is much the same\nwith us as in European countries. After all, we are endeavoring, just as\nthey are doing, to provide educational opportunities that will enable a\nman to make the most of his natural capacities, his industry, and his\ncharacter, whatever his origin in life may have been. We are attempting\nto train our youths in such a way as will best enable them to adjust themselves to their environments and the needs of the community in which\nthey live.\nManual training is a valuable adjunct in the adjustment process because\nit encourages the development of the creative power within the child.\nEvery child is gifted with some degree of this power, and true education\nis that which brings out this inherent ability. Growing communities\nneed men and women who can create as far as it is possible for human\nbeings to create, and manual training is the education by which these\ncreative talents are developed. It stimulates the imagination into fields\nof practical endeavor, and the type of education which stimulates the\nimagination in this way performs a function in the assets of the community\nwhich cannot be measured merely by immediate productiveness. One\nbrain fertile with new ideas may be the means for increasing and manifolding the industries of a given region. The increment which comes\nto a country by reason of its natural resources is not unlike the additional\nearning power which is made possible by time- or labor-saving devices.\nThe educational system which will produce even a few brains, which can\nsimplify or clarify inefficient methods of using labor, produces an added\nfruitfulness to both capital and labor, far in excess of what would be produced by any slight increase in the degree of skill which may be in the\npossession of a mass of semi-skilled or skilled operators. And the basis\nof such education is manual training and industrial emphasis.\nEach community must learn its- own problems and adjust its educational system, to some extent, to meet its own needs. Industrial schools\nin various parts of the country must supply the demands of the communities\nin which they are located and this can only be done if those persons who\nare responsible for the curriculum and progress of these schools will make\na careful study of their immediate environments and use the results of\nthis study as a basis for their work. As these schools are established and\ndeveloped, it is well that educators meet together to compare and to\nexchange thoughts and ideas. On suchjDccasions the labors and experiments of various communities may be discussed and studied and thru\nthis means a national adjustment may be brought about — an adjustment\nbetween the individual schools of the country and the needs of the entire\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 18\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nnation, bearing in mind all the time that the individual school must first\nserve the needs of its own environment.\nIn Pittsburgh, as perhaps in some other large cities, experiments have\nbeen made in four forms of industrial education. The old-fashioned\napprenticeship system, which has for its object the output, with an incidental emphasis on varied skill, has been modified to meet new industrial\nconditions. A second tjrpe of industrial education has been patterned\nafter the continuation schools of Europe, with evening instruction to\nsupplement the practical shopwork. However, this system makes its\nappeal to but a small percentage of the whole apprenticeship group, as\nit involves additional effort on the part of each apprentice and an added\nlabor which is often difficult to exact from these young men.\nThe third type of industrial education which has received considerable\nattention is the short-time, or intensive trade school. This method of\nteaching emphasizes skill and practice, and is measured largely by the\nquality of the skill and the speed of performance. This system has become\na very popular one and is receiving the support of many persons. It comes\nas a natural step in the progress of industrial education, which is begun\nby the manual-training idea, and is another link in the chain of communal\na\"djustment.\nA new and fourth type of industrial education is now being formulated\nin the Day Industrial Course of the School of Applied Industries of the\nCarnegie Technical Schools, which, departing from the usual custom of\nemphasizing skill alone, is outlined to include a broad general foundation\nfor habits of observation, initiative, and thoroness. It endeavors to train\nthe mind and give a knowledge of processes, leaving the acquirement of\nexceptional skill to the student's after-career in gainful occupations.\nSpecial emphasis in these courses is placed on the necessity of the graduate's\nbecoming a good citizen, having those principles of right living, personal\nhygiene, and a knowledge of the general industrial conditions of the country\nat his command to enable him to become resourceful in the event of necessity. The plan of instruction contemplates courses which comprise a\ngroup of correlated trades and industries so that the graduate may have\na wide range of opportunity when seeking employment. We are supplying our community with hundreds of competent young workmen, all able\nto take their places in the proper development of the city's resources.\nThus, environment is made to subserve education, and education to assist\nenvironment, for the general good of the whole community.\nBut whatever be the form of school or the system of education which\nis applied in any locality, this much remains: manual training is one of\nthe most helpful adjuncts known today in the adjustment process. Therefore, we, who are responsible for this kind of education that is being offered,\nmust realize the responsibility that is ours. The problem is a large one — •\ntoo large to allow petty differences of opinion to stand in the way of proper\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nARTS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM^\n\n719\n\ndevelopment. The task is most difficult and the workmen are none too\nmany, however willing they may be. The time is ripe for industrial educators to cast aside all prejudices and factional disputes, to put all minor\njealousies aside, and to join hands in the working out of this national\nproblem.\nManual-training schools must not look with a suspicious eye upon\ntrade schools; technical high schools must not decry vocational institutions. All of them must realize that there is a well-defined sphere for\neach of them, with plenty of work to be done by all. We must keep\nbefore our vision the ultimate goal that is ours — the aim to bring about a\nperfect adjustment between education and environment. We must\nrealize that we are but the servants of a great nation, laboring as best\nwe can to serve that nation's highest needs. We have the opportunity\nat hand to blaze the path thru the wilderness of doubt and of necessity\ninto the clearer fields of achievement and success.\nWhat will the future bring to us in our endeavor? Will it bring us\nsubstantial and abiding success or will it hold for us but the shifting sands\nof temporary attainment? The answer to this question depends upon\nwhether we are prepared to go forward in unison and in harmony. If\nso, we need have no fear of the coming days — we can trust to the commonsense of the American people to support us and to encourage us.\nWe may well feel that every man and woman, who realizes that the\nresources of the nation cannot be fully developed imtil we have brought\nabout a proper relation between our needs and our abilities, will understand that adjustment to environment is the fundamental principle which\nmakes for the country's success; and we may be sure that not the least\nimportant of the causes which will contribute to this final adjustment\nwill be this same system of manual training and industrial education of\nwhich we speak today.\nDYNAMIC\nT.\n\nD.\n\nSENSOR,\n\nVALUE OF MANUAL ARTS IN THE PUBLICSCHOOL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nTRENTON,\n\nN.J.\n\nWe are endeavoring to separate intellect and manual labor; we want one man to be\nalways thinking and another to be always working, and we call one a gentleman and the\nother an operative; whereas the workman ought often to be thinking and the thinker\noften to be working, and both should be gentlemen in the best sense. As it is, we make\nboth ungentle, the one envying, the other despising, his brother; and the mass of society\nis made up of morbid thinkers and miserable workers.\n\nThis was John Ruskin's viewpoint a number of years ago. The question\nis one for consideration as to whether it^is correct at the present time to\napply such a viewpoint to present-day conditions. Public education comes\nin for many criticisms. This association has undertaken at different times\nto lay down fast rules as to what should constitute the proper curriculum\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfor the ideal child to pursue in order that he should be properly educated.\nIn spite of the accumulation of wisdom in the past we are facing an active\nspirit of rebellion and a tendency on the part of radical thinkers to repudiate\nthe wisdom of the ages and inaugurate a new regime.\nFor more than sixty years industrial education in some form has been\nknocking at the doors of the academic world and at last it is receiving a\nsmiling welcome where its earlier approaches met with frowns. To do and\nnot merely to know how to do, is being made the test in modern educational\ncircles. Theory has run its course and has been more than glorified. The\nworld now demands action and measures all things by results. A cook is a\ncook because he or she can cook things that a hungry man can eat and not\nrun the risk of ruining his powers to eat again, not a cook by reason of having written a book containing recipes for dishes that never turn out edible.\nThe world applauds the man who flies, not the one who writes a book on\nspecific gravity and is drowned in his own conceit.\nThe problem of the schools is not so much the psychologic theory of how\nit can be done but the doing of it. The world does not so much want us\nto make some specific thing as it wants us to have the power to make things.\nTo secure this power is, then, the present problem of the public-school\nsystem. If in satisfying the universal demand, traditions have to be\nviolated, they will have to go. We may cling to them, but the flap of the\ntail of the aeroplane will fling them down and progress will not be stayed.\nCan manual arts rejuvenate this dead traditional monster which we call\nthe Public-School System of Education? Has manual arts a dynamic\nvalue ? Is it a force that can produce results rather than talk or write\nabout results ? Many wise and good men of our number are skeptical and\nwhen approached begin at once to discuss the ethical value of academic\ntraining.\nExperience, that expensive teacher, on the other hand, is regularly\nconfounding them by proving that the man who does things can be as highly\ncultured as the man who only thinks of doing things. All force is easily\ndivided into active and latent. It is not so easy to establish the relative\nvalue of each. \"The man behind the gun,\" is apparently as necessary\nas the gun, but results come quickly when the two are working in harmony.\nIt is much the same with manual arts and education.\nThe child from any point of view is a creature of activity, but his activity\nis not alone mental ; he begins to \"kick and yell \" before he begins to reason,\nand the nurse tells us that if we would have a healthy baby we must give\nhim plenty of physical activity; and the psychologist tells us we must not\nbegin too soon to awaken his mental faculties. This seems to give us the\nstarting-point we want; namely, as physical activity comes first there should\nbe no good reason for reversing the situation as soon as the child starts to\nschool. Dickens once told us an interesting story of the results that come\nfrom grad-grind methods.\nHis imagination was dealing with facts rather\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMANUAL\n\nARTS\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n721\n\nthan fancy. We believe that the value of manual arts in public-school education can best be shown by the true story of two bad boys — boys who,\nhaving exhausted all their interest in academic training looking at it from\ntheir viewpoint, had, because of persistent truancy, proved that they had\nlost all interest in school work as presented to them; who had, without\nseeking to do so, earned the title of bad boys — incorrigible boys — who\nonly came to school when brought in by the truant officers; boys whose\nreputation had steadily grown worse both in school and out; who when in\nschool destroyed the possibility of the teacher to do effective work with the\nthirty-eight other children in the school and when out of school were\ncredited with all the wrongdoing of the community in which they lived.\nThese two reputed bad boys had reached the ages of thirteen and fourteen\nyears. They had failed to make passing marks in spelling, arithmetic,\ngrammar, or geography. The three R's had failed to interest them because\nfrom their viewpoint of life they had found no use for them At the beginning of the school year the teacher, having acquired the ability, presented to\nthem a problem in cardboard construction which caught their attention,\naroused their interest, and for the first time gave them a rational reason, from\na boy's point of view, for using arithmetic and other academic subjects. The\nparticular problem was the construction of a model of the school building, a\nfour-room building with a belfry. It was to be made to scale. With a reason\nfor learning compound numbers they learned them quickly. With this\nstart the boys were saved. Manual art became the power that influenced\nthem in the right direction. Today one of these boys is finishing his fourth\nyear in the high school; the other because of home conditions was compelled\nto leave school and is filling with credit and profit a respectable position in\nwhich he is earning an honest living. It is such concrete examples as this\nthat prove with no fear of contradiction the dynamic value of manual arts\nin the public-school system of education.\nNo amount of tradition can halt the cry for more practical results from\nthe work of the school. The manual arts bring the opportunity for the\nschoolman to meet the demand. Culture, yes, but not culture that fails to\nproduce a citizen who is able to succeed in supporting himself and providing\nfor his family. The boys should be trained for the duties of husband and\nfather, the girls should be trained for the duties of wife and mother. Any\ntraining of the children in our public schools which falls short of this, has\nfailed, and miserably failed. The dynamic value of manual arts in accomplishing this has been proved over and over again, yet there are still those\nwho must be shown. Let us, my fellow-teachers, teach boys and girls to\nbecome men and women and forever cease teaching curricula based upon\ntextbooks — textbooks prepared to sell rather than to develop power. If the\nworld wants workers, and we believe that is what it wants, we must use means\nto secure workers. The introduction of manual arts into the program of the\nschools and the kindergarten, and seeing that every grade has work adapted\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nto its powers will accomplish a new development, and with-skilled teachers\nto handle the work there will be no question of the kind of workers that will\nbe produced. The stumbling-block today in the quick securing of results\nis in the incompetency of the supervising and teaching force. There must\nbe radical changes in the plans of normal schools in training teachers. That\ntraining which is needed by the masses must become the major part of their\nwork. Books which represent academic education must give place to training in the manual arts. The pupil must be trained to find himself industrially as well as academically. He must be adjusted as soon as possible\nto the world of industry, for it is there in that world be must earn his living\nand the living of those who will be dependent upon him. The great force that\nwill make possible such a training for the future citizen will come from manual\narts. Their dynamic value is as yet unmeasured, but the general public is\nbeginning to believe that great power is stored therein. Like the great\nreservoirs which supply the dynamic power for agriculture this phase of\neducation will work as wonderful marvels as are wrought in the face of the\ndesert when the sluices are opened.\nA Burbank does not theorize about plant life, he experiments. The\nintroduction of the manual arts into the public-school curriculum is the\ndirect application of the practice of experiment to the life forces of the child.\nThe experiment is not so much to find out what the relation of unknown\nparts may be, as to separate the child from himself to the extent of utilizing\nthe powers that are latent in him. Nothing so\" quickly brings to light these\nhidden forces as the practice of manual arts. Under book training they\nlie dormant or are prematurely developed to wither and die when the fierce\nsun of life strikes upon them. Men without any book knowledge have made\ntheir mark upon the pages of history but in this problem of education\nwhich is to be solved in the immediate future, we are not thinking of the\nman who is to stand out as a leader, we are thinking of those who are to be\nled. The masses are to be better cared for in the future. Manual arts\nin our system of public education will do it, and will be the dynamic power\nto accomplish the desired result.\nTHE\nGEORGE\n\nREQUISITES OF THE EFFICIENT\nINDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS\n\nTEACHER\n\nW. GERWIG, SECRETARY, BOARD OF CONTROLLERS,\nSCHOOL DISTRICT, ALLEGHENY,\nPA.\n\nIN\n\nALLEGHENY\n\nTaking for granted the usual standard qualifications of an industrial\nteacher, let us consider his relationship (i) to scientific management; (2)\nto education as a whole.\nIn his own department the industrial teacher should be a constant model\nof the best methods, a living personification of the best shop practice. Skill\nis merely the habit of doing anything in the best possible way. It is therefore his duty not merely to be a skillful teacher, but a teacher of skill itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nREQUISITES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nTEACHER\n\n723\n\nTwo words are at present electrifying the industrial world — scientific\nmanagement. They contain a message for every teacher, and establish\na new set of specifications for the industrial teacher.\nThese two words, and the revolution they herald, come as a shock to\nsome manufacturers and to some mechanics. To others they come as a\nprophet of new power. To still others — the helplessly old or the helplessly\nobsolete either in mental methods or in shop methods — the shock will perhaps be so severe that it will mean electrocution and elimination. For\nwhen the application of scientific management enables a laborer to load\n74 tons of pig-iron a day instead of i2§ tons or to treble his capacity in\nshoveling coal, or enables a machinist to gain from 400 to 800 per cent in\ncertain operations, or teaches a bricklayer how to lay 2,700 bricks a day\ninstead of 1,000, the disadvantage of pursuing the old methods becomes too\nobvious for comment.\nEvery teacher owes it to himself to investigate scrupulously all his\nmethods of mind and of hand, and to face the question \"Does scientific\nmanagement mean anything to me, to my school, to my methods ?\"\nThe great gain made by scientific management comes in two ways:\n(i) by eUminating all unnecessary movements; (2) by establishing proper\nrelaxation or recreation periods. These general fundamental principles\nof economy and efficiency have a similar application in the educational\nworld.\nIn Germany the schoolmaster revolutionized the business and industrial\nlife of the entire nation. It would be a singular educational calamity if\nthe American schoolmaster, instead of being fully awake to his obligation\nto discover new principles of economy and efficiency in his work, should\nbe found so fast asleep that he had to be waked up and taught by the\nbusiness man.\nIs it possible that in general school work we are wedded to methods\nwhich are one-fourth efficient ? Can it be that a child could be taught twice\nor three times as well, or in one-third of the time that is no^ the standard ?\nWord has just reached America that a noted educator of Italy, Maria\nMontessori, has applied some of the principles of scientific management to\nthe subjects of reading and writing,, teaching these subjects thru the sense\nof touch instead of thru the eye, with results which seem incredible when\none contemplates the saving — 50 per cent — but entirely to be expected when\none studies the method.\nWhether the general teacher can or cannot afford to wait until the\nbusiness world forces him to reorganize his \"shop practice,\" the industrial\nteacher must, if he holds his place, be at least fully abreast of the things\nwhich scientific management has to offer. And the industrial teacher\nshould of course be pre-eminently the one in America, who, like his colleague,\nthe German schoolmaster, is teaching the entire nation that type of skill\nwhich consists in doing things in the best possible way.\nLet every industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nteacher, therefore, be a veritable dynamo generating and distributing this\nnew current of light and power — the best in scientific management.\nOne thing more is vitally necessary. The industrial teacher should not\nmistake his particular segment of the educational circle for the entire circle.\nHe should have the true conception of education as a whole in his mind with\nabsolute clearness and in all his work with absolute sureness.\nIf the circle of life were like the circle of art or mechanics, the teacher's\nproblem would be simple. A pupil might start anywhere and go around like\none leg of a compass, forward or backward, serenely conscious that either\nroute would lead in time to the same destination. But destinies are not\nso easily handled as drawings. In life the journey must begin at birth, its\nprogress must be forever forward, it must lead thru a carefully graded\nsequence of experience, physical, mental, and spiritual, on to the door of\ndeath, in the hope, not that the circle has been completed, but that this\nportion is only an arc pointing inevitably on to eternity. The educational\ncircle should also be the emblem of infinity.\nWhile it is the laudable hope of every schoolmaster that every pupil may\nhave the privilege of the entire circle of training, his practical experience\nteaches him that at best the formal training must be limited in a hundred\nways, and no one pupil may hope to receive and no one institution offer\nmore than a segment, large or small, of the entire circle. The problem is\nto hold firmly in mind a complete educational circle, with the industrial\nsegment, the cultural segment, and each of the other segments in its proper\nplace.\nLet us consider together very briefly three phases of this problem:\n(i) What is an education ? (2) How may it be acquired ? (3) What relation does industrial training bear to the whole training ?\nThe distinctively American educational ideals may be summarized\nin eight words — Education is training for service, and in service. The\ndevelopment of educational ideals has been singularly interesting. It\nbegan with the earliest records of the race. Plato and Socrates and Euclid\nadvanced certain ideas in their day which no man who has lived since has\nbeen able to improve upon. The older education had some defects, but it\nhad also some characteristics which are eternally right. Like the political\nand social systems of its day, it emphasized too strongly the prerogatives\nof the leader, whether king or priest or noble, and ignored what has become\nthe cornerstone of our American life — the just claims of the many. It\nwas in one form or another the education of privilege and of a limited\nculture rather than of service and of efficiency. As Kerschensteiner so\nwisely says in his Education for Citizenship, the old schools \"date from a\ntime when there were no citizens, but only subjects and rulers.\" The American ideal of an education, when it came in turn to supplant that of Gre ece\nand its beauty, of Rome and its power, of Germany and its learning, of\nEngland and its lords, demanded two things. It demanded (i) that every\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREQUISITES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nTEACHER\n\n725\n\npupil should be given an opportunity to develop all his powers; (2) that\nthis training be dedicated to some superb service for his fellows. Under the\nold ideal an educated man must be in touch with the best that had been\nthought or felt in all the ages. Under the newer ideal he must in addition\nto all this be trained to a willingness and ability to render service. America\ndemands a well-rounded man, recognizing that man is an immortal soul,\nbefore and after he is an engineer or an architect or an artisan of any kind.\nThis fundamental change in the conception of what constituted an education involved a corresponding change in the method of acquiring it. We\nare coming to see more clearly every day that there can be no educational\ntrust, and no copyright upon an exclusive method. Beginning with the\nintroduction of the sciences, the curriculum has departed more and more\nfrom pure scholasticism. It has recognized more and more that training\nfor service might come to the body, mind, or soul by many routes. Each\nexperience or activity in life is educating. The plea for an education thru\nagriculture is entirely proper, with, of course, certain limitations. The\nonly real danger consists in one of the newer subjects making the same mistake scholasticism did and contending that it had a monopoly.\nSo well have the newer subjects of study demonstrated their right to\na place in the curriculum that the battle has long been won. Schools of\nagriculture, engineering, and the industrial arts are on the increase everywhere. Perhaps the most radical change has been made in Germany.\nFifty years ago German scholarship was pre-eminently theoretical ; today ,\nit is dominated by a zeal for practical achievements. So it happens that\nKerschensteiner, when he makes his magnificent plea for continuation\nschools and for compulsory education in these schools until the age of\neighteen, emphasizing \"the importance of productive work in the whole\nscheme of education\" strikes the keynote, not only for Germany, but for\nAmerica and the world — training for service, and in service.\nNeither child nor man is often privileged, in this world, to study all the\nsubjects which he needs or desires. He should have the opportunity, however, to continue learning after he begins earning. It is the newer adjustment between earning and learning which is the distinguishing feature of\nthe newer education. The plan of alternating between the shop and the\nclassroom has come to stay, and it merely provides at this late day what\nWilliam Penn stipulated in his \"great law\" in 1683; namely, that every\nchild should be brought up to some trade or useful occupation.\nJust as the perfect bill of fare or the balanced ration will provide all of\nthe elements needed by the physical body, so a perfect course of study or\nscheme of education will provide all of the elements needed by the individual\npupil, each in its proper place and in its proper proportion, and in a larger\nway, will provide the state with all forms of service necessary to be rendered.\nThe ideal public school will offer each pupil, so far as possible, a trial trip\nin each of the different types of life. It will give him first the rudiments of\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training -\n\nintelligent thought and action. It will help him to discover and develop\nany latent power he may possess. It will prepare him to reach a satisfactory and profitable adjustment between his ability and the world's\nneeds. The ideal high school and university will develop the finest bodies\nand minds for the highest service and will become the expert adviser of\nall the people upon all subjects.\nThe special place and the special contribution of industrial training then\nbecomes self-evident. The present movement will be most valuable and\neffective if it preserves what is best and vital in the old education and\nsupplements it by adding those elements which are necessary for more immediate, more effective, and higher service to mankind. Let me emphasize\nthat it can never be effective for any one segment of the educational circle\nto pose as the entire circle. It should no longer be necessary for a student\nto limit his training either to the cultural segment or to that portion of the\nwhole which makes for efficiency alone. Immediate service should never\nbe gained at the expense of supreme service. The well-rounded man or\nwoman must have a well-rounded education. '\nThe industrial teacher will preach and practice the right of a pupil to »\nserve the state with trained hand as well as with trained head. He will\ndemonstrate that the training of the head will always be better done when\nthe tension is relieved by other lines of activity. The bulwark of nations\nin peace is always their skilled workmen. Industrial training will always\nbe most potent in character building. It will contribute its quota to culture\nby leading to the better enjoyment of what is beautiful in life, in literature,\nand in art. It will constantly tend to make useful habits automatic. For\nnothing adds more to the real appreciation of any article than the attempt\nto make it, and the crafts have their greatest artistic power in the effort\nto make beautiful the common surroundings of life.\nMan is not educated by books alone. Neither is he most effectively\neducated by things and events without books. Things and events represent the abstract. Both the child and the nation begin with the thing\nand grow toward the idea. Education is a gradual development from an\nability to handle concrete things to an ability to handle both concrete and\nabstract things. The process begins properly with the body and with the\nmaterial thing and grows as rapidly as possible toward the mind, the soul,\nand the immaterial. Every child has the concrete conception \"dog,\"\n\"hand,\" *'mama,\" before it learns the abstract idea, or the word, or the\nsign which stands for the abstract idea. In cases of partial or arrested\ndevelopment the child may never acquire the ability to handle the abstract\nidea. A child in a feeble-minded institute may be taught to make a bed\nand may be able to add three beds and four beds but powerless to add the\nabstract three and four. The normal mind moves readily and quickly from\nthe concrete to the abstract. The normal child passes readily on from arithmetic, which deals with concrete numbers and things, to algebra, dealing\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREQUISITES\n\nOF THE EFFICIENT\n\nTEACHER\n\n727\n\nwith the abstractions in the first steps — the symbols which represent the\neasier abstract things; to plane and solid and spherical geometry each\ncalling for an increased ability to think in terms of the abstract. The\nlaborer 'deals with the object; the mechanic deals with both the object and\nthe drawing which is the abstract representation of that object. The architect or inventor in addition to an ability to deal with both object and\ndrawing has the. power to deal with the more abstract idea or vision not\nyet reduced to either drawing or material form.\nThe ability to read a drawing or to make one is as truly the foundation\nof all industrial education as the ability to read a word or to write one is of\nall book learning. The interpreting or making of a drawing is properly\ntherefore always the first step in any industrial training, being of value\nalike to workers of every craft, just as the ability to read or write a page is\nof value alike to students of every subject.\nThe ability to work out in some material the idea expressed in the drawing is the second step. Educationally the special material selected is of\nlittle consequence. It may be modified to suit various conditions. The\nimportant things are: (i) the training in reading a drawing and making one;\n(2) the construction from raw material of the object as drawn. Educationally this procedure has its greatest interest and value the first time it is\nused. Commercially, of course, value comes with greater skill and speed.\nThe educational value decreases as the commercial value increases.\nThe old scholastic education was thought of as a thing apart from the\nactualities of life — something almost sacred. Its goal was culture. It was\nassumed, and fairly, that the mind and soul of man were of more importance\nthan his body or the material things, that the \"proper study of mankind\nis man.\" But it was assumed, unfairly, that an education and culture\ncould only be acquired during certain years of one's life at a certain\ntype of institution, from certain specified studies or books. It was contended, fairly, that the humanities, dealing with the best things man had\nthought and felt, constituted a proper material for training the mind and\nheart and soul; but unfairly, that a man was not educated and not cultured\nif his Latin accent proved defective.\nIndustrial training has been a proper reaction against this limited view\nof education and culture — a magnificent, significant recall to sound commonsense and first principles. It recognizes that a child is educated as he grows\nfrom a helpless little animal to a well-rounded, efficient man trained alike\nfor present service and an immortal destiny, and that no single portion or\nphase of the process has a monopoly on the term education.\nThe special contribution of industrial training is that it trains alike the\nlaborer who deals with the object, the mechanic who deals with object\nand drawing, and the inventor or architect who deals with the idea, the\ndrawing, and the object.\nIt trains not only for service but in service.\nThe greatest thing an industrial teacher can do for a pupil is to give that\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Traimng\n\npupil the right mental attitude toward his work. He should be guided to\nsome little task or some lif etask which seems to him well worth doing. Then\nhe should be inspired with a desire to do this particular piece of work as\nwell as he can do it and as well as anyone in the world can do it He\nshould realize with Solomon the Wise that \"there is nothing better than\nthat a man should rejoice in his work.\"\nThe industrial teacher, therefore, should continue valiantly to insist\nthat men keep their feet upon the firm ground and their hands at useful and\nbeautiful work. But he may modestly refuse to dogmatize and may even\njoin occasionally with his humanitarian brother who prefers to continue\nkeeping his head in the air, his spirit in the mountain tops, and his soul in\nthe clouds.\nDISCUSSION\nE. Athelstan Ross, supervisor of manual traimng, Public Schools, El Paso, Tex. —\nI am glad that Mr. Connelley gave so much attention to the value of manual training\nin the selection of an occupation. This is noteworthy and significant coming from the\nhead of the school which he represents.\nAnother important point is given in this statement that each community must\nlearn its own problems and adjust its educational system to meet its own needs. This\nis a big thought and its practical application will require deep thinking and hard working.\nIt will require years of experimentation. We all realize how diverse are the environment\nand the needs of different locahties. In our public schools as at present organized in\nmost cities the possibilities of adjustment to industrial environment are limited, unless\nradical reforms are introduced. Experience is fast bringing us to realize that something\ncorresponding to the continuation schools of Europe is an absolute necessity. The stress\nhas been more keenly felt in some localities than in others, and those of us who work in\ncities remote from the greatest stress can gain valuable suggestions from work already\naccomplished, and in the process of evolution in our greatest industrial cities.\nI am sure that Mr. Connelley struck a responsive chord in many minds here when he\nstated that there is a place for all the schools now in the field, and that the problem is too\nbig to allow of hindrances from any petty differences of opinion. Time and experience\nwill determine what is worth while. The worthy will survive, but due credit must be\ngiven to every experiment which shall have aided in the solution of the problem.\nIn our new schools, our new courses of study, and our new methods, we must keep\nin mind the democratic American ideal of the best possible opportunities for all, with\nfreedom for each to choose what he considers best, without coercion from outside human\nauthority. To make this practicable the taste, the ideals, the mind of each individual\nmust be carefully trained.\nIt is doubtless true that there are fewer responsible positions in the world than persons capable of filling such positions; but it is desirable, first, that a man should be the\nmost capable possible in the work he has to do, even tho his opportunities may not be all\nthat he might desire, or all that he might be able to fill adequately; and second, no\nmatter what one's daily work, one should have developed as far as possible a taste for\nand appreciation of the beautiful in its various forms.\nPaul Kreuzpointner, chairman, Industrial Committee of the American Foundrymen's Association, Altoona, Pa. — I desire to make certain corrections relative to the\nteaching in industrial schools. It seems to me too much attention is paid to the industrial\nschools of Germany. Frequently the continuation schools of Munich are held up as\nrepresentative industrial schools of Germany.\n\nAs a matter of fact, Dr. Kerschensteiner's\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n729\n\nideas have not yet been adopted in other parts of Germany. Switzerland, France, Belgium,\nand Austria have done as much along industrial educational lines as Germany has done\noutside of Munich. The paper does not give just appreciation of our work of teaching\nindustrial education. The educators of this country have done more for industrial\neducation than the industrial people have done, and we should give due credit to the\nwork of the teachers. Permit me to say that the idea of industrial education is quite\nold in Germany. Emperor Charles the Great, during his reign in the tenth century,\nengaged men to teach agriculture to his subjects, and his wife and daughter personally\ntaught weaving to the peasant women. An industrial drawing school was opened in\nVienna in 1750, and in 1751 the Austrian government sent out traveling teachers to teach\nweaving to the villagers. Continuation schools were established in Munich in 1803.\nLong before I became an apprentice in 1856 the law compelled the employer to send his\napprentices to the industrial continuation school up to the eighteenth year of age. In\nthose days these schools were held on Sundays and holidays from 8 a.m. to 5:30 p.m.\nThe guilds laid the foundation for the German industrial-school system, and this environment and history gives the European industrial schools their advantage. Our disadvantage lies in the newness of our schools, and time will correct this.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON COLLEGEr-EN TRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nTo the Manual-Training Section of the National Education Association:\nYour Committee on College-Entrance Requirements appointed at the Boston\nmeeting of the Association, submits herewith the following report of progress:\nOwing to the wide geographical distribution of the members of the committee,\nno meeting of the full committee has been possible since the time of its original appointment at the Boston meeting of the Association; but thru correspondence and thru conferences with most of the members of the committee, a plan of procedure has been agreed\nupon and a considerable amount of work has been accomplished.\nIt has been the belief of the committee that the purpose which this section of the\nNational Education Association had in appointing this committee could be most effectively realized in the following ways: (i) by securing information regarding the growing tendency on the part of many colleges to be more liberal in their definitely prescribed\nentrance requirements; (2) by circulating such information as widely as possible among\nthe proper authorities, urging other colleges to make similar reductions in their list of\nprescribed subjects; (3) by securing similar information regarding the increase in number of elective subjects which may be offered for admission to colleges, and especially\nby securing information regarding the colleges that have recently added shopwork,\ndrawing, household science, and art to the list of their elective entrance subjects; (4)\nby urging other colleges to follow the lead of those that have given such recognition\nto the subjects.\nIt has been our aim to make our plea general for the granting to preparatory schools\ngreater freedom in planning their courses of study to fit local needs, and to develop\ninterests, tastes, and abilities of their students whom they serve. This, it is felt, would\nmake it possible to concentrate time and attention on a smaller number of subjects,\nand thus improve the quality of the work in the preparatory school.\nWherever this broad principle is first recognized there should be comparatively\nlittle difl&culty in securing the recognition, as elective subjects in the list of entrance\nrequirements for which credit may be given, of shopwork, drawing, household science,\nand art — wherever these subjects are thoroly well taught and form part of a well-planned\nand approved four-year course of study.\nIn order to secure the information required to carry out this plan the committee\nsent to the presidents of a list of 167 colleges and universities the following list of questions:\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "730\n\nN'ATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\na) Do the entrance requirements for the year 191 1, for the regular undergraduate courses\nof the institution which you represent, differ in any way from the requirements during\nthe past four years ?\nb) If so, what subjects have been added to the list of prescribed subjects?\nc) What subjects have been omitted from the list of prescribed subjects?\nd) What subjects have been added to the list of those in which there is freedom of choice?\ne) What subjects have been omitted from the list of those in which there is freedom\nof choice ?\nf) At what date did these changes go into effect ?\ng) Have any changes in entrance requirements been announced to go into effect later\nthan September, 191 1 ?\nh) If so, what subjects will be added to the list of prescribed subjects?\ni) What subjects will be omitted from the list of prescribed subjects?\nj) What subjects will be added to the list of those in which there is freedom of choice ?\nk) What subjects will be omitted from the list of those in which there is freedom of\nchoice ?\n/) Are committees of your faculty or other persons definitely at work studying the\nquestion of entrance requirements, with a view to recommending possible changes?\nAccompanying this list of questions were letters expressing the opinions set forth\nin this report, and asking in reply for an expression of views of the president, or executive ofl&cer, of each institution.\nReplies were received from 141 institutions. Many of these contained detailed\nanswers to all of the questions accompanied by letters fully expressing the personal\nviews of the president or other administrative ofl&cer to whom our communication was\nreferred. Because of the great volume of interesting material that has thus been obtained,\nit has not been possible to prepare an adequate report doing full justice to the subject\nin the time available. A brief description of the returns received, however, will be\ngiven.\nThe most conspicuous examples of the increased liberality in entrance requirements\nof the past year are the University of Chicago and Harvard College. The new requirements for admission to Chicago require credit in fifteen units, no conditions being permitted. These must be —\n3 units in English;\n3 units in a second major subject, which may be either Language, Science, Mathematics, or History;\n2 units in a minor subject, which may be either a Language, Science, Mathematics,\nor History, but differing from the major subject;\n2 more units in any of the above departments;\n5 units in any subject that any approved school grants for its own graduation.\nThe Harvard plan requires evidence of work in English, history, language, science,\nand mathematics; no students with conditions will be accepted. Two majors must\nbe offered in any of the above five subjects; four examinations must be passed as follows:\nFirst:\nEnghsh;\nSecond: In a Language other than English;\nThird: Mathematics or Science;\nFourth: Any of the list of five subjects — Enghsh, History, Foreign Language, Science,\nor Mathematics not already included in the first three examinations.\nMany other colleges and universities have revised their requirements making them\nsomewhat more liberal and granting greater flexibility to preparatory schools. A list\nof such changes is too long to include in this preliminary report, but it may be well\nto note that of the total 141 institutions thit have been heard from, 62 have made changes\nin the direction of decreasing the number of prescribed subjects or increasing the freedom of electives.\nOnly II have increased either their total requirements or the definiteness of the\nlist of subjects offered for entrance, while 53 have made no changes of any kind in their\nentrance requirements recently.\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT\n\nON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nIn considering the above facts, too, it should be remembered that many of the institutions that have made no changes in their entrance requirements are already among\nthe list that have been most liberal in their requirements. It should also be remembered that the great majority of the 11 schools that have increased their requirements\nor have become less flexible than formerly in their requirements, are for the most part\namong the institutions that have had unusually low standards for admission. The 731\nactual facts, therefore, when all things are taken into consideration, are even more convincing than figures themselves appear.\nThey show conclusively that there is a tendency, which is rapidly increasing thruout\nthe collegiate institutions of the United States, to recognize the broad principles for\nwhich this section of the National Education Association has been working. The other\nfact that is especially encouraging to the Manual Training Section of this Association,\nis the fact that 26 institutions have reported the comparatively recent addition of shopwork, drawing, household science, and art to the list of subjects which may be elected\nfor college entrance.\nThe committee regrets that it has not been possible to analyze more fully the valuable\ndata which it has received and to present it more in detail, but if it is the wish of the\n* section, it would be glad to continue its work with the colleges and also to present next\nyear a more complete report.\nRespectfully submitted for the committee,\nArthur L. Williston, Chairman\nINSTITUTIONS\n\nWITH\n\nSTATED\n\nREQUIREMENTS\nFOR\nADMISSION\nOR MORE, DECEMBER,\n£909\n\nAMOUNTING\n\nTO\n\n12\n\nAdelphi College, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nAdrian College, Adrian, Mich.\nAlbion College, Albion, Mich.\nAlfred University, Alfred, N.Y.\nAllegheny College, Meadville, Pa.\nAlma College, Alma, Mich.\nAmherst College, Amherst, Mass.\n\nCharles H. Levennore, Ph.D.\nP. W. Anthony\nSamuel Dickie, LL.D.\nRev. Boothe C. Davis, Ph.D.\nRev. William H. Crawford, LL.D.\nRev. August F. Bruske, D.D.\nRev. George Harris, LL.D.\n\nBaker University, Baldwin, Kans.\nBates College, Lewiston, Me.\nBaylor University, Waco, Tex.\nBeloit College, Beloit, Wis.\nBethany College, Bethany, W.Va.\nBoston College, Boston, Mass.\nBoston University, Boston, Mass.\nBowdoin College, Brunswick, Me.\nBrown University, Providence, R.I.\nBryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa.\nBuchtel College, Akron, Ohio\nBucknell University, Lewisburg, Pa.\nButler College, IndianapoUs, Ind.\n\nWilbur N. Mason\nGeorge C. Chase, LL.D.\nS. P. Brooks, LL.D.\nRev. Edward D. Eaton, LL.D.\nT, E. Cramblet, LL.D.\nRev. Thomas Gasson, S.J.\nL. H. Murlin, S.T.B.\nRev. WiUiam DeWitt Hyde, LL.D.\nHerbert Perry Faunce, LL.D.\nM. Carey Thomas, LL.D.\nA. B. Church, LL.D.\nRev. John Howard Harris, LL.D.\nThomas C. Howe, A.M.\n\nCarleton College, Northfield, Minn.\nCase School of Applied Science,\nCleveland, Ohio\nCathoUc University of America,\nWashington, D.C.\nCentral College, Fayette, Mo.\nCentral University of Kentucky,\nDanville, Ky.\nClark College, Worcester, Mass.\nClarkson School of Technology,\nPotsdam, N.Y.\nCoe College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa\nColby College, Waterville, Me.\nColgate University, Hamilton, N.Y.\n\nDonald J. Cowling, A.M.\nCharles Sumner Howe, Sc.D.\nRev. T. J. Shahan, D.D.\nWilliam A. Webb, A.B.\nRev. F. W. Hinitt, Ph.D.\nEdmund Clark Sanford, Sc.D.\nWilliam S. Aldrich, M.E.\nDr. James A. Marquis\nArthur J. Roberts, A.M.\nRev. Elmer Burrett Bryan, LL.D.\n\nUNITS\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n732\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Maniial Training\n\nCollege of the City of New York, N.Y.\nColorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo.\nColorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo.\nColumbia University, New York, N.Y.\nCornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa\nCornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.\n\nJohn H. Finley, LL.D.\nWilliam F. Slocum, LL.D.\nVictor C. Alderson, Sc.D.\nNicholas Murray Butler, LL.D.\nJames Elliott Harlan, LL.D.\nJacob Gould Schurman, LL.D.\n\nDakota Wesleyan University,\nMitchell, S.Dak.\nDartmouth College, Hanover, N.H.\nDelaware College, Newark, Del.\nDenison University, Granville, Ohio\nDePauw University, Greencastle, Ind.\nDickinson College, Carlisle, Pa.\nDoane College, Crete, Nebr.\nDrake University, Des Moines, Iowa\nDrury College, Springfield, Mo.\n\nRev. S. F. Kerfoot, D.D.\nRev. E. F. Nichols, LL.D.\nGeorge A. Harter, Ph.D.\nEmory W./Hunt, LL.D.\nRev. Francis J. McConnell, LL.D.\nGeorge Edward Reed, LL.D.\nRev. David B. Perry, D.D.\nHill McClelland BeU, LL.D.\nJoseph H. George, D.D.\n\nEarlham College, Richmond, Ind.\nElmira College, Elmira, N.Y.\n\nRobert Lincohi Kelly, Ph.M.\nAlexander C. MacKenzie, LL.D.\n\nFairmount College, Wichita, Kans.\nFordham University, Fordham, N.Y.\nFranklin College, Franklin, Ind.\n\nH. E. Meyer, D.D.\nRev. Daniel J. Quinn, S.J.\nMelvin E. Crawelle, A.M.\n\nGeorgetown University, Washington, D.C.\nGeorge Washington University,\nWashington, D.C.\nGrinnell College, Grinnell, Iowa\nGrove City College, Grove City, Pa.\n\nRev. Joseph Himmel, S.J.\nCharles W. Needham. LL.D.\nI. H. T. Main, Ph.D.\nRev. Isaac C. Ketler, LL.D.\nRev. M. Woolsey Stryker, LL.D.\n\nHamilton College, Clinton, N.Y. ^\nHamline University, Hamline, Minn.\nHanover College, Hanover, Ind.\nHarvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nHaverford College, Haverford, Pa.\nHillsdale CoUege, Hillsdale, Mich.\nHiram College, Hiram, Ohio\nHobart College, Geneva, N.Y.\nHoly Cross College, Worcester, Mass.\n\nWilliam A. Millis, LL.D.\nAbbott Lawrence Lowell, LL.D.\nIsaac Sharpless, LL.D.\nJoseph W. Mauck, LL.D.\nMiner Lee Bates, A.M.\nRev. Langdon C. Stewardson, LL.D.\nRev. Thomas E. Murphy, S.J.\n\nIllinois Wesleyan University,\nBloomington, 111.\nIndiana University, Bloomington, Ind.\nIowa State College, Ames, Iowa\n\nTheodore Kemp, D.D.\nWilliam Lowe Bryan, Ph.D.\nAlbert Boynton Storms, LL.D.\n\nJames MilUkin University, Decatur, 111.\nJohns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\n\nAlbert R. Taylor, Ph.D.\nIra Remsen, Ph.D.\n\nKenyon College, Gambier, Ohio\nKnox College, Galesburg, lU.\n\nRev. William F. Pierce, A.M.\nThomas McClellan, LL.D.\n\nLafayette College, Easton, Pa.\nLake Erie College, Painesville, Ohio\nLake Forest College, Lake Forest, 111.\nLawrence College, Appleton, Wis.\nLehigh University, So. Bethlehem, Pa.\nLeland Stanford Junior University,\nStanford University, Cal.\nLombard College, Galesburg, 111.\n\nRev. Ethelbert D. Warfield, LL.D.\nVivian B. Small, A.M.\nJohn S. Nollen, Ph.D.\nJohn T. Bushey\nHenry S. Drinker, LL.D.\n\nMacalester College, St, Paul, Minn.\nMarietta College, Marietta, Ohio\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology,\nBoston, Mass.\n\nT. Morey Hodgeman, LL.D.\nAlfred T. Perry, D.D.\n\nDavid Starr Jordan, LL.D.\nRev. Lewis B. Fisher, D.D.\n\nRichard C. Maclaurin, LL.D.\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nMiami University, Oxford, Ohio\nMiddlebury College, Middlebury, Vt.\nMount Holyoke College, So. Hadley, Mass.\n\nJohn M. Thomas, D.D.\nMary E. WooUey, Litt.D.\n\nNew York University, New York, N.Y.\nNorthwestern College, Naperville, 111.\nNorthwestern University, Evanston, 111.\n\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, LL.D.\nRev. H. J. Kickhoefer, Ph.D.\nNathan W. Helen\n\nOberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio.\nOhio State University, Columbus, Ohio.\nOhio University, Athens, Ohio.\nOlivet College, Olivet, Mich.\n\nRev. Henry Churchill King, D.D.\nRev. William O. Thompson, LL.D.\nAllston Ellis, LL.D.\nEllsworth G. Lancaster, Ph.D.\n\nPennsylvania State College,\nState College, Pa.\nPolytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nPomona College, Claremont, Cal.\nPrinceton University, Princeton, N.J.\nPurdue University, Lafayette, Ind.\nRandolph-Macon College, Ashland, Va.\nRandolph-Macon Woman's College,\nLynchburg, Va.\nRipon College, Ripon, Wis.\nRose Polytechnic Institute,\nTerre Haute, Ind.\nRutgers College, New Brunswick, N.J.\n\nEdwin E. Sparks, LL.D.\nFred W. Atkinson, Ph.D.\nRev. William Horace Day, LL.D.\nWinthrop Ellsworth Stone, LL.D.\nR. E. Blackwell, LL.D.\nWilliam W. Smith, LL.D.\nFrank Morton Erickson, A.M.\nCari Leo Mees, Ph.D.\nDr. W. H. S. Demarest, LL.D.\n\nState University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.\nState University of Kentucky,\nLexington, Ky.\nState University of North Dakota,\nGrand Forks, N.Dak.\nState University of Oklahoma,\nNorman, Okla.\nStevens Institute of Technology,\nHoboken, N.J.\nSwarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.\nSyracuse University, S3n:acuse, N.Y.\n\nJohn G. Bowman\n\nTransylvania University, Lexington, Ky.\nTrinity College, Durham, N.C.\nTrinity College, Hartford, Conn.\nTrinity College, Washington, D.C.\nTufts College, Tufts College, Mass.\nTulane University of Louisiana,\nNew Orleans, La.\nUnion University, Schenectady, N.Y.\nUniversity of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.\nUniversity of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nUniversity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio\nUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.\nUniversity of Georgia, Athens, Ga.\nUniversity of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho\nUniversity of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\nUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.\nUniversity of Maine, Orono, Me.\nUniversity of New Mexico, Albuquerque,\nN.M.\nUniversity of Michigan, Ami Arbor, Mich.\nUniversity of Minnesota,\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nUniversity of Mississippi, University, Miss.\nUniversity of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\n\nR. H. Crossfield, Ph.D.\nRev. John C. Kilgo, D.D.\nFlavel Sweeten Luther, LL.D.\nSister Julia\nRev. F. W. Hamilton, D.D.\n\nJames K. Patterson, LL.D.\nFrank L. McVey, Ph.D.\nA. Grant Evans, D.D.\nAlexander C. Humphreys, LL.D.\nJoseph Swain, LL.D.\nRev. James Roscoe Day, LL.D.\n\nEdwin B. Craighead, LL.D.\nRev. Charles A. Richmond, LL.D.\nKendrick Chas. Babcock, Ph.D.\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, LL.D.\nHarry Pratt Judson, LL.D.\nCharies W. Dabney, LL.D.\nJames H. Baker, LL.D.\nDavid C. Barrows, A.M.\nJames A. MacLean, LL.D.\nEdmund Janes James, LL.D.\nFrank Strong, Ph.D.\nRobert J. Aley\nWilUam E. Milliken, Ph. B.\nHarry^iBums Hutchins, LL.D.\nGeorge E. Vincent, Ph.D.\nA. A. Kincannon\nAlbert Ross Hill, LL.D.\n\n733\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nUniversity of Montana, Missoula, Mont.\nUniversity of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nUniversity of Nevada, Reno, Nev.\nUniversity of North Carolina,\nChapel Hill, N.C.\nUniversity of Notre Dame,\nNotre Dame, Ind.\nUniversity of Oregon, Eugene, Ore.\nUniversity of Pennsylvania,\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nUniversity of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nUniversity of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y.\nUniversity of the South, Sewanee, Tenn.\nUniversity of South Dakota,\nVermilion, S.Dak.\nUniversity of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah\nUniversity of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.\nUniversity of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.\nUniversity of Washington, Seattle, Wash.\nUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nUniversity of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio\nUniversity of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.\n\nClyde A. Duniway, Ph.D.\nSamuel Avery, Ph.D.\nJoseph Edward Stubbs, LL.D.\n\nF. B. Gault, Ph.D.\nDr. Joseph T. Kingsbury, Sc.D.\nGuy Potter Benton, D.D.\nEdwin A. Alderman, LL.D.\nThomas F. Kane, Ph.D.\nCharles R. Van Hise, LL.D.\nRev. Louis Edward Holden, LL.D.\nCharles O. Merica, LL.D.\n\nVanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.\nVassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.\n\nJames H. Kirkland, LL.D.\nRev. James M. Taylor, LL.D.\n\nWabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nWashington and Jefferson College,\nWashington, Pa.\nWashington University, St. Louis, Mo.\nWellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.\nWells College, Aurora, N.Y.\nWesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.\nWestern College for Women, Oxford, Ohio\nWestern Reserve University, Cleveland,\nOhio\nWest Virginia University,\nMorgantown, W.Va.\nWhitman College, Walla Walla, Wash.\nWilliam Jewell College, Liberty, Mo.\nWilliams College, Williamstown, Mass.\nWilson College, Chambersburg, Pa.\nWittenburg College, Springfield, Ohio\nWoman's College of Baltimore,\nBaltimore, Md.\nWorcester Polytechnic Institute,\nWorcester, Mass.\nYale University, New Haven, Conn.\n\nRev. George L. Mackintosh, D.D.\n\nF. F. Venable, LL.D.\nRev. John Cavanaugh, D.D.\nP. L. Campbell, A.B.\nCharles C. Harrison, LL.D.\nRev. S. B. McCormick, LL.D.\nRev. Rush Rhees, LL.D.\nW. B. Hall, A.V.C.\n\nJames D. Moffat, LL.D.\nDavid F. Houston, LL.D.\nMiss Ellen F. Pendleton\nRev. George Morgan Ward, D.D.\nRev. W. A. ShanMin, LL.D.\nJ. G. Newman\nRev. Charies F. Thwing, LL.D.\nDaniel B. Purinton, LL.D.\nRev. Stephens B. L. Penrose, D.B!\nRev. J. P. Greene, LL.D.\nMatthew Howell Reaser, Ph.D.\nHarry A. Garfield, LL.D.\nRev. Charles G. Heckert, D.D.\nDr. E. A. Noble\nEdmimd Engler, LL.D.\nArthur T. Hadley, LL.D.\n\nNumber of letters sent out to college presidents\nNumber of letters received in reply\nNumber of colleges not heard from\nLIST OF COLLEGES\n\nAdrian College\nAlbion College\nAlma College\nBethany College\nBoston College\nButler College\nCase School of Applied Science\nCatholic University of America\nCornell College (Iowa)\nDickinson College\n\nNOT\n\nHEARD\n\n167\n137\n30\nFROM\n\nDrury College\nFairmount College\nFordham University\nFranklin College\nGrove City College\nHamline University\nHarvard University\nJames Millikin University\nMass. Institute of Technology\nOberlin College\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nUniversity of Vermont\nUniversity of Virginia\nWashington and Jefferson College\nWashington University\nWestern College for Women\n\nRandolph-Macon Woman's College\nState University of Oklahoma\nUniversity of Idaho\nUniversity of Mississippi\nUniversity of Utah\nLIST\n\nOF\n\nCOLLEGES\nWHICH\nTHE\nPAST\nFOUR\n\nREPORT\nYEARS\n\nNO\nAND\nTHE\n\nCHANGES\nIN ENTRANCE\nWHICH\nCONTEMPLATE\nNEAR\nFUTURE\n\nBucknell University\nBeloit College\nBoston University\nBuchtel College\nClark College\nCornell University\nCoe College\nColby College\nColgate University\nColorado College\nColorado School of Mines\nDartmouth College\nDenison University\nGeorgetown University\nHillsdale College\nHoly Cross College\nIllinois Wesleyan University\nIndiana University\nLafayette College\nLeland Stanford Junior\nLombard College\nMiddlebury College\nMount Holyoke College\nNew York University\nOhio University\nPolytechnic Institute\nPurdue University\nLIST\n\nOF COLLEGES\n\nWHICH\n\nREPORT\n\nAdelphi College\nAlfred University\nAllegheny College\nAmherst College\nBates College\nBaylor University\nBowdoin College\nBrown University\nCentral College\nCentral University of Kentucky\nColumbia University\nDelaware College\nHanover College\n\n735\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nNO\n\nREQUIREMENTS\nCHANGES\nIN\n\nDURING\n\nRandolph-Macon College\nRipon College\nRose Polytechnic Institute\nSmith College\nSwarthmore College\nTrinity College (Durham)\nTrinity College (Washington)\nTufts College\nWabash College\nWellesley College\nWestern Reserve University\nWittenburg College\nWoman's College of Baltimore\nWorcester Polytechnic Institute\nUniversity of Cinciimati\nUniversity of Kansas\nUniversity of North Carolina\nUniversity of Notre Dame\nUniversity of Oregon\nUniversity of Pennsylvania\nUniversity of Pittsburgh\nUniversity of Rochester\nUniversity of South Dakota\nUniversity of Vermont\nVanderbilt University\nWesleyan University\n\nONLY\n\nSLIGHT\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nAll New York City high-school graduates admitted\nwithout question.\nModem Languages permitted as electives.\nMediaeval and Modern History; Freehand Drawing and Mechanical Drawing added to list in\nwhich there is freedom of choice.\nFrench, German, and Latin added to list of prescribed subjects.\nLatin taken from list of prescribed subjects.\nGreek and Latin not required.\nAdvanced Latin made elective.\nAstronomy added to list of prescribed subjects.\nTrigonometry and Spanish added to the list of\nthose in which there is freedom of choice.\nSolid Geometry omitted from required subjects.\nAdvanced Algebra added to list.\nArithmetic omitted from list. Chemistry\nand\nBotany added to list. One year of Modem\nLanguages required.\nManual Training added to list in which there is\nfreedom of choice.\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL\n\nHiram College\nKenyon College\nLehigh University\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nManual\nTraining, Agriculture, and Domestic\nScience added to list in which there is freedom\nof choice.\nModern Language allowed for Greek in classical\ncourse.\nMechanical Drawing, Shopwork added\nto list in which there is freedom of choice.\nManual Training added to list in which there is\nfreedom of choice.\n\nMacalester College\n\nGraduates of four-year accredited schools admitted without conditions.\n\nMiami University\nNorthwestern College\n\nSolid Geometry omitted from required.\nAgriculture, Drawing, and Commercial subjects\nmade electives.\n\nNorthwestern University\n\nCommercial Law, Geography, and Physiology made\nelectives.\n\nPennsylvania State College\n\nAgriculture, Freehand Drawing, Mechanical Drawing, and Manual Training made electives.\nIndustrial and Applied Arts, Commerce\nand\nAgriculture, added to list in which there is\nfreedom of choice.\n\nPomona College\nState University of North Dakota\n\nOf the 15 units not more than five may be selected\nfrom Manual Training, Domestic Science, and\nCommercial subjects.\n\nStevens Institute of Technology\n\nElementary French omitted from list of pre• scribed subjects. Elementary French, Spanish,\nItalian, Greek, Physiography, and Physiology,\nare added to list in which there is freedom of\nchoice.\n\nSyracuse University\nTrinity College\n\nAdopted unit system.\nBotany, Zoology, and Physical Geography cut off\nfrom list of options.\nSolid Geometry now prescribed instead of elective.\nTotal number of units made i$\\ instead of 16.\nAll Carnegie units allowed except music. Agriculture added.\n\nTulane University of Louisiana\nUniversity of Arizona\nUniversity of Georgia\nUniversity of Illinois\nUniversity of Maine\nUniversity of Minnesota\nUniversity of Missouri\nUniversity of New Mexico\nUniversity of Nevada\nUniversity of the South\nUniversity of Washington\nUniversity of Wooster\nUniversity of Wyoming\nUniversity of Wisconsin\nWells College\nW. Virginia University\nWhitman College\n\nManual Training, Agriculture, Bookkeeping, Business Law, and Domestic Science added to list\nof options.\ni point of electives added to requirements for\nadmission.\nBusiness subjects. Manual\nsubjects. Domestic\nScience, and Art made optional.\nOnly changes made give greater flexibility.\nTrigonometry and Civic sections made compulsory.\nAdvanced English, Mathematics,\nand History\nmade optional.\nEntrance requirements reduced from 15 to 14 units.\nCivics omitted from list of prescribed subjects.\nMechanical Drawing made optional.\nMuch larger liberty of selection.\n5 miits out of\n15 in technical subjects may be offered in\ntechnical colleges after September, 191 1.\nManual Arts, Agriculture, Commercial work, and\nDomestic Science made optional.\n4 years instead of 3 required for Enghsh.\nDiminished prescribed and increased electives.\nGreek omitted from prescribed subjects. Mechanical Drawing, Manual Training, and Music made\noptional.\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nWilson College\n\nLIST OF COLLEGES\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n737\n\nNo subjects added to list of prescribed subjects,\nbut more work required^in those which are\nprescribed.\nREPORTING\n\nMORE\n\nEXTENSIVE\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nBaker University — Fifteen units are necessary for unconditional admission to the college.\nA temporary deficiency of not more than two units will be permitted.\nOne unit from the following vocational subjects: Woodwork, Drawing,\nDomestic Art, Domestic Science, Agriculture, Bookkeeping, Commercial\nLaw, Commercial Geography.\nBryn Mawr College — Change in Latin requirements. Prescribed books for reading in\nLatin.\nNo changes to go into effect after September, 191 1.\nCarleton College — Graduates from Minnesota state high schools or from schools of\nequivalent rank are admitted on presentation of certificates from proper\nauthorities, showing the kind and amount of work completed and representing atotal of at least fifteen units, provided that the credits offered\ninclude English Composition and Literature; Elementary Algebra;\nPlane Geometry; Latin Grammar for B.A. course; and Chemistry,\nBiology, and Physics for B.S. course. No changes proposed to go into\neffect later than September, 1911.\nCase School of Applied Science — Arithmetic added to list of prescribed subjects. Botany,\nDrawing, Shopwork, Latin, Greek, German, French, Trigonometry,\nHistory, Astronomy, and Zoology added to list of options. No changes\nnoted to go into effect later than September, 1911.\nCentral University of Kentucky — Solid Geometry added to list of those in which there\nis freedom of choice and omitted from list of prescribed subjects. Foreign\nLanguages and Drawing and Agriculture added to list of options. No\nchanges noted to go into effect later than September.\nClarkson School of Technology — Governed by New York State Education Department\nthru which all matriculation must be effected for the institution. No\nchanges noted for later than September, 191 1.\nCollege of the City of New York — Advanced Algebra, Trigonometry, Drawing, Elementary Physics, transferred from prescribed to elective list. Physical\nInstruction and Hygiene added to elective list. No changes noted to\ngo into effect later than September, 191 1.\nDakota Wesleyan University — Requirements increased to fifteen standard units. Students entering the scientific course may substitute German for Latin\nthruout the preparatory course. A year of standard commercial work\nadded to the list of subjects in which there is freedom of choice. No\nchanges noted to go into effect later than 191 1.\nDoane College — Required credits raised from twenty-eight to thirty points. Agriculture,\nBookkeeping, Geology, Political Economy, have been added to the list\nin which there is freedom of choice. Not more than four points accepted\nfrom this list. Out of twenty-one prescribed subjects fifteen have been\nmade optional.\nv\nDrake University — Requirement of one unit of Physics has been removed. Applicants\nmust come from accredited schools as graduates. Shopwork, Business\nsubjects. Physiology, Pedagogy, added to list of options. Music omitted\nfrom list of options. Physics omitted from list of prescribed subjects.\nThese changes went into effect in the fall of 1909. No changes noted\nfor later than September, 1911.\nEarlham College — One unit only accepted in Manual Training, Domestic Science, Mechanical Drawing, and Bookkeeping. Total electives not to exceed three. No\nchanges noted for later than September, 19 11.\nElmira College — See catalog for entrance requirements, Courses I to IV.\nGrinnell College — Requirement in Languages reduced from six to four years. Arithmetic\n(after Algebra), U.S. History (after General History), Civics, Manual\nTraining, added to list in which •there is freedom of choice. These\nchanges went into effect in September, 1910, except Manual Training\nwhich went into effect two years earlier. No changes noted for later\nthan September, 191 1.\nHamilton College — All subjects required.\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nHobart College — No longer accepts one year of any Language.\nGreek omitted from the\nlist of prescribed subjects.\nDrawing added to list in which there is freedom of choice.\nGeology and Physiology omitted from the list of those\nin\nwhich\nthere\nis\nfreedom\nchoice.\nGreek 191\ndropped\n1909. No changes *\nnoted to go into effect\nlaterofthan\nSeptember,\n1.\nIowa State College — Agriculture, Commercial Law, Industrial History, Domestic Science,\nand Bookkeeping added to list of subjects in which there is freedom of\nchoice.\nNo changes noted to go into effect later than September, 191 1.\nJohns Hopkins University — Entrance Requirements revised five years ago. Inclination\nhas been to increase the range of choice, allowing greater freedom on the\npart of secondary schools. It has not been the custom to accept for admission such subjects as Mechanical Drawing, Manual Training, and Art.\nLake Erie College — One year of Language omitted from list of prescribed subjects. One\nyear of Language, SoUd Geometry, Music, added to the list in which\nthere is freedom of choice. No changes noted to go into effect later than\nSeptember, 191 1.\nLake Forest College — Solid Geometry and a third year of English added to list of prescribed subjects. Commercial Geography, Drawing, Economics, Physiography, added to list of options. Latin not required if four years are\noffered in one Modem Language.\nLawrence College — Credit given for vocational studies has been increased. Commercial\nstudies, Mechanical Drawing, Domestic Science, Manual Training, Art,\nMusic, have been added to list of those in which there is freedom of\nchoice. These changes went into effect two years ago. No changes\nnoted to go into effect later than September, 191 1.\nMarietta College — Now requires only two years of Latin as a minimum instead of three.\nOne and one-half units in Algebra required instead of one; and two,\nthree, or four units in any Foreign Language. No prospect of change\nin the future.\nMiddlebury College — ^Latin has been added as one of the required subjects for S.B.\ndegree, optional with French and German. Modern and Mediaeval\nEuropean History added to the list of those in which there is freedom of\nchoice. Advanced Algebra omitted from the list of those in which there\nis freedom of choice.\nNo prospect of change in the future.\nOhio State Uniyersity — Additional units prescribed in certain colleges. In Colleges of\nArts, Education, and Engineering, requirements raised from two to three\nunits in 1909. Prescribed units in certain colleges have been reduced.\nIn Colleges of Arts, Education, and Engineering, requirements in History\nand Science reduced from two units to one unit in 1909. No prospect\nof change to go into effect later than September, 191 1.\nOlivet College — Art, Music, Manual Training, Commercial work, have been added to\nthe list of prescribed subjects. Chemistry has been added to the list\nin which there is freedom of choice. Agriculture will be added as soon\nas high schools qualify applicants.\nPrinceton University — ^The only changes of importance in entrance requirements concern\nthe Department of Civil Engineering.\n(See catalog pp. 79-81.)\nRutgers College — Plane Trigonometry added to required subjects for S.B. course. For\nthe general S.B, course a revised list with greater freedom of choice was\ndrawn up in 1910. In 191 2 an additional point in Language, History,\nor Science will be required for entrance to the technical S.B. courses.\nA policy has been adopted which will bring requirements for all courses\nto a level of fifteen points.\nState University of Kentucky — Changes have been announced to take effect on and\nafter September, 191 1. SoHd Geometry will be omitted from all courses\n' except Engineering, Mathematical, and Physical Science courses. One unit\nin any science may be offered instead of one unit in Physics. One unit in\nLatin may be offered by those entering the classical course. One unit\nin History may be offered instead of one unit in Ancient History.\nTransylvania University — Solid Geometry added to list of prescribed subjects. One\nyear of History, two units of Foreign Language. Spanish, Manual\nTraining, Mechanical Drawing, and Domestic Science, added to the list\nof those in which there is freedom of choice. Changes have been announced for 191 2. Ancient instead of General History will be insisted\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n739\n\nupon and one unit of a Foreign Language may not be offered unless\nthree to four units of another be offered.\nTulane University of Louisiana — Solid Geometry is now prescribed instead of elective.\nNo prosp>ect of change in requirements for 191 2.\nUnion University — Certificates accepted for high-school graduates. Latin no longer\naccepted as an equivalent for Modem Languages in S.B. courses, and\nChemistry no longer accepted as an equivalent for Physics in S.B. courses.\nNo changes noted to go into effect later than September, 191 1.\nUniversity of California — Parts of Latin, Greek, Mathematics, Science, according to\ngroup and college selected by applicant, have been omitted from prescribed list. General Science, Agriculture, Industrial Arts, Music,\nEconomics have been added to the list in which there is freedom of\nchoice. Requirements have become reasonably staple. No radical\nchanges proposed.\nUniversity of Chicago — Certain subjects have been added to the accepted list of subjects. A definite requirement in Latin, Solid Geometry, and Physics\nhas been added to the list of prescribed subjects.\nUniversity of Colorado — Electives may now be chosen from the following: Mathematics\n(2), Greek (2), French (2), German (2), Spanish (2), History (2), English\n(i). From the following group, subject to special accrediting by the\nIFniversity not more than three imits: Drawing (i). Manual Arts (2),\nDomestic Science (i). Agriculture (i). Commercial Geography (^),\nEconomics (5). The candidate for admission should present fifteen\nunits as follows: Mathematics 2, Language other than English 4,\nEnglish 3, History 2, Science 2, Electives 2.\nUniversity of Michigan — ^The entrance requirements of the Department of Law going\ninto effect September, 191 2, require that students shall present one year\nof collegiate work in addition to the entrance requirements of the\nUniversity.\nUniversity of Montana — Entrance credit is now given for all subjects in the ofl&cial\ncourses of study for Montana high schools which are properly certified\nas having been taken by the applicant. One year ago this new regulation, entitling a graduate to unconditional entrance provided he has\ncompleted a four-year course in an accredited high school, went into\neffect.\nUniversity of Nebraska — Entrance requirements raised from twenty-eight to thirty points.\nBookkeeping, Normal Training, Senior Reviews, added to list of prescribed\nsubjects. Aiter September, 191 1, Music, Commercial Geography, etc.,\nmay be accepted if taught in an accredited school.\nVassar College — Greater range of choice in entrance requirements. No change in amount.\nAmerican History or Elementary Greek may be offered in place of third\nLanguage or Science. The change went into effect, September, 1910.\nNo change noted for September, 191 1.\nWilliam Jewell — One year German added to science course. One year Latin from science\ncourse replaced by one year German. Civics, preceded by American\nHistory, has been added to the list of prescribed subjects. Astronomy\nomitted from the list of those in which there is freedom of choice. No\nchanges in future now thought of.\nWilliams College — AboUtion of the partial course m^kes every student a candidate for\nthe degree with Latin, plus Greek or French or German. Botany,\nHistory, and Zoology have been added to the list of subjects in which\nthere is freedom of choice, in order to fulfill elective requirement.\nYale University — ^Very little change in prescribed subjects. Alternative requirements\nare increased. Latin has been reduced in amount. Six books required\ninstead of eight, in Vergil. Physics, Chemistry, and English or American\nHistory, and Civics have been added to the list of those in which there\nis freedom of choice. No further changes expected in the near future.\nAfter the Report of the Committee on Colld^e-Entrance Requirements had been\nread. Professor Clark, of Leland Stanford Junior University, reported to the secretary a\ncorrection which should be added to this report, as follows:\nLeland Stanford Junior University admits on diploma from accredited high schools\nwithout reference to course of studies, except that English is required.\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\nPAUL\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSTANDARD OF THE PRESENT-DAY\nEDUCATION IN EUROPE\nKREUZPOINTNER,\nAMERICAN\n\nCHAIRMAN,\n\nFOUNDRYMEN'S\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nASSOCIATION,\n\n[Manual Training\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCOMMITTEE\nALTOONA,\n\nOF\nPA.\n\nEconomic necessity was the impelling force which caused all industrial\ncountries to establish new standards of industrial education during the\npast thirty years. The industrial countries of Europe especially were thus\ncompelled, thru the ever-growing, keen competition, to reorganize their\nold-time drawing and continuation schools and put them upon a modern\npedagogic and social-economic basis.\nAn inquiry, however brief, into the aspect and scope of the new pedagogic standards of European industrial schools may prove all the more\ninteresting to the members of the National Education Association because\nour. own educational system is now passing thru a period of transition;\nand while we have to develop our educational system upon the basis of\nour own educational and social traditions, political institutions, industrial\ndevelopment, and national characteristics, nevertheless as there are certain points of contact in the life of all industrial nations which are quite\nuniform, we cannot afford to ignore what other industrial nations are doing\nalong industrial-educational lines.\nWhile the methods applied to diffuse industrial education vary greatly\nin the different countries of Europe, the aim is universally the same, namely,\nincrease of industrial, intellectual, civic, and moral efficiency of the industrial worker.\nENGLAND\n\nThe English Technical Institution Acts of 1889 and 1891 provided a\ntax for technical schools and the first result of the enactment of these laws\nwas the establishment of many high-grade technical schools and colleges.\nHowever, these schools did not prove as beneficial as expected because\nthey did not reach the class of workman the laws had aimed to reach.\nWhile much progress has been made during the last ten years, educationally, England has not yet evolved a satisfactory state-school system.\nBecause of the absence of a law compelling attendance at these technical\nschools it is difficult to have the pupils attend regularly.\nSCOTLAND\n\nAs in England, so in Scotland industrial education has made remarkable progress. Scotland is in advance of England in its system of continuation schools, compelling by law attendance at these schools. Four\nclasses are provided in these continuation schools :\nFirst Division. — Preparatory classes for the completion of general education.\nSecond Division. — Elementary classes for specialized instruction.\nThird Division. — ^Advanced classes for specialized instruction.\nFourth Division. — Auxiliary classes.\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department[\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN EUROPE\n\n741\n\nFRANCE\n\nAs yet there is no unified system of industrial schools. They are\neither state, municipal, communal, departmental, or private schools receiving state aid. Again there are trade schools supported by trade unions,\nemployers' associations, religious orders; but with the continued increase\nof the state grants these industrial schools are more and more under the\ncontrol and the inspection of the state. At present there are more than\nfive thousand of these schools. The continuation schools are organized\nunder three divisions:\nFirst. — For \"illiterates.\" The attendance in these schools is poor because young\nmen and women do not feel inclined to have it known that they are illiterate.\nSecond. — Those who have completed the elementary and higher elementary schools\nenter the second division of the industrial sch ools.\nThird. — In this division are included trade schools, usually day schools, also technical courses in which the instruction includes drawing, geometry, and elementary science\nadapted to the need of the students. The practical, or shopwork is often carried on\non Sundays in the shops of the trade schools.\nSWITZERLAND\n\nEducation in Switzerland is free and compulsory. Each canton supervises its own schools with certain reservations by the federal government.\nThe federal government subsidizes all cantonal, communal, corporate, or\nprivate industrial schools. Commercial schools, trade schools for girls,\nand domestic science schools are Ukewise subsidized.\nIn 1906 an apprenticeship law was passed which compels every employer\nto send his apprentices, boys or girls, to an industrial school at least four\nhours a week. It is optional with the cantons to adopt this law and thus\nfar nearly half of the cantons have availed themselves of the opportunity.\nThere is one school for training technical teachers. In this school\npractical men are taught how to teach and academic school teachers are\ntaught tradework. These industrial schools are classified as: Industrial\ndrawing schools, industrial continuation schools, handicraft schools and\ntrade courses, housekeeping and domestic science schools, trade and apprentice schools, industrial art schools, secondary technical schools, technical colleges, industrial museums.\nGERMANY\n\nOwing to pressure of economic conditions Germany has at present the\nmost comprehensive system of industrial schools of any industrial country.\nAt the beginning of the nineteenth century it was perceived in several\nGerman states that the elementary-school education needed to be supplemented by additional training in the usual academic subjects, or along\nvocational fines to suit the occupational4ife of the pupil. Attendance at\nthese continuation schools has been compulsory for about seventy years.\nOriginally they were held Sundays and evenings. More recently they are\nheld weekdays.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThru the initiative of Dr. George Kerschensteiner, superintendent of\nschools of the city of Munich, who reorganized the continuation schools\nof Munich upon a new pedagogic basis, with shopwork as the center of the\nboys' activity, the idea of shop-instruction in addition to the former\ntechnical instruction, is gaining ground.\nThere is a variety of industrial and technical schools — state schools,\nmunicipal schools, and private schools. Taking them as a whole, there\nare industrial schools, lower technical schools, middle technical schools,\nspecial technical trade schools, and technical high schools.\nThe industrial schools are chiefly continuation schools, compelling the\nemployer to send his employees under eighteen years of age to these schools\non weekdays, from four to eight hours.\nThe vocational schools for girls are day and Simday schools, in which\ncooking, sewing, and the various household duties are taught.\nThe schools of industrial arts and trades are evening schools with instruction in subjects pertaining to specified trades.\nThe schools for the building trades include all occupations concerned\nwith highways, street railways, bridges, sewers, etc.\nSchools for metal workers and textile industry are day schools of a\nhigher grade than the continuation schools. They are called secondary\nvocational schools. The lower and middle technical schools prepare for\nforemanships and similar positions, but are not preparatory schools for\nengineering colleges. Instruction in the continuation schools includes not\nonly subjects pertaining directly to the trade of the pupil, but also business\npractice, bookkeeping, estimates, civics, law as it effects industrial life\nand industry, physics, and materials of construction.\nAUSTBIA\n\nIndustrial education in Austria had its beginning in the middle of the\neighteenth century with the establishment of an industrial drawing school\nin Vienna. There is a well-organized system of continuation schools,\ntrade and lower technical schools, and also industrial art schools.\nManual training forming part of the regular curriculum of the elementary schools in Austria, it helps to make the continuation schools more\neffective.\nSWEDEN\n\nIt is well known that sloyd instruction has formed part of the curriculum of the elementary schools of Sweden for the past forty years. It\nis taught to children of from ten to fourteen years of age. In order to\nadapt manual training to the age of the pupils, sloyd has received more\nattention in Sweden than other forms of manual training altho metalwork and other forms are also taught.\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN EUROPE\n\n743\n\nBELGIUM\n\nBelgium has a very efficient system of industrial education, similar\nin nature to the one France has at the present time.\nRUSSIA\n\nFor many years Russia has paid much attention to higher technical\neducation and the results of her industrial education for workingmen\nattracted the attention of educators at the Centennial Exposition in 1876\nand resulted in the introduction of manual training in this country. Since\nthen Russia has extended that system of industrial education in various\ndirections.\nITALY\n\nItaly also is beginning to feel the need of such training for her mechanics.\nTHE NEW\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nAfter this cursory review of present industrial education in Europe,\nwe are prepared to inquire in how far changes from older methods to new\nones have produced new standards in methods of teaching as well as in\norganization.\nDuring recent years economic forces have operated to bring about\nkeener competition between all industrial nations. This economic pressure brought to the attention of the industrial communities the weak points\nin the methods and organization of their industrial schools. It was realized that industrial education was as important a civilizing and socializing\neducational force as the old, traditional cultural education. Moreover,\nit was seen that if any system of industrial education was to be effective,\nit had to include in its scope all of the industrial population. To make\nsuch an extensive scheme successful requires state aid and the authority\nof the state to carry out the provisions of the organization.\nHence we have as a new standard in the present system of industrial\neducation in Europe, a growing power of the state over the organization\nof such schools, the extension of the compulsory feature of attendance of\nindustrial schools, for all pupils under eighteen years of age and a vast\nincrease of expenditures by the state and the municipalities over former\nyears, for the education of the masses of industrial workers.\nWhile compulsory attendance at industrial schools has thus far found\nno favor in England, yet from the social standpoint, new standards are\nattained by the encouragement given to the young people to make use of\nwhat increasing facilities there are in the shape of industrial and technical\neducation in day and evening schools.\nScotland has materially contributed to the establishment of a new\nsocial and educational standard by the l%ahzing of a compulsory attendance act whereby those having charge of young people are made responsible for their attendance.\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWhile primary education in France is compulsory and there is a favorable sentiment among the people to have attendance at industrial schools\nlikewise compulsory, no standard has as yet been set by law in this direction in France as in other countries. Nevertheless, since all power over\nthe schools is concentrated in the hands of the minister of public instruction, compulsory attendance may soon be expected.\nIn Switzerland new standards have been established in the direction\nof increasing the number of industrial schools and making them more\neffective by giving the fedferal government the power to subsidize these\nschools to the extent of one-half of their expenditure and by giving the\ncantons the right to make these schools compulsory.\nThe same tendency toward new standards of social usefulness of industrial schools by invoking the power of society and government is observable in all other countries of Europe.\nWhen we come to examine into the purely pedagogical changes which\nhave taken place in the European industrial schools during recent years,\nwe find a radical departure from what was formerly considered the standard of efficiency. The old-time elementary subjects were raised to a\nhigher level, courses were differentiated, manual training was established,\ntechnical and scientific subjects were added and a beginning was made to\npay as much attention to the training of the man and citizen as to the\ntraining of the mechanic. The state, being the conservator as well as the\npromoter of the material welfare of the people, stepped in with its concentrated authority and financial power, and advised the character of the\norganization and the curriculum of the industrial schools. However, considerable freedom was allowed the municipaUties to suit local conditions\nor progressive tendencies. In the consideration, then, of the economic\nchanges taking place successively in the industrial countries of Europe,\nwe find the key to the difference in the rate of progress in the establishment of standards of efficiency in industrial education as well as in the\ncharacter and variety of schools found in different countries. In those\ncountries with meager natural resources, as for instance in Germany, we\nfind not only the rate of progress rapid but also a great variety of schools\nand a highly technical curriculum to make up for scarcity of natural\nresources.\nWith the entering, during recent years, of all industrial nations into\nworld-wide competition, a new factor, the commercial economic factor, has\nentered the educational field and has compelled the raising of European\nstandards of industrial and technical education to a still higher degree by\nthe introduction of commercial subjects in the continuation schools.\nIn conformity with this new, pressing, economic force, menacing these\nnations who are involved in the struggle for industrial existence, the new\nstandards of present-day education in Europe present the following aspect:\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN EUROPE\n\n745\n\nFirst. — A system of industrial schools intended to reach the whole mass of the population, but so organized as to leave room to escape upward for those who are destined\nand able to go higher.\nSecond. — A growing tendency to introduce manual training and technical subjects\ninto the elementary schools.\nThird. — ^A system of trade and continuation schools.\n\nThe most advanced system of industrial continuation schools, offering\nnew standards of a high order, are those at the city of Munich, Bavaria.\nThe older form of industrial continuation schools aimed to supplement the\npractical shopwork of the apprentice boy with such technical and theoretical knowledge as was not obtainable in the shop, but the various subjects were-not well correlated and therefore not very effective. No shopwork was done in the continuation school of the older type.\nDr. Kerschensteiner, in reorganizing the continuation schools of Munich,\nchanged the traditional form by not only introducing shopwork, but by\nmaking shopwork the center of interest in the furtherance of industrial\nand social activity. To accomplish this he co-ordinated and correlated\ntechnical and scientific principles, civic instruction, and moral teaching\nwith the practical shopwork in such a way as to make the schoolshop the\ncenter of industrial activity and at the same time a social force to assist\nand strengthen the intellectual, moral, civic, commercial, and industrial\nactivities of the state and thereby prepare the ground for the creation of\nfavorable opportunities for the individual citizen. According to Dr. Kerschensteiner'ideal\ns\nand pedagogic conception in the modern continuation\nschool, mechanical skill, economic insight, civic consciousness, and a sense\nof moral responsibility are to be welded into a homogeneous educational\nprinciple to produce not only skilled mechanics but also responsible citizens\nand intelligent men of character.\nAustria, Sweden, Switzerland, Belgium, England, and Scotland are\nadopting these ideas and ideals and thus new educational and social standards are being established.\nRECAPITULATION\n\nOn final analysis of the present-day organization, tendencies, aims, and\nequipment of industrial education in European countries, we find the new\nstandards aiming for mechanical skill, technical and scientific knowledge,\ninsight into economic principles, character building, civic efficiency, and\na development of a sense of personal duty and obligation not only to\noneself but to the community. In order to make the development of\nsuch a far-reaching educational program possible, there have been made\nradical changes in the traditional educational system by additions, differentiations, and alterations of organization and curriculums.\nNew ideas about the cultural, the economic, and the social value of\nindustrial education upon a broad, socializing basis have become standards\nand the basis of ideals which perceive in the broad industrial education of\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthe masses a new social force, not only economically beneficial to the industries, but primarily useful to the state as a civilizing, conservative agency\nto conserve the mental and moral resources inherent in the people for the\nbest uses of the state itself in the formation of citizenship and civic duty.\nFor in European countries the man as a civic unit to strengthen the machinery of the state receives first consideration and everything is subordinated\nto that primary aim.\nIn order to maintain these standards and to carry out such a program\nthere is available a high standard of patriotic self-sacrifice which is willing\nto appropriate enormous sums for these industrial schools; a remarkable\nco-operative spirit pervading all classes of society when it comes to the\nquestion of industrial education for the people; and a democracy in the\nappHcation of educational endeavors which secures and vouchsafes the\npossibly widest distribution and deepest penetration thruout the whole mass\nof industrial workers of industrial intelligence, economic insight, the conception of civic obligation and ethical principles.\nIn 1909 there were 1,719 industrial continuation schools and 381 commercial continuation schools in Prussia with a total of 360,000 pupils and\nan expenditure by the state of 11 million Mark, or 30 Mark per pupil. In\naddition the municipalities contributed some 2 million Mark and all the\nschool buildings with their necessary equipment. In Munich the cost\nper pupil in the common schools is $25 and in the industrial schools $21\nper pupil or $46 per pupil up to the age of 18 years.\nAre these new standards applicable in any form to our own industrial,\neconomic, and social conditions? Are we prepared to make our coming\nindustrial schools as democratic, as diffusive and varied in form, as suitable to local conditions and individual requirements, as are the industrial\nschools of our European friends and competitors ?\nDISCUSSION\nLouis C. Butler, San Jos6, Cal. — When out of six papers to be presented before\nthe distinctive manual-training audiences of this Convention, three refer directly to\nindustrial or vocational topics, it shows conclusively the present direction of the\nschoolman's interest in this subiect.\nAs the wise man builds upon the successes or failure of those preceding him in his\nwork, so it is eminently proper that we should turn in this new departure to those countries\nwhich, however different their conditions and ultimate requirements, have worked and\nare working today on this same problem.\nWe have heard, today, a masterly presentation of the industrial system of education\nas developed in Europe and a careful analysis of the new standards developed thereby.\nMr. Kreuzpointner has given us this in outline from nine countries, and from the report\nI gather that in no country as a whole complete success has crowned the prevailing system; that some system of compulsory attendance seems to be required; and that a considerable financial outlay is rendered necessary — all of which tends directly toward state\nregulation and control with strongly assisting legislation required. Mr. Kreuzpointner\nfinds in Munich the only system that seems to be big with promise of success, educational,\nprofessional, and social; and here it is that of the continuation schools reorganized by one\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department 1\n\nTEACHING\n\nON\n\nMANUAL\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\n747\n\nmaster-mind with the entire scheme revolving around the shop as the school center.\nStandards of European success in this matter, then, seem to mean state control, helpful\nlegislation, and new organization of school systems.\nIn this convention we represent, possibly, the greater part of the manual-training\nwork carried on in the United States and from us, directly or indirectly, goes out the\ninspiration that guides tens of thousands of eager boys in their shopwork — a work that\nwe all wish to make more fruitful of good to the individual, more direct of gain to the\ncommunity. Not all of us can influence or direct legislation; few of us can ever hope to\norganize or reorganize school systems — save in private; not many of us are fit, maybe\nto carry on that work that will require a teacher who can work and a worker who can\nteach; but the one thing we all can do is that which must precede those larger tasks: we\ncan make the employer, the legislator, the laboring-man, the schoolman, even the schoolboy respect industrial education as a serious undertaking of economic necessity, not a\nmere pedagogic fad.\nIf you require strong central control, compulsory legislation, and increased expenditure of public funds you must base your hope of success upon public confidence and\nsentiment; especially, in this case, that of the whole gamut of industrial interests from\nlaboring-man to the big employer. The former must, as an individual and as a part of\nthe powerful labor interest, feel that the matter is one that afifects his boy or his trade in\na direct, serious manner. He must respect the idea as a whole and the practical details of\nits working. The latter must also have equally great confidence in the integrity of the work\nand those carrying it on, for surely his hearty and active co-operation will prove essential.\nIn other words, this outUne of European endeavor should show conclusively that\nindustrial training must mean to us all a serious departure in educational procedure, a\nwholly new step in organization, instruction requirements, and resultant values. It is\nnot an offshoot from or a development or adaptation of our present manual-training\ndepartments; it is an economic necessity faced clearly and met cleanly by the wisest and\nbest of our educators.\n'\nSo let us oppose as best we may the loose use of this word \"industrial\" in its all\ntoo frequent application to the regular shopwork, to the playing at or with a few technical\nprocesses that we find in some of our shops, to the efforts of some of our greatly learned\nbut far from technical men.\nAll construction work is industrial from one point of view but these experimental\nhappenings often serve to confuse the lay mind and may bring discredit upon genuinely\nserious work. Acquaint our youngsters with industrial facts and let them work in representation ofsome detailed process, by all means; but do not call it \"industrial training.\"\nMen who labor and employ labor will not agree with you — and they are the men who must\nbe considered now.\nThe new European standard is one of facing a momentous economic problem with\ntrue appreciation of its gravity and dignity; may we as a body stand for a similar attitude toward that work among ourselves, a work that must be developed by the sanest\nthinkers, the most practical workers, the strongest teachers that our profession can produce.\n\nTHE\n\nREQUISITES FOR THE\nMANUAL AND\nHELEN\n\nLOUISE\n\nEFFECTIVE\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nJOHNSON.\n\nTEACHING\nARTS\n\nWATERTOWN,\n\nOF THE\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe chief requisite for the effective teaching of the manual and household\narts is the teacher. There is no question concerning this. All agree that\nthe place, equipment, school board, even the mental caliber of the student,\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ncount as nothing when balanced against the influence of the teacher. Therefore what anyone considers the chief requisites for the effective teaching\nof the manual and household arts will be found in what he asks of the\nteacher. The failures will be found to go back primarily to the teacher.\nThe development of this educational ideal has been, is, in the hands of the\nteacher.\nAll this is true, but the situation requires a brief analysis. There is a\nclose analogy between the responsibility laid* upon the teacher and that\ngiven to the mother. The parents are responsible for the behavior, the\nconduct, the future lives of their children; but if they have lacked in that\nprevious training, education, and opportunity which makes the good parent,\nthen their parents were responsible, and we find ourselves entangled in\nan endless chain, leading back to the father of all those who earn their\nbread by the sweat of their brow.\nSo it is with this teacher whose qualifications to so large an extent must\nbe modified by the kind of training received, and the influences exerted by\nthose who are teaching and training her. What then are the essential\nqualifications which the teacher of the manual and household arts needs to\nacquire and possess in order that his or her teaching may be effective?\nAnd how may these be given?\nOf late years some authoritative books on education have appeared\nwhich state definitely what characteristics a teacher should possess, what\nessential qualifications evince, if he is to be successful. Of these I quote\ntwo: In his chapter on \"The Ideal Teacher\" {The Teacher, Palmer),\nProfessor Palmer says:\nI believe there are four fundamental characteristics every teacher must possess:\nfirst, an aptitude for vicariousness; second, an already accumulated wealth; third, an\nability to invigorate life thru knowledge; and fourth, a readiness to be forgotten.\n\nIn Home's Psychological Principles of Education he quotes Dr. Arnold's\nfamiliar saying that the qualifications he looked for in teachers were\ncharacter, tact, and scholarship. Mr. Home himself states four indispensable qualifications namely:\na knowledge of the subject taught, a knowledge of the pupils taught, the ability to teach,\nand a worthy character.\n\nIt would seem that both Mr. Home's and Mr. Palmer's qualifications\nmight be embraced entirely in the one both have indicated and one has\nmentioned as merely one of the desirable essentials in successful teaching;\nthat is, the ability to teach. Discuss its psychology or its philosophy as\nyou will, the whole matter lies right there in the ability to teach. We feel\nthat this is not possible without some of the mentioned characteristics;\nand we know that to teach the truth demands character, but \"\\i he speak\nwith the tongue of men and of angels and have not charity, it profiteth\nhim nothing.\"\nIf he have the knowledge of the universe and cannot\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\n749\n\nstimulate the latent powers of the student to interest, what difference\ncan wealth, vicariousness, character, make ?\nEach one of us has said or thought \"I might have done thus or so had I\nbeen properly taught.\" We all have vivid memories of schooldays in\nwhich certain subjects stand out because of the teachers. Think back\nto your own schooling. The teacher of science in a high school I attended\nwas so limited in the knowledge of the subjects he taught that he was\nunable to perform or explain experiments, but he succeeded in awakening\nin his pupils a desire to know, infinitely better than the facts he might have\nimparted. His limitations were worth much more to the students than\nthe extensive knowledge possessed by a teacher of mathematics in another\nschool, whose pupils just managed to scramble thru her examinations by\nmeans of immediate and most vigorous cramming. I lay my lack in these\nrespects at her door, for geometry as taught by her represented lines on a\nblackboard, to which certain, always certain, to-be-memorized letters of\nthe alphabet were attached. I even supposed solid geometry was so named\nbecause it was harder than plane, until years later when in visiting a kindergarten realized\nI\nthe babies were learning what I had never grasped. That\nteacher had wide and varied knowledge, her character was most exemplary,\nbut none of us learned from or of her. Yet in that same school the man who\ntaught physics was a scalawag, but he inspired each of us with a desire to\nlearn. He even taught what the teacher of mathematics failed to teach,\nfor he took us out into the open and made us lay out our own tennis courts\nby means of a well-known problem beginning \"the square of the hypothenuse of the right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the\nother two sides.\"\nKnowledge, no; character, unfortunately, no; wealth, never; but\nability to teach, a most comprehensive term: on this and this alone rests\nthe success of the teacher. The three vital requisites in this are interest,\nmethod, and a few facts. These the teacher must possess for the effective\nteaching of any subject.\nAnd my first quarrel with one of the prevailing modes of training the\nteachers of the manual and household arts is that they are too often separated from their fellow-students by artificial boundaries, and in place of\nreceiving the general training in teaching are taught to teach the manual\nand household arts, as if these were things in themselves, something outside\nthe bounds of ordinary education. There are students of elementary and\nsecondary teaching, then those of these special subjects. No wonder that\nwhen the teacher of the manual and household arts reaches the school of\nwhich she is to be a part, she finds herself an addition to, and not an integral\npart of, the main structure. Specializati<^ should come after a certain and\nas large amount of general training has been received, as is possible in a\ngiven time.\nInterest, method, and sufficient knowledge, but not too many facts —\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthese after all are the height and breadth and depth of education. The\nheart of the matter lies in our interpretation of these three dimensions.\nInterest is an inclusive term. A close analysis of the teacher's or student's interest will reveal to us the motives which incite effort of any kind,\nthe ideals or aims toward which effort is directed, and the conception of the\nvalue of the different means selected to attain those aims. We cannot\nintelligently discuss this requisite of effective teaching, unless we are willing\nto see it in a larger meaning than merely that natural bent or inclination\nof the mind to find satisfaction in a subject. I mean something as much\ngreater than this as the teacher's mind and heart should be greater in order\nthat any proper result in teaching may be attained.\nInterest does not mean that collection of technical tricks by which the\nstudent is kept at work for the hour with his brain sufficiently stimulated\nto gain a glimmering of meaning from the task before him. Interest means\nthat great and wonderful and comprehensive emotional as well as intellectual thing which makes a teacher believe in herself and in her work;\nleads her to see her subject as the greatest thing in the world, and infuses\nher being with an enthusiasm which keeps the soul from fainting even while\nthe body aches with weariness and the heart and mind falter before the task.\nThe interest of which I am speaking makes possible the immolation of self\nupon that altar of sacrifice without the agony of which no teacher ever really\nteaches. With such interest the teacher does not teach wood-carving, weaving, cooking, sewing, or household management, she teaches living, life in\nits fulness and joy.\nEndued with such a fundamental requisite, the teacher is able to stimulate the students to feel, if not to see, something beyond the immediate\ntask; to rouse lagging faculties to energetic action toward results which\neventuate in thinking straight, and acting truly, and whether her pupils\npass board examinations or not, she will have given an impulse, at least, to\nthat inner process which means redemption.\nWhen school boards, superintendents, and principals — one might add,\npresidents even — are appointed from those who have grasped the vital need\nof abandoning the external for the sake of the internal, then will the common\ndemand be that these courses shall be practical, be right. The correlation\nbetween the doing which incites interest, and the thinking which educates,\nis the problem of the teacher. In the present moment must be taught\nthose immediate things which will furnish real motives for further endeavor.\nThis is impossible unless the teacher herself see the distant end as a complete\nreality. All thru life we see countless people mistaking the means for the\nend, and thus losing in the game of life. This above all else the teacher\nmust not do, and here is where we may criticize those school boards and\nprincipals who are sacrificing the ultimate realization of the educative power\nof the manual and household arts to immediate returns. This is what is\ndone again and again when it is demanded that such work be made practical.\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\n751\n\nPractical it always is when it accomplishes, but practical it will cease to be\nif its educative power is made subservient to its commercialism.\nIt is interest and interest alone which leads the teacher to that discipline\nof self, that unremitting effort, that welcoming of information which makes\nfor effective teaching. It is not alone by sacrifice but by dreams also that\nwe attain to power. Reich ha^ told us that the four great objects of all\nsuccess are Health, Love, Honor, Power. These desires are of the essence\nof man. To achieve them we move upon a line of strategy determined by a\nconstant and a variable.\nThe indispensable constant is education.\nTherefore if she is to attain to power, the teacher must have education.\nAnd you will say to me before I have done, \"You ask too much of the\nteacher. We who are training them are dealing with faulty human beings\nwhose early training ofttimes has been deficient, whom we have for all\ntoo short a time before we must send them forth to teach.\" In reply I\nsay: \"I am agking only cf each individual one that measure of perfection\nwhich she herself can attain. But I do ask of those who train teachers that\nthey put before these boys and girls who are to be teachers the true ideal of\neducation, which is not induction into conformity with the conventions and\nideals of society; it is not, if Mr. O'Shea will forgive me, mere adjustment\nto civilization: it is, in its sense, passing thru these experiences into a\nrealization of the soul and the meaning of life.\nThis can easily be made absurd. We all know kindergarten teachers\nwho regard the babies they are teaching as little souls and neglect to look\nafter their many-times naughty and always to-be-cared-for httle bodies.\nWe have all seen the development ideal carried to the extreme of nothingness, and the student left without even the rudder of one definite idea by\nwhich to guide himself. I mean no sickly sentimentality, but concisely\nthis: that in the teaching of facts we can most easily fail to see the ultimate\nresult of those facts; that effective teaching depends first and most largely\nupon a vision of the results of that lesson, series of lessons, all educative\nprocesses, sufficiently great to enthuse the teacher with the interest which\nleads to awakening interest in the student; and that it is our duty as\nteachers training teachers to give this definitely — ^withal as wisely, as\ndelicately, or tactfully as in us lies. It is first our duty to awaken in the\nraw material before us, the desire to attain unto a measure of perfection which\nkeeps up the enthusiasm when the painful task of transmuting the dross of\nstupidity into the pure metal of awakening intelligence is presented to them.\nThe method by which this transmutation is accomplished is the second\ngreat requisite in effective teaching. And again I am not referring to that\nwhich educators have rightfully criticized and which many principals and\nsuperintendents dread. Cut-and-dried, lifeless methods where there is\nnothing else are as deadening as the lack of any is disastrous. I again\nmean something as much greater than this as the whole is greater than any\nof its parts.\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "752\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nAs the interest of which I have spoken can only have its birth in ideals\nso the method which is required for effective teaching arises only in the\ndeveloped imagination. Without the ability to put oneself in another's\nplace, there is a constant effort to impart in place of inspiring knowledge.\nThe sympathetic creation in our own consciousness of conditions which\nbelong to those before us, the realization of, perplexities, the appreciation of\nthe unintelligibility of what we are trying to present, this is trying business.\nIt requires that exquisite touch, that quick sensibility which Dr. Arnold\ncalled tact, but which is embraced in the real meaning of method. For\nmethod means nothing less than a way, a mode, a plan of arriving at a\ncertain place which is the ideal, and nothing less than the ideal should\nsuffice.\nThis greater method includes first a knowledge of the pupil, or the desire\nto seek for this, and second, an actual understood and used scientific method\nof instruction. For method is based on psychology, and a true knowledge\nof psychology leads to a best way of doing things. Method is not based\nmerely on a knowledge of the subject. It is directly and specifically based\non what are termed formal steps in teaching.\nAnd my direct criticism of much of the teaching of the manual and household arts in certain places would be that the teachers, while having knowledge of their subject, utterly fail in their method. This is due to several\nthings: first a lack of uniform demand in the training of teachers in these\nsubjects: second, a seemingly popular idea that if one knows something of\na subject he or she can teach it, therefore a sending out of teachers direct\nfrom high school and college with so meager a training in the thing in hand\nthey might better be without any, for here, as everywhere, \"a little knowledge isa dangerous thing\"; and third, a mistaken idea that special method\nis required for special subjects rather than a full, good training in general\nmethod.\nOne of the best-known normal principals in the East, a man whose\ngraduates are eagerly sought, has said again and again: \"I would rather\nhave a teacher with four facts and a working knowledge of method, than\none with four hundred facts and no method.\" In this we all probably\nagree, but the disagreement seems to come in the kind of method required.\nIt is peculiarly true of the students of the manual and household arts that\nthey are given methods of teaching domestic science, methods of teaching\nwood-carving or sloyd, and not method. When the teachers of these\nsubjects are required to study the educational methods of Froebei, when\ntheir work is based on an understanding of his psychology and his philosophy,\nwhen in other words, they are given an authoritative foundation for the\nsuperstructure they are building, then a great weakness in the training\nof some of these teachers will be overcome. The time is here when students\nof the manual and household arts should take some courses in kindergarten\ntraining, and students of kindergarten work should take certain courses\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\n753\n\nin home economics.\nWe are working too far apart in a place where the\ncorrelation and similarity of needs are plainly obvious.\nSome few years ago the well-known governor of one of our great states\nsaid that he based his success entirely on the fact that he was trained in a\nnormal school where he learned method.\nHe said:\nAll men who desire to be successful should study method, not methods of business,\nthose are based on psychological methods, but the methods by which we are trained to\nteach; and my boys shall go to normal school, either in place of, or as well as college,\nin order that they may acquire that key to successful dealing with men, called method.\n\nThe teacher of the subjects under discussion if she know general method,\ncan work out her own special methods, and indeed to a large extent she will\nhave to do so anyway, for special methods mean nothing more than the\nadaptation to the requirements or needs of that particular pupil or place.\nA proper training in method should give the teacher the ability to adapt\nherself and her plans, her equipment and her teaching to the direct needs of\nthe students before her. And it is again here that a criticism can be made\nof some of the present-day tendencies in the preparation of teachers.\nWe teach these students that the child must be left and led to create,\nnot taught to imitate, and then we limit the creativeness of the teacher by\nover-equipment. We stultify the intelligence of the young teachers by\ngiving them facts and no great underlying basis from which to reason, and\nby which to use the facts to the end of inspiring a passion to know.\nComparatively few facts are needed, but much knowledge. Facts\nas mere facts are as useless as money hidden in a stocking. There is\naltogether too much teaching of facts at the expense of that needed intelligence which is gained thru familiarity with educative processes. But the\nweakness is not alone here. The purpose of all education is the apprehending and understanding of truth and its application to life. Until one has\nseen truth in its beauty and possessed it in its entirety, his complete development has not been reached. We are not asking for complete development,\neven in the teacher, but we must ask for that education and training which\nenables the teacher to grasp and later teach facts in their relation to the\nwhole. This is why I emphasize a few, not too many facts, and I desire\nto make myself quite plain on this point.\nThe history of the science of agriculture as taught in our agricultural\ncolleges is analogous to that under discussion today. At first the subjects\nwere taught almost wholly on a practical basis, with little regard to pedagogical formulation. The teacher gave instruction in the use of tools, in\ncertain processes, but in little more. As there came a more definite formulation of courses and divisions of these in accordance with the several\nbranches of science in which they were applied, first specialization appeared,\nthen a change in the relation of other subjects to the scheme of instruction.\nIn ether words first cooking was taught, then chemistry as applied to cooking, then physics crept in, until a whole course of study had grown up, and\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 54\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nlater was reorganized into the definite grouping of the household arts with\nits natural divisions and specializations. And what now happens ? Where\nis the weakness ?\nIt lies in too many isolated, unrelated facts, too little of seeing the whole.\nHave you not seen students preparing to be teachers who have learned\nthe physics, the chemistry, the bacteriology of milk, and ceased to appreciate milk as milk, as a whole? In fact they never approach it from this\nstandpoint. Have you not had occasion to plead with some obdurate\nprofessor that you did not desire these courses in botany and zoology, but\nwished these home-economic Freshmen inducted into what, in your crass\nignorance, you termed \"general biology\"? You have almost tearfully\nexplained that you wanted the students to see the science of life as a whole\nof which certain parts were to be studied and analyzed because of their relation to the work before them, but you were sent about your business to\nteach your own subject and told that you did not know what you were talking about, that of course your students must learn these facts in botany and\nzoology.\nIn brief, textbook facts are not enough. It is knowledge of how to use\nthose facts and what they mean in the general scheme of hfe that is needed.\nThe highest intellectual development is evidenced by simplicity, and progress toward a higher standard of education is always shown by simplification. What is most needed today in the training of the teachers of the\nmanual and household arts is this thing: a simplification of equipment,\nof certain courses of study, always done, however, with the ideal result\nheld before our eyes. The content of these subjects has grown from a small\ncollection of mere facts and simple processes to the embracing of all science\nand much more of literature, of history, of arts, and that most difiicult of\nall knowledge, of the world and of men, of social, and industrial, and\neconomic progress. Some of all this the teacher must know, but not as\nisolated facts.\nThe only permanent influences in the growth of the educational practice\nand theory are those which are based on the natural development of man.\nMunroe says, \"A natural education is one in which the subject taught is\nsecondary to the manner of teaching; in which the task done is subsidiary\nto the effect of doing it; in which the question to be asked at the completion of an educational step is not. What has the child learned? but\nWhat has the child become ? \" Knowledge after all is but the perception of\nrelations, and this must the teacher have if she is to lead the student to the\nplace where he can see even the relation of two and two to four. All that\nI have desired to say is in that one sentence, for when the teacher has apprehended detached facts and brought them into orderly relation, she then\nmust have acquired that knowledge of results and a method of attaining\nthem which is the basis of effective teaching.\nIf we analyze the factors which have made the great teachers, we find\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nAND\n\nHOUSEHOLD\n\nARTS\n\n75$\n\ncertain things which are embraced in the three requisites of effective teaching: first, a consciousness of a mission; second, a desire to accomplish;\nthird, a consecration to an ideal; and fourth, that sympathy without\nwhich psychological insight is impossible. The final task of the teacher\nis to create atmosphere and this the ideal teacher accomplishes. But\nwhat are we to do with this material given us out of which we are to mold\nteachers, and in which we, not being Michelangelos, do not perceive the\nangel ?\nWe are first to endeavor to be or become that which we preach. Professor Griggs has said, \"We can teach more than we are, but not more than\nwe try to be.\" We can have the courage to say, \"You have made a vital\nmistake. You can make a most excellent cook or possible carpenter, a\ngood lunchroom manager, there are many things you can do well, but you\ncannot teach.\" We have too many half-educated teachers who are learning by doing in the wrong place. Normal schools at present stand between\nthe Scylla of the high school and the Charybdis of the college. They\nrequire high-school preparation, but are too greatly isolated from the higher\nsubject-matter of the college. Their function is to train in how to teach,\nto give the ability to perform this task. The college teaches what to teach,\nand its general attitude of contempt for the normal school and methods\nshows weakness and not breadth of vision. The length of time given to\nthe acquiring of subject-matter should be lengthened and at least two years\nof college work asked before two years are devoted to normal methods.\nI know the arguments against this. I am not here to answer them. I am\nstating simply what I believe to be the requisites in preparing for the effective teaching of the manual and household arts. I believe courses in training must be lengthened. I believe specialization must be further made\nbut without the weakness and waste of isolation. One of the great lessons\nall teachers must learn and more especially those who are teaching special\nsubjects is the unity of education. There can be no breaks, no gaps, no\nuntaken steps, and gaps there are if any subjects are taught as isolated,\nor separated, or divided from the whole.\nThe old Greek legends tell us that the giant with whom Hercules\nstruggled was invincible so long as his feet were on the solid ground. I\nwould not have you feel that the three requisites, interest, method, and the\nfew facts, are visionary, idealistic things. Nothing is more needed in the\nbuilding of courses or the training of teachers than sane common-sense,\nbut that same common-sense must be enthused with the ideal, infused with\nthe power of imagination, or we cannot keep our feet firmly planted on the\nearth. You will remember that Osborn gave seven factors in education,\nthe seven lamps by which we are guided to success : pure intelligence, entire\nefficiency, sinless morality, all truth, immaterial beauty, errorless wisdom,\nperfect health. These in their wholeness are unattainable by any man.\nThese indeed crown the summit of that Delectable Mountain for which\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "7S6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwe strive. But unless thru true interest, which is desire, we keep such\nvisions before us, we must fail in the learning, the doing, the conduct, the\ntruth-seeking, the love of beauty, and the search for wisdom which are the\nsteps by which we climb.\n\nSOME\n\nPRESENT PROBLEMS IN THE LITERATURE OF THE\nMANUAL ARTS AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nALFRED\n\nGUILLOU,\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe detailed problems of current literature (and largely of current\npractice also) seem to me to be aspects of one more general and wider\nproblem that may be stated thus: The vocational idea can be viewed\nfrom two standpoints, which differ from each other so markedly that more\nthan one disagreement and many of our misunderstandings and confusions\nmust be ascribed to this difference of view.\nOne standpoint is that of feeling, earnestness, enthusiasm — ^what is\nreally best described by that overworked word, interest. This may be\nexpressed by saying that the more any subject contains of the vocational\nelement, the more interesting will that subject be and the more apt to\nenlist the enthusiasms of the pupils.\nThis may be called the subjective or apperceptive aspect of the vocational idea. It involves the element of imitation in its broad sense, as\nused by Tarde and Baldwin, imitation of feeling, imitation of ideas, imitation of ends. It is a modified form of what we call social influence, and\nit runs thru the book subjects quite as much as the mechanical subjects.\nWe honor this emotional or apperceptive standpoint of the vocational\nwhenever we combine elementary surveying with trigonometry, when our\ngeometry is based upon or makes frequent reference to those space relations\nwhich are employed in the everyday work of the carpenter, the mechanic,\nand the machinist. It is the almost complete absence of this vocational\nelement which makes algebra a subject of such relative difficulty. The\nbroadening of history, whereby it adds to political facts the social and\nindustrial life of past ages, is another aspect of the power of this vocational\nstandpoint to create enthusiasm and establish interest. All this holds\nquite as fully in the manual arts: we can teach them abstractly and theoretical y, or we can inject into them the leaven of the vocational that will\npenetrate the whole work and give it an interest and a vitality to be secured\nin no other way.\nNevertheless, from this standpoint, let us call it the apperceptive\nstandpoint, the object or purpose educationally is not a specific training\nfor a lifework, but a general development of power and skill, physical and\nmental, that shall be available in any line that may be afterward selected\nas a specialty.\nThe vocational element is used as a means, it is not an\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nLITERATURE\n\nOF\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n757\n\nend in itself; we use it because we find that by it we secure those vigorous reactions which are essential to growth in power of any kind.\nThe other standpoint as to the vocational we may call the specialty or\nlife-calling standpoint; we may introduce vocational elements because\nthose are the facts and those are the methods that the pupil will need in\nafter life when he follows that subject as his lifework. When we teach\ndrawing, we can assume the standpoint of preparing for a life-calling,\nand introduce the technique and methods of the studio. The workshop\nmay aim specifically to prepare the boys for carpentering or the cabinetmaker's trade. Very much of our commercial high-school work is along\nthis specialty or life-calling line. All this we may do, not because it adds\nzest and creates earnestness, but because these things are the rudiments\nof the future calling, and they must be learned early and thoroly, to be\navailable in later life.\nAt first sight from a broad and more or less general view these two\nstandpoints do not seem contradictory. We ought to secure the emotional\nelement of interest and earnestness when we make preparation for particular callings the purpose of our work; and, on the other hand, by using\nthe vocational for its interest and enthusiasm, we are to that extent fitting\npupils for the special vocations emphasized. When, however, one engages\nin teaching and encounters the various concrete problems which arise in\nsuch work, this general harmony disappears rapidly and the conviction\nis soon forced on one that these two standpoints as to the vocational clash\nwith a wearisome repetition.\nConsider, in some detail, the question of technique from these two\nstandpoints. From the apperceptive side, the purpose of technique is to\nfacilitate expression; it is the fundamental means by which are developed\ndiscrimination, judgment, and those chains of association called useful;\nJt is in short the vehicle or means of mental and emotional growth. But\nfrom the trade or specialty standpoint technique is an end in itself; it\nmust be perfected to the highest possible degree both as to speed and as to\naccuracy. This requires repeated practice until the operation becomes\nmore or less automatic. The artist in embryo devotes to the fundamental\ntechnical processes of his future vocation, weeks and months of wearying\nlabor that could be supported only by a zealot. The apprentice of the\ncabinet-maker spends his first month or more in the one process of ripping,\nand at the end of three months he can rip lumber as accurately as a buzzsaw. At how much of this automatic quality shall we aim in our school\nwork? We are woefully limited in time, the curriculum is crowded;\nexcept in a distinctly trade school we cannot gracefully or reasonably ask\nfor more than one-fourth of the roster, which, if granted, gives us just\n3ii working-days of eight hours in a year. This time manifestly is inadequate to the accomplishment of both purposes. How far shall we sacrifice opportunity for real expression to the process of acquiring automatic\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Manual Training\n\ntechnique; and, on the other hand, what shortcomings in technique shall\nbe condoned in order to secure real self-expression ?\nThis much time has been occupied in the somewhat full elaboration\nof the two standpoints as to vocational work, because it is believed that\none of the weakest points in nearly all our present literature is the fact\nthat the writers have not aligned themselves clearly and distinctly with\neither one standpoint or the other, and, in consequence, their treatment\nof their subjects is neither \"fish, flesh, nor good, red herring.\"\nThis vacillating attitude appears more clearly from a consideration\nof some of the more prominent details involved.\nThus, in the knowledge and care of hand tools shall we emphasize the\ngrinding and honing of edged tools and the filing of saws to the extent\nthat the pupil may do such work satisfactorily to a mechanic; in tempering at the forges shall we aim at reliable tempering or simply at giving the\nboy an idea of colors and methods? Shall we lay emphasis on accurate\nhandwork, or shall we follow the shops and use machinery to eliminate the\npersonal equation and to save time ?\nOr consider the methods with machinery: How far shall it be used\nas a substitute for handwork ? Shall we regard the risk of personal injury\nto the pupil as an element of the subject to be taught — a perfectly proper\nattitude from the trade standpoint — or shall we, as do some schools, have\nthe instructors run the machines? How far shall we go in the theory\nof the machine, using old-fashioned belted, open-geared lathes, or shall we\nhave enclosed-gear, motor-driven lathes, in which the manufacturer has\ndone the thinking and the schoolboy simply works a switch and a labeled\nhandle ?\nA tool deserving particular mention here is the steel square. Its\ninvention and development may justly be regarded as a conspicuous\nevidence of the braininess of the American mechanic. Next to his hammer and saw, it is the most useful tool in the carpenter's kit and, on the\nother hand, many of its possible \"cuts\" involve quite elaborate, co-ordinate\nsolid geometry. Comparatively few schools use it at all, except as a\nsquare; and if we do use it, shall we give our attention chiefly to its theory\nor chiefly to deftness in handling it ?\nA fifth concrete illustration of this vacillating attitude of the books is\nthe choice and treatment of material, the raw material of manufacture,\nwood, leather, copper, iron, and the like. The life-calling standpoint is\nconcerned only with the relative cost of raw materials; their actual cost\nis an element of the price of the finished manufacture, and so a relatively\npoor man buys expensive material because the outlay will be refunded\nwhen he sells the article. The books and manuals ignore this fact with a\nnonchalance that is particularly exasperating to one who has struggled\nwith the pitiful allowances of material that exist in the schools, or with no\nallowance at all.\n\nConsult Rouillon's Economics of Manual Training and\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLITERATURE\n\nOF\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n759\n\nyou will see cities that spend twenty cents a year per pupil, thirty cents,\nforty cents; a dollar and a half is luxury. And yet not 10 per cent of the\nprojects of the manuals involve articles one of which could be manufactured\nwith a whole year's allowance of material. Many of the tables, cabinets,\nand the like run up into three or four dollars apiece simply for the rough\nstock. Yet with this trade attitude toward material, such books\ntreat the workmanship, especially in leather and copper, from a distinctly\namateur standpoint. The whole subject is apparently regarded as a\n\"hobby\" rather than as a real business.\nPottery may be regarded as an industry or as a .fine art; of course it\nalways involves or should involve both, but one or the other must be the\nconsistently controlling factor and the books vacillate constantly between\nthe two.\nPossibly the drawing work brings out most sharply the contrast between\nthese two standpoints. In terms of method we might call the former the\nindustrial method, the latter the studio method. Prang, in the highschool book, meets the issue squarely; \"To teach art is more important\nthan to teach drawing.\" This is one of the few books that consistently\npursue a clearly defined principle. We find the same variance in mechanical drawing. On the one hand, the elements of draughting, descriptive\ngeometry, technique, the use of the instruments, etc.; and on the other,\nworking-drawings, the constructive, expressive attitude.\nIn the realm of method, as distinguished from tools and materials, we\nfind this same inconsistency of standpoint. While the trade attitude does\nnot ignore personality, it, of necessity, lays its first emphasis on the mechanical; perfection of technique, drill in form is first, substance comes much\nlater. The relation of penmanship to composition expresses this fact\nexactly. We may thus class under the trade standpoint the common\nmethod of furnishing designs and working-drawings complete, just as the\nshop gives the workman a blue-print that he reproduces in the material.\nEarly initiative is not only not encouraged, it is inconsistent with this\nmethod; discrimination, judgment, and thought are suppressed, and imitation of the outward form is made emphatic.\nThis whole attitude is consistent and proper from the life-calling standpoint, but it is woefully lacking in the development of what Dr. Sisson\ncalls \"emotional warmth and volitional power\"; it is without that richness'of association and that element of self-expression which are essential\nin the development of character and personality. This un-Froebelian\nattitude in the manual arts comes out strikingly in the separation of design\nand construction. Even when the pupil is not supplied by the book with\nthe drawings of a complete project, whicji he simply copies, very, very\nrarely is any attempt made to supply design suggestions and constructive\nsuggestions in such a way that the pupil will think the two together. Abstract designs are given, imitative constructions are given, but one of the\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "76o\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nunsolved problems is the method of training a pupil to design while holding clearly in mind sound construction. The inconsistency of the boeks\nlies in the fact that while they so largely favor the trade method of a division of labor, so to speak, they fail very largely to give the minutiae and\ntechnical details essential to any success in this method. In penmanship,\nfor instance, every detail has been worked out thoroly — ^paper, pen, ink,\nholding the pen, direction of motion, form and proportions of letters,\nand so on — the technical attitude in the manual arts requires like treatment\nbefore it can be really successful; and to secure this end the first step is\nto make clear and sharp the difference between the two aims or standpoints, that we may not excuse or be blinded to the deficiencies of our\ntechnical or life-calling methods by shifting over to the standpoint of\nappreciation and general training. For to do continuous, progressive\nwork that will result satisfactorily it is necessary to adopt either one or\nthe other of these two standpoints and follow it with reasonable consistency.\nThe problems, then, which seem to me most unsatisfactorily treated\nby the present literature are:\nFirst, the extent to which we should particularize in the knowledge\nand care of hand tools. In this I suggest the details of saw sharpening\nas a test.\nSecond, the same question as to both wood-working and iron-working\nmachinery. In this I would make a knowledge of the minutiae of pulley\nand gear motions a test.\nThird, the question of material. This is the world-old problem of\ncutting the coat to fit the cloth. There is a woeful lack of designs and constructions that can be followed with the material actually supplied in the\naverage school. There must be a fuller recognition of actual conditions,\nand far less of a setting forth of unattainable ideals.\nFinally, there is the problem of encouraging initiative in the combining of design and construction — not necessarily artistic design — but a\ntraining in the ability to analyze a want or an idea, to locate it spacially,\nand then surround it with appropriate material of wood or metal, well\njoined, well braced, and well spaced.\nTHE\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\nDOMESTIC-SCIENCE\nDEPARTMENT\nAS AN INFLUENCE IN THE COMMUNITY FOR ENFORCING PURE-FOOD LAWS AND CIVIC CLEANLINESS\nMATIE\n\nP. CLARK,\nTRAINING\n\nHEAD\nAND\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\nCOMMERCIAL HIGH\n\nOF DOMESTIC\nSCIENCE,\nMANUAL\nSCHOOL,\nOAKLAND,\nCAL.\n\nSocial service is a tremendous force in our new education. More and\nmore the boys and girls of today are having impressed upon them their\nresponsibility for their neighbors. They must do their share toward the\nhealth, comfort, and happiness of those who are not only neighbors but\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nDOMESTIC-SCIENCE\n\nalso of the whole community.\nsaid:\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nAs our honored Mrs. Ellen H. Richards\n\nSocial improvement means cleaner streets, more inspection of markets, dairies,\nfactories, and shops: in short more expense for community living but a simpler individual life. . The cost of living must be considered a community problem.\n761\n\nOne of the first laws taught the girl of our public schools is the law of\nsupply and demand. It is the foundation of the commercial world. Commercialism quickly saw the opportunities in applying the factory system\nto home industries. It was not long before the housekeeper found herself face to face with the relative values of factory-made and home-made\narticles. At first the articles were of good quality, but soon competition\nbecame keen, and the greed for gain was an easy temptation to take advantage of the opportunity for adulteration. Before she was aware, the housekeeper became the prey of unscrupulous manufacturers who formed trusts,\ncontrolled the tariff, manipulated supply and demand, and increased the\ncost of living.\nSo the girl finds herself in a world of trusts that touch every phase of\nher daily life. Dr. Leffmann has said:\nA trust is a combination of persons who have obtained control of most of the means\nof production and selling of a certain article, who then proceed by reason of such control\nto limit the production, or make the community pay more for the articles than formerly\nand who divide the increas»ed profit among themselves.\n\nHere supply and demand are manipulated for selfish ends.\nAs a^means of self-protection the girl is being taught the power of concerted, persistent demand. Where there is a demand there is always a\nsupply created. And she is beginning to demand pure foods and sanitary\nsurroundings.\nThat individual efforts count is shown in the work of one domesticscience teacher in Portland, Ore. She was asked to do something to improve\nthe markets of that city.\nThru the state health ofl&ce, all back doors were opened. She went to the newspapers; she asked the woman's club to go on a tour of inspection. All this was brought\nabout in three days. On the fourth day a meeting of householders was called. The\nHealth Department gave official sanction to the movement. Market men were notified\nthey must clean up. A clean list and a dirty list were to be made and they must comply\nwith certain regulations in order to be on the clean list. She worked two months and\nthe city once aroused decided it was a good thing to have inspection made. A woman\nnow has the office and has power of arrest.\n\nThe work of Miss Jane Addams is well known. She asked to be appointed inspector in one of the wards in Chicago where the death-rate was\nhighest. She gave special attention to garbage, and it was not long before\nthat ward had the lowest death-rate in tiie city. One could have no\nbetter example of the relation of filth to disease, or the importance of efficient inspection which means enforcing the city regulations.\nThe woman's clubs all over the land have been taking an active part\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNA TIONA L EDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nin improving civic conditions and have brought about many radical reforms,\nespecially where women have been appointed inspectors or placed in charge\nof the street-cleaning department, as in Denver and Chicago, for example.\nBefore the national Pure-Food and Drugs Act went into effect five\nyears ago, a demand came from the people in general and the women in\nparticular, for a pure-food law. They had the aggressive assistance of\nDr. Harvey W. Wiley who made public the extent of food adulterations.\nSome states like Massachusetts, New York, and Indiana had most stringent pure-food laws, thus setting a precedent for the state laws and a\nstandard for the national law.\nWhile the national law is defective, it has placed a check on the most\nserious abuses, especially imported products and interstate commerce.\nIt has not so much purified foods as it has exposed contents, adulterations, and preservatives used.\nThe pubHc-school domestic-science departments have taken up this\nproblem and are creating a demand for pure foods. Some schools buy\nfoods in the open markets, test them for their purity, and place them on\ntheir white list or their black list. Sometimes they go farther and place\nstores on their white list or black list. In a certain city the dealers learned\nthis and made an effort to get on the approved list, for they know the\npower of public opinion and the law of supply and demand. Naturally,\nthis has resulted in students demanding goods of certain brands that\nfulfilled the requirements for purity. That unscrupulous manufacturers\nfear this investigation is shown by a specific case in the southern part of\nthe state where they went to the city superintendent and requested that\nsuch investigations be discontinued in the high schools.\nThis is very different from the manufacturer who is willing to have his\nplace inspected. A certain candy manufacturer will frankly tell you he\nis using glucose and artificial colorings in his candies and that his chocolate\ncoatings are of many grades. He will also show in what ways he is complying with the pure-food laws in regard to gelatine, and grain alcohol,\nfor instance. The girls in visiting such places learn to compare the value\nof factory-made and homp-made products. They get new ideas of wholesale and retail cost, new ideas of the commercial value of cleanliness of\nproduction. After visiting an unsanitary bakery they have a new appreciation ofbread made under clean conditions. They voluntarily advertise\nthe clean place and condemn the dirty one. Honest manufacturers know\nthis and those factories that are run under model conditions, like the\nShredded Wheat Biscuit Co., the Franco-American Food Co., the Heinz\nFood Co., and The Taylor Canning Co., for instance, appreciate the\nvalue of the voluntary advertising. This is an indirect influence in the\ncommunity that is being felt in enforcing pure-food laws and sanitary\nsurroundings.\nThe public-school girl of today is informed on the city ordinances regard-\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nDOMESTIC-SCIENCE\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n763\n\ning the sale and exposure of foods, and the sanitary regulations. She\nquietly investigates the grocery store, the butcher-shop, the bakery, the\ndairy or milk depot, patronized by her family. She makes reports in\nclass and she is given moral backing in patronizing the clean place and\nblack-listing the dirty place. Sometimes they use the boycott most effectively. But this is rare and they more often simply refuse to buy supplies\nexposed to flies and dirt. This is carried out in a certain country town\nin the southern part of the state where a small community makes it difl&cult to eliminate the personal equation. The work must be done\ndiplomatically.\nThe girl of today has found that while the ordinances are good they\nare difficult to enforce for lack of enough inspectors because of the manner\nin which inspectors are paid. She realizes that public opinion and community interest, aggressive and persistent, must enforce these improvements.\nPublic-school children and the community as a whole found how much\nthey could do in exterminating the rats and mice in San Francisco and the\nbay cities three years ago during the threatened epidemic. They learned\nthat even the crumbs from their lunch boxes drew mice and flies to the\nschool-yards and the buildings. They learned a most vivid lesson of\nindividual responsibility for the health of the community and what systematic and intelligent co-operation could accomplish.\nAnother field that is open to large results is the war against flies. Not\nonly girls but all the pupils of the schools are being taught the danger of\nthe common housefly. The state inspector of Washington has just placed\ntwenty thousand circulars in the hands of the school children of that state\nto assist in fighting and exterminating flies. This alone takes one to the\nfirst principles of civic sanitation — the destruction of all waste.\nThe high-school girl observes thru the microscope how the fly carries\ndisease. She sees gelatine slides where a fly has walked across and the\nbacteria deposited by his feet. In a certain high school she has voluntarily cleaned the steps outside the domestic-science building when she\nfound that the dirt there was drawing flies.\nIn California the domestic-science departments all over the state are\nagitating a clean milk supply. Whenever possible, visits are made to\nmodel dairies. When the girl learns the value of healthy cows, the importance ofwell-ventilated stables, the necessity of sterilized utensils, the necessity of absolute cleanliness of the men who do the milking, she realizes the\nimportance of intelligence and training in the production of pure foods.\nShe understands then why clean milk costs double that of ordinary milk.\nShe also better appreciates the relation of milk to infant mortality and\nrealizes it is a community problem. And i^ is impressed upon her that\nshe must do her share in demanding more inspection of dairies and proper\ndistributing centers.\nThe public school takes up home sanitation in great detail; for as\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nMrs. Williams, supervisor of domestic science in the New York tity schools,\nhas said:\nClean homes mean a clean city. There is a lot of science behind the proper care\nof the sink and the garbage pail, science that means much valuable aid to the mimicipal\nhousekeepers, the board of health, and the street-cleaning department.\n\nThe importance of a well-constructed house, well-lighted and ventilated, and with proper plumbing, is emphasized as an essential requisite\nfor a healthy family-life. A clean water supply and the disposal of waste\npresent specific problems in both city and country town. The typhoidfever epidemic, due to the careless handling of milk or a polluted water\nsupply, shows the relation of home sanitation to the spreading of disease.\nThe relation of sanitation to public health is also a part of every highschool course in domestic science. It often works in connection with the\nwomen's civic's clubs where outward results are very marked.\nThe large cities offer more difiicult problems with their congested\ndistricts, their bad buildings, poorly lighted and ventilated, with imperfect, limited water supply and neglect in disposal of waste. But even\nhere are found improved conditions where the girls have come in touch\nwith public-school domestic science. The physicians report better health\nconditions in the homes and the children come to school with cleaner\nclothes and cleaner bodies. Furthermore, they carry home much printed\nmatter in their own language telling how to take care of milk, how and what\nto feed children, how to take care of them in hot weather, the importance\nof fresh air, and many other fundamental health laws. In New York City\nwe find much interesting work of this character. Nearly all our large\ncity schools are raising the standard of health among school children thru\nthe lunchrooms. Here, only pure, wholesome foods are served. These lunchrooms are generally under the supervision of domestic-science teachers.\nThe public-school domestic-science department makes its classes familiar with the city ordinances on foods and also civic sanitation. While\nmuch is said on the cost of cartons and wrappings, there is an immense\ngain in the cleanliness of foods, especially when they are manufactured\nunder sanitary conditions. A study of city ordinances tells them that\nfruits must be covered with nets or screened from flies and kept indoors\nas a protection from dust. Street venders of foods must keep their wares\ncovered. The up-to-date market or grocery store has tile floors, sanitary\nwalls, tile or marble counters. There are counter screens and glass receptacles instead of the old wooden kegs. On the streets the venders of\nconfections, nuts, and popcorn must keep their products under glass. All of\nwhich goes to show the public are demanding civic cleanliness in regard\nto foods.\nSo, many industrial, economic, and social problems are involved in\nthis subject of foods and civic cleanliness. One of the most difficult problems isto get offenders of the Pure-Food Laws punished. Some come under\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nDepaitment]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nIN HOUSEHOLD\n\nACCOUNTS\n\n765\n\nthe United States laws, some under the state laws, and others under city\nordinances.\nThe State Board of Health in California publishes a list of the violators\nof the state laws. The district attorneys of the various counties conduct the prosecutions. When a single list contains the names of more\nthan one hundred violators, the housekeeper realizes the inspecting body\nis active and vigilant.\nInterstate commerce is pretty closely watched by the government\ninspectors. But investigations have shown that the punishment and fines\nhave been very light or none at all. What is a fine of ten dollars to a\nmanufacturer who is making thousands and thousands ?\nA more specific case is the investigation into the use of benzoate of\nsoda in foods. The national law requires such investigations to be conducted bythe Bureau of Chemistry at Washington. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley\ntook hold of the work with characteristic thoroness with the final decision\nthat benzoate of soda was injurious to health. The manufacturers protested and demanded that a special commission be appointed to investigate\nfurther. The commission was appointed by President Roosevelt. After\na very superficial investigation they reversed Dr. Wiley's decision. When\nthese conditions exist, the consumer thinks government regulation something of a farce.\nSo the public-school domestic-science department is endeavoring to\ncreate a pubUc demand for pure foods, thru intelligent instruction of the\ngirls who in turn influence the homes. Such united efforts all over the\ncountry are already showing results. But the real influence in the community will be felt when the girl of today becomes the housekeeper of\ntomorrow; when she will use to her fullest power the law of supply and\ndemand in pure foods and sanitary surroundings.\nSOME ACTUAL NEEDS FOR INTELLIGENT PURCHASING OF\nHOUSEHOLD COMMODITIES AND PRACTICAL METHODS\nOF KEEPING HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS\nETTA P. FLAGG, SUPERVISOR\n\nOF HOME\n\nECONOMICS,\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nNotice in this topic that we are to consider actual needs — ^not theoretical,\npossible, nominal, or potential, but genuine, real — ^what? Real needs —\nnot impulses, wishes, or desires, but needs that must be met if life is even\nto approach what it ought to be. These needs are for what ? Still more\nknowledge of higher mathematics, keener appreciation of art, truer love\nfor poetry, broader grasp of current history, and all that this stands for ?\nAll these are desirable and are indeed to be coveted among the best gifts,\nbut the actual need that is now manifest is for intelUgent purchasing of\nour household suppHes. Sometimes it is the man who must have this\nknowledge and apply it, but more often it falls to the woman in the family,\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nand, alas! they are the ones who frequently have had the least training.\nWhat training does one require to do this intelligently ? Household commodities are not confined to a few things. Commodities, you remember,\ncommercially, include everything that is bought and sold except animals —\nwhile broadly, we class under this term all that affords us convenience,\nadvantage, or profit. Think how broad our knowledge needs to be! There\nis no business that requires a keener mind, a deeper knowledge, a broader\ngrasp of the whole subject than that of home-making, and an important\npart of successful home-making is intelligent knowledge of buying.\nHow are the right people to obtain this? In other words, what are\nthe actual heeds for intelligent purchasing in this fine ? In answering this\nquestion I cannot give you beautiful theories or finely rounded sentences\nbut must present my suggestions in a simple, possible, practical manner.\nOne of the first needs that confronts us is an intelligent knowledge of the\nrequirements of the individual home. Each home differs, or should differ,\nfrom its neighbors, and, while certain rules are general, well-nigh innumerable exceptions should be made. These exceptions pertain to the manner\nof life, the mode of furnishing, the customs of the home.\nThere is a limited group of women who think keenly, feel deeply, plan\ncarefully, spend wisely, and these can step into any position and fill it well.\nAs yet, however, we have but a few of these — may their tribe rapidly\nincrease ! To help on this desirable work let us give every woman a clear,\nsane idea of the value of money, and I know of no way in which this can\nbe better done than by allowing her to live a business life for a short period,\nduring which time she will be compelled to conform to all the rules of\nthe business world and meet her own expenses in every way. Of course\nthe fixed allowance in early youth helps and the training of the growing\ngirls and boys by taking them into partnership in the managing of the\nhome will leave its own indestructible impression, but the practical doing\nis extremely necessary.\nLet us say that the needs of the home are understood and the value\nof money is clearly in mind, what do we need next ? Much is said today\nabout efficiency. When it is a question of the efficiency of the laboring\nman as presented in the magazines of the month there may be two sides\nof the subject, both of which are worthy of consideration; but when we\ncome to speak of the efficiency of one hundred cents in its power to make\ncomfort in the home, it seems to me there should not be two sides! How\nmay one hundred cents be made to do twice the service they are now\ndoing? We cannot arouse increased power in them, but surely we may\narouse increased power to plan wisely in the human brain; yet will a\npurely theoretical course accomplish this ? I doubt it. We Uve in a sternly\npractical age and this problem of the efficiency of the dollar must be solved\nby practical, experimental means. When we have thus arrived at the real\nvalue of money, we will be ready to pass on to our next actual need, and\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nIN HOUSEHOLD\n\nACCOUNTS\n\n767\n\nthat is a knowledge of the genuine value of your purchase. By genuine\nvalue we mean the value of the material of which the commodity is made\nand the value to the purchaser: no matter how great the so-called bargain\nmay be, unless it is really needed in the home the person purchasing it\nhas not received the equivalent for her money. It seems sometimes as\nif some would be thoroly trained in this reaUzation of the genuine value\nof the dollar by being forced to pass the shops day after day and see the\nbargains (so dear, it is claimed, to every woman's heart) and yet have\nneither time nor means with which to buy, but I know that it is not so.\nBesides knowing the genuineness of the material, in many instances\nit is our duty to know imder what conditions the purchases have been\nmanufactured. We have a social duty to perform and this forbids us to\nsave a few insignificant cents at the cost of the life, purity, or health of\nmen or women. Sometimes we cannot tell, yet the article must be bought,\nand then it is excusable, but more often we might have known but we\nwould not. It is easy to walk with the crowd and look simply at the surface; itis hard to break away and seek out the fundamental things. But\nour growth is measured by the ease with which we master the so-called\nhard things — and everyone wishes to grow.\nIf we have now mastered these primary needs toward intelligent purchasing, we shall be able to select furniture that is easy to care for, hygienic\nin make, graceful in pattern, and strongly made. Cooking utensils will\nbe chosen for their wearing qualities and the ease with which they can\nbe cared for, not for their lovely coloring. Table linen will be tested for\ngood, genuine linen threads and silk will be likewise tested before it is\npurchased, (provided a sample can be obtained). • I find many places where\nno silk samples are given — whether it is because the dealers know the silk\nis filled I know not. Sometimes I think that may be possible. In foods\nour student will know when fruits and vegetables are in season and therefore at their best; she will understand the value of a balanced ration and\nwill give this in attractive form to her family. Commercially the meat\nshe may buy may not be classed as a commodity, but it certainly may be\nin a general way, and this explorer will know the simple things about the\ncommon kinds and cuts of meat. These are but a few things that must\nbe learned in detail before one has acquired the mastery of the large amount\nof information necessary for the next need.\nNearly every family has some certain income. Of this there must be\na division, and to this again our student needs to bring all her acumen and\nexperience, and sad indeed is the condition of that one who has nothing\npractical to bring to this. In these days when there are so many, many\ndemands upon us there must be a clear uncjf rstanding of how far a certain\nsum can go and should go, and what proportion may be allowed for food,\nand what for clothing, and so on. Sometimes it will be impossible to keep\nwithin the bounds and then we can fall back upon the contingent fund,\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwhich should be kept for just this purpose. If peop le have kept a record\nof their personal expenses for a number of years they will be able to average\nup the probable cost in that line, and if the same has been done in the\nhousehold there will be another basis upon which to build.\nEven yet, however, the actual needs for intelligent purchasing are not\nall met. We need sadly in these United States a thoro training in the\nbeauty of simplicity; in the restfulness of space — ^bare space, when rightly\nplaced. We need schools which not only train the students but also test\nthe new conveniences as they come out from year to year and testify to\ntheir real value. We have a few places where this is being done, but in\nevery large city there should be a \"clearing-house\" to which housekeepers\ncould go and learn what is best for their purposes. If the women's clubs\nwould estabHsh something of this nature, it seems to me that they might\naccomplish much along a line that should be especially theirs.\nAs to household accounts: When you ask for practical methods in\nthis line it is difficult to know what to give. What is practical for one is\nGreek for another. I know business men who have taught their wives\nto keep the accounts in exactly the same way in which the trained bookkeeper keeps them in the office. If this does not \"get on the nerves\" of\nthe wives it is the ideal way to do; if it does, why, try another. The\nimportant thing is to know how much you spend and what you spend it\nfor. I know a family who keep a careful record of everything. If you\nwant to know how the monthly bills of ten years ago compare with now,\na moment's time is sufficient and the record is before you. Would you\nhave the price of a dollar's worth of sugar in January, 1900, a few moment's\nsearch and the information is yours. Yet no real bookkeeping was done;\na few five-cent notebooks were kept at hand and each month the daily\nitems were brought into system and order. The yearbook did the rest.\nI could put my hand upon a set of Httle books kept in this same way\niii which the running expenses of a farm have been kept for many years.\nA -few minutes are required daily to enter the profit-and-loss amounts\na»d a few hours monthly, but the satisfaction is very great.\nBriefly let me enumerate our actual needs for purchasing of the commodities:\nUnderstanding of value of time.\nUnderstanding of meaning of home.\nUnderstanding division of income.\nUnderstanding of meaning of money.\nKnowledge of purpose of commodity.\nKnowledge of conditions under which it was made.\nKnowledge of real working value.\n\nAs to the accounts:\nDouble-entry bookkeeping, if it be agreeable to both parties.\nSimple notebooks if these meet the needs.\nA daybook for jottings; a monthly-account record; a yearbook plainly kept.\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n769\n\nBut whatever method is used and whatever our needs may be, always\nwe shall require a large amount of that rarest of all good gifts — genuine\ncommon-sense.\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMENCLATURE\n\nIn the judgment of this committee the term \"home economics\" should be used to\ndesignate the subject as a whole wherever it is taught, quaUfied only by the terms elementary, secondary, and higher, as commonly applied to courses of instruction of dififerent\ngrades. It was moved that the definition of home economics formulated by the Committee of the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations on College\nCourses in Home Economics be adopted:\nDefinition: Home economics as a distinctive subject of instruction includes the\neconomic, sanitary, and aesthetic aspects of food, clothing, and shelter as connected with\ntheir selection, preparation, and use by the family in the home or by other groups of\npeople.\nInstruction in this subject should be based on the laws of the physical, biological,\nand sociological sciences. The presentation should be graded according to the maturity,\nattainment, and purposes of the students.\nAim: In the elementary schools the central thought should be the acquiring of skill.\nIn the secondary schools, while the work should lead to greater skill, it should also\ndevelop \"the reason why\" and cultivate the scientific method of thought by means of\nexperiment. To this end it should be correlated carefully with the work in other subjects so as to economize the time of teachers and students.\nIn the higher institutions, while skill and applied science and art are fundamental\nin the instruction, there should be the broader, scientific, economic, and sociologic view,\nand whenever practicable, the development of research.\nElizabeth C. Spragxje, Acting Secretary\n\nART EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nOF CIVIC PERFECTION\nARTHUR\n\nA NECESSITY\n\nB. CLARK, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF GRAPHIC ART,\nSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nThe subject which stays in the curriculum must serve the actual needs\nof life. This demand of the present decade is emphatic. The art teacher\nmust not only believe in art but must demonstrate its worth, and the manner of its worth to the community in which she teaches.\nWe art teachers have ideals which will revolutionize industry and habits\nof life. Our creed is belief in perfection — a symmetrical development in\nwhich beauty is an organizing element, entering into all the activities of\nlife, as grace in movement and gesture, as music in speech, as order, rhythm,\nand harmony in all material surroundings. In the manual arts, specifically, we art teachers believe that every visible human product should\nbe significantly beautiful and that all people should enjoy the pleasure\nwhich comes in consciously producing or observing this condition of perfection.\nWe believe that the imagination of the workman or power of mind\nwhich \"sees beyond the fact\" should operate as he works, that his time\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nof labor may have significance beyond its material use; may be the full\nrecord of a human being.\nThere is little labor which may not have artistic expression; even the\ncoal miner may sing at his work, if the hours of labor are short. It is a\nduty of society to see to it that every laborer is kept happy. This is essential to every satisfying ideal of human civilization. A community of\nworkmen who are artistic, striving for perfection, recording the dreams\nof their minds in their work, note not the passing of time, in spirit they\nare free men.\nA chair should be more than a seat, its maker more than a machine;\nthe house should be more than a shelter, its occupants more than cattle;\nthe public building should be more than an opportunity for fat political\ncontracts, rather a civic triumph in beautiful building, as conceived by\nand expressing the ideals of an enlightened community, a community\nmade up of men who have found and developed their souls in their work.\nFor our souls live not in invisible vapor, but in the very substance\nwhich we call our material surroundings. The Parthenon, the Victory of\nSamothrace, the Venus of Milos — in these dwell and may be seen the\nsouls of the Greeks. In the Gothic cathedrals dwells the soul of the Middle\nAges; without them it could not and did not exist. If any people, or\ncity, or nation build in haste, in sloth, or in ugliness, its soul is ephemeral,\nunformed, and ugly. As we do, so are we, our manner, our dress, our\nhouses, our cities, be they beautiful or ugly, they are our very selves made\nvisible, what they are we are.\nWe art teachers know this, we know the reaction of perfect doing upon\nthe mind. To attain the blessings of civilization which a development of\nthe creative spirit can give means radical changes in industrial methods.\nWe believe this change is taking place and is producing healthier conditions ,\nof living with true economy of life, an economy based on full realization.\nThe new industrial education places on people generally and upon art\nteachers especially, now as never before, new responsibilities and duties,\nnay, let us rather say, welcome opportunities of giving to future citizens\nproper industrial ideals.\nBeauty, utility, and durability are fundamental ideals without which\nindustry is on a cheap basis. No one of these alone is enough, no two of\nthem without the third is enough, their comprehension should be distinct;\nutility is not beauty, strength is not beauty. Many people talk about\nsanitation and utility and durability as if they were talking about the\nfundamentals of art, but the ideals of imaginative expression and order\nand beauty are distinct from these. All are needed in perfection.\nCapacity for art is as deeply seated in human beings as is any fundamental quaUty, but bad education has so atrophied it that we are incredulous. In an address before the Eastern Art Teachers' Association, in\n1908, Dr. Denman Ross said:\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] j\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe appreciation of the beautiful, whether in nature or in art, means a constant\nhabit of obgerving, comparing, and selecting the best — the best from the point of view\nof design, tte best in shape, the best in form, the best in color. That is the practice\nwhich will make us lovers of order and sensitive to beauty, but it is the practice of the\nfew. It is the few only who are concerned about the beauty of particular examples, 771\nwhether in niture or in art\nNature gives us certain senses and faculties, among\nthem the creative imagination; but our interests, our motives, our impulses and enthusiasms, are not so much the gift of nature as a result of education\nI am thoroly\n' convinced that the love of order and the sense of beauty can be given by education quite\nas well, better indeed than the love of knowledge.\nIt can be given by the teaching of\nart, but it miet be the right kind of teaching\nThe teaching of art that I have\nin mind means, not learning things, but doing things.\nIt means doing things in the spirit\nof art, for the love of order, for th e sake of beauty\nAll I ask you to admit is\nthis: that underlying the many and varied activities of human life are certain elementary and essential practices upon which the expression of life depends. The teaching\nof art which I have in mind to present to you means practice in the elementary and principal modes of expression, not merely as useful arts, necessary to the conduct of life and\nits progress and development, but as fine art s which will make life more orderly, more\nbeautiful, and consequently better and happier than it is. It is the practice of the arts,\nnot merely as arts, but as fine arts, that we must put into the public schools and into\nour colleges and universities everywhere.\n\nOne who acquires this habit of mind, by developing the capacity for\nenjoying beauty which the Creator has given him, will find his soul expanding under a new influence.\nThe blind mole burrows under the ground, his world, a narrow tunnel.\nPlace him above the ground (as the writer did one recently) and he uneasily seeks to burrow into earth again. The freedom of the open air with\nhorizons far away and senses with which to use this boundless space the\nmole has lost. He can only burrow in the earth. Some Americans abroad,\nin the art galleries, are likewise uneasy, and even some teachers of manual\narts and drawing, with every opportunity at hand for expression of beauty,\nhave the mole's blindness to it.\nBut the person with properly adjusted life will have a passion for order\nand beauty which will show in his surroundings. He will live in a house\nof good design with windows opening upon broad views. Our souls are\nas broad as the horizons which we perceive, but no broader. The furniture and all appointments will express the owner's taste. The very sash\nbars of the windows will cut the landscape into well proportioned pictures.\nI recall one artist who nailed some plain sticks across large panes of glass\nand obtained a pattern of beauty which the designer of the house had been\ntoo thoughtless to produce. Our man possessed of an alert artistic sense,\nthe person whom we art teachers will train, will also enjoy local art in\nhouses, in public buildings, in paintings, and in nature itself. Photographs will bring the world's greatest art to him. Even tho a laborer, he\nmay afford to possess photographs, while*the more prosperous may travel\nto the great museums and among the cities where the choicest achievements of artistic minds are preserved.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n•\n\n[Mmual Training\n\nThe essential methods for attaining the artistic habit of mind may be\nsummarized in three: doing, seeing, and more doing.\n1. Doing — getting started, getting initial experience in using the creative faculty, taking elementary lessons in design, awakening the artistic\nsense — the method of study which is, indeed, quite frequently followed in\nteaching design all over the land, the method first introduced by Professor Dow and Dr. Ross, the combining of simple elements into arrangements\nof beauty, with a study of simple examples of pattern such as occur in\nIndian baskets or pottery, in Greek frets, in Coptic embroideries, and in\nsimilar places. These examples inspire beginners with faith in the value\nof such simple methods as they are themselves using. People learn only\nby doing with their own minds and hands. The impulse of the artist must\nbe experienced by creating if one would know what art is. These exercises call into life faculties which are sadly ignored in most schooling.\n2. Seeing — learning to see, and to understand beauty where it may be\nfound in nature and in art. For most people, once the artistic sense is\naroused, the greatest amount of artistic pleasure will be had thru contemplation, the appreciation of others' work. The great work of the past is in\nreach of all who know how to obtain and value it. Inspiring also is the\nwork of living artists, in painting, in architecture, in sculpture, and in the\napplied arts. Educated by these, one may not only enjoy the beauty which\nthey present, but he may see nature thru an artist's eyes. He may see\nbeauty in the curve of the river, in groupings of buildings, in the supporting contours of trees and gables — as they may occur in his daily passings to\nand fro. In the busy streets, windows, doors, piers, and towers will group\nthemselves into well-balanced relations, and the people who throng the\nstreets will exhibit to him, in action and repose, statuesque attitudes of\ndignity. To study the lines of figures and costumes and faces as a sculptor\nor painter does, in the spirit of design, seeking those effects which make\nfor unity, for dignity, and expression of character — to do this is to have\ngreat pleasure.\nTo study the devices by which unity in any form results is most interesting. It may occur thru the unbroken horizontal lines of a facade, as\nin the Parthenon, it may occur thru the binding effect of a wayward pathway in a Japanese garden, by which the remote features of the garden are\npromised — ^whereas a field of corn can lose either end or its half and still\nbe complete. The cornfield is commercial, the Japanese garden is artistic\nin its relation of parts.\nLikewise with the principle of balance, or neutralization of unlike or\nunequal things; likewise with principles of harmony of color, and rhythm\nof sizes and other elements in an object of beauty. To know the laws of\nart and to habitually study their various manifestations is to live more fully.\n3. Doing continually — shaping one's daily life in a broad conception of\nartistic opportunities is most important of all. It means the positive\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n773\n\nattainment of beauty in all of one's material surroundings. To illustrate\nthis idea: suppose one is designing a desk; he will first consider the function itwill have in relation to the room it is to occupy; he may also receive\naid from such an example of art as the Parthenon, by observing its space\nrelations and emphasis of leading lines, the modulation of shadow in\ntransition from plane to plane, its suppression of details in some parts and\nemphasis of them in others. More important still is the fact that one who\nknows the Parthenon at all adequately and has in mind its standard of\nperfection, will hardly approach any problem of design, even of a desk,\nor make any purchase, cheaply. The spacing of a Japanese temple, or a\nGothic cathedral, or a mediaeval chest, or an Indian basket could be used\nfor study and inspiration in reference to this same desk.\nThe method of reference to the art of the past — invoking its principles\nand spirit to aid in practical affairs — is far different from the study of\nthe \"styles,\" so called, resulting in a slavery of imitation. The one is a\ngrowing into and living the life of art; the other is cataloging its dead\nforms.\nIf the art amateur (amateur means \"lover\") is a real-estate merchant\nand subdivides a tract of land into building sites, he will so lay out the\nstreets that beauty will result. He will recognize and develop the natural\nbeauty of the site. San Francisco had glorious possibilities in her hills,\nbut the hills were ignored, and the unsuccessful attempt must be kept up\nof pretending still that she has no hills. Some streets climb over them,\nsome are tunneled thru them, some of the hills are carted away. What a\nbeautiful city could have been made if the main streets had followed the\nwater courses up thru the valleys to the summits, with the lesser streets\nbranching from them. Nature was suggesting this, but the early settlers\nwere not art amateurs.\nAgain a broad conception of one's personal art will insist that it be\npersonal and local in its suggestion, an idealization of local experiences\neven tho qualitative inspiration may be drawn from the past. For example:\nthe musk-melon vine and leaf, or a house cat, may be vital home symbols\nfor one family, while the Persian pomegranate, or Indian elephant, or\nNorse swastika can, at most, have but playful suggestions of emotion to\nus. The red Sierra snowplant means more to some Californians than does\nthe phoenix bird or the Swiss edelweiss, and to such it can have marked\nsignificance when used as a symbol in decoration.\nIn building a house one may well consider how the best houses of other\ncountries are made, but it is equally important to know how competent\nlocal architects adapt local materials to prevailing colors of sky, of soil,\nand of foliage; or what kind of expression, that of shelter from the sun,\nor that of exposure to it, is most grateful to people familiar with the climate.\nWhen this is determined the manner of expression becomes the problem\nand concerns such things as the use of broad shadows or small ones, of\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\n^-4 TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nlight colors or dark ones, of sheltered windows or exposed ones, to obtain\nthe expression of mood desired.\nThis requires expert skill.\nWhen all the people of a city or of a community are thinking of these\nthings and, as art amateurs trained in the public school, have become awake\nto art pleasure, what beautiful architecture will result!\nWhat can the art teacher do to bring about this result of national\nimportance, a civilization in which taste prevails? The art teacher has\nmost of the task to accomplish. The schools must always furnish and\nspread widely the best ideals. I hope to show how this may be done\neffectively and even speedily in art matters.\nIn an eastern state a bright teacher became superintendent of schools\nin a remote and unprogressive county. He was received with hostility.\nHe encouraged the boys of the schools to plant each a plot of ground with\nseed potatoes which had first been treated with a certain chemical solution.\nThe result was that the boys harvested, from their gardens, crops of potatoes free from scab; while the untreated seed in their father's fields had\nproduced crops of scabby potatoes. That was effective teaching. The\nboys learned the lesson and so did the fathers and uncles of the boys — a\nlesson in applied science of which they stood in need. Mark how the\nteaching was done: by carrying the demonstration into the home. The\nproof did not rest upon the teacher's word, nor upon the authority of a\ntextbook, but upon the clean skins of the potatoes which the boys dug\nfrom their own gardens.\nWe teachers of art need to make clear demonstrations in the homes of\nour several communities. And what opportunities are ours in the advantages for display which our product affords!\nThe school superintendent could not the first year control the planting\nof the fields, but he could influence some garden plots. So can we control\na small part of each pupil's home.\nThe need for the practice of good art in each community is more needed\nthan the raising of clean potatoes. Vulgarity is now generally practiced\nand it is more expensive than beauty, whether measured in cash or in terms\nof spiritual enjoyment. Money is being wasted on useless bric-a-brac, on\ncheaply designed and stickily varnished furniture, on gaudy wall papei*, on\nband-sawed and machine-made mouldings, made by buzz-saw-minded\nmechanics, who, if rightly trained and occupied, might just as well have\nbeen lovers of beauty. Stoves are covered with glistening nickeled contortions, carpets and rugs are woven in meaningless medleys of line and color\nmixtures. Rugs and tables are placed criss-cross in rooms, and dress is\nruled by fashions in novelty, rather than by principles of beauty and\nadaptation to personality.\nThe waste is not only of the money, foolishly expended, but waste of\nthe people who produce ugly articles.\nCities and villages which would be beautiful if made on consistent\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n775\n\nplans of beauty, are thoughtlessly laid out in offices, with T squares, into\nuniform blocks; instead of being studied with reference to natural advantages of site, with some streets as main arteries converging toward centers\nof marketing, or of banking, or of manufacturing, or of living; with quiet\nwithdrawal places near these centers affording retreats from hurrying and\ncrowding. Each district should have its own individual charm, with\nvariety in sizes and shapes of blocks and with distinct features. I can\nthink of nothing more oppressively inartistic than the miles of uniformity\nin certain streets of large cities. To change this requires community\nconsciousness and action.\nAll people of our land: rulers, laborers, buyers, makers, and sellers need\nto learn the lessons of artistic values, that thought, design, appropriateness, adaptation to individual conditions, alone make worth; and not\nspeed of production, nor mass of population, nor magnitude of duplication,\nnor recentness of style, nor glittering prominence of material, nor mechanical \"system.\" The very people who most frequently waste money and\nleisure in cheap vulgarity are the very ones who have the least money and\nleisure to waste. But the idle rich people who have means but who have\nnot the culture to use it waste also.\nThere are enlightened people who live beautifully, as there were\nenlightened people who knew how to prevent potato scab years ago, but\nthe farmers of the remote country learned it only when the schoolman\nforced the lesson upon them.\nI am afraid that in art matters the numbers of the unenlightened predominate. This lesson of beauty in life will not have national and civic\nproportions imtil it reaches the wage-earners, who form 96 per cent of the\nwhole population. The sales of our large stores are to these, and in the\nstock exposed, tawdry furnishings predominate still. We must not be\ncomplacent while this is so. Our privilege is to train the whole community\ninto a love of the beautiful. If it seems appalling to think of giving to\nspecific individuals, to \"Old Bill Jones\" or to \"Aunt Sally Brown,\" ?ouls\nwhich crave art, remember that the school superintendent spent one season in getting potatoes planted in the gardens. And one \"Old Bill Jones\"\ncame to him to buy the secret of the chemical. He was told that the\n\"secret\" was free to all who read agriculture bulletins.\nOne school girl was encouraged by her teacher to stencil some window\ncurtains for her sleeping-room. The mother, a cultured woman, was\nnevertheless incredulous, and furnished, at first, only material for a woodshed window; but the result was so pleasing that richer material than had\nat first been asked for was furnished for the chamber windows.\nIn order to convince the community it must be reached in all ways:\nthru the factories which make things, thru the stores which sell them, thru\nthe woman's clubs and societies, thru societies of architects and artists,\nthru lectures in public halls, thru exhibitions of paintings, drawings, and\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nphotographs. These are all agencies which may be utilized in a propaganda\nof education. The pupil will receive benefit in these collateral agencies\nif he is made to have a part in them.\nHints have been given as to the spirit and breadth of application of\nart ideals. In organizing art instruction what shall the method be ? What\nshall be the backbone around which to group instruction ? This question\ncan only be answered here briefly. Drawing must be taught, of course,\nthat pupils may learn to handle pencil, pen, and brush with graphic facility,\nbut in this, possibly, drawing teaching has concerned itself too much with\nabstract expression and not' enough with the expression of vital, interesting ideas. I say emphatically the central idea of art teaching should be\napplied art, the art of dress, of home-building and furnishing, of civic art.\nThere is not time now to consider each of these, indeed they overlap,\nbut what instruction in home-building and in civic art may be, can be\nbriefly hinted at in the time remaining.\nIn the study of home art; house-plans need brief consideration, next\nthe art of an interior, the production of unity by arrangement of emphatic\nlines and a controUing color scheme, the disposition of draperies, the rugs,\nthe stencilling possibly of a pattern for a frieze, or for parts of window\npanes and window curtains. (Effects similar to those of leaded windows\nmay be made by painting the designs on thin paper and then fastening\nthem to the glass by varnish.) The space design of each side of the\nroom should be taken up in turn, with places for pictures, for doors and\nwindows, for furniture, and the relative emphasis of casings and bands as\nthe elements to be bound into a space design.\nThe question of pictures which are available and desirable will arise.\nInformation may be given as to what reproductions of the masterpieces\nin architecture, in painting, and sculpture and the lesser arts may be purchased. The work of local artists should be studied also.\nWood stains and finishes will need consideration, likewise the choice\nand design of furniture, chairs, tables, light-fixtures, door hardware, the\nuse and abuse of bric-a-brac, the making of pottery for dishes and fireplace\ntiles. The subject expands inevitably. Probably too much of the time\nin applied art has heretofore been occupied in making unrelated, or \"faddish,\" articles. Copper corners for blotting pads, for example, are not as\nessential as a design of family significance, sawed or etched into the key\nand knob plate of a door. Art-in-place is the goal to be attained.\nWhile drawing may serve as the chief vehicle in considering and in\nstudying these ideas, it is not the only vehicle. An experimental room of\nthe school building, possibly a lunch- or rest-room, may be furnished and\ndecorated in various color schemes and with various textiles, as a demonstration. Even draperies hung on rods may illustrate many ideas. The\nfurnishing stores welcome visits from classes, and give their services in\narranging floor coverings and hangings to go suitably with them.\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depaitmentl\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n777\n\nThe exterior of the house is just as fascinating and fertile in study of\nthe beauty it affords: first comes a study of unity in massing of the house,\nin the sky line, and its placing on the lot in reference to its surroundings;\nthen the consideration of different materials, their textures as rough or\nsmooth, and the suitability of their treatment. As in the interior, the\narrangement of openings and emphasis of leading lines is nothing but an\napplication of the principles of space design.\nA few types of houses should be studied: Colonial, Bungalow, English,\nMission. These pupils will all build some day. We want them to build\nintelligently.\nDrawings of the yard-plan and sketches showing the composition of\nhouse and trees from various points of view are useful here. Door-yards\nshould be arranged to contain broad lawn surfaces with planting beds of\nflowers and shrubs subordinated to them, or placed toward the margins,\nrather than in the centers of conspicuous ovals. The composition and\nbreadth of the Japanese gardens may give lessons in this. I have at hand\na photograph of a garden in America filled with Japanese \"properties\" — a\npond, a stork, a lantern, a foot-bridge, a path, a hill; but it is a jumble,\na junk shop. Also, at hand, I have a photograph of a real Japanese garden\nas it exists and has existed, perhaps for one thousand years. It has the\n\"properties\" of the imitation, but it has them arranged with art. It has\nbreadth and comprehensiveness of purpose, which the imitation lacks.\nFrom every point of view it affords pictures of unity with details subordinated.\nIf there are hillsides in the community, inspiring problems may consist in developing the possibilities of building sites on both the upper and\nlower sides of the roadways, with plans for treatment of yards in provision\nfor walks, steps, porches, and outlook. In these problems drawings and\nsketches will again serve as vehicles of ideas.\nJust at hand is a photograph of a bridge which connects two parts of\nthe city of Wiirzburg, Germany. Four huge stone lions guard the abutments of this bridge, so nobly conceived and placed that the purpose of\nthe bridge is intensified. The bridge affords the wayfarer more than a\nmeans of crossing. To me it is one of the most pleasant experiences of a\nsummer's trip. Those lions would not have the same interest on pedestals in a museum. Just such opportunities are waiting to be realized all\nover our country. Beautiful bridges and lions (or something else) are\nneeded over many streams. Why shall not the art teachers by tactful\nuse of photographs, in showing what has been done, and by the assignment\nof such problems as the design for a bridge, or for a city-hall park, or an\napproach or plaza to the railway station, or the beautifying of embankments,\nroadways, and piers, of cities and towns; and not thru the beautifying\nmerely, but thru the positive inspiration and instruction which refined\nf^ivic architecture and sculpture and painting can give: why not in such\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nways as these shall the art teachers guide, prepare for, and control the\nfuture civic art of our country ?\nThe task of the drawing teacher has become enlarged. Yes, and it\nhas become real! The teachers of industrial arts and domestic science\nare now overlapping our work and assisting in it.\nIf all the work suggested is carried out will there not be superficiality ?\nThe remedy is to insist that some of the work shall be intensely done, the\nrest can be suggested. This cannot all be done in the grades, perhaps not\nin the secondary schools. The fact that figures — draftsmen, and landscape artists are usually good craftsmen also, is encouraging; in mastering one art they gain some power in all.\nIn many parts of the work outlined other ideals than those of art are\ninvolved and should be considered: ideals of social efficiency, of communityinterest, of utility, of sanitation, of cost. The art teacher who believes\nin symmetrical development should consider them all. Other instruments\nthan drawing and paper are useful. The materials themselves — fabrics,\nclay, tile, brick, wood-stains — may be handled; photographs of buildings\nand cities should be studied. Visits to museums and local stores and\nfactories should be made .\nBut let the art teacher remember that tho dealing with many interests,\nthe teaching of art principles and taste, a love for and understanding of\norder and beauty in the world is in her keeping. To preserve art from\nfalling into the hands of the mere dilettanti, a plaything for the idle, and\nto make it the saving inspiration of all who labor: this is the trust of the\nart teacher. By the fulfillment of this trust shall the state be developed\nand the lives of its citizens become enr ched.\n\nART'S SERVICE\n\nAS A BASIS FOR CLASSIFIED\n(SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT)\n\nCHESHIRE\n\nDIRECTOR,\nDEPARTMENT\nOF\nART\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOLS,\nMONTCLAIR,\nN.J.\n\nL. BOONE,\n\nKNOWLEDGE\nAND\n\nHANDWORK,\n\nWe, as a people, pride ourselves upon a number of qualities which are\nheld to be virtues. Perhaps they are in kind. We claim to be practical,\nbusiness-like, and true prophets of the trend of the times, inventive in a\nuseful way, and we are above all proud of our industrial growth. There are\ngood grounds for such claims and such pride, but on the other hand, the\nqualities enumerated lead to at least one rather sordid result. In a comparatively new country, with seemingly unlimited resources, with a rapidly\ngrowing population making incessant demands upon the manufacturer\nfor more and yet more and still cheaper products, it is increasingly evident\nthat the business acumen and inventive skill of every artist, artisan, and\nindustrial chief is applied to one end — the accumulation of business and profit.\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART'S\n\nSERVICE\n\nIN CLASSIFIED\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\n779\n\nThis agonized pursuit of business brings to the surface a belief that the times\nare so distinctly industrial that nothing else really matters; the maw of the\ntrade must be filled. More serious still, this extra-stimulated business\nactivity has practically eliminated the workman who thinks, replacing him\nby an automaton, a machine. There is in this country now no artisan\nclass of quality; only the thousands of laborers who make machines for other\nthousands of human derelicts to operate. In this rapidly changing industrial pageant there is one element lacking — that of beauty, refinement. It\nis absent precisely because there is no longer either the opportunity or the\nnecessity for individual judgment, selection, or creative skill. You may\nreply that the machine can produce anything which the mind can conceive\nor devise, which is true; but the modern industro-mechanical mind seems\nto think only in terms of machines and quantity. The designer of today\nis many steps removed from the actual processes of production, and is more\noften overruled and brow beaten by the factory, which imposes technical\nlimitations. Therefore the artist-artisan does not devise with the cunning\nand enthusiasm which characterized the period when he supervised the\nprocesses of actual production, when tools and machines were his servants.\nNow the machine is dominant and manufacture of all kinds is keyed to\nwhat the machine can compass in the largest quantity; the inherent worth\nof any given product as such, and especially its artistic merit, is not considered to be a matter of paramount importance. It may even be stated that\nin most matters utility receives most emphasis, refinement very little.\nIf you will be of open mind and receptive, I should be able to prove to\nyou that this ultra-practical kind of designing is incomplete, inadequate, and\neven wrong — from a business standpoint.\nFirst, you will probably be willing to agree that art in some few elementary forms is essential to real culture. Every race has sought persistently\nto express its ideals and faiths in permanent fashion — by craftsmanship in\ndrawing or building, by the dance, and by ceremonials — and each and all\nof these activities are signs of a human desire, more or less undefined, to\ncomplete, crystallize, and perpetuate ideas which are socially fundamental.\nThe race could not well dispense with such forms of expression because, by\nand thru the aggregation and gradual elevation of racial ideals, these efforts\ntoward full expression systematize thinking. And the arts in any age\nbecome a dynamic influence in proportion to the skill with which they are\nhandled. But no matter how great the skill of the workman, the result\nhe produces is never really good unless its shows an undercurrent of serious\nand reverent purpose. The mai nspring of all good expression is a kind of\nmethod or system of conception which aims toward well-defined, artistic\nends, and this method of thinking is in fact the backbone of design.\nAll civilized peoples embody in their art the sum of their conclusions\nconcerning patriotism, habits and customs, religion, and the interpretation\nof nature.\nOut of such conclusions arise standards of conduct and manner,\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "78o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nof living, dress, and beauty, both personal and otherwise, and these in turn\nsymbolize on occasion the individual's position in the cultural scale. Therefore one can scarcely imagine an individual as being cultured, educated,\nwho is not able to enjoy, understand, and sympathize with the arts of his\nfellows and who does not recognize their functions in the scheme of existence.\nIn other words, I would have you believe that the active element of all\ndevelopment, constructive thinking, and doing, is a thing called design.\nWhy does one employ an architect to plan the house ? Any good carpenter\nknows more about building, and could make the house any shape desired,\nwith the proper number of rooms, chimneys, windows, and doors. What is\nthe architect's contribution to the problem of building ?\nWhy spend money and time on books about people who never lived\ndoing improbable acts in unknown places, when the newspapers and magazines which can be secured for a song tell facts ? Is it not because men have\ncome to realize that the construction of the carpenter is but the merest\nframework of architecture; that the building should be formed, arranged,\nand decorated thruout to make a distinguished whole, which is functionally\nadequate and aesthetically inspiring? It represents an ideal, a standard.\nThe buildings of Gothic have left behind the priceless gifts of love, reverence,\nand appreciation, engendered by familiarity with great buildings. Those\ntall, graceful spires are a perpetual earnest of hope and encouragement, and\ncunning tracery of line within the shadow of massive windows serves to\nembeUish the great dignity of the design with a richness which is soothing\nand pleasurable because of its ever-shifting rhythm. Environment of\nsuch kind is always positive in its effect.\nBooks and literature show similar variations in character and quality.\nThe daily newspaper records facts touching the doings of individuals and\ndaily circumstance, but there is no unifying element in such discourse, no\nsystem, and no motive save curiosity. The good novel, on the other hand,\npresents in well-balanced, consistent arrangement certain human attributes,\nfoibles, and social or political conditions which are typical of a group, community, or race, and which attributes are the indices of quaUty. The\nauthor by his artistry throws into reUef the points of vital interest, and\nby juxtaposition, contrast, and the aggregation of much detail around\nimportant topics secures an effect which places the question at issue squarely\nbefore the reader. It will be evident, therefore, that the live, active,\npositive qualities which characterize the work of the artist and craftsman\nare intellectual, not technical, and are due to design. The architect and\nthe author each has in mind a result which will make a definite impression\non the public, and to this end each gathers the data, arranges them, accentuating some, suppressing others, forms groups and combinations of which\nthe accumulation of emphasis gives the desired effect. There is no real\ndifference in method between designing a building and designing a book,\nplate, or qarpet; the design which underhes all artistry, and which articulates\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART'S\n\nSERVICE\n\nIN CLASSIFIED\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\n781\n\nthe details of any given problem, is the main factor in all creative effort.\nTo design means to create.\nI met two men on the way West, one a fruit-grower, the other an agricultural expert from one of our largest experiment stations. The farmer\nhad been in the past very successful with cherry trees, but for reasons of\nhis own had decided to start an apple orchard. Relying on his experience\nwith cherries, he planted his trees 16X20 feet and in due time found his\norchard crowded with fine trees, which, however, did not bear well for lack\nof light, air, and root space. As the expert stated, this farmer's mistake,\nwhich was by no means an uncommon one, cost him thousands of dollars\nin possible profit. This farmer failed in creating a productive orchard;\nhis plan was made for cherries — not apples.\nLet me offer another illustration. You have witnessed many times the\nestablishment of magazines and periodicals which ran a year or two and\nthen vanished. Often these papers were well printed, carefully edited, and\nfull of excellent material. Why did they fail ? As in the case of the farmer,\nthe man behind the enterprise either was not in possession of sufficient\ninformation and experience, or did not use his knowledge to advantage. A\nmagazine must in some way reach the people who are or may be interested\nin its aims, and this reading public must increase and give momentum to\nthe publication. If a reading public has to be created, it means a long\nand judicious advertising campaign. Also, no periodical, however interesting, can exist at the current scale of subscription prices without generous\nadvertising support; hence the reading-matter must commend itself to\nthe business man as a good medium of communication with the public.\nThe would-be publisher must give careful consideration to all these matters if he would even survive, and you will find in the growth of the\nCountry Life Press, at Garden City, Long Island, a splendid example of\nforesight and planning. Country Life in America , World's Work, and the\nGarden Magazine are magazines which, with the possible exception of\nWorld's Work, would have been impossible fifteen years ago. There was at\nthat time no field for such literature. Few were interested in amateur\ngardening; none but the rich, and few of them, gave special thought to the\ncountry estate; and sport was confined to the young; the business man\nthought his business would go to rack and ruin if he took a day off for amusement in the middle of the week. But there had existed for some time a\ndistinct tendency toward outdoor enjoyment, and the publishers mentioned\nthought they saw in this movement possibilities which could be developed.\nThey have for some years maintained active propaganda, and have spent\nthousands of dollars in advertising the attractions of the country, and ways\nand means of enjoying them. Today there is perhaps no more important\ndevelopment of the manner of living than this.\nBut the most wonderful part of the publishers' whole scheme is the\nestablishment at Garden City of their entire business, in beautifully deco-\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nrated buildings, surrounded by some forty acres of ground, which is laid\nout and maintained as an example of what may be done to make business\nsomething less than mere drudgery. Here are situated experimental and\ntrial grounds under the guidance of an expert gardener. There is a bureau\nof information at the disposal of horticulturists and country-lovers generally.\nIn every possible way the projectors of the scheme have endeavored to\nmake it possible for their public to accomplish results. Now, these men\nare not actuated by philanthropic motives at all. They aim to make money,\nand probably have done so, since about a million dollars has been invested in\nthe scheme. And in order to succeed, the whole plan was worked out, with\nall the skill and business acumen of the modern business man, to accompUsh\na definite result. This is design of the finest kind, where the designers\nsought the information, developed the sentiment and conditions, and opened\nthe opportunities required.\nTo design, to create, arrange, compose, and adjust are co-ordinate, if\nnot synonymous, terms. They apply to any constructive effort. The\nartist is a truly practical man, even in the most deadly meaning of that\nmodern phrase, because he tries to convince his public that this is the most\nbeautiful aspect of nature, and works to that end.\nBut mere arrangement is only the backbone of design, which in its higher\nforms develops the refinements of rhythm, balance, and the like. If you\nwill look into the history of the Aztec empire you will find a civilization\nwhich comes as near creative perfection as any modern state, and therein\nyou will find examples of every quality pertaining to design. Unity was\nsecured in this state by the development of the family or tribal unit as the\nstandard element. Further aggregation of these units comprised the districts and provinces, which in turn were responsible to a central ruling body.\nThe most important administrative department — the judiciary — was emphasized as a basis for good government, lending stability to the state and\nsecurity to the individual. Finally, since no race can exist long at a dead\nlevel of monotony, the passions and sentiments of the people were kept in\nbounds and made to serve the state by a succession of pageants, ceremonials,\nand games which culminated in one festival of supreme religious and political\nsignificance. What better illustration of real design could be given than\nthis marshaling of human motives and ideals toward prosperous, successful\ngovernment ?\nIf design is such a vital element in human endeavor and action, it should\nbe evidenced in our material surroundings, because these at their best are\nstimulating in the extreme. A pleasant, orderly home, in our leasure hours;\na decent town, with some of the conveniences of modern life, and a feeling\nof security and confidence in the state — these conditions put one in a proper\nframe of mind to work and succeed. Such conditions are of our own making. The pleasant home results from infinite labor and experiment; one\nnever finds the beauty of nature till he has grown a garden, made a lawn, and\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "ART AND\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE IMAGINATION\n\n783\n\nplanted trees; one only finds the perfection of rest and pleasure in the house\nby placing there the colors and patterns and furnishings which satisfy taste\nand pride of accomplishment. And if one would have real pride in his\ncommunity he must take a hand in its upbuilding and embellishment. The\nmanufacturer, the business man, and the politician, being children of gain,\ngive the thing required — it is easy to secure an approximate perfection in\nboth art and business if the individual wants it. Perhaps the real reason\nfor the prevalent low standards of taste lies in the fact that people do not\nknow what they want and have no standards of judgment. There are\nno common ideals of either beauty or perfection. A nation gets the kind\nof art it deserves. We here do more than we think. Hence the greatest\nservice art can offer is to foster straight thinking, especially along lines connected with the arts, in order that the works of our craftsmen may stand\nas symbols of the fine, enjoyable, appropriate thing. If one would teach\ndesign properly, he must believe in it as an active force which enables one\nto plan well, execute with skill, and use with intelligence. He will come\nto understand that decoration is a method, not a craft; that the carven\nleaves infolding the Gothic capital or nestling comfortably in the interstices ofwindow tracery have only been loaned by Nature from her storehouse of beauty and grace to enrich man's handiwork.\nWHAT\n\nHAS ART IN THE SCHOOLS DONE TO PRESERVE\nCULTIVATE THE IMAGINATION?\nMAY\n\nGEARHART,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF DRAWING,\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nAND\n\nCAL.\n\nArt in the schools is certainly not limited to the actual drawing classes,\nbut may be presented at any time and in connection with any line of work.\nThis is true of imagination which has a vivifying influence on all subjects.\nWe cannot consider imagination as a subject by itself. After all, we are\nnot cultivating the imagination, we are cultivating the child. We are not\ndeveloping any one faculty, placing all our stress on memory, or judgment,\nor imagination. One thing leads to and embraces another. This is a\nday of specialization, but if we gratify the theorist by forgetting the other\nfaculties and developing only the imagination, we would get a freak, not a\nrational child. We may like to read about him or will even pay ten cents\nto see him in a sideshow, but we object to associating with such an alarming product.\nImagination implies invention, the power to reconstruct or recombine\nthe materials furnished by memory or experience. It is not made out\nof nothing at all, but must be derived primarily from reality. Johnny\nsaunters along the street watching a dog chase a cat up a tree. He sees a\npicture of a bear on a poster. On reachlhg home he tells how a monstrous\nbear with lashing tail and awful roars chased him home. He has disassociated and reassociated his percepts. What seems to be a glaring lie is an\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nartistic product born of the imagination. Croce says, \"A work of art is\nan externalized expression of a vision within.\" Marvelous are the child's\nvisions when made visible in his illustrative drawings. They are so wonderful that often, were he not there to explain, it would require all the wise men\nof Babylon to make known the interpretation. In the Httle child's illustrations itis not the neat, proper picture that charms us, but rather the\ngrotesque, enthusiastic scribble that has originality and shows play of\nimagination. Its inventiveness, its evidence of imagination, are ample compensation for its lack of scientific accuracy. Such a drawing is only valuable in its relation to the child. The moment that the actual product\nbecomes the important consideration we lose sight of the purpose of the work.\nArt, with grown people, is a reverential effort at appreciation. With the\nchild, it is a joyous caricature. It is his instinctive attempt to get away\nfrgm the encroaching responsibiUties and solemnities of Hfe. It is a sportive\nmaking of faces before he enters the temple of art. He plays around\noutside this temple. It is our privilege to show him the way in. My\napproval of the child's caricature does not extend to all caricature, certainly\nnot to that in the Sunday supplement. The child's pictures are the joyous expression of exuberant youth. They may be clumsy and primitive\nin their humor, but never sarcastic and bitter. The Sunday supplement\nis mature and cynical, savoring of vitriol and the bludgeon.\nI think it is readily granted that the free illustrative drawing of the\nprimary grades is not only amusing but when intelUgently directed is\ninteresting and stimulating to the imagination. But as the child grows\nolder he ceases to be spontaneous. He reaches the age of intellectual consciousness and the free, fanciful drawing is out of place and he drops it.\nDoes this mean that we have completed this line of work? Is this all we\ncan do for the imagination ? We cannot complete a course in imagination\nany more than we can complete education. What Matthew Arnold says\nof culture is true of education: that it is not a having and a resting, but a\ngrowing and a becoming. There must be constant change in any growth\nand the child must grow up. He cannot remain a child. We do not\nwant a collection of Horace Skimpoles. He cannot remain a primitive\nsavage. He would be a burden in civilized hfe and could not be tolerated\nso. His sylvan soul must come out of the woods and he must learn to\nelucidate the complexities that present themselves. The little child's drawings are uncontrolled or directed by intelligent appreciation. Unquestionably itis much harder to arrange a composition, to choose a color scheme,\nto be orderly in the works of the imagination, than to express any idea that\ngoes flitting by. The older child must order his imagination, making it\nhis tool for a discipUned use. This is a directed imagination, while the other\nis accidental. Imagination exercised without the restraint of knowledge,\ndiscrimination, order, is certainly not art. We strive for the intelligent\nexercise of the imagination based on principles rather than fancy.\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nIMAGINATION\n\n785\n\nAre we accomplishing this work in our schools ? What is the art course\nin your school doing to preserve and cultivate the imagination ? Can we\ngive concrete instances? First we must determine what constitutes evidence. \"By their fruits ye shall know them.\" We want results. Do not\nmisunderstand me. I do not mean immediate results, the securing of mere\ntechnical triumphs. I mean far-reaching results, growth, power. We must\nall be pragmatists. We must lay aside that which brings no results. We\nmust consider the ethical efficacy of expediency. We must adopt what\nWilliam James refers to as\nthe attitude of looking away from l&rst things, principles, categories, supposed necessities,\nand of looking toward last things, fruits, consequences, facts.\n\nIn deciding on any course of study we must consider the probable result.\nWe are not teaching any more in order simply to put a lovely theory into\nsome sort of expression. We are not going to quibble about things that\nmake no difference. We must avoid the tragedy of misdirected effort.\nIn any struggle it is the final issue which counts. What art education is\nactually doing for the child now in school can only be ascertained after he\nhas lived his Ufe. We are laying a foundation for the things of the future.\nBut outward signs reveal the shaping powers at work. The actual lesson\ntaught each day may seem barren of results for the pupil but by a thousand\nindubitable signs we know he is growing in capacity. Public taste is\nimproving rapidly. May not art in the schools claim a certain amount of\ncredit for this ? The improvement is evident in the simplicity and dignity\nof our new buildings and in the change in our homes, where reserved color,\nsimple lines, and spare furnishings have taken the place of the ornate decorations of a few years ago.\nAmong the many exercises employed in the art course to cultivate the\nappreciation and stimulate the imagination are the study of design, landscape, and the working out of some craft, as pottery. To copy from nature,\nmaking a severe imitation, requires no imagination. But when the child\ndraws a nature form and then simplifies and rearranges, working toward the\nabstract until there is perhaps no suggestion of the original, he must necessarily exercise his imagination. The omitting of the near details alone\nrequires exercise of the imagination. How will it look simplified? For\ninspiration we continually refer the student to Japanese art, where the\ncharm lies not so much in things said as in things left unsaid.\nThe value of landscape study lies not in the little water-color done by\nthe pupil at the end of two months' study, but in the new way he acquires\nof looking at pictures. By collecting and copying sections of the good\ncolored prints in our best magazines he learns that the artist subdues his\ncolor, and he soon learns to avoid a disturbing riot of paint. We discuss\nsubordination, repetition, reserve, simplici^. The pupil likes to add these\nwords to his vocabulary. A single word often fires one's imagination.\nI visited a room recently where a young teacher was presenting the subject\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nof landscape to an eighth grade. Instead of cautiously developing, of stealing upon the class and surprising them in ambush, she advanced boldly,\nwith the temerity of the very young, and announced that subordination,\nrepetition, and balance were to be discussed. \"What is subordination?\"\nA stout, determined child who looked as if he had no more imagination\nthan a tub, held up his hand and answered, ''Subordination is where\nthere is a bright color in a picture and around it are dim, dull colors.\"\n.And as a result of the tubbish boy's inspiration all the class were promptly\nready to select examples of subordination in color, altho color, being a\nmore subtle matter than size, would not otherwise have been mentioned.\nWe place a Corot, a Millet, a Ruysdael, before the pupil and ask him to\ntranslate it into line, to copy it in simple masses of Ught and dark, omitting\ndetails. He plans a composition and executes it in a simple color scheme.\nHe must think, choose, and use his discrimination. He learns the difference between a picture and a collection of facts, a geographical record.\nHe learns the charm of suggestiveness. It requires more imagination to\nleave out than to put in.\n\nWe read to him from Whistler's Ten O'clock:\n\nAnd when the evening mist clothes the riverside with poetry as with a veil, and the poor\nbuildings lose themselves in the dim sky, and the tall chimneys become Campanili and\nthe warehouses are palaces in the night, and the whole city hangs in the heavens, and\nfairyland is before us ... .\n\nThen we say to him, \"Look for something that is apparently poor and sordid\nbut that becomes beautiful under certain conditions,\" and he perhaps\nsuggests the gas factory down by the river, an ugly monster spitting out\nsmoke and flame, yet of ten a wondrous sight. One of the ughest streets in\nLos Angeles is AHso Street, leading up thru the warehouse district; but on a\nmisty day, early in the morning or late in the evening, those mean, brick\nwarehouses take on a rosy hue and lose themselves in a soft glow at the\nend of the street, while high above in the smoky sky swims the court-house\ndome. At such a time this old street is beautiful.\nWe study pottery. The pattern painted, the tile or bowl molded, are not\nthe end and aim of this work, but rather the ability acquired to recognize\nwhat is good in form and color. It requires not only reason but imagination\nto clothe a humble brown bean jar with beauty. It requires imagination to\ngrasp the idea that obvious decorations, such as pink roses and gilding,\nmay not be so pleasing as reserve, dignity, and fitness to purpose. It\nrequires imagination to achieve the glorification of common things. Our\npupils like to hear about the fairy with the enchanted green hat in The\nBlue Bird :\nHmnan beings are very odd. Since the death of the fairies they see nothing at all\nand they never suspect it. Luckily I always carry with me all that is needed to give new\nlight to dimmed eyes .... a dear little, green hat. When you've got the hat on your\nhead .... it's enchanted .... you at once see even the inside of things.\n\nImagination, children, is like aA enchanted green hat.\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Elsie M. Shawe, supervisor of music, Public Schools\nSt. Paul, Minn.\nVice-President — C. A. Fullerton, director of music, Iowa State Teachers College. .Cedar Falls, Iowa\nSecretary — Estelle Carpenter, supervisor of music. Public Schools\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 12, 191 i\n\nThe Department of Music Education met at the Golden Gate Commandery Hall.\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 : 30 a.m. by the president, Miss Elsie M. Shawe.\nThe program opened with two songs:\na) I Rise from Dreams of Thee\nb) A Bridal March\nby a California composer, H. B. Pasmore, sung by Mr. Thomas Pearson, accompanied\nby Miss Dorothy McMahon,\nThe president of the department, Miss Elsie M. Shawe, supervisor of music, St. Paul,\nMinn., gave an address on \"Public- School Music in Relation to the Music of the\nCommunity.\"\nThe president then introduced William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools,\nWashington, D.C., who addressed the department on \"Music as an Essential in Education.\"After this address the president extended an invitation to all present to attend a\nreception given by the Pacific Exposition Company at the Palace and St. Francis Hotels,\nwhere addresses would be given by representatives of that company.\nThe next number on the program was a vioHn solo by Samuel Savannah, accompanied\nby Fraiilein Hermine Ricke:\na) Adagio, Fourth Concerto\nh) Farfalla (The Butterfly)\n\nVieuxtemps\nSauret\n\n\"Some Mistakes of the Music Teacher Which the Viewpoint of the Child Would Correct,\" was the subject of an address by Julia E. Crane, Normal Institute of Music, Potsdam, N.Y. This paper was discussed by Miss Victorine Hartley, supervisor of music,\nBerkeley, Cal.\nThe president then stated that at the end of the meeting pins would be distributed\nto the supervisors of music who were present. To each one in the audience was also to\nbe given a box of Burbank's famous peaches as a compliment from the Santa Rosa Chamber of Commerce.\nThe president also announced that, according to the printed program, cards of admission would be given out at the end of the day's session to supervisors and teachers as a\ncompliment from the Music HospitaUty Committee, Miss Estelle Carpenter, chairman.\nThese cards would entitle holders to attend a reception to the California musical composers,\nwho would present selections from their compositions. This recital would be given in\nScottish Rite Hall.\nThe following Committee on Nominations vva» then appointed by the president:\nWilliam B. Kinnear, supervisor of music, Minneapolis, Kans,\nMiss M. Teresa Finn, supervisor of music. High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nMiss Ida Fisher, supervisor of music. State Normal School, San Jos6, Cal.\n787\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThe following Committee on Resolutions was appointed by the president:\nMiss Julia E. Crane, Normal Institute of Music, Potsdam, N.Y.\nC. A. Fullerton, director of music, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nThe department adjourned to meet at 2 : 30 the same aftern oon in the same place.\nSECOND SESSION, ROUND TABLE— Wednesday Afternoon, July 12, 19 11\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2 : 30 p.m.\nA. J. Gantvoort, of the College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio, who was on the program\nto make the report of the Committee on National Songs, not being present. President\nShawe made the following statement :\nAt the Cleveland convention, three years ago, a committee was appointed, consisting\nof three members, of whom I was one, to consider the subject of the national songs. The\ncommittee tried to make a unanimous report, but failed; in fact. Chairman Gantvoort\nalone made the report, but it was not accepted.\nThe committee last year was enlarged to eleven members. More work was done,\nand they were able to meet in Cincinnati during last winter. When report was made in\nBoston last year, several questions were raised and a conclusion reached in regard to\nthe \"Star Spangled Banner.\" The version in your hands of the \"Star Spangled Banner\"\nwas agreed upon by the supervisors at Boston. It is the result of long conference and discussion. Amember of the Association said he was going to bring the matter up for reconsideration today.\nThere are here also two other songs which the committee presented at Boston, but\non which there was no time for discussion. It did not take long to come to a conclusion\nregarding \"America,\" but there was no time to consider \"Columbia, the Gem of the\nOcean,\" or \"Hail, Columbia.\"\nPamphlets were distributed containing the songs \"Star Spangled Banner,\" \"America,\" \"Hail, Columbia,\" and \"Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean.\" A long discussion\nfollowed and the different songs were sung repeatedly and criticized. It was finally\nresolved and carried, that the action of the Music Department of the National Education\nAssociation at Boston, in regard to the adoption of the arrangement of \"Star Spangled\nBanner,\" \"America,\" \"Hail, Columbia,\" and \"Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean\" be\nreconsidered and referred back to the committee of 191 1, to be brought up for discussion\nat the meeting of the Department of Music Education in 191 2, together with the suggestions made by this body to the chairman of the Committee on National Songs; and\nthat the changes mentioned and discussed in this Round Table meeting be considered\nby the committee.\nThe president then announced that the report of the Committee on Terminology\nwould be given by William Kinnear, supervisor of music, Minneapolis, Kans., as Charles\nI. Rice, the chairman of the committee, was not present.\nFollowing the reading of this report, it was moved and seconded that the report\nbe accepted as presented by the Committee on Terminology; and that sees. 3c and 30\nbe adopted as corrected and presented by the committee at this time.\nIt was moved and carried that the report of the committee be accepted in regard to\nthe primitive, harmonic, and melodic scales.\nThe Department adjourned until Friday, July 14, at 9:30 a.m.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 14, 191 1\n\nThe meeting opened at 9:30 a.m., the president in the chair.\nViolin solos were rendered by Miss Edna Cadwalader, accompanied by Mr. Arthur\n^\nFoote:\na) Aria\nPergolesi\nh) Gavotte\nRameau\nThe first address given was \"Music in the Colleges,\" by Arthur Foote, composer,\nBoston, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n789\n\nMINUTES\n\nThis was discussed by Frederick E. Chapman, director of music, Cambridge, Mass.\nThe next address given was \"The Relation of Music to School Activities,\" by Ida\nM. Fisher, director of music, State Normal School, San Jos6, Cal.\nAfter this address vocal solos were sung by Frederick David Galloway, boy soprano,\nwho was accompanied by Mrs. Marriner Campbell, his teacher, in\na) Sing, Smile, Slumber\nb) Sunrise\nc) Sweet Miss Mary\n\nGounod\nWekerlin\nNeidlinger\n\nHe was accompanied in Chadwick's \"Allah\" by Mr. Foote.\nThis was followed by a paper, \"Public School Music and Our National Speech,\"\nby Mrs. Frances Elliott Clark, Camden, N.J., and an address by C. A. FuUerton, director\nof music, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa, on \"The Opportunity and\nthe Responsibility of Normal Schools in Public-School Music.\"\nThe following report was submitted by the Committee on Resolutions:\nThe work of the Music Section of the National Education Association at its San\nFrancisco meeting in 191 1 has been characterized by a spirit of general good feeling and\nhelpfulness, which augur well for the future.\nWhile it was the sense of the meeting that the decision regarding the exact form of the\nnational songs should be referred again to the committee, the vote was taken after a discussion which emphasized the importance of seeking not personal preference in the matter,\nbut such a version of the songs as would be best sung by the multitudes. We would extend\nour thanks to the committee, expressing our hope that large bodies of people in many\nplaces may be induced to sing the various versions of these songs, and that results be\nreported as a guide in the final decision as to the one most generally well rendered.\nWe would put ourselves on record as in hearty sympathy with the work of the Committee on Terminology and as approving of the work ahready done.\nTo our hosts in San Francisco we express sincere gratitude for the royal reception\ngiven us.\nThe\nable and opportunity\nbeneficial to to\nall.hear the compositions of California's master musicians was enjoyTo the local committee. Miss Estelle Carpenter and her assistants, we extend most\ncordial thanks, with deep appreciation of the strenuous labor that has been necessary\nin bringing to successful issue so great an undertaking.\nThe hall for the meetings has been ideal, the decorations were highly artistic, and all\nprovisions for the pleasure and comfort of the visitors have been most thoughtfully and\nwisely managed; and has not some kind fairy adorned us with this beautiful souvenir\nof Lowell Mason, the Father of School Music ?\nThis committee expresses its sincere approval of the wise and dignified leadership of\nour president. Miss Elsie M. Shawe. The success of such meetings as these must depend\nin a large degree upon the power and tact of the chairman. The attention and interest\nmanifested at all the meetings reflect great credit upon the one who has so ably filled the\nchair.\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted its report as follows:\nFor President — C. A. Fullerton, director of music, Iowa State Teachers College,\nCedar Falls, Iowa.\nFor Vice-President — Julia E. Crane, Normal Institute of Music, Potsdam, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — ^Arthur G. Wahlberg, supervisor of music, Fresno, Cal.\nA motion was carried that the report of the Committee on Nominations be accepted\nand that the secretary be empowered to cast the ballot for the election of these officers\nfor the ensuing year.\nA motion was duly made, seconded, and carried that the Department of Music of the\nNational Education Association request of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association the amount of $25 for the publishj^g of the Annual Report of the Committee on Terminology of the Music Department, a permanent committee of the\ndepartment.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "790\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nFriday Atternoon, July 14, 191 1\nOn Friday afternoon, July 14, at 2:00 p.m., the Music Hospitality Committee, Miss\nEstelle Carpenter, chairman, gave in Scottish Rite Hall a reception to the California\nmusical composers, who presented selections from their compositions at a recital given to\nthe National Education Association members especially interested in music. The concert was a great success, and Mr. Arthur Foote, the guest of honor, was present thruout\nthe entire performance. There were so many applications for tickets that the concert\nwas repeated on the following day.\nEstelle Carpenter, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\nELSIE\n\nM. SHAWE,\n\nMUSIC\nSUPER\\^SOR\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN RELATION\nCOMMUNITY\nOF MUSIC,\n\nTO THE MUSIC\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOF THE\n\nST. 'PAUL, MINN.\n\nMuch has been written on unmusical America and how it can be made\nmore musical, and those with a deep and clear vision have said, only thru\nthe public schools can this be accomplished.\nOur people, to be really musical, must come, thruout this entire country,\nto love music more and more, and there is no surer way of effecting this\nthan thru the children.\nOne of the purposes of music in the public school should be to create a\nmusical community as a contribution to a musical nation, and this result can\nbe brought about only when the efforts to develop music in the school are\nconserved and bear fruit outside, both during the school life of the child\nand after he has left school.\nMusic has without question made wonderful strides in this young country\nof ours. The large, expensive orchestras supported in many of our cities,\nand the fact that a long season of grand opera is held each year, at an enormous expense, in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, and other places,\nbear testimony to the love some of our people have for music and the sacrifice they will make for it. But orchestras composed of good professional\nmusicians and the opportunity to hear grand opera from time to time will\nnever make our people musical: music must come nearer to us than that,\nin fact, become a part of ourselves, before it will come forth as a personal\nexpression of what we feel — and Americans, so far, have done very little in\noriginal expression or composition.\nGermany is said to owe the pre-eminent place it holds in the musical\nworld today to music in the hom.e; and this brings us to our first consideration— the relation of music in the schools to the home.\nOne of the foremost musicians in America today, a German by birth, has\nsaid that he owes his musical gift not to his father, who was noted as a conductor, virtuoso, and composer, but rather to the lullabies and other simple\nfolk-songs that he heard from his earliest infancy from his mother's lips.\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nThe German child hears good music, both vocal and instrumental, every\nday in his home, and thru much hearing, music becomes the natural form\nof expressing the sorrows, joys, and other deep emotional feelings of his life.\nNow how can our public schools assist in bringing more music and music of\na better quality into the home? First, by having nothing but the best 91\n7\nmusic sung or played in the school; and second, by including in the course of\nstudy, many beautiful folk- and other simple but good songs, which thru\nlove and familiarity^ the child will naturally carry to his home. The great\nnumber of good music-readers, supplementary songbooks, and codas published inlate years, furnish a splendid collection from which we can choose\nmuch of the very best song literature for children, and so if today the children in our schools fail to get the best possible music for their needs there is\nno excuse for it. In the opinion of the writer, vocal arrangements of even\nnoted instrumental works should not be given the children to sing. The\nreason for making vocal arrangements of such beautiful compositions as the\nAndante from Beethoven's ^th Symphony, Intermezzo from Mascagni's\nCavalleria Rusticanay etc., was, no doubt, for the purpose of acquainting\ngrammar-grade children with these classics, in order to refine their tastes\nand to cultivate in them an appreciation of the best in music. The motive\nis a worthy one, but the -writer feels that the unsingable qualities of great\ninstrumental compositions are a sufficient reason for not expecting boys\nand girls thirteen and fourteen years of age to try to interpret them, and so\nhas always discouraged their use. With the advent of the mechanical\npiano player and talking machine in the schoolroom, the children can now\nin a much better way become familiar with good instrumental music and\nalso vocal music which is beyond their powers of interpretation, and it is\nto be hoped that in the future the children will learn to love such music\nthru hearing rather than singing.\nThe talking machine and mechanical piano player serve a great educational end when they reproduce the good in the art of music; but unfortunately the poorest and lowest forms of the art are also available and at\npresent satisfy the taste of a large number. Here is an additional responsibility for the teacher, as it now becomes the duty of the supervisor to select\nmusic for the children to hear that will cultivate in them an appreciation\nof the very best in the art. The repeated hearing of the works of Beethoven,\nSchubert, Schumann, Wagner, Verdi, and a host of other great composers\nwhose compositions can be procured for these mechanical players, will\nmean a taste for the best, and this is bound to react on the home, not only\nin the future, but at once. If the children enjoy Schumann's Trdumerei,\nSchubert's Serenade, and the Pilgrims' Chorus from Tannhduser, they will\nnot care to hear rag-time and cheap street music and will discourage the\nuse of the latter in the home and urge the substitution in its place of compositions they have learned to love in school.\nIt is the custom in some cities where the public schools are provided with\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nmechanical players to have a short program once a week between eightthirty and nine o'clock; the instrument is placed in the hall and by having\nthe doors of the classrooms open, the children on that floor can hear the\nmusic and receive a valuable lesson.\nSome, I believe, see cause for alarm in these marvelous machines which\nreproduce without any effort on our part the great master-works and greatest voices of the world; these people fear that there will soon be no incentive\nto study music, since it can be enjoyed from the listener's standpoint without going thru the slow process of cultivating a technique. A needless\nfear this seems to me; the large majority of people will necessarily have to\nbe classed among those who listen, rather than perform; and is it not\nimportant that this large number should receive some cultivation in the\nart of listening, and gaining an appreciation of what is good, true, and\nbeautiful ?\nThe relation of public-school music to the music of the church will next\nbe considered. Does the quality of voice heard in most Sunday schools\nshow that our endeavors to have the child use only his light head-voice\nin singing are bearing fruit ? It would naturally be said that if the children\nhave acquired the habit of using their voices correctly in school, they will\nnot violate the laws of good tone production at any time. With the grade\nteacher in almost entire charge of the daily classroom work, we cannot be\nsure that the voices of the children are always used correctly, and we must\nhave the co-operation of others who with us assist in the training of children.\nWhere it is possible would it not be well for the supervisor to give some\nsimple talks to those in charge of the Sunday schools in his town and illustrate with a class of children the quality of tone to be desired ? I believe\nthis would not only be of inestimable value to the Sunday-school children\ndirectly, but would bring us in a closer and better professional relation with\nchoir trainers and musicians at large. Most of the latter are totally in\nignorance of our work, and some have very little desire to be enlightened.\nThe following instance may have been the experience of more than one. A\nchoir director of one of the best boy-choirs in his city was given to speaking\nin a most disparaging way of the voices of the public-school boys who\napplied for membership in his choir, and believed, altho he was told to the\ncontrary, that the children were encouraged to use the thick chest voice in\nsinging in school. Not until he had the opportunity of hearing a chorus\nof four hundred boys sing under the direction of the supervisor was he convinced that both choir director and supervisor are working for the same\nend — ^good use of the voice.\nWith the same co-operative thought in mind it might be helpful to our\ncause to bring to the attention of mothers the knowledge of what we are\nstriving for. The woman's musical clubs should here be^ of value to us.\nThese organizations could furnish opportunities for the appearance of the\nsupervisor and a chorus of children on club programs, and supervisor and\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\n793\n\nchildren might in turn receive help and inspiration thru the hearing of\nprograms arranged by the club, especially for children.\nWhy do not choral clubs thrive in this country, as they do in England,\nGermany, and other European countries? Some have said because children do not learn to read music in our schools, and not having that power\nwhen they leave, they lack the desire to go into an organization, whether\nchoir or choral club, and spend hours in the drudgery of learning the intervals and rhythms of a composition instead of spending that time in getting\nat the meaning of the composition and its interpretation. The large choral\nworks with parts for children's voices are doing something for the choral\nmusic of the future in this country. Children who have taken part in the\nperformance of a great work like Pierne's Children's Crusade or Handel's\nJudas Maccabeus have not only benefited much from the knowledge gained\nby studying the work, but the association with trained voices of men and\nwomen and a great orchestra will result in a desire on the children's part to\nbecome a permanent part of that organization when they have grown to\nmanhood and womanhood.\nIt should be a matter of pride to us to know that in most cases where\nthese oratorios have been given, the children were selected from the pubhc\nschool and their part of the work studied under the direction of the supervisor or special teacher of public-school music.\nThe relation of music in our schools to the orchestra is a very close relation indeed in some places. In cities and towns that do not support a\nlarge expensive symphony orchestra — and the number that do is small —\nthe town orchestra or band must expect to get most of its recruits from the\npublic school. A good professional player of a wind or brass instrument\ncan only hope to make a living in one of the largest musical centers and this\nmakes it necessary for the director of band or orchestra to get his players\nfrom those in his town who do not depend solely upon music for a livelihood. The experience that boys and girls gain in grammar and high schools\nby playing in the school orchestra make them not only ready and willing\nto associate themselves with the town orchestra but in some cases very\nvaluable members of the latter organization. An orchestra in one of the\ntowns of the Middle West contains thirty members who were and in some\ncases still are high-school pupils; and this is not an isolated case, but one\nof many.\nThe relation of the orchestra to the public school is also an interesting\none, and in this connection a personal allusion may be pardoned. We have\nin St. Paul a symphony orchestra of seventy-eight musicians, and for the\npast three years concerts have been given by this orchestra for the publicschool children, by which, for the nominal sum of lo cents, the children could\nhear an orchestral program, especially arranged for them. The concert\ngiven for the children by the Symphony Orchestra this spring had in addition to the orchestral numbers another great treat: Mme. Schumann-\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nHeink gave her services for the concert and in her inimitable way sang\nherself into the hearts of seven thousand children and gave them a lesson\nthey will never forget.\nMusic has a broader and deeper meaning in relation to the community\nthan any we have yet touched upon — ^its relation to the individual and Hf e\nof a people. Is not the training for an avocation in life as important as the\ntraining for vocation? The eight waking hours not spent in earning a\nliving generally mean more toward the formation of character and good,\nupright living than the eight hours spent in the oflSce, shop, or factory.\nEducators must recognize this and cultivate in the young a taste for good\nand pure enjoyment. The social nature of music is such that of all the arts\nit lends itself best to the enjoyment of the many: both performer and\nlistener alike feel its influence and come under the spell of its power, and\nthru it are led to higher aspirations and nobler deeds. Music has become\na necessity to man in his daily life, and as one of. our university presidents\nlately said in reviewing the part that music plays in social, civic, and\nreligious life — \"a sweeping force in civilization.\"\nSOME\n\nMISTAKES OF THE MUSIC\nVIEWPOINT OF THE CHILD\n\nJULIA E. CRANE,\n\nNORMAL\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nTEACHER WHICH\nWOULD CORRECT\nOF MUSIC,\n\nPOTSDAM,\n\nTHE\nN.Y.\n\nIs not Carlyle right %when he says.\nThe soldier wears openly, and even parades, his butchering tool; nowhere, far as\nI have traveled, did the schoolmaster make show of his instructing tool.\n\nWhere lies the blame that the profession of the teacher ranks the lowest\namong the learned professions, and, except in the eyes of the most discerning, has less dignity than the occupation of the farmer or the merchant ?\nMust we not blame ourselves that we have not so labored that communities should have discovered that\nfashioning the souls of a generation by knowledge can rank on a level with blowing their\nbodies to pieces by gunpowder; that with Generals and Field Marshals for killing, there\nshould be world-honored Dignitaries, and were it possible, true God-ordained Priests\nfor teaching.\n\nIt strikes me that Carlyle came near the root of the matter in this telling\nsentence, for when we view the work of the great teachers whom the world\nhas loved to honor, we recognize that they were \" God-ordained Priests\nfor teaching. \"\nWould there be any doubt of the dignity of the profession if all teachers\nwere animated by the same spirit that gave Arnold of Rugby his worldwide fame? And what is this spirit but the spirit of humility, the \"love\nthat seeketh not her own\"? Surely this spirit, understood and demonstrated, would long ago have given school teachers not only rank but power,\na power born of the \"love that never faileth.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMISTAKES\n\nOF THE MUSIC\n\nTEACHER\n\n795\n\nBut what, say you, has all this to do with the insignificant problems of\nthe music teacher ? I have stated this fundamental principle upon which\nall true teaching rests, because I am convinced that it is only by its application to our problems that even the minutest of them is correctly solved,\nand only as these are correctly solved do we merit the rank of \"Godordained Priests for teaching.\"\nIt is often noted that the \"newly rich\" show the most arrogant pride\nin wealth; the college Freshman is only exceeded in pride of learning by\nthe first-year high-schooMad; and we as school music teachers, the newest accessions to the teaching force, are the surest of our methods, the most\narrogant of our learning. The teachers of the three R's have seen too\nmany changes in the methods of teaching to feel that the last word has\nbeen spoken for them, and with their humility comes the possibility of\nstill greater progress. As we examine the various stages of development\nfrom the old alphabet method of teaching reading, thru the phonic, word,\nand sentence methods, down to the methods of the present day, we realize\nthat it has been the teachers of sufficient humility and love to catch the\nmental processes of the child at his work, who have brought about these\nimprovements.\nTeachers are too much inclined^to the adoption of fixed plans for\npresenting a subject, regardless of che fact that some children observe\nmuch and reason little, while others observe little and reason much. Then\nthere are the preconceived notions of the mature mind from which all\nteachers suffer, but which have made the music teacher's path a remarkably thorny one.\nIt is of these things that I wish to speak particularly today, as I believe\nour work in the schools can never stand where it belongs until we rid ourselves of the false notions that our mature view of music and methods of\nteaching it has brought to us.\nAs you all know, music teachers for the schools have been drawn mainly\nfrom the ranks of the pianists, and while it is probable that a broadly\neducated pianist knows as much about music as any musician, what he\nknows is linked to the piano keyboard in a way that gives him views which\nare entirely false when applied to the teaching of singing. To illustrate:\nThe addition of a sharp or flat to the signature entirely changes the fingering of the piano, and since this is true, the key of D to the piano student is\nmore difficult than the key of C. This false idea dominated all the teachers\nand all the writers of school music books for many years. When Luther\nWhiting Mason, with his real sympathy for the children, saw that the\npitch of the key of C was too low for young voices he introduced the key\nof G for the first lessons, but so convinc^ was he that key signatures\nwould make trouble that he used only the first five tones of this key so\nas to avoid the F sharp. To be sure, music teachers and music books\nare today much more reasonable in this matter, but the fact that keys\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nshould be selected for reading as well as for song singing with a view to the\nadaptation to the range of the child's voice is not as yet the basis upon\nwhich keys are always arranged in school songbooks. The truth of the\nmatter is that to the singer one key is as easy as another, provided its\nrange suits the voice, and to put a song in the key of C because a child is\nto sing it is the height of folly. The fact that songs are now being published in three or four different keys shows that composers are realizing\nthat the singer will best interpret his song if he sing it in the key suited\nto his voice.\nMany mistaken ideas are abroad regarding the song singing in the\nthird and fourth grades. This is a time when unison singing should be at\nits best. But false notions regarding children's voices have stood in the\nway of the vocal skill which would make the singing of these years a foundation for much that is usually considered possible to artists only. I remember a kind but mistaken teacher of my youth who carefully omitted all\nembellishments in songs she taught me, because, as she said, I was too\nyoung to do such things. I grew up with the idea that a turn or a mordant,\na rapid scale passage, or a succession of triplets was an impossible thing\nexcept as the result of years of practice, and it consequently took years of\ndiligent work for me to gain flexibility of voice. This is entirely wrong,\nas a few simple experiments with the child-voice will prove. Children of\nthe third, fourth, and fifth grades who have had the opportunity to sing\nevery day in the natural range of the voice songs adapted to their needs\nwill be in a condition to use the voice with the greatest agility. Roulades,\ncadenzas, and all embellishments are easily and accurately imitated, and\nthe voice benefited by the practice. As soon as the voices are classified\nas soprano, alto, tenor, and bass, the singing must be done in the steady\nrhythm of a dignified chorus; but the unison singing of the grades should\nhave the elasticity of a solo.\nIf the teacher is as ready to respond to the thought of the pupils as they\nare to hers, she will soon find that a freedom of execution and a refinement\nof expression that had not before been dreamed of characterize the singing.\nThe possibilities in the way of artistic singing in these grades are practically limited only by the ideals and ability of the teacher. I have seen teachers of rare ability resting content with very meager results from a false\nnotion that songs which require flexibility of voice and delicacy of shading\nare impossible for children.\nAnother serious error is the misconception regarding the danger of\nhigh tones. It would seem a simple thing for music teachers to have\ntried the children's voices and to have noticed in what range they were\nmost natural and musical; but no, \"high tones strain the voice\" was the\ndecision, and children were allowed to sing with a strident tone, a growl,\nor a whisper, when they might have sung as clearly as birds. I listened to\nan operetta, not many years ago, well written, attractive, well suited to\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMISTAKES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMUSIC\n\nTEACHER\n\n797\n\nchildren in every other particular, but the choruses for the tiny tots were\nin a range far too low for their voices, and songs that a third higher would\nhave rung clear and true thruout the hall fell breathy and flat at the footlights. So far as I have been able to discover, there are not more than\nthree or four songbooks for primary grades as yet published in which the\ngreater portion of the songs would not be far better if transposed from a\nsecond to a fourth higher than they now appear. The average child, from\nsix to ten years of age, has a high, light, flexible, floating tone. The right\nkind of singing in kindergarten, first, and second grades brings, in the\nthird and fourth grades, a tone of crystal clearness, with increased breadth\nand power. Many children who speak in a coarse and heavy voice are\nfound to possess the pure, high, singing voice, and soon gain freedom in\nthe use of it.\nOne of the most serious obstacles to the proper development of the singing voice is the mistaken notion among parents and teachers that a boy's\nvoice is of lower pitch than a girl's; that boys' voices are naturally rough\nand coarse. Quite the opposite is true: boys' voices are high, clear, and\npure, and sound more like the voices of women than girls. The custom of\nputting the boys on the alto part is most pernicious and only encourages\na mistaken sense which should be eradicated. Here again a discriminating teacher will see that the boy claims that he cannot sing high, not because high singing is difficult or distasteful to him, but because he does not\nwish to sing like a girl. Now a boy never sings like a girl, his real voice is\na boy's voice, not a girl's, a woman's, or a man's. It is a distinctively\ncharacteristic voice; no one else has it, no one else can imitate it. And\na valuable voice it is, a voice that should be cherished as a rare and beautiful gift; for even the boy himself is not allowed to keep it many years, as\nit soon drops an octave, and becomes a man's voice. The boy who is made\nto realize the treasure he possesses takes pride in his voice, and is no longer\ntempted to assume a manly quality before he arrives at man's estate.\nSome years ago a teacher reported that the boys in the sixth grade\nwere refusing to sing high. I visited the class and found not a boy willing\nto try a tone above the two-lined C. I went to the seventh grade, and there\nwere several boys who could sing high C and one who went easily to the\nE above it. In the eighth grade, I found boys with beautiful high C's,\nand I returned to the sixth grade to report my discoveries. The instantaneous change of front was amusing, for if eighth-grade boys sang high\nC, it certainly was not unmanly for a sixth-grade boy to be caught doing\nit, and sure enough, every boy in the grade had a high voice. Of course\nthis is not always true, because boys of more maturity are sometimes\nfound in the lower grades, and the voice does not wait for the child to\nacquire skill in arithmetic or English, but marches steadily forward, especially when singing is a daily exercise.\nSo here again the teacher must be guided by the child, not by his\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nmistaken ideas, but by the real nature of his voice, sympathizing with his\nfears and prejudices only to the extent necessary to rid him of them.\nThen there is another critical period in the development of the boy's\nvoice, a time when the formerly wise precaution, \"Sing softly,\" works\nharm instead of good, and this is during the first few months after the bass\nvoice appears. This voice is sometimes lower in pitch, and heavier in\nvolume than it may ever be again. Watch the lad carefully, and it becomes evident that while he must not be allowed to force his voice, too\nmuch restraint cramps the throat muscles and produces a tone so fundamentally wrong that the boy naturally rebels against it. It feels hard\nand tight and allows no freedom or spontaneity. Boys are very selfconscious at this time — as who would not be with a big new voice as surprising to one's self as to the listener? The constant \"Hush!\" from the\nmusic teacher often results in shutting off a really fine voice, or in forming\nhabits of muscular tension that require years of training to overcome.\nBut are girls, too, mistakenly dealt with? As a rule, no; which\naccounts for the fact that little complaint is made of the girls in a music\nclass, while the boy problem is always up for discussion. One thing,\nhowever, needs more attention than it receives, and that is the fact that\nat the time when boys' voices are the strongest, girls' are the weakest.\nIf the girls and boys are evenly divided as to numbers, this makes a serious\nproblem for seventh and eighth grades and the first year in the high school.\nWhile there are interesting part-songs for the girls, there is nothing that\nthe boys with changed voices can do alone. If the class contains a sufficient number of boys with unchanged voices, the solution is a simple\none as all parts will be taken by boy sopranos, altos, and basses. The\nvery narrow range of the boy-voice during the mutation period, and its\nvery low range just after the change, prohibit part-singing for them, and\nunison singing is most uninteresting after a taste of beautiful harmony\nin the previous grades. Just one other plan is possible. If young women\nwith mature voices can be found to sing with these boys for a few months,\nthey will be able to sing out freely on the bass part, and will enjoy the\nmusic thus made available. This suggestion is meant for classes in sightsinging, as the boys have the problem of learning to read the bass and tenor\nparts, and altho it is not a difficult one under proper conditions, it is not\neasy to secure these conditions. Failure in this will leave the boys singing the air an octave lower, and hinder the one step in their progress which\nat this crucial moment gives dignity and meaning to the work.\nIn the chorus work of the upper grades and high school, if the boys and\ngirls are about the same age, it will take forty altos and sopranos to balance ten basses and the one or two tenors hat may be found.\nBecause music is pleasing to the ear and singing an enjoyable exercise,\nrote singing has often been the beginning, the means, and the end of all\nmusic taught in the public schools\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMISTAKES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMUSIC\n\nTEACHER\n\n799\n\nIf rote singing has any place in the course of study why does it not\nserve the entire purpose of school music ? There are many valid answers to\nthis question, but the one which applies the most directly to the topic under\ndiscussion is this: The rote process of teaching soon becomes uninteresting\nand even obnoxious to the children themselves.\nIn the kindergarten and\nfirst grade rote singing proves itself a delightful and satisfactory activity, as\nwell as a necessary foundation for a later study of music; but anyone who has\nhad experience in teaching songs by rote in the grades above the second\nknows that a teacher must have great skill and the opportunity to present\nthe songs in public in order to hold the interest; unless children recognize\nincrease of power as a result of their labors they demand an immediate\nmarket for the product.\nEven tho semblance of peace is gained with the\nchildren thru skillful teaching and numerous public exhibitions, far greater\ninterest is developed thru such methods of teaching music as those which\nare now proving effectual in the teaching of reading. These methods\nrecognize that the highest joy is the result of the successful achievement\nof a worthy purpose. Note the number of promises recorded in the Good\nBook for \"him that overcometh.\"\nWhat blind leaders we have been\nthat we should dare hope for results while ignoring so basic a principle I\nThe work of the music supervisor and the methods he employs are not,\nthen, of small consequence.\nHe who is content to lift his pupils with his\nown strength over every obstacle which they encounter is encouraging\nhabits of indolence and weakness which must work harm in every avenue of\ntheir lives.\nIt requires a very skillful teacher to draw the line wisely between the\nhelp which really puts the pupil in a position to help himself and that\nwhich weakens and debases. The music class, if properly conducted,\ncalls for attention and concentration of mind beyond that of any other\npiece of work done in the elementary schools, and because these mental\nactivities are so necessary to the highest results of study in any line, music\nmay be made greatly to help or hinder the development of right mental\nhabits.\nThe music teacher must be more clear-sighted than most teachers to\nrecognize the help that hinders, because the very repetition of melody\nwhich is so important to the unmusical child gives the pupil with quick\near and good memory help enough to make it unnecessary for him to pay\nthe slightest attention. Many a musical child goes thru the entire course\nof his school life with high credit for his work in music without exercising\nany power higher than that of the parrot.\nIn the discussions of the methods of teaching music, it is sometimes\nmade to appear that to give a child the pasver to carry his own part independently and the use of musical terms in which to clothe his thoughts\nabout music is to deprive him of the finer qualities which it seems the peculiar province of music to develop.\nBut nothing could be wider from the\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nmark; in fact, the broader view of music adds to artistic excellence rather\nthan detracts from it. That the music teacher may be so poor in her power\nof presenting the subject that pupils become antagonistic toward it is too\noften the case, but this is as often true of the teacher who works for artistic results only as of the one who neglects the artistic in exaggerating the\nimportance of the technical. The proper balance between the artistic and\nthe technical in music teaching is like the golden mean in all things, seemingly difficult to attain.\nA real study of the child brings out the fact that there is a time in his\nlife when learning to decipher musical notation is a real joy. At this time\ngaining familiarity with the symbols of music and acquiring musical terminology are more pleasant tasks than committing songs to memory. To\ndo this work early gives the child the technical skill which should accompany his advancing taste, and forestalls the opposition which is seen the\ncountry over in high schools, where students, unable to read music,\nscorn that which they are capable of performing. A Httle more technical\nskill enables them to conquer the difficulties in a grade of music which\nmeets the demands of their cultivated tastes, and then the high-school\nmusic is a delight to all who take part either as performers or as listeners.\nWe see, first, that the preconceived notions of the adult musician create\ndifficulties for the child, making him fearful of many things that in themselves would cause him no trouble — as key signatures, modulation, accidentals, compound measure, high tones, rapid execution; second, that\nyoung voices are high, and songs of a low range cause a strident or breathy\nquaUty of tone; third, that flexibility and freedom of execution are the\nnatural heritage of the child, and to omit all embellishments from music\nfor the child is like depriving him of the bicycle because it requires agility\nof movement; fourth, that until the voice begins to change, boys have\nhigh, clear, voices which are best developed thru songs of a wide range;\nfifth, that boys should sing thru the mutation period with much care that\nthe compass used be only that which is easy, and that the tone be free,\neven at the expense of being noisy; and sixth, that proper balance of the\ntechnical and the artistic in music teaching awakens interest, lays a broad\nfoundation for future study, and furnishes just the elements needed in an\nideal course of study.\nShall we not concede, then, that the important thing is so to teach that\neach day gives the student greater power to solve his own problems, and\nthat whether we hear entrancing music in the school-room is of far less\nmoment than that the music teaching be one of the forces that adds to the\nupbuilding of character? If this work is so planned that at each step\nthe power, ability, and taste of the child are considered in their relation\nto his highest development, music must take its place as a vital factor in\neducation.\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMISTAKES\n\nOF THE\n\nMUSIC\n\nTEACHER\n\n8oi\n\nDISCUSSION\nViCTORiNE Hartley, supervisor of music, Berkeley, Cal. — We, as supervisors of\nmusic, have not been dictatorial enough in demanding the place where our subject belongs\nin the regular school curriculum — in the heart and soul of every\" child and student from\nthe kindergarten thru the university. We are too willing to take the scraps of time,\nthe tag ends; willing, ready, and happy to be the sandwiches.\nAs to where the blame lies that the profession of teachmg ranks the lowest amongst\nthe learned professions: that lies with the teachers themselves. I firmly believe that\nI, as a teacher, have the second-highest calling — that next the mother. With this feeling toward our work and with our subject — what a power to lead each child to its best!\nI believe that Miss Crane is right when she says we must forget selves and become\nhumble, and go into our work with the \"love that never faileth.\" No child will love\nhis work, be willing to work in it and for it, be interested in it, if he does not realize\nthat love is there.\nWith this love of the child, we must understand him, and reach him from his viewpoint; and with our \"mature views\" tucked away for mature people, we will have a\npower which no other in the community has.\nIn regard to a fixed plan for presentmg a subject, no truly successful teacher ever\ndoes the same thing twice in the same way if she makes a study of her children and the\nconditions which surround them. There is, however, a right and a wrong way, and,\ntoo often to the child's detriment, no way at all. There should be a general plan reaching the child thru as many avenues as he has. A child likes system, he likes to see a\ndevelopment and a growth; he does not like things at sixes and sevens, and he has no\nrespect for the teacher who is lacking in these things; hence, he has no respect for the\nsubject.\nAs to the preparation on the part of a music teacher — this is the most serious problem\nin our work. Coming from the ranks of piano and voice teachers who have not had\nschool experience, much harm has been done. It is true she should have broad information oh the subject and the detail at her command, but a supervisor must be able\nto work with the individual — not alone altogether — ^but with the mass.\nI heartily coincide with what Miss Crane says on the child voice. Let it be\nnatural. No set of instructions can be followed, but each child's voice must be constantly and carefully watched. If the teacher has love, tact, knows her subject and\nher children, each boy and girl will be singing as he or she should, with correct quality.\nWe agree that songs should be taught first, last, and always; that these should consist\nof the best of all there is. This list should include those that stir the emotions, teach\nlessons of patriotism, valor, love of nature and the beautiful; should consist of beautiful and true melodies and harmonies, The child expects an education thru song, and\nto sing these songs mechanically and in a dead way — any child will rightfully refuse.\nTo me the technique or the mechanics of music must go hand in hand with the\nsong. It is a fact, and a sad fact (as stated by Miss Crane) that some school music\nconsists only in singing songs. The aim in teaching music is not that the child is to\nbe amused. He demands his tools, and they can be given him without drudgery. Again,\nthe personality and tact of the teacher must be present. The public school must fit\nits children for life, or better, help them to \"fit themselves.\" Are we making artists?\nIs that our aim ? No, we wish to make men and women who are able to take their\nplaces in the world. It makes no difference what that future is musically, we must\ngive him his \"tools.\" If he is to become an artist — well and good; a soloist, member\nof a choir, club, chorus, glee-club; he may wisll only to sit on the bleachers and sing\n\"All Hail the Blue and Gold\"; perhaps it is to \"join in\" around the campfire or\nfireside; but let us give hun the \"tools.\" It may be he will only sing to himself or herself as he follows his plow, drives his horse, sits at his desk, sweeps the floor, or washes\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ndishes; still we must give the tools. The mechanical appeals to certain natures and\nto all children at certain ages. They Hke to decipher, they love the history of things\n— the why of things. I have seen boys changed from incorrigible, surly fellows thru\nthe study of minor scales.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON TERMINOLOGY\n\nTo the members of the Department of Music Edtication of the National Education Association:\nAt the closing session of the Department of Music Education last July, it was voted\nto refer matter of actual terminology, needed to cover the adoption and use of a measure sign consisting of a nimaeral above the third line of the staff and a quarter-note or a dotted\nquarter-note below, to the Committee on Terminology to report at the next meeting.\nFollowing is the report of the committee:\nArabic numerals, either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, or 12, placed on the staff directly after the\nsignature and above the third line, show the number of beats in a measure.\nA note, either a quarter or a dotted quarter, placed in parenthesis under the numeral,\nrepresents the length of one beat and is called the beat-note.\nThe numeral and the beat-note thus grouped constitute the measure-sign.\nIllustrative statements\ncovering proper terminology:\nThe tune \"America\"\nis written in three-quarter measure.\n\nThe chorus \"How lovely are the\n\nMessengers,\" is written m two-dotted-quarter measure.\nThe above forms of statement were adopted at Denver in 1909, and are recommended\nfor general use when speaking of music written with the conventional measure -signs :\n\nIn place of \"two-two time, three-eight time, four-four time,\" say as above: \"The\npiece is written in two-half measure, three-eighth measure, four-quarter measure.\"\nDouble-sharp and double-flat. — ^The following items concerning the double-sharp and\ndouble-flat adopted at Denver contrary to the report of the committee were referred\nback again:\n3c The double-sharp is a character which causes a staff degree to represent a pitch\ntwo chromatic half-steps higher.\n2,d The double-flat is a character which causes a staff degree to represent a pitch\ntwo chromatic half-steps lower.\nThe committee resubmits that portion of the Denver report in its original form as\nfollows:\n3c The double-sharp is a character which causes a sharped staff degree to represent a\npitch one half-step higher.\n3 J The double-flat is a character which causes a flatted staff degree to represent a\npitch one half-step lower.\nConcerning minor scales the committee reports as follows:\nPrimitive Minor {ascending). — ^The minor-scale form having minor sixth and minor\nseventh above tonic to be called Primitive Minor. Illustrative examples: A minor:\na, b, c, d, e, f, g, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b flat, c.\nPrimitive Minor (descending). — Same pitches in reverse order.\nHarmonic Minor {ascending). — ^The minor-scale form having minor sixth and major\nseventh above tonic to be called Harmonic Minor. Illustrative examples: A minor:\na, b, c, d, e, f, g sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b, c.\nHarmonic Minor {descending). — Same pitches in reverse order.\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n803\n\nMelodic Minor (ascending). — ^The minor-scale form having major sixth and major\nseventh above tonic to be called Melodic Minor.\nIllustrative examples: A minor: a\nb, c, d, e, f sharp, g sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a, b, c.\nMelodic Minor (descending) . — Same as the Primitive.\nOther matters referred to the committee at the Boston meeting are as follows: \"It\nwas voted that the matter of terminology as to use of words 'pulse,' 'beat,' *after-beat,'\nand 'half-beat' be referred to the Committee on Terminology.\" — Volume of Proceedings.\nAfter considerable correspondence both within the committee and outside, it seems\nbest to ask of the Department of Music Education more time for consideration.\nRespectfully submitted,\nCharles I. Rice, Chairman\nP. C. Hayden\nWm. B. EllNNEAR\nLeo R. Lewis\nConstance Barlow-Smith\n\nMUSIC\nARTHUR\n\nFOOTE,\n\nIN THE COLLEGE\nCOMPOSER,\n\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nThe question of music as a part of the regular college curriculum brings\nus back, sooner or later, to a consideration of the preliminary training\ngiven in preparatory schools; for that reason it is well to speak of the\nmatter here. Forty years ago music was hardly thought of by most\npeople as forming a possible part of real education, at least for boys; and,\nin spite of the stimulus that had been given to our musical training thru\nsinging schools by Lowell Mason and others, music in primary, grammar,\nand high schools was then generally limited to rough-and-ready \"singing\nby rote, if indeed there were singing at all. So far as men's colleges were\nconcerned, music showed itself only thru undergraduate glee-clubs, and occasional small orchestras. But the beginning of better things was at hand;\nfor in 1869 John K. Paine delivered a course of lectures at Harvard, within\na few years becoming professor of music there; while in 1875 Hugh A.\nClarke was appointed to a similar post at the University of Pennsylvania.\nThese two events are significant in connection with the study of music in\ncolleges upon an academic basis; by which I mean the study of the theory\nof music in complete form as, e.g., mathematics and Latin are studied.\nAltho college authorities have been, and still are, slow in admitting music to\nthe curriculum, and in spite of the fact that, in the minds of many, it is\nstill on probation and must justify itself as a significant part of education,\nremarkably good progress has been made. So many colleges and universities have followed the lead given that it will not be long before one without a musical department will be the marked exception.\nColleges may be divided into two classes as regards the sort of musical\ninstruction given: (i) those in which tMfeoretical study is combined with\nwhat are called \"practical\" or \"applied\" music courses; and (2) those in\nwhich the work done is confined to the theory and history of music.\n(By\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\npractical courses are meant those in which instruction in piano-, organ-,\nviolin-playing, etc., and singing are given.) In some colleges of the first\nclass practical courses predominate to such an extent that we have really\na conservatory in combination with a college, while in others they have\nless prominence. In institutions remote from large cities this arrangement must be regarded as natural and appropriate, for the playing and\nsinging side could not otherwise be taken care of. Such colleges are, and\nwill be, more numerous than those of the other sort, in which only theoretical music study is pursued. These latter will be of necessity small\nin number, and restricted to such as are in or near musical centers, such\nas New York, Boston, Chicago. Of women's colleges it is probable that\nin the future, as now, the great majority will lay some stress upon the\npractical courses, while giving due attention to theory and history.\nThere is also a great deal of attention now being paid in all these colleges\n(both for men and women), to courses that simply help toward cultivation\nand a general understanding of music by those who may even neither\nsing nor play. Such are appropriately called \"appreciation\" courses; by\nthem students are intended to get a knowledge of the history and development of music, of musical form, and perhaps something of harmony; music\nis played to them, described, and analyzed. (It may be remarked that\nthe mechanical piano players have proved of great service.) In these ways\nmany young people are given their first intelligent conception of music,\nand learn to regard it as something of an intellectual, as well as emotional\nand sensuous nature. There can be no question of the value of such\ninstru(ition for the average student who \"likes\" music, and who needs to\nbe guided toward the liking of it with intelligence. These courses demand\nas high a degree of pedagogic skill as the more abstruse, higher, theoretical\nbranches, as well as cleverness and tact; it is encouraging to see how\nsuccessful and fruitful they can be made.\n«\nIt will illustrate fairly well just how we stand on the general question\nif we take two typical sets of courses actually offered last year — the first\nin a college where \"applied\" music is necessarily made a part of the scheme,\nwhich is as follows: harmony, counterpoint, form and composition, history\nof music, piano playing, and choral culture. Credits are given toward\na degree for all of these, and they are open to Juniors and Seniors. The\nsecond set is offered in a college situated practically at one of the musical\ncenters, for which reason no courses in playing or singing are needed. We\nhave harmony, advanced harmony, counterpoint, canon and fugue, free\ncomposition, history, appreciation, for each of which credit is given toward\nthe degree; the simpler subjects are intended to be taken by Freshmen,\nand the others subsequently in their order in the following years; degrees\ncum laude and summa cum laude are given for music as a separate study.\nA number of students of this second college have gone successfully into\nmusic as a profession, largely because of the opportunity which they had\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE COLLEGE\n\nthere to begin to fit themselves for such a career, and to learn whether\ntheir abilities justified such a course.\nThese colleges are but two out of many where well-directed work is\nbeing done — a remarkable exhibition of growth during the last generation.\nWhile these two are for men only, the same thing is true as regards those\nfor women, and those for both men and women. Indeed, it is quite possible that, in the future, co-educational institutions will go ahead of the\nothers; those which are supported by the state will be able to offer such\ninducements as will bring to them the leaders in musical education from\neverywhere.\nAn additional fine feature exists in most colleges in the student choruses,\nmany of which attain a high degree of excellence, while in some cases\nthere are also orchestras of students.\nThe general condition is fairly well shown by a quotation from the\nreport made by a committee of the Eastern Educational Music Conference,\nin 1910, altho this investigation confined itself to New England, New\nYork, and New Jersey, and in so far is incomplete. Of forty-seven colleges,\nabout one-half grant credit for the study of music leading to the degree\nof A.B.; nine of them grant credit in entrance examinations, the percentage of credit varying from .07 to .15. About 125 students have\nreceived such credits, and the same number have failed — a fact showing\nthat the requirements are not small. While we have the other 50 per cent\nof colleges that do not encourage music, the preceding statement shows\ngreat progress in the right direction.\nAll that has been thus far spoken of is very encouraging to those of\nus who are watching the healthy, normal growth of music as a part of our\nnational life; but there is one depressing thing that we find: as in other\nbranches of education, our national defect of lack of thoroness in fundamentals, and in early training, forces itself upon the attention. The\ngreat difficulty that confronts teachers of music in colleges results from\nsuperficial early work. Just as piano teachers will tell you of pupils who\ncome to them for advanced instruction but are unable to tell a minor\nchord from a major one by hearing, so in colleges we find a great many\nstudents entirely unable to hear music with any intelligence.\nAnd this brings us to the intimate connection of the college and the\npreparatory, or high school. The lack of training referred to need not\nexist; I have in my mind high schools in New England of which the\npupils have given music like Haydn's oratorio of the Creation, Mendelssohn's Hymn of Praise, Cade's Crusaders, and there are, of course, such\nscattered thruout the country. But as a rule the teaching of music in\nschools leaves much to be desired.\nIt is, however, a simple thing for a competent instructor to teach highschool pupils thoroly and fundamentally up to a satisfactory point. The\nmethod should be about as follows: first of all, pupils to sing intervals\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\n(with knowledge of what intervals they are singing, e.g., major thirds,\nminor sevenths), this being done without reading notes, and in fact before\nnotes are used at all. Then they should practice singing intervals from\nnotes; this first work must progress by small degrees, and with the greatest\nthoroness. It is the most important thing of all, and will take more time\nthan an average teacher will think of putting into it; the interest of the\npupils must be kept alive by the occasional introduction of a pretty song,\neven if sung by rote. The next step will be reading simple melodies at\nsight, and the practice of little songs in two parts; finally songs in three\nor even four parts can be read and practiced. Reading intervals and\nmelodies at sight ought to be kept up as a daily exercise, while the difficulty\nof the songs can be increased more quickly than would seem possible to\none who had not seen the work that is really done in our best schools.\nThe principles of modulation should be taught, and the simpler things\nin harmony, such as triads and their inversions, seventh chords, etc. The\nbasic thing is that pupils should hear with their eyes, i.e., get musical\nconcepts from the written note, and see with their ears, making mental\npictures of the intervals sung. A recent investigation of the present\nstatus of high-school music in New York, New Jersey, and New England\nshowed eighteen schools offering courses in harmony.\nThe experiment has been made of including piano-playing, etc., in the\nhigh-school musical course, and with some success; so radical a step as\nthis must, of course, justify itself, and one cannot come to a definite conclusion from the small number of instances at hand.\nTraining in singing, however — the easiest, most attractive, and best\nintroduction to music that girls and boys can have — ought to be included\nas an essential part of every high-school course of study; and it should\nbe substantially on the lines indicated, for so pupils would at least know\nthoroly what they were expected to know.\nInasmuch as colleges are coming to include music, i.e., harmony, and\neven counterpoint, among subjects offered at the entrance examinations,\nit is of vital importance to them that the average training in preparatory\nschools be better than it has so far proved to be, the alternative being a\nlowering of the standard for entrance; and to the great majority of highschool pupils, for whom the school represents the highest point in their\neducation, it is of even greater consequence. Music, as one of the humanities, should be offered to every child; to teach it well simply requires the\nsame sort of ability as does the teaching of other subjects; while the common-sense way of going to work is so obvious that there is no excuse for\nthe state of things too often found, unless it be an excuse that parents\nand school committees neither realize the value of musical training nor\nthe importance of having the best equipped teachers possible.\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n807\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrederick E. Chapman, director of music, Cambridge, Mass. — ^The interesting\npaper to which we have listened appeals to me particulariy, because I think Cambridge,\nMass., where I have taught for many years, was the first city in the United States to\nintroduce harmony and counterpoint into the high-school course.\nAt first it was not considered a major subject, but it was particularly beneficial to\nsuch students as contemplated a normal course. This, I think, was in the year 1899.\nThe next year, in consultation with the late Professor John K. Paine, then professor\nof music in Harvard College, we determined to ask the college authorities to accept\nharmony and counterpoint as subjects for which credit would be allowed in an entrance\nexamination.\nTwo years later the privilege was granted, and since then several universities and\ncolleges have followed the example.\nTwo points for each subject are allowed, and the studies may be taken in place\nof various subjects counting the same number of points, single or in combination.\nIt is not uncommon today to find harmony, counterpoint, musical history, and\nappreciation among the subjects in the curriculum of many high schools thruout the\ncountry.\nMr. Foote says, \"The great difficulty that confronts teachers of music in colleges\nresults from superficial early work\"; and later he says, \"the lack of preparation referred\nto need not exist.\"\nIf this is the case, I can see two reasons why it would be true: First, the amount\nof time devoted to the study of music in the public schools today is insufficient to accompUsh the work reqmred in college-entrance examinations — an average of fifteen minutes\na day for ten months, approximating about forty or fifty hours a year. Secondly, the\nambitious instructor of music in the high school, who wishes to have his pupils elect\nmusic as one of the courses, with the prospect of using it in an entrance examination to\ncollege, consults the latest college requirements in music, and, while he is surprised at\nthe scope of the examinations, nevertheless he bends his energies, \"hitches his wagon to\na star,\" with the result that he cannot reach the goal, because of the profound requirements and insufficient time for teaching on the one hand, and immature minds with\nwhich he is dealing on the other.\nDo we forget that the average age of the pupils entering the high schools today is\nmuch less than when we entered the high school ?\nMental growth, as a rule, does not run races with the ph)rsical; they go along together\ntoday as in the days of our forefathers, however much educators would have it otherwise.\nAn \"enrichment of courses\" has been, and still is possible, but the heights will never\nbe reached at a bound.\nOn my recent visits to some of the well-known universities and colleges from Massachusetts toLower California, I find that, where music forms a conspicuous part of the\ncourses of study, the requirements seem to me to be beyond the possibility of the average\nhigh-school pupil to acquire in so short a time as is allowed for music study in the secondary schools. And when I asked how many pupils elected music with the anticipation of\nfollowing the course in college, the instructors have invariably said:\nThe requirements for entrance examinations are beyond the capacity of the average\nhigh-school pupil, and he naturally shrinks from attempting what he feels he cannot\naccomplish; therefore the classes are small.\nThe high-school music teachers, of course, do not wish to be considered superficial,\nyet their pride and ambition is to place in their osurse an outline that will appear to the\ninstructors in college as calculated to meet their entrance requirements. They admit\nit is pretentious, but in most cases it attempts only to cover what is required by the\ncollege.\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nReferring to high schools in New England which have given Haydn's Creation,\nMendelssohn's Hymn of Praise, -Gade's Crusaders, etc., I am convinced after hearing\nschool children attempt to sing these compositions and others of the same caliber, that\nwhile it is possible and advantageous in some respects to have excerpts from these masterworks studied by pupils of the modern high-school age, the works as a whole should rather\nbe heard than attempted by the school chorus. This is not impossible, as adults' choruses\nwhich render such works are common.\nThere are obvious reasons why high-school choruses should not sing such works,\none because of the voice limitations of the pupils of the high-school age, another because\nthese compositions were not conceived by the composers for immature voices, and therefore an adequate performance is not possible under such circumstances.\nI quite agree with Mr. Foote that \"It is a simple thing for a competent instructor\nto teach high-school pupils thoroly and fundamentally up to a satisfactory point,\" and\nthere comes the rub — what is a \"satisfactory point\"?\nFrom my experience in attempting to prepare classes to pass successfully the collegeentrance examinations in harmony and counterpoint, I would limit the instruction to a\nstudy of harmony thru the dominant-seventh chord and its inversions; to the ability\nto harmonize melodies with the use of these chords; in counterpoint, to a thoro understanding ofhow to use the first four orders in single counterpoint.\nI feel confident that this much is possible within the time limit now allowed, and to\nthese two subjects can be added musical history and appreciation with the usual chorus\nsinging, orchestral and glee-club rehearsals being held outside of school hours.\nUnder present conditions I believe no more should be attempted, and to this end the\ninstructors of music in the universities and colleges should so modify their entrance\nrequirements in music as to meet these conditions.\nTeachers of music in colleges and secondary schools should reach an understanding\non this matter, and then, with a comprehensive course outlined for both institutions —\ncollege and high school — a saner and more feasible plan will prevail.\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nIDA M.\n\nFISHER,\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nTO SCHOOL\n\nDIRECTOR OF MUSIC, STATE\nSAN JOSE, CAL.\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMusic represents life instincts. It is a natural expression of human\nfeeling and activity. Joy, the strongest life-giving emotion, can be no\nbetter expressed than thru the medium of song. The Httle child naturally\nsings when he is happy. This instinct of song is in him tho often very\nimperfect. It can be brought out if his sensibilities are touched. It is\nour duty to train this emotion so that he may have the higher mode of\nexpressing his feelings.\nEducation has too much neglected those things which lead to the cultivation ofthe emotional instincts. The highest function of emotion is\nto stimulate thought which shall develop ideals — ideals which make us\nlong for the world to be better and more beautiful. There is no one who\nhas ever fully participated in or listened to good music but has felt this\nlonging. Music in its very nature is an inspiration for higher and better\nthings. Thru its medium the feelings may be expressed more clearly than\nin any other way. The loftier and profounder the feeling, the higher the\nclass of music required to give it expression. A person without deep emotions\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nTO SCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\n809\n\nin life is satisfied with a dime novel or a coon song; but as his life develops\nhis character and broadens his sensibiUties, he is better able to understand\nShakespeare and Beethoven.\nThe advancement of civiUzation depends upon the growth of the\nChristian ideal of the brotherhood of man. Poetry and music have developed out of the effort to express this common feeling. It therefore devolves\nupon us as teachers to cultivate this manifestation of feeling in order that\nthe individual may get not only the highest enjoyment out of life for himself, but that he may also feel it his duty toward his fellow-men to assist\nin making the world better, thereby aiding his brethren in leading truer and\ndeeper lives.\nChorus-singing gives this inspiration as nothing else does. There is\nsomething unexplainable which takes possession of and forces one who\nat first seemed indifferent, to yield to this influence and to join with the\nothers. Before he realizes, he is enjoying himself and finds that he is\ndoing his part in producing something beautiful, and he soon accepts it\nas a pleasant duty and listens with enjoyment to the delightful harmonies\nwhich result from the united efforts of all. After repeated attempts he\nfinds that he, like the rest, has this power of song and by being encouraged\nto continue finds his own taste and power stimulated and developed. Many\nbeautiful voices are discovered that might never be heard if not given\nthis opportunity to sing with others, thus overcoming that natural timidity\nwhich often prevents their attempting it if compelled to sing alone.\nA good chorus composed of a whole assemblage which sings at regular\nperiods, daily, if possible, is necessary to every school whether large or\nsmall, primary or advanced. This is the time when all can join in one\nsentiment. Thru the singing of beautiful songs expressing thought common\nto all the school becomes unified and the school spirit intensified. Loyalty\nto any school is strengthened by school spirit and anything that strengthens\nthis spirit, which cultivates a love for one's alma mater, is worthy of our\nmost careful and systematic consideration.\nToo much care cannot be taken in the selection of songs. One should\nconsider the ability of the average pupil and choose accordingly. The\nmore talented ones will enjoy singing easy songs and those less talented\nwill be more willing to attempt to sing if given songs not too difficult.\nThese songs should possess the spirit of broad sentiment. In our cosmopolitan country the people necessarily believe in a great variety of creeds,\nand there cannot be good, hearty singing if even a few resent the sentiment\nexpressed. All should unite with a harmony of thought in order to produce the right effect. I have noticed, in many schools, songs given for\nchorus that might well be sung in church, but not broad enough to appeal\nto the school composed of all denominations. School songs should also\nmanifest a great variety of sentiment, should body forth all the healthy\nmoods, in order properly to bring about the training of the different emo-\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "8io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ntions. Select the songs carefully for each day's program. Let the first\nbe one that will add to the joy of living, then a prayer for guidance thru\nthe day; and for closing, one of a miscellaneous character.\nAt present, when we have access to such an abundance of good song\nmaterial, there is no excuse for giving anything but the best both in musical\nconstruction and thought. Every song should be selected for some definite purpose, either to strengthen a sentiment, or to train for the appreciation of some musical composition. This will eventually raise the\nstandard of music, for when the mass enjoys the good they will demand\nit and discard the poor. Why is the music given to the public in Germany,\nItaly, and other foreign countries of the best? Because that is the only\nkind accepted. The people demand it. They have no taste for the commonplace, since they have been trained from childhood, even generations\nback. What a pity that music typical of our country should be represented bythe rag or the coon song. It is a grave injustice to our composers\nand singers, but will continue to be so until our work is effective and\nchanges the drift of public sentiment toward our music.\nIt therefore seems to me that the greatest duty before us is to uplift\nthe standard of American music. We can do it, it is not impossible if we\ngo about it in the right way; that is, train our boys and girls to appreciate\nthe good and accept but the best. This is the only way by which we can\nreach the high ideal toward which we as supervisors and teachers are\nstriving.\nFrom this chorus are developed such organizations as chorals, glees,\nand orchestras, which give an opportunity to those specially talented and\ninterested to devote extra time to this subject. At the start it is well to\naccept whatever talent presents itself and work from that as a point of\nbeginning. One need not become discouraged if conditions are not perfectly satisfactory at first, for they will improve and the clubs will grow as\ninterest increases. These organizations assist greatly in assembly by\nproducing cantatas, chorals, selections from oratorios, or any composition\ntoo difiScult for the large chorus. They help to elevate the music in\nevery way, aid in creating an incentive to higher aspirations in those less\ngifted, also train and develop the talent in those belonging.\nMusic is very closely related to all school activities. Take it away\nfrom physical culture and it is like removing the framework from a house.\nThe incentive is gone. Watch the child on the playground and see how\nhe enters the game — with his whole heart and soul; he forgets himself\ncompletely and participates for the joy there is in it. Have you forgotten\nhow often and how much you loved to play \"Jolly Miller,\" or \"London\nBridge,\" and how heartily you sang? What a child gets from the joy of\ngetting becomes a part of him — he never forgets it. The folk-songs and folkdances which have sprung from the common people have charm in their\nvery simplicity and naturally appeal to the mass.\nHere the teacher gets\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nTO SCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\n8ii\n\nclose to the instincts of the people. This class of music has a great mission\ntoward inspiring people, to sing.\nAn annual flower f^te in May is a beautiful custom of any school.\nThis can be a general exhibition of the games, dances, and songs, and\nshould be a matter of development thruout the year. As the giant Sequoia\nup in the Sierras begins its life in a tiny seed, so our May Fete of San Jose\nState Normal and Training School began with the kindergarten babies\nin an expression of the happiness of springtime and flowers, and has grown\nduring the ten years since its start into one of gigantic proportions. It\nnow includes all the departments from kindergarten on thru primary,\nintermediate, grammar grades, normal students, and faculty, and is\nundoubtedly considered one of the most beautiful things which California\ncan show. This follows in a way the old English May Day.\nAt least a month before the event the queen is chosen by the children\nfrom among the pupils of the upper grammar grades. The fact is impressed\nupon their minds that their choice must not be governed by beauty alone,\nbut also by such qualities as kindness, gentleness, and dignity which become\nany gracious ruler.\nA beautiful California May Day, the canopy of blue above which\nrivals any blue of the skies of Italy, a background of trees, a little world\nof grass and flowers, inclosed by garlanded bowers, tiers of seats with\nthousands of spectators reminding one of the old Greek theaters, or the\nold Roman Coliseum, gives some idea of the picture of the arena in which\nthis pageant is to be enacted. The faculty first enter and take their places\nin a booth prepared for them. Then the line-up and march of 700 normal\nstudents, garbed in white with wreaths and garlands of yellow and white,\ntheir school colors. When all are in position, they burst forth with one\ngrand paean of welcome in \"May Morning.\"\nThen the several departments of the training school enter, each to a\ndifferent fancy step, they also in white and decorated with wreaths and\ngarlands, increasing in strength of color, from the baby blue and white\nof the kindergarten on thru the delicate tints of pink, lavender, and yellow\nto the bright crimson of the seventh and eighth grades. Now all is in\nreadiness for the great event, the entrance of the queen. In her chariot\nof white roses, drawn by six boys wreathed and garlanded in the crimson\nof her department, she makes her approach as all rise and sing \"Greeting\nto the Queen,\" and at a signal, shower her with flowers.\nAfter the coronation of the queen, all to song by over a thousand fresh,\nyoung voices, in which they vow their allegiance and faithfulness, she\nbegins her rule by signaling for the games to begin. There are games\na plenty, quaint Httle folk-dances, beautiful flower drills, an idealized\nGrecian ball game, a chariot race, all so spontaneous and with such grace\nof motion that one would hardly guess a guiding hand had ever taught\nthem.\nThe mind can scarcely conceive of a more beautiful picture.\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThe words of the old songs ring over the inclosure and the singers seem\nto forget themselves in their parts. The chorus of 700 girls sings with\nthe students for all the games. This lends strength to the rendering and\nmakes it possible for the words to be heard.\nThe spectators revive the memories of their childhood in witnessing\nthe happiness it gives the children. The spirit of joy and love of the\nbeautiful reaches its height when all departments join in singing and\ndancing \"The Looby Loo.\" Then, for a climax, the Queen descends from\nher throne and leads all in the May Pole Dance, when there are five May\npoles with ribbons flying and children singing and dancing, all happy in\ntaking part in this innocent, healthy pleasure. Thus the exercise closes with\nthe aim of leaving with the children the most beautiful memory possible.\nIt remains for me to discuss briefly one of the phases of our work,\nusually the most neglected of all. I refer to that of invention or composition. There should be more opportunities given the student whereby\nthis talent could be developed. One I would suggest takes the form of\na school contest in the writing of original songs. This naturally falls into\ntwo divisions: what we choose to call *' jolly-up\" songs and \"school\nsongs.\" The first-named are necessary and give great pleasure to the\nstudents. If encouraged and guided by the supervisor, they will arrange\nmany clever ones that can be used in games and debates and general jollification meetings. These songs aid as nothing else can to spur on those\ntaking part to greater effort and often to victory. The second-named,\n\"school songs,\" will be of a more dignified class and of greater value to the\nschool. A loving-cup was recently given our school by two of the alumni\nmembers to encourage school activities. Amongst other contests between\nthe Juniors and Seniors was one for a school song. While ours is not a\nschool of music, nor can there much time be given to the individual, yet\nthe result was very gratifying. From this incentive our students composed\nall the songs for Junior-Senior Day commencement week.\nThis beautiful symbolic ceremony which embodied the Junior farewell\nto the Seniors was given in the Normal Quadrangle. The Juniors entered\nfrom the corridors to a processional song, bearing garlands of white and\nyellow flowers (symbolic of school spirit) and laurel (signifying honors\nto the Seniors) and outlining the broad walks, formed a guard of honor,\nthru which Alma Mater and her nine muses passed to a dais at the entrance\nof the Quad. Summoned by Alma Mater, groups of students, representing\nthe different departments of the normal, in turn entered, each bearing\nthe floral offering symbolic of the course portrayed, and laid it at her feet.\nAfter each department, with appropriate song and fancy dance or drill,\nhad responded to Alma Mater's call, the Seniors came slowly, singing their\nsong, and facing Alma Mater stood quietly a moment, then all bent in a\nsilent salute. Turning, they retraced their steps, followed by Alma Mater,\nher attendants, and lastly the Juniors, all singing their recessional.\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nOUR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSPEECH\n\n813\n\nWhen the whole school jointly sings well, the song becomes a vitalizing spirit and gives an opportunity for visitors to measure the character\nof the school and is a clear indication of the loyalty of the student body\nto the school organization. The spirit that grows out of chorus practice\nreaches the culmination of its use at commencement time, when the studerfts\nhave the opportunity to crystallize their feelings developed during the\nyear in the selection of songs for closing exercises or in the writing of original words and music. After a while it will be found that the music in\nconnection with any entertainment will be particularly adapted to its\npurpose and become symboUc of the occasion, so that this music will\ngradually grow to permanency and can be used from year to year, gradually developed and crystallized, so that the school can have a traditional\nexercise that can be used whenever the occasion demands.\nIt should be our earnest endeavor to have music occupy the place it\ndeserves in connection with all school activities. If placed on its right\nbasis, it becomes a part of the life of each student and naturally creates\na desire to participate in and to hear music. It will also cultivate a taste\nfor the best in music and Will ultimately raise its standard.\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nFRANCES\n\nAND\n\nELLIOTT\n\nOUR NATIONAL\n\nCLARK,\n\nCAMDEN,\n\nSPEECH\n\nN.J.\n\nThere is no clearer indication of the culture of an individual, a nation,\na \"race, or a civilization than the clearness, accuracy, beauty, and refinement of the speech. Speech in some form, tho crude and rough, is as old\nas the human race. In the infancy and childhood of man, speech was first\ninarticulate sound, giving expression to the most elementary needs of the\nhuman animal. As the race progressed, speech grew and took on the\nelements, first of necessity, and then of beauty, of culture, and the expression of the inner life. The degrees of civilization of the ancient races may\nbe marked by the inflection and developments of their language. We\nfind the ancient Hebrew, living in a time when surrounding nations were\nstill half savage, using beautiful language, figures of speech, writing and\nusing poems of high order, and a vocabulary of rare and wonderful words.\nNowhere in all the world is found more beautiful and more poetic expression of human love, hope, fear, trust, praise, and divine aspiration than\nin the books ot the Old Testament.\nThe ancient Greeks wrought a civilization that has been the wonder of\nthe ages. The height of this glory was expressed in the inflections of its\nlanguage and in its arts. The Latins have impressed their progress upon\nthe world, not so much by chivalrous deec^g and works of skill or inventions\nof utility, as by their language, which stands until this day, the root mother\nof the languages of the western world. Those ancient and forgotten centuries are lighted for us, as with beacons, with the oratory of Demosthenes\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Music\n\nand Cicero, and the wisdom of Plato and Aristotle, in the most beautiful\nspeech. The European countries, developing their civilization from the\nGreek and Roman, have still carried into the various families of tongues\nthe main characteristics of the Latin. Thus we find the French, the\nSpanish, and the Italian closely related, with very many similar words and\nsimilarities in constructions, each adding to the mother-tongue such modifications and peculiarities as were found in the speech of barbarous nations\nand races in different countries to which it was carried. These, thru the\ncenturies, have taken definite form, and so given to the world the beautiful, soft, liquid speech of the southern races, reflecting the languorous life\nof the southern climate, the open-air existence, and the quick passions of\nthe Latin people.\nIn the German we find a more vigorous expression, the more guttural\nsounds of the prehistoric race of Goths. Later the religious temperament,\nthe calm, clear judgment, the strong respect, honor, and veneration for\nthe home life, brings to us the German in its strength, beauty, and tenderness in religious and home expression.\nIn the North, we have the wilder, forest-living Saxons, Angles, Celts,\nSlavs, and Normans. The blending and amalgamating of these races\nbrought forth a wonderfully vital speech, a new speech that expressed in\na homely way at first the highest ideals and the most commonplace necessities oflife. As one invasion after another swept over the Isles of Britain,\neach left a residuum of speech that gradually melted into the conglomerate\nwhole, each expressing some thought peculiar to the race or country from\nwhich it came. Because of these numerous contributions to the original\nspeech of the native tongues, the English language during centuries of\ngrowth has come to be a very wonderful vehicle of expression of human\nneeds and human ideals of a great number of the world's inhabitants. It\nhas grown century by century, by accretion from all other tongues, particularly the Latin, from which it originally came, and the German or Saxon,\nthe Norman-French, and a large percentage of the original Celtic.\nNow the speech of these northern peoples originally abounded in the\nconsonants, which were difficult of enunciation, and were consequently\noften mouthed and obscured, reflecting the difficult existence of the fisherman, the seafaring and mountain life of the early inhabitants.\nThe soft Italian, with every word ending in a vowel, in contrast to the\nWelsh, with its unpronounceable consonants, furnish us an . interesting\nchapter in the history of the races. Yet because of the effort required to\nenunciate the difficillt consonants, our Welsh singers of today are shining\nexamples of clear diction. For political and other reasons, French was\nthe court language of the world thru many centuries, because of the intermarriages and personal relations of the royal families of Europe, and the\nhomage paid to the more highly sensitized speech of the French court.\nThe English tongue was not for many years brought forward and\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nOUR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSPEECH\n\n815\n\nhonored as a finished language even among English-speaking peoples. It\nis interesting to note that the present Queen Mary is the first British queen\nin long years, and there have been only a very few in all history. The\nEnglish royal family has always been French, or German, or anything\nbut EngUsh.\nTo realize the reasons why English has not been the vehicle of the\nmusic of its own world is to go back a long way into the history of the\ncountry.\nIn the years before the Roman invasion, the natives had a music that\nwas far in advance of the southern countries. The early Irish used a form\nof notation engraved on stones before Hucbald. The Irish and Scotch\nhad gone far in the use of the harp and the pipe before the rest of Europe\nhad awakened. This was all crushed and broken in the series of conflicts\nbetween the rival houses and later under the Puritan regime.\nAt the time that Bach and Handel began what we know as modern\nmusic, English was suffering musically under the fanaticism of the Puritans\nwho had connected the evils, the revelry, the disgraceful debauchery of\nthe courts of Henry VIII and of Elizabeth with music, and so had placed a\nban upon this most beautiful of the arts, thus retarding the development\nof music in England for 200 years. In the earlier years, the minstrels of\nthe North, the harpers with their glees, lilts, songs of home and love-lyrics,\nhad surpassed the world. The Irish monks forming new monasteries in\nSwitzerland and other countries carried with them the beautiful songs of\nIreland — and in folklore there was nothing so beautiful; but this later\nabuse of music by royalty had worked irreparable harm to its development.\nSouthern music was not so handicapped, and came to fruition by natural\ndevelopment. For 400 years Europe has been developing and fostering\nmusic, but note, each country in its own language.\nComing to the last fifty or one hundred years, the great work in composition has been, of course, done in Germany, Italy, and France, each\ncomposer, naturally, writing in his native language. When we in America\nturned our attention particularly to music, only about fifty years ago, it\nwas the most natural thing in the world that our aspiring singers should\nstudy music in the only obtainable form. As the years have passed and\nwe have developed a vast number of voices whose art has startled the world,\nit has been inevitable that our singers should give themselves fully to the\nstudy of the great music of the world in its original form. Hence, it has\ncome about that every young singer of any degree whatsoever, has felt the\nabsolute necessity of perfecting himself in Italian, French, and German.\nUntil recently it has seemed to be of not the slightest moment whether his\nnative English were spoken or mumbled. His life was being given over\nto song; song was foreign; therefore, why bother about the English?\nWithin the past ten years there has been considerable stir in different\nsections, with varying degrees of earnestness, as to the possibility of\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nhaving opera in English. Opera in English has always meant English opera,\nwhich reduced the matter immediately to the lighter form of the GilbertSullivan sort, or of the still lighter and meaningless operatic extravaganza.\nThere has been a well-defined opposition on the part of foreign artists to\nattempting to sing in English. They voice a baseless prejudice against\nthe English tongue as a singable language. Our own artists, foreigntrained, have mostly been lukewarm, skeptical, or openly antagonistic,\nowing to the difficulties in obtaining translations that preserved the thought\nof the original with some attempt at making the EngHsh words fit the\nmusic, and at the same time make sense.\nThe feeling of the foreign artists against English as a singing medium\nhas been, first, their rooted prejudice against the English tongue, and second\ntheir unwillingness to put themselves to the trouble of mastering another\nlanguage when it was not demanded. Our artists going to the other side\nknow perfectly well, years before they go, that any recognition or engagement over there presupposes a working knowledge of the language. Nobody thinks anything about it— ^it simply has to be done; therefore they\ndo it.\nThe foreign languages are a part of the curriculum of every well-regulated high school in our country and of course of the colleges and universities.\nA student preparing to go abroad to study music will study arduously\nthe Latin, French, and German for months and years, and then by a term\nof residence abroad, work with unremitting ardor to perfect the accent.\nDuring these years of strenuous attempts to acquire other accents and\ninflections, and living where English is seldom spoken and infrequently\nheard, it is no wonder that our own artists become careless in their English\ndiction. The foreign artists know that it matters not a pin whether they\nknow a word of English or not. Their recognition here rests only upon\nmusicianship, and we madly applaud and pay fabulous sums to hear grand\nopera, and understand not a single word of it. This would not be possible\nin any country in Europe. There, opera must be sung in the language\nof the country.\nThe foreign artists find difficulty with many of our consonants, preeminently the th. The French and German both find this sound distinctly\ndifficult. It is not one whit more so to them than the nasal French n or\nthe guttural German ch is to us. The difference lies in the motive power.\nWe must; they need not if they do not choose. There is now a well-defined\nmovement to remedy these conditions and to bring about a reform in the\nmatter of having opera sung in English; first, by our own composers creating\ngrand opera in our own tongue; second, by having scholarly translators make\nmore singable translations of the foreign make; third, by educating our\npeople, our children, to love opera and then to demand it in our language.\nA society has been formed in New York for this particular purpose,\nheaded by David Bispham, known to all of you, who is an exponent and\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nOUR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSPEECH\n\n817\n\nshining example of the possibihties in clear diction of the English tongue.\nMany of our own greatest artists are heartily in favor of this movement —\nare lending support to it, and promising their aid in furthering the project.\nMr. Dippel and Mr. Gatti-Casazza, managers of the great opera companies,\nare promising some grand operas in English for next season. Mr. Dippel\nfeels very strongly on the subject, and is entering upon a campaign to give\nAmerica a national opera. There are many forces at work in various\nparts of the coimtry, looking toward the same end, determined that we\nmust emancipate ourselves and demand our music in our own language\nthat may be understood by everybody.\nNow this, as I see it, can come in one way only — that of reaching\nin some way the growing youth of our land — the coming generation —\nand lifting them into a higher realm of appreciation and respect for\ntheir own language, and an ability to use it in a way that shall command\nthe respect of other nations. This cannot be done in the teaching of reading and elocution, from the fact that in the ordinary teaching of reading\nin the schools so much attention must be given to the thought, the spelling, the form, that vocal expression has ceased to be a vital part of the instruction. Teachers of reading are in many cases exceedingly weak in\nvoice culture. Studies have multiplied at such a pace that our children\nare taught to grasp thought, to scan the page, to gather rapidly the idea\ncontained, and scant attention is given to the vocal expression. Good,\nplain, musical reading is almost a lost art in our schools. We teach the\nchildren to think so fast, to work with brain and hand at such a rate, that\nthe voice has been sadly neglected.\nWe are criticized abroad unmercifully for the crudeness of our speech.\nEurope smiles indulgently but superciliously at the Americanisms in out\nspeech, the shrill, high tones of our women, and the rough, imcultured\ntones of most of our men. A newspaper article a few days ago gave an\namusing account of schools being opened in London, and many prominent\nteachers advertising to teach Americans and Colonials \"English.\" The\narticle stated that there has been so much demand on the part of Americans\nwho find their speech distinctive and provincial that such schools have\nbecome a necessity. To cure the high voice of our women, they prescribe\nwhispering — they say that the universal habit of the rising inflection at\nthe end of words, which is of Indian origin, can rapidly be modified. They\nalso assert that it is almost impossible \"to cure the American nasal twang\ncompletely after it has become thoroly habitual.\"\nLoyal as we are to our own, it must be confessed that seven-eighths of\nour speech is provincial — is of many different dialects, shades, sorts, and\nkinds. Even among the cultured people, the speech in different localities differs as widely as among the uncultured. Just, which is the real or\ntypical speech, and in just what locality in all this land shall we find the\ncorrect t5rpe-form of American speech ?\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nWe are perfectly well aware that in the mother-country there are dialects, and that the misplaced h and the ow and the o are as differently used\nin different sections of London, as are the different sounds of a in our own\ncountry. Being nearer the shores of classic England, our New England\nstates preserve the broad a in much more distinctive form than is found in\nany other section, and is without doubt most nearly the English accent.\nThe calf path of the Bostonian is, however, as obnoxious to the Ohioan\nand the Hoosier as is the fiat a to the ears of the dweller in the seacoast\ncities. In the Middle West the extreme broad a is an affectation, a pose,\nand subject only for ridicule. The short a is used in every word possible.\nCiinH is a joke, and pass and grass are \"stuck up.\" I well remember\nrehearsing diligently in a singing school, to acquire clear articulation, a\nline running thus: \"Aunt, Grant, Can't, Chant.\" The long o becomes\nmore nearly the aw in many places in the Middle West, as in naw for no;\nwhile in the East in many instances it is more nearly ow^ as in \"Don't you\nknow.\"\nIn the southern states there is the perfectly charming dropping of final\ng, and the changing of the final r to ah, giving to us deah, doah, Sindfloah —\nmusical, but impossible to the people in any other section. As if to balance\nthis dropping of the r in the South, the New Englander tacks an extra one\non, giving such words as idear, mammar, etc.\nIn the Middle West there is unusual carelessness in the use of the different forms of the verbs see and go; the correct tense-form seemingly being\nof impossible mastery. There is equal difficulty in the use of the personal\npronoun. Almost everywhere there is unforgivable carelessness in the\npronunciation of many common words, to say nothing of long lists of words\nin common use, altho of foreign extraction.\nThe picturesque slang of the newer West has filtered thru the entire\ncountry, finding most productive soil in the colleges and universities. All\nthe efforts of the teachers in English in these higher schools seem to be\nabsolutely inadequate to stem the tide of this expressive but inelegant\nspeech. Truly, we are in a serious difficulty in our attempts to measure\nup more and more each year to the standards of Europe in culture, refinement, and art. Now, what is a possible remedy ? It is hopeless to expect\na uniform speech to result from any teaching of reading, but here is a\ncurious and quite disregarded fact. Did you ever know or realize that\nwhile our speech differs so radically in different sections of the country we\nall sing comparatively alike ? Is this not the strangest thing imaginable ?\nDid it ever occur to you as the panacea for our ills of speech ? The singer\nfrom the farm in Ohio or Indiana, having studied even a little singing,\nwill pronounce in singing almost, if not quite, the broad ah of the Bostonian.\nThe short a's, while common in speech, sound so flat in singing that almost\nunconsciously it broadens into the correct sound. One who will invariably\naddress a relative as Aunt, will quite certainly sing dancing, rather, land,\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nOUR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSPEECH\n\n819\n\netc. The dropping of the r in the southern singer is not conspicuous in\nsinging, while the quick volatile speech of the typical westerner does not\nappear in the singing of good music.\nIf singing be properly taught, the articulation and enunciation is much\nmore clearly brought out than is ever done in ordinary speech, and as I\nhave said, the result is virtually the same in all sections of the country.\nWe all sing much better than we talk. Is it not then obvious that schoolmusic supervisors who have in hand the musical training of the children\nhave a wonderful opportunity for correcting much of the imperfection in\nspeech and of building at least a singable pronunciation by teaching the\nchildren to sing with correct diction ? Now this is not a daydream nor at\nall an impossible task, neither should it be regarded as an extra burden to the\nalready busy supervisor, or to the crowded courses of study. It simply means\ninfinite pains at the beginning and all the way up thru the grades, insisting\nthat every syllable and every word in every song shall be clearly understood.\nIt is with the younger children that the effort should be made to establish correct habits of articulation. This will not come by chance but\nmust be done by distinct and definite drills and exercises. Now these\nlast two words have been banished frorn our vocabulary for some years,\nbut I believe we are all coming to realize that however hard we may try to\nmake our work beautiful, to lead the child gently by means of play, and to\nuphold his interest and affection for the work by making it beautiful at\nevery turn, yet there are some things that absolutely demand a certain\namount of old-fashioned drill, and this matter of articulating our mothertongue is one of them. It is not too much to teach little children the proper\nposition of mouth for the vowel sounds, and to give little songs particularly\nadapted to following up this teaching.\nChildren in kindergarten may be taught how to sing in the front of the\nmouth, a long, round 0, the long 00, the long e, the long a, the bright ah,\nor aw. We may make it a game and they enjoy it as well as another.\nThe flexibility of lips, jaw, tongue, and throat which comes from such\nvowel exercises, is a very valuable acquisition in all his future life in singing and speaking. Beginning in the kindergarten and coming along thru\nthe grades, the utmost care should be taken to enunciate distinctly every\nconsonant, whether initial or final, and in any combination.\nEvan Williams, who is a remarkable example of perfect diction, has\ngiven in a series of lessons a melody on each vowel of the alphabet, prefaced by every consonant of the alphabet. It is a wonderful exercise, and\nwithout doubt the children practicing on these would acquire great facility\nin diction. Another composer has written a little booklet of six vowel\nsongs, bringing out in delightful little ^ong-form the vowel sounds.\nAnother composer has published a book based upon the tone development using the vowels.\nSome years ago I derived more help in this particular field from a book-\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nlet of lessons by Frederic Root, Chicago. Mr. Root has given a great part\nof his professional career to this matter of diction, and in the booklet gave\nmost helpful suggestions and exercises. He, in common with Sieber and\nothers, uses to splendid advantage the Italian syllables, la, be, da, me, ni, po,\ntu. These syllables give the long vowel prefaced with liquid or labial\nconsonants, are most helpful, and may be applied to any vocalized exercise\nor melody. The syllables of our major scale are almost equally good, but\nwe have used them carelessly so long that it takes extra effort to induce\nproper care in their use.\nIn these lessons of Dr. Root is a couplet of a stanza of familiar song\nwhich I have used with children of grammar grades to splendid advantage,\nwith its original melody or chanted on the tones of the tonic chord:\nThe dew lay glittering o'er the grass,\nA taist lay over the brook,\nAt the earhest beams of the morning sun,\nThe Swallow her nest forsook.\n\nAny exercise of this sort that helps the children to gain control of the\norgans of speech, to render flexible the muscles of the face and throat, is\nvaluable. One I have used many times to vitalize the breath muscles\nand (Revitalize the throat, jaw, and tongue, is to chant softly the alphabet\nthru, with extraordinary effort at enunciation, but the merest thread of\ntone, and a perfectly flexible throat. Another most excellent exercise in\ncontrol of the facial muscles and forming of mouth, is to pantomime the\nwords of any familiar stanza of poetry or verse of song. This, of course,\nproduces facial contortions which are ludicrous in the extreme, but it\nbrings the desired results. With it I have many times broken up the immobility of mouth with boys of grammar age, who insist in speaking,\nreading, and singing with the teeth nearly closed, and immovable jaw and\ntense facial muscles. It is great fun — the children enjoy it, and you get\nwhat you want — distinct enunciation. Ask a pupil who does it well to\ncome before the class and pantomime a stanza that all have studied, and\nsee if they can read from the lips and guess the selection.\nAnother stanza in Professor Root's book has been used for this tongueloosening with splendid effect, sung a line to each note of the scale or chanted\non different tones:\nHere is a subject for close contemplation\nBy every singer of whatever station;\nOne to be met without weak consternation,\nBut with invincible determination,\nGiving it carefullest consideration,\nScorning depression and spurning elation,\nTill we've explored every ramification\nOf this most wonderful thing in creation.\n\nThere are many poems of standard classics that are excellent for practice; Tennyson's \"Brook\" and Poe's \"Bells\" are most excellent.\nIt is\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nOUR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSPEECH\n\n821\n\nUtterly absurd for us to permit our foreign critics to assert that the English\nis not a singable tongue. We have brought this upon ourselves, by ourselves, by our utter indifference, and carelessness in teaching in schools\nand elsewhere. It is not enough that our children can vocalize with respectable tone on a broad ah — we must go farther and insist that the words of\nthe song shall be intelligible — not some of the words only, but every last,\nsingle syllable, down to the prepositions and articles. It rests with the\nmusic supervisors to bring this reform. It is the only way in which it can\nbe done.\nHow To Aim The Voice\nPARISIAN SAVANT\n\nDECLARES\n\nFEW\n\nPERSONS\n\nSPEAK DISTINCTLY\n\nParis, June 17. — A distinguished Parisian laryngologist, Dr. Pierre Bonnier, has\nbeen telling the public for some time past that in addition to not knowing how to eat or\ndrink or sleep or dress or walk, men do not know how to speak properly.\nAccording to his theory, the more we try to hear oui^ voices at a distance from us\nthe farther the voice is produced in front of the vocal mechanism, which adopts the room\nin which we are speaking, as an extension of itself. In other words, the ear should aim\nat the point which the projected voice should reach, just as the eye, in taking in the distance of a mark, unconsciously directs the arm which throws a stone at it.\n\nMany forces are at work to bring about better musical conditions\nthruout the country. Promoters of opera in English need and should have\nour unqualified support. By actually teaching the children in the school\nto sing correct English, to appreciate the beauties of our own speech, thus\nlifting the standards in English everywhere, we can give this impetus in\na thousand times more practical way than by merely wishing the project\nwell, and condemning it with faint praise.\nWe Americans pay more money for grand opera than any other country\nin the world, and understand less of it. The children who are today in\nour schoolrooms are to be in the next decade the opera-goers and critics.\nLet us make it possible for them to have sufficient faith and loyalty in the\nlanguage of their own country to demand that their opera shall be given\nto them in intelligible form.\nLet us cease demeaning our own mother-tongue by blind worship of\neverything foreign, whether it be bad or good, silly or sensible. The\nEnglish speech has come to be the universal language of the world. Let\nus honor it by treating it with the respect that is due, and by means of the\nmusic in the public schools let us do our part in hastening the day when\nAmericanisms shall cease to be a reproach. With all due apologies to\nJ. G. Holland we paraphrase:\nGod give us English. A time like this demands\nTeachers, whom the lust of cramming does not kill;\nSingers, whom the lure of Eurojjp does not spoil:\nAmericans, who possess opinions, and a will,\nAnd love for native tongue, and flag, and soil;\nArtists, who can stand before the cry and clamor\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "822\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThat shrugs \"Impossible\" and deems our opera a fable;\nGreat artists, sun-crowned, who live above the glamor\nOf foreign \"atmosphere\" and tongues of Babel.\nFor, while our people with their careless tongue and speech\nMurder our language, spite of all we teach\nIgnore our own composers — lo, Apollo sleeps.\nAlien song rules the land, and waiting English weeps.\n\nTHE OPPORTUNITY AND THE RESPONSIBILITY OF NORMAL\nSCHOOLS IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL MUSIC\nC. A. FULLERTON,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF MUSIC, IOWA\nSTATE\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nIn this discussion I am assuming a very positive need for musical culture\nin our country. I am assuming that the type of citizen that must be developed in America will not only be trained to intellectual discernment and\nmanual efficiency so that he may become a good machine for earning money,\nbut that he be a man of high ideals and pure motives so that the money\nwhich he earns shall be wisely spent in administering to his own needs and\nto the needs of society. I am assuming that in the development of the\nhigher life of this citizen, art in general and music in particular, will have\na large part.\nThe kind of recreation which occupies the leisure hours of our people is\na factor of tremendous significance in determining their place in modern\nlife. The distinction between the people represented in the \"rogues'\ngallery\" and those represented in the \"hall of fame\" is much more pronounced inthe line of emotional trend and emotional training than it is in\nmental discernment or in manual dexterity. In mental discernment the\n\"rogues '-gallery\" crowd would compete quite favorably with the others^\nwhile in \"manual dexterity\" they would outclass them. The difference\nbetween these two classes — the enemies of society and the benefactors of\nsociety — ^is largely a difference in ideals and motives, and, excepting religion,\nthere is no greater single influence in society for raising the standard of life\nthan the enriching and ennobling power of good music. The first step\nin the music education of the masses of the people is to realize the value of it.\nMy topic is the opportunity and responsibility of normal schools in\nmusic education. The phenomenal growth of the past few years in publicschool music is but an expression of a growing desire on the part of the\nmasses of the people to have their children experience the benefits of music\nin their lives. Public-school music is the conservatory of the common\npeople, and it outstrips in its influence any other conservatory of music\non the globe. It offers opportunities for the promotion of musical culture\nthat have not been equalled in the history of the race.\nThis rapidly increasing interest in school music gives the normal school\na special vantage ground in music education. The music education of\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\n823\n\nthe people is largely in the hands of the public-school teachers, the responsibility being divided between the regular grade teacher and the special music\nteacher or supervisor. So far as the regular grade teacher is concerned, a\nfew have studied singing with private teachers, a gradually increasing number, but a small percentage of the whole, have had the benefit of school\nmusic thruout the grades and high school and are fairly well equipped to\nteach the subject, but the great majority of grade teachers in the public\nschools are helpless in the music work unless they have had some special\ntraining for it. Now the normal school furnishes the only adequate opportunity for the training for this music work.\nOf all the state normal schools in our nation, a large majority require\nat least two terms of music for prospective grade teachers. The first\nproblem for the normal schools is to use these two terms in the most effective way, and the principal purpose of this paper is to make some suggestions\nin this line. Thirteen years' experience in the department of music in a\nnormal school has given me a very firm conviction that, from any viewpoint\nthat may be taken, these two terms of music far exceed in importance any\nother phase of music work in the department if the best use is made of the\nopportunities offered in them.\nMy faith in the possibilities of this elementary work is so strong that I\nbelieve a new era in musical culture would dawn if every normal school in\nthe United States were to begin by placing the principal emphasis on the\nmusical growth and training of its general student body. The beginning\nclass in music should be a vital force in the school. It should be a class in\nmusic in fact as well as in name. If it is merely a class in \"note-reading,\"\nand in the \"elements of music,\" and in \"methods,\" and what not it is\nall right to speak of it with the apologetic air that is sometimes used; but\nif the spirit of song is ever present in the class, if growth in musical efficiency\nand in musical appreciation is constant, if the teacher not only has the\nenthusiasm and tact and judgment that combine to make the inspiring\nleader, but if his methods are such as to place his work in line with the best\neducational ideals of the twentieth century, then the conditions are supplied\nfor developing a department of music that will be worthy of any educational institution.\nIt will not do to underestimate the importance of using the very best\nmethods in these classes. If there is any teacher who needs to discriminate\ncarefully between the good and the best- in methods, it is this teacher of the\nbeginning classes in music. Time is valuable, and •it is important that all\nwaste be eliminated and the musical growth of the class be provided for\nalong the line of natural development. It is a matter of small concern\nwhether a method is old or new, but a matter of tremendous significance\nwhether it is good or bad. The past t^A^lve or fifteen years have brought\nabout a revolution in the methods of teaching public-school music — a\nrevolution that had occurred. in many other lines of public-school work\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\na generation earlier. It is now well established from the standpoint of the\npractical teacher as well as from the standpoint of the psychologist that the\nsong itself forms the basis for school-music work, not only in the first grade,\nbut thruout all of the grades; that technical skill is best developed in dealing with songs, rather than with mere exercises; that the intervals of the\nscale are to become known to children from their musical setting in a song;\nthat a masterful and musical use of rhythm is best developed by mastering\nin a musical way the rhythm of all the songs studied. Old notions are hard\nto break away from and we still find teachers putting children thru a course\nof scale drill as a preparation for teaching them to read music just as their\nancestors were drilled on the alphabet before they were permitted to learn\nto read. And there will be publishers to push the sale of music books\nfounded upon these same conceptions of teaching just as long as the teachers\nwill continue to use such books.\nThese beginning classes for adults furnish a fine opportunity for testing\nmethods. Unless a, symmetrical development is maintained in singing,\nin sight-singing, and in a knowledge of the elements of music, the evil results\nwill soon be apparent. The emphasis that is being placed on the song in\nmodern sight-reading and the written work that is involved in the use of\nthe song as a basis for technical training is bringing in a new era in technical\nskill — skill in the performance of music itself rather than in merely juggling\nwith the elements of music.\nNow what will be the practical results of a general educational campaign\nin music with the rank and file of the students as is here outlined ? One\nfar-reaching, all-comprehensive result will be that everybody will be growing in musical skill and musical appreciation. Students who are to go out\nto teach, with the exception of a limited number, will be prepared to do\nadequately the music work in the public schools. They will prepare for the\npublic-school music by doing the work themselves. They will be able to\nsing, read music, clap the rhythm, and reproduce simple melodies in any\nrequired key. They may not take a very elaborate course in music, but\nwhat they do take will be a part of them. It will not only be in their heads,\nbut also in their hearts, and in their ganglionic centers. The superintendents and music supervisors with whom they are to work will welcome\ngladly all the real musical training they have had, and the schoolroom will\nfurnish an excellent opportunity for their further development musically.\nNow if there were no further results than merely sending out teachers\nwho can sing and teach music successfully in the schools, the music departments ofthese normal schools would justify their existence, and in two terms\nof daily work in a normal school this can be done quite satisfactorily. But\nthere are other results. When everybody is interested in music those who\nhave special musical ability will be discovered, the background will be established for a special school of music if it is desired to have one. When two\nterms of such work are completed, there will be a momentum established\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\n825\n\nwhich carries along into a third term of music. A good appetite will be\ndeveloped for some work in harmony, in the history of music and biography\nof musicians, in musical form and musical appreciation, in chorus and gleeclub work, and private lessons in voice, and if sufficient interest is produced\nin these elementary classes so that enough students apply for private lessons\nin voice to employ a good voice specialist, what school is going to deny them\nthe opportunity?\nSo far as musical appreciation is concerned, it is the student who is\nmaking some definite progress in his own musical growth — who is participating in some way in the performance of music — that is likely to get the\nmost lasting benefit from such a study. Educationally, there is a tremendous difference in the value of a victrola when used in a class of music students and when used with a group of people who are doing nothing for their\nown musical growth. The appreciation of any good thing involves more\ninterest than a mere passive attitude. The educational value of the victrola\nand the pianola is beyond words to express when used by sincere students\nof music whose sincerity is shown by their actual study of music, but when\nused for students who merely expose themselves to the sounds, the result\nmay be merely an affected appreciation which is in reality an educational\nliability.\nSome details concerning the results of emphasizing the elementary classwork in the school which I represent may be of interest. For a good many\nyears the music department consisted of but one teacher who gave piano\nlessons, voice lessons, taught classes, and directed all of the singing. As a\nresult of placing special emphasis on the first and second terms' work, a\nthird term was called for by students of special promise in music. A\nfourth term followed, and for a few years a large number of students completed the four terms of music. This created additional interest in gleeclubs, in the choral society, and in voice lessons and the work of these\norganizations and the voice lessons increased the desire for the further\nstudy of music. The classwork was gradually extended to a course of\nnine terms, or three years, for music supervisors. Last year there were\nsixty students taking this course. The course is shortened to two years for\ngraduates from fully accredited high schools who have had considerable\nmusical training. It consists of harmony, history of music, sight-singing,\near-training, methods, supervision, conducting, musical appreciation, aided\nby the pianola and the victrola, theory of music, the study of the childvoice, practice teaching* in the training school, private lessons in voice and\npiano, and a considerable amount of scholastic and professional work, including history, rhetoric, literature, elocution, nature-study, sound, psychology,\nschool management, and history of education. There are similar special\ncourses in voice, piano, and violin. Tli^ large number of special music\nstudents helps to develop a musical atmosphere, and the musical atmosphere\nhelps to develop the music students. Three glee-clubs for women and two\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n■ [Music\n\nfor men are constantly maintained. A choral society of 150 prepares an\noratorio to be given at the May Music Festival with the Thomas Orchestra.\nThis year's was the ninth. Three voice teachers are employed for special\nvoice work. They gave 4,226 private lessons during the past year. Ten\nmusic teachers are required to do the work called for in these various lines,\nbut emphasis is still placed on the work in the elementary classes. The\nwork, however, is not so elementary as it once was. Our music law, which\nrequires that music be taught in all the schools of the state, has assisted\nmaterially in leveling up the mu^cal experience of students before entering\nour school, and owing to this previous knowledge and to the improvement\nin methods, they are able to make much better progress than the classes\nformerly made. The general musical interest in these classes is in no way\nhindered by emphasizing the elementary work. On the contrary it is\naugmented. I question if our use of the pianola and victrola is more effective anywhere than in the weekly performances in these classes.\nThere is no doubt that there is a wide difference in the conditions for\nmusical development in the various normal schools. Some of these schools\ndo not aim to do more than to prepare teachers for work in the grades and\nin the rural schools, while others are being transformed into teachers'\ncolleges in which not only rural and grade teachers are trained, but highschool teachers, principals, and superintendents, and all the special teachers\nemployed in the public schools. In the musical preparation of the grade\nteacher the elementary normal school may have certain advantages over\nthe teachers' college in having a more liberal allowance of time for this work,\nwhile the teachers' college would be expected to furnish more educational\nstimulus and maintain a higher level in musical standards. In either case\nthe opportunity in music education is a rare one, and the responsibility\ncorrespondingly great. Notwithstanding the splendid work that is being\ndone, there is urgent need for a well-organized campaign in the musical\npreparation of the grade teacher, and it must be waged mainly by normal\nschools. Let us enlist the co-operation of the best musicians that we may\nkeep our musical ideals high; the co-operation of the professional educators\nthat we may be guided by right educational ideals; and the co-operation of\nsuperintendents, principals, and music supervisors, that we may give these\ngrade teachers the practical training that will enable them to do satisfactorily the work assigned to them.\n«\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPte.iidenl — Frank E. Lakey, English High School\nVice-President — Winfield S. McKinney, Englewood High School\nSecretary — Sherwin Cody, 14 i i Security Building\n\nBoston, Mass.\nChicago, 111,\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 12, 191 1\nThe first meeting of the Department of Business Education was called to order in\nGolden Gate Corinthian Hall at 9:30 a.m. by Charles H. Murphy, principal of the Commercial High School, San Francisco, Cal., who in the absence of Frank E. Lakey, the\npresident of the department, introduced the vice-president, Winfield S. McKinney,\nEnglewood High School, Chicago, as presiding officer of the session and acting president\nfor the meeting.\nRegistration blanks were filled out, showing an attendance of about sixty.\nThe first paper was on \"Bookkeeping Fundamentals,\" by Winfield S. McKinney,\nEnglewood High School, Chicago, III.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Teaching Typewriting for the Best Results,\" by\nJames S. Curry, High School of Commerce, Cleveland, Ohio. This was discussed by\nStephen Dwan, head of Commercial Department, Broadway High School, Seattle, Wash.;\nCharles H. Murphy, principal of the Commercial High School, San Francisco, Cal.;\nand Alexander H. Thomson, teacher of commercial subjects, Napa High School, Napa, Cal.\nThe next paper was by Sherwin Cody, Chicago, 111., on \"Business English: What?\nWhy ? How ? \" and was followed by questions and a general discussion, participated in by\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, president. University of California, Berkeley, Cal., Stephen Dwan,\nhead of Commercial Department, Broadway High School, Seattle, Wash., and others.\nC. W. Childs, of the Manual Training and Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal.,\nread the next paper on the program, on \" Commercial -Economic Geography.\"\nA motion was made and carried that the second item of the program on Friday\nshould be a discussion of \" Curricula in High-School Commercial Departments,\" and\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, president of the University of California, Berkeley, Cal., was\nespecially invited to be present and take part in the discussion.\nThe following resolutions were then read by the Secretary:\nWhereas, The rapid development of commercial education thruout the United States\nand the world gives rise to many important problems as to the relation of the private\nbusiness college to the commercial high school, the courses of study best suited to a broad\ncommercial education, and the ways in which the highest success can be obtained in each\nindividual branch of commercial teaching; and\nWhereas, In the United States there is no governmental central authority to direct\nthe course of education, especially commercial education, and this central work must\nnecessarily devolve upon some national voluntary association such as the National\nEducation Association, which means (as far as commercial education is concerned) the\nDepartment of Business Education of this Association; and\nWhereas, We believe that this department should enlist the interest of all commercial teachers thruout the United States, and the money they contribute as membership dues should largely be devoted to gathering and printing in authoritative form the\nbest information as to courses and methods; therefore be it\n827 appoint a committe of five, of whom one\nResolved, That the acting president shall\nshall be the president to be elected for the ensuing year, one shall be a representative of\nthe private commercial schools, one a representative of the pubUc high-school commercial\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\n^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ndepartments or higher schools of commerce and finance, one a business man interested\nin : commercial education, and the fifth a representative of the commercial textbook\npublishers; and with these shall be associated a committee containing a representative\nof each state in the Union, this associate committee to be chosen by the preceding committee of five. It is further\nResolved, That this committee shall be considered permanent until its existence is\nabolished by vote at the regular annual meeting of the Department of Business Education\nof the National Education Association, tho its membership may be supplemented or\nchanged at each annual meeting, as may seem best to the department, and vacancies may\nbe filled during the year by the president of the department.\nThis committee is instructed :\n1. To invite every commercial educator thruout the country to become a regular,\npermanent member of this department;\n2. To ask the Board of Directors or body of active members of the National Education Association to appropriate a certain sum for investigation, and permit the addition\nto this sum of all fees received in answer to the solicitation for new members;\n3. To collect information as to the courses of study now being pursued in representative schools, both public and private, together with a clear statement of the reasons\nwhich determined each course;\n4. To ascertain in what schools the highest success is being obtained in the teaching\nof each individual commercial subject, and to obtain from the teacher or director a clear\nstatement of the reasons and methods thru which this success has been obtained; and\n5. To report on the importance of having a special director for public-school commercial work, and if this director should be a teacher, or a business expert, or a teacher and\na business expert consulting together, or if it is advisable to have the assistance at all\nof a business expert not experienced in teaching;\nAnd to carry out such part of this work as the committee finds itself able to accomplish, taking into consideration both the time of its members and the money that shall be\nat its disposal.\nThe acting president appointed as a committee on nominations the following:\nA. B. Way, head of Commercial Department, High School, Petaluma, Cal.\nLorenzo D. Inskeep, vice-principal, Manual Training and Commercial High School,\nOakland, Cal.\nStephen Dwan, head of Commercial Department, Broadway High School, Seattle,\nWash.\nThe meeting was then declared adjourned until Fridav, July 14, at 9:30 a.m.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 14, 191 1\n\nThe second session of the Department of Business Education waff called to order\npromptly at 9:30 a.m. by Winfield S. McKinney, the acting president, with in persons\npresent.\nThe first paper was by Alexander H. Thomson, teacher of commercial subjects,\nNapa High School, Napa, Cal., on \"Shorthand — Its Educational and Practical Value.\" A\nsecond paper on the same topic was given by George A. Clark, Leland Stanford Junior\nUniversity, Stanford University, Cal.\nThe special discussion on the topic, \"Curricula for High Schools of Commerce in\nthe United States,\" provided for by special vote of the department on Wednesday, was\nintroduced by a paper read by Charles H. Murphy, principal of the Commercial High\nSchool, San Francisco, Cal. A discussion followed, in which the following took part:\nC. W. Childs, Manual Training and Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal.; Albert\nG. Morse, teacher of mathematics. Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, Cal.; Reginald R. Stuart, head of Commercial Department, High School, San Jose, Cal. ; Paul L.\nEvans, Berkeley, Cal.; Stephen Dwan, head of Commercial Department, Broadway\nHigh School, Seattle, Wash.; Lorenzo D. Inskeep, vice-principal, Manual Training and\nCommercial High School, Oakland, Cal.; Mrs. L. L. Harford, Berkeley, Cal.; B. F. Hart,\nHigh School, Westport, Kans.\nThe subject of the next paper was, \"To What Extent Are Teachers Responsible for\nFailures of Students in the Classroom ? \" by Thomas L. Brecheen, teacher of commercial\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "BOOKKEEPING\n\nDepartmentl\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\n\nsubjects, Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal. A second paper on the same topic was\ngiven by C. A. Bernhard, Commercial Department, High School, Ukiah, Cal.\nThe last paper was on \"The Essentials of the Ideal Commercial Teacher,\" by P. M.\nFisher, principal. Manual Training and Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal.\nSecretary Cody then introduced the following resolution, which was unanimously\nadopted :\nResolved, That the three officers of the department be constituted a committee to\narrange the program for next year, and they shall increase this committee to five by\nappointmg two additional members, at least one of whom shall be a resident of the city\nin which the next convention is to be held. It is directed by the Department of Business Education that work shall be begun at once on next year's program, in order that\nthose who shall take part may have ample time in which to prepare worthy papers.\nAlso, if possible, a longer program should be arranged.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was then given, as follows:\nFor President — Winfield S. McKinney, Englewood High School, Chicago, HI.\n*For Vice-President — George E. Myers, principal, McKinley Manual Training\nSchool, Washington, D.C.\nFor Secretary — ^Thomas L. Brecheen, Fremont EGgh School, Oakland, Cal.\nIt was moved and carried that the report be adopted and that the secretary be\ndirected to cast a unanimous ballot for the officers nominated.\nMr. Cody moved the adoption of the following resolution, supplementary to the\nresolutions passed on the previous day:\nResolved, That the committee of five provided for in the resolutions passed on July\n12 by the Department of Business Education be amended so as to make it a committee\nof seven, to include the vice-president and secretary of the department as members\nex officio, and they and the president shall continue as members during their terms of\noffice only, unless reappointed.\nThe motion to amend was duly seconded and unanimously adopted.\nIt was requested that the complete resolutions be read as amended, and they were\nso read by the secretary. At the conclusion of the reading, Mr. L, D. Inskeep, viceprincipal, Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal., offered the following amendment:\nThat the committee of seven consist of the president, vice-president, and secretary\nof the Department of Business Education, and four others appointed by the president,\nstriking out the part of the original resolution specifying how this part of the committee\nshall be made up.\nThe motion to amend was duly seconded and adopted.The meeting then adjourned.\nSherwin Cody, Secretary\n•Since the Convention Principal Myers has resigned and Charles Hart, head of\nDepartment of Practice, Business High School, Washington, D.C, has been appointed\nto fill the vacancy on authority of the Executive Committee of the Association.\n\nPAPERS\n\nWINFIELD\n\nS.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\n\nMCKINNEY,\n\nCOMMERCIAL\nDEPARTMENT,\nSCHOOL. CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nENGLEWOOD\n\nHIGH\n\nIt may be worth while to note some differences between the essentials\nof accounting, which has to do with the construction of the balance sheet\nand a loss-and-gain statement, and bookkeeping fundamentals, which are\nconcerned more specifically with the forms of record and the principles\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nunderlying the rules for determining the proper entries to be made in the\nvarious accounts. The former places emphasis upon the ''why\" rather\nthan the \"how,\" while the latter, not neglecting the \"why,\" gives more\nconsideration to the details of technique, or the \"how\"; but so interwoven\nare the two that it would be impracticable to draw a strict line of demarkation between them.\nAn adequate record of the vital facts of a business should be regarded\nas fundamental. Such a record should be brief, clear, and unequivocal,\naffording the requisite data from which might be constructed a complete\nnarrative or story of the business.\nThe next fundamental in the order of development is the classification\nof business facts into appropriate accounts. (The record and classification of these business facts, or transactions, are frequently combined, as\nin the journal, cashbook, etc., preparatory to transferring to the ledger.)\nBut at this stage of progress much difficulty is encountered because\nof lack of standardization in terminology, which extends to the function\nof accountancy in even a greater degree, perhaps, than to bookkeeping.\nFaulty classification in bookkeeping results in grouping miscellaneous items\ninto accounts which must be analyzed and redistributed in order to obtain\nintelligible results. A standardized terminology is, then, a fundamental\nneed of both bookkeeping and accountancy.\nThe most serious hindrance, however, to the mastery of the technique\nof bookkeeping is due to a lack of a clear understanding of the reasons for\nthe rules for debit and credit.\nSome years ago, I had a personal experience in night school with a\nboy sixteen or seventeen years old, who was just beginning the study of\nbookkeeping by journalizing exercises in accordance with the rule-ofthumb method of arbitrarily using rules.\nAmong other exercises given in the text was one as follows : \" Received\na telegram advising of the destruction by fire of merchandise valued at\n$250.00, shipped to John Doe to be sold on commission.\" When called\nupon to tell what disposition he had made of the matter, he replied that\nhe did not know what to credit, but that he had debited the telegram,\nin accordance with the rule that says, \"Debit what is received,\" etc.\nThis same difficulty is more fully set forth in a footnote in Packard &\nBryant's Counting-House Bookkeeping (ed. 1878, p. 42), as follows:\nBookkeeping is usually presented as the \"Science of Debit and Credit,\" and in\norder to give force to this short and easy definition, authors deem it necessary at the\noutset to establish fixed \"rules for journalizing,\" or rules for deciding the debits and\ncredits growing out of the transactions. These rules are placed at the very threshold\nof the subject, and the student is expected to apply them as a sovereign remedy in all\nhis troubles.\nUndoubtedly these obtrusive little recipes are good for something. Like all empirical remedies, they may do in the absence of a knowledge of the difficulty, or \" until the\ndoctor conies,\" but they are, after all, very weak props to lean on, and are liable to\nbreak and pierce one through. It is better, in the long run, to look at matters as they\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\n\n831\n\nare. There is no \"infallible rule for journalizing,\" no single formula that will apply\nlogically and with equal force to the record of all transactions, and the attempt to simplify\nthe work of journalizing by a rule without reason is not only a weak device, but works\ninjury in the end.\n\nTheir method, however, of obviating the difficulty by providing a\nbrief treatise on political economy, as an introduction to elementary bookkeeping, hardly improves the situation for the usual student of bookkeeping.\nProfessor Hatfield, altho he states in his preface to Modern Accounting\nthat he purposely omits, or treats with scant mention, these important\ndetails of technique, makes some pertinent criticisms upon the use of the\nterms \"debit\" and \"credit\" which serve to throw light upon the subject.\nHe says, that\nthe original meaning of debit and credit is still preserved in personal accounts. But\nthe application of debit and credit to other classes of accounts is more difficult of explanation.\n\nHe further states that\nby a forced system of personification [most writers] have assumed that debit and credit\nin all accounts ....\nshow a relationship of debtor and creditor\nThe\nbetter theory rejects all of this personification and .... treats the two sets of\naccounts as representing two sets of value and meaning, in which debit and credit are\nused conventionally with differing signification; ....\nwhile it is true that most\nof the intervening authors present unquestioningly the naive personaUstic theory, it\nis interesting to note that Jones, who was the first, and Sprague, the latest and most\npenetrating, American theoretical writer, are thus in accord. And on their side are found\nmany of the leading European authorities.\n\nDebit and credit may each properly be said to have a primary, or\nliteral, and a secondary, or extended, meaning. Their primary meanings\nhave reference only to personal accounts. A person is a debtor when he\nowes for something which he has received on account; that is, without\nat the same time giving in return something of equivalent value. A\nperson is a creditor when he is owed for something which he has given\non account, without at the same time receiving in return something of\nequivalent value.\n(Note. — A person receiving or giving something on account is, however, understood to give or receive in return a promise of payment implied or expressed, but not\na note, or negotiable instrument.)\n\nThis has no reference to the side of the account upon which an item\nis to be recorded.\nThe secondary, or extended, meanings of debit and credit apply to\npersonal and all other accounts alike and are properly used to designate\nmerely the side of the account upon which a particular item should be\nentered. In the secondary sense, then, debit means left-hand side and\ncredit means right-hand side, or briefly 'Heft\" and \"right.\"\nIt does not seem advisable to try to revolutionize this conventional\nsecondary use of debit and credit, but if due consideration be given the\nmatter and a practical application of this idea be made by a temporary\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nuse of the terms \"left\" and \"right\" it will be seen how much baffling confusion will be dispelled and the whole situation greatly clarified.\nIt must be borne in mind, therefore, that with reference to personal\naccounts these terms have both a primary and a secondary meaning.\nThe primary meaning is inherent, the secondary meaning is adventitious\nand conventional, and might just as well have been reversed so far as\npractical results are concerned, provided the reversal had extended to all\naccounts. But the form of the personal account, the first established\nin the evolution of accounts, having become fixed by usage, conditions\nand determines the debits (or lefts) and the credits (or rights) of all other\naccounts. This is because of the correlation of all accounts when conforming\nto good technique by having their debits (or lefts) and their credits (or rights)\ncorrectly designated.\nEvery account may have two classes of items directly opposite in character; for example, a personal account may have a primary debit which\nis also a secondary debit (or left) by convention, and a primary credit,\nwhich is also a secondary credit (or right) by convention; cash account,\nan item of cash received which is a debit (or left) by virtue of its sustaining\nthe same relation to its transaction as the debit (or left) of the personal\naccount to its transaction, or an opposite relation to that of a credit (or\nright) item of a personal account; merchandise account, having for its\nopposing classes of items purchases and sales, should be similarly disposed\nof with reference to its debits (or lefts) and credits (or rights), and so\nwith all other accounts.\nThe reference of debits (or lefts) and credits (or rights) to accounts is\nproperly made to single entry in its cruder beginnings, as well as in its\nmore elaborate forms. And since business transaction and quasi-transaction, or business fact, requiring representation in accounts, is dual in\ncharacter, having its two phases or sides, opposite and equal, the complete\nand full representation of both sides of such transaction or fact by\naccounts marks the transition from single-entry to that of double-entry\nbookkeeping.\nThis determination of debits (or lefts) and credits (or rights) of the\naccount fully representing both sides of every transaction, or quasi-transaction, is the very essence of so-called journalizing, and constitutes one\nof the most important of bookkeeping fundamentals. If this be thoroly\nand intelligently mastered by the learner, it will place him upon solid\nground and assure his easy and rapid mastery of the details of bookkeeping\ntechnique, thus fitting him for the important work of constructing a correct\nbalance sheet and loss-and-gain statement, which is an essential function\nof accounting.\nThat the reasons for debit and credit are not as fully understood and\nappreciated as they should be, seems to be borne out by what occurred at\na meeting of the National Business Teachers' Association at Indianapolis,\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\n\nB>7,t,\n\nInd., December, 1908. A paper entitled \"Bookkeeping for Beginners\"\nhad been read and was being discussed by a prominent teacher. At the\nclose of his remarks, in which he had enumerated some very interesting\nmethods used by himself, he was asked what reply he would make to a\nstudent who should ask: \"Why debit cash when it is received ?\"\nThe several dubious replies given in response to a continued pressing\nof this question developed unusual interest; but the answer finally volunteered bya person in the audience and acquiesced in by the speaker,\nseemed not to be entirely satisfactory to all, judging from the many-sided\ndiscussions heard afterward.\nAt the annual meeting of this same body a year later, in Louisville,\nKy., a more general discussion upon this same point disclosed a very great\ndiversity of opinion. Possibly much of this diversity was due to the lack\nof a standardized terminology. Any essential diversity upon such an\nelementary point, in a body of teachers, coming together from more than\ntwo-thirds of all the states of the Union, is an impressive fact and seems\nto justify the criticism made in a publication referring to the discussion,\nthat \"evidently there is need among teachers for some instruction on\nthe fundamentals of bookkeeping.\"\nSince many controversies have been settled thru the disputants being\nled to agree upon definitions of terms, a plea is hereby entered that this,\nwith other elementary points upon which there is essential disagreement,\nbe critically examined and reported upon by a representative committee.\nSuch committee should report its conclusions to a future meeting of this\nbody for adoption, with or without revision, as may seem necessary. If\npractical agreement be not reached, let the report be again referred to\nthe old or a new committee, until practical agreement is reached.\nThis is desirable not merely to facilitate the work of the student, but\nalso to impress more fully upon the educational public the general training\nvalue of bookkeeping and accounting, in systemization, clearness of statement, mathematical exactness, and logical sequence of ideas.\nUpon the other hand, they are vital to industrial and commercial\nprogress. Even their temporary disuse would throw the business world\ninto confusion. These, together with the other commercial subjects,\nincluding industrial history, not only do not totally displace the cultural\nsubjects, but serve to give greater efficiency to business and commerce,\n\"making possible all the marvelous products of master minds.\"\nIt has been truthfully said that \"It is a fact that all of our modern\nhistory of culture is being written from an economic standpoint. Twenty\nyears ago the Italian Renaissance was looked upon as a period of glory\nhardly likely ever to be reproduced in the history of mankind and impossible to be explained. Some of the best studies made of it since have\nshown that it was the outcome of the commercial position of Italy at\nthat time.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\nTEACHING\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTYPEWRITING\n\nFOR THE\n\nJAMES S. CURRY, HIGH SCHOOL\n\nOF COMMERCE,\n\nBEST\n\n(Business\n\nRESULTS\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe importance of a right beginning in anything that merits favorable\nconsideration cannot be overestimated. This is especially true in acquiring\na high degree of skill and efficiency on the typewriter. \"A right beginning\nis the first essential requisite to success.\" *' Well begun, half done.\" \"The\nforming of correct habits at the beginning prevents discouragements, so\ndisastrous to success.\" \"A right beginning is but plodding at the start,\nwhile at the end of the course it assures both facility and efficiency,\" are\nfamiliar sayings with a true meaning.\nIn this day of active competition in the commercial world more is\nexpected of our graduates than in former years. Along with the everincreasing demand upon these young people comes the equally imperative\ndemand upon the teacher for more efficient and effective service.\nOur standard of efficiency as teachers will be determined largely by how\nnearly our graduates succeed in keeping pace with the requirements imposed\nupon them in the office. It is safe to predict that the teacher whose highest\nambition is to draw his salary will accompHsh Httle toward raising the\nstandard of efficiency in the young people under his instruction. On the\nother hand, he who teaches because of his love for the work and the good\nhe may render others will see success written upon the efforts of those\nwhom he would serve.\nThe teacher of tomorrow must do a little better work than he is able to\ndo today. Next year's work must be more successful than the last one\nhas been. The teacher must be alert to the every need of the work in\nhand. He must know the subject he is to teach and the mental weakness\nand strength of every student under his guidance. He must be acquainted\nwith the demands made upon the employee in the office, either thru the\nchannels of actual office experience or close personal observation, that he\nmay best aid the student in preparing to meet the practical problems before\nhim squarely and successfully. If we would have our students work for\nhigh attainments, we must set a right example and do a little of the\nclimbing ourselves. There are too many real students seeking an education\nto justify the tolerance of shams. It behooves us, therefore, to pause and\nreflect. If the teaching of typewriting is to gain the heights toward which\nit is aimed, we as teachers must serve our purpose well. May it be said of\nus, ''Well done.\"\nThere are many elements that contribute to the successful teaching of\ntouch typewriting. As the first of these essential elements I would suggest\nfor every teacher and student the motto: \"He can who thinks he can.\"\nThis motto seems to embody confidence, determination, enthusiasm, a\ndesire to get out of the opportunity everything of value there is in it, and\nimphcit confidence on the part of both student and teacher successfully to\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nTYPEWRITING\n\nFOR\n\nBEST\n\nRESULTS\n\n835\n\nperform his part of the task in hand, all of which are essential to the\nsuccessful teaching of touch typewriting.\nInterest in typewriting should be aroused in underclass students. This\nmay be accomplished in a number of ways. If the students in the typewriting classes are doing the high class of work that should be expected of\nthem, every other student in the school will know it. An occasional typewriting demonstration before the entire school, participated in by the best\noperators from the typewriting department, will arouse much interest, and\nthe effort may prove to be of inestimable value to the participants. A\ndemonstration by a professional writer will show the greater possibility of\nthe typewriter, and often arouse a determination on the part of students\nto equal if possible the record of the professional operator. In this way the\nunderclass students may be made to look forward eagerly to the time when\nthey will be allowed to take up the work of learning to operate the typewriter. When this time shall come, every student in the class, with\nutmost confidence in the ability of the teacher, will be ready and eager to\ncarry out his every instruction.\nIt is an old as well as a true saying that it is a safe rule of education to\nbegin with the easy and end with the difficult, to begin with the simple and\nend with the complex. I would apply this rule in teaching the keyboard\nof the t)^ewriter, and begin with the index fingers. It is well known that\nthe index fingers are more easily controlled than are the other fingers,\nespecially the third and fourth. Altho the index fingers are required to\nperform double duty, fewer discouragements confront the learner who\nbegins with these fingers. Then, too, if the fourth, or little fingers, are to\nremain on the guide or home keys, the a, and the semicolon, it is doubly\nessential that the beginning should be made with the index fingers. The\nsecond and third fingers should be introduced in turn, leaving the little\nfinger to the last. By the time the alphabet is fairly well mastered, the\nlittle fingers should have become so accustomed to the guide-key positions\nthat it would seem but natural for them to drop back into position after\nstriking q, z, or p.\nIt is scarcely necessary to add that the feet of the operator should be\nin front of the chair; that the body should be erect, unsupported by the\nback of the chair; that the elbows should be slightly forward of a vertical\nline with the tip of the shoulder; that the forearm and back of the hand\nshould be on a level; that the finger-stroke should be staccato — quick and\nsharp. These seemingly minor but all-important details should be zealously watched until the strong, iron grip of correct habits is well grounded.\nA right beginning is the first essential requisite to the successful teaching\nof touch typewriting. If absolutely correct habits are formed at the\nbeginning and adhered to thruout the course, typewriting can be learned in\none-half to two-thirds the time usually required where wrong habits are\nformed.\nWrong or faulty habits are most disastrous to the best interests\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEEUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niBusiness\n\nof the beginning student; the teacher should prevent them by every means\nat his command.\nAs a rule, tendencies toward wrong or faulty habits may be prevented\nby repeated personal reminders. Tlie teacher must, however, be ready to\nmeet every emergency that the exigency of the occasion may demand.\nFor example, if necessary to keep the little finger on the guide key, loop a\nrubber band around the end of the finger and attach it to the end of the\nkey bar; or, if the wrist is allowed to drop too low, it may be well to hold\nit in the proper position. The earnest, conscientious, painstaking teacher\nwill find the need of such devices the exception.\nThe teacher should demonstrate every part of the work to be done by\nbeginning students. A demonstrating stand for this purpose is desirable.\nIt is true that the expert typist operates the machine by almost if not\nquite a mechanical process. There is no seeming conscious effort at finger\ncontrol. The finger action is the result of an unconscious response to the\nimpulse of the mind; the result of a perfect subconscious, mental-muscular\ncombination.\nBy the expert, mechanical manipulation of the keyboard is conceded.\nThe beginner should be kept as far away from mechanical practice as\npossible. Preliminary exercises that require constant attention or study\nof the keyboard while the student is practicing them should be given. To\nwrite as a preliminary exercise:\nrtyu\nfghj\nvbnm, or\nasdfghjkl;\n\nor similar combinations, invariably results in mechanical practice from the\nbeginning and a retarding of the student's progress. Such exercises are\ndisastrous to the best interests of the student and should be avoided.\nPreliminary to the first practice of any part of the keyboard it is very\nimportant that the location of the letters, figures, and other characters,\nand the correct fingering should be thoroly memorized.\nMy students begin by memorizing the twelve index-finger letters,\nrtyufghjvbnm,\nwhich require but a few minutes. After the\naccomplishment of this task, the following exercise is first dictated slowly\nto the class and then practiced from copy:\nFIRST-riNGER\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nEXERCISE\n\nfgftfbfrfv fgftfbfrfv fgftfbfrfv fgftfbfrfv fgftfbfrfv fgftfbfrfv\njhjyjnjujm\njhjyjnjujm\njhjyjnjujm\njnjyjnjujm\njhjyjnjujm\njhjyjnjujm\ngfgrgvgtgb\ngfgrgvgtgb\ngfgrgvgtgb\ngfgrgvgtgb\ngfgrgvgtgb\ngfgrgvgtgb\nhjhuhmhyhn\nhjhuhmhyhn\nhjhuhmhyhn\nhjhuhmhyhn\nhjhuhmhyhn\nhjhuhmhyhn\nfgjhtyfbjn frjufvjm fgjhftjyfbjn frjufvjm fgjhftjyfbjn frjufvjm\ngfhjgrhugvhm\ngthygbhn\ngfhjgrhugvhm\ngthygbhn\ngfhjgrhugvhm\ngthygbhn\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTEACHING\n\nTYPEWRITING\n\nFOR BEST\n\nRESULTS\n\n837\n\nIt will be noted that each combination has a central letter with which\neach of the other letters in the group is associated To write these combinations requires almost perfect concentration of the mind and invites a\ncareful study of the location of the letters composing the group, while a\nregular, even touch is being developed.\nAfter locating and memorizing the second-finger characters, e d c , k i,\nthe following exercise is first dictated and then practiced from the copy:\nSECOND-FINGER\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nEXERCISE\n\ndfdrdvdedc\ndfdrdvdedc\ndfdrdvdedc\ndfdrdvdedc\ndfdrdvdedc\ndfdrdvdedc\nkjkukmkik,\nkjkukmkik,\nkjkukmkik,\nkjkukmkik,\nkjkukmkik,\nkjkukmkik,\nfdfefcfrfv fdfefcfrfv fdfefcfrfv fdfefcfrfv fdfefcfrfv fdfefcfrfv\njkjij, jujm jkjij, jujm jkjij, jujm jkjij, jujm jkjij, jujm jkjij, jujm\ndfkjdrkudvkm\ndekidck, dikjdrkudvkm\ndekidck, dfkjdrkudvkm\ndekidck,\nfdjkfejifcj, frjutvjm fdjkfejifcj, frjufvjm fdjkfejifcj, frjufvjm\n\nAfter careful practice and a fair mastery of the foregoing, the third\nexercise comprising the characters w s x . 1 o and the fourth exercise\ncomprising the characters q a z ; p are introduced in turn; these are as\nfollows :\nTHIRD-FINGER\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nEXERCISE\n\nsdsescswsx\nsdsescswsx\nsdsescswsx\nsdsescswsx\nsdsescswsx\nsdsescswsx\nlkliI,lol. lklil,lol. Iklil, lol. Iklil, lol. Iklil, lol. IkUl, lol.\ndsdwdxdedc\ndsdwdxdedc\ndsdwdxdedc\ndsdwdxdedc\ndsdwdxdedc\ndsdwdxdedc\nklkok. kik, klkok, kik, klkok. kik, klkok. kik, klkok. kik, klkok. kik,\nsdlkseliscl, swlosxl. sdlkselisci, swlosxl. sdlkseliscl, swlosxl.\ndskldwkodxk.\ndekidck, dskldwkodxk.\ndekidck, dskldwkodxk.\ndekidck,\nFOURTH-FINGER\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nEXERCISE\n\nasawaxaqaz\nasawaxaqaz\nasawaxaqaz\nasawaxaqaz\nasawaxaqaz\nasawaxaqaz\n;I;o;.;p ;l;o;.;p :l;o;.;p ;l;o;.;p ;l;o;.;p ;l;o;.;p ;l;o;.;p ;l;o;.;p ;l;o;.;p\nsasqszswsx\nsasqszswsx\nsasqszswsx\nsasqszswsx\nsasqszswsx\nsasqszswsx\nI;lplol. l;lplol. Ijiplol. l;lplol. l;lplol. l;Iplol. l;lplol. l;lplol. l;lplol.\nas;law;oax;, aq;paz\nas;law;oax;. aq;paz\nas;law;oaz;. aq;paz\nas;law;oax;.\nsal;sqlpz swlosxl. sal;sqlpsz swlosxl. sal;sqlpsz swlosxl.\n\nThe learner should be taught to strike the punctuation marks with a\ntouch sufficiently light to prevent their cutting or puncturing the paper.\nThe failure to do this from the time of their first introduction is one of the\ncommon faults of teaching. The cutting thru of the punctuation marks is\ndisastrous to the neat appearance of the typewritten page as well as to the\nlife of the platen.\nThe foregoing preliminary exercises, especially designed for beginning\nstudents, may be made exceedingly helpful to advanced students as supplementary exercises. Their continued practice aids materially in the\nmastery of the keyboard. The third and fourth finger combinations prove\nespecially helpful in the development of the weaker fingers.\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nIn addition to the preliminary-supplementary exercises, may be introduced the alphabet exercise which consists of placing each of the vowels,\na, e, i, o, and u, both before and after every other letter of the alphabet, as\nfollows :\nabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayaza\nenunciation\neaebecedefegeheiejekelemeneoepeqereseteuevewexeyeze\nunauthorized\niaibicidieifigihijikiliminioipiqirisitiuiviwixiyizi imaccomplished\noaobocodoeofogohoiojokolomonopoqorosotouovowoxoyozo\nauthoritative\nuaubucudueufuguhuiujukulumunuoupuqurusutuvuwTixuyuzu\nsimultaneous\n\nWith the exception of the pronoun \"I,\" the article ''a,\" the interjection\n\"O,\" and one or two other words, every word in the language contains at\nleast one consonant with a vowel, before or after, or both before and after\nit. This exercise, then, provides a drill upon every possible vowel-consonant\ncombination. Combinations in this and other exercises that are particularly difficult to write should be practiced until every part can be written\nwith equal facility.\nCommon words, such as are to be found in the textbooks, should be\nintroduced following each of the foregoing exercises. Sentences for speed\npractice should be introduced as soon as the student's knowledge of the\nkeyboard will permit.\nThe course thus far outlined will cover about six months in a high\nschool and two months in a business college.\nPractice matter should form the principal part of the work for the first\nyear. Its scope, however, should be broadened so as to include, in addition\nto words and sentences, paragraphs of one hundred to five hundred words,\ntechnical as well as simple composition.\nA definite work should be outlined for each and every day, and late in\nthe first year or early in the second should include both practice and new\nmatter. The work outlined should comprise sentence practice and timing\non the same for one, five, ten, or twenty minutes; a paragraph of about\none hundred words, timing for one minute; once or twice a week, timing\non one or more of the numerous speed sentences and paragraphs; new\nmatter for one, five, ten, and fifteen minutes, deducting five words for\nevery error. Emphasis should be placed upon accuracy in every part of\nthe work. In speed work I would discourage the recognition of anything\nbut absolutely accurate work. Errors cannot be prevented, but the clamor\nfor high speed at the sacrifice of accuracy may be discouraged by placing\na premium upon accuracy. The course should be concluded with a great\ndeal of office practice work, including the copying from shorthand notes as\nwell as from the printed page.\nWhatever may be our method of teaching touch typewriting, let us\nremember that \"He can who thinks he can,\" and that our students never\nattain a higher goal 4:han that at which we as teachers aim. May it be\nsaid of us, ''Well done.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nBUSINESS\nSHERWIN\n\nBUSINESS\n\nENGLISH\n\nENGLISH— WHAT?\n\nCODY, DIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWHY?\nOF\n\n839\n\nHOW?\n\nENGLISH, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nFew people clearly understand the exact difference between business\nEnglish and literary English (such as is taught in all regular public-school\nEnglish work).\nWHAT?\n\nBusiness English deals with facts only, which must be stated absolutely\nclearly, and with strong emphasis. Guess work is fatal. Literary English\ndeals with emotions, impressions, abstractions, arguments. Ease and grace\nof style are essential, while fancy and imagination stand higher than hard\nfacts. Excessive emphasis is in bad taste.\nBusiness sentences are short and simple. Literary English allows\nlong, rolling sentences.\nBusiness English represents good conversation, and colloquiahsms\n(even slang if not touched with vulgarity) are absolutely required to give\npersonal force of appeal. The standard of purity in literary English is\nbased on book usage. The standard of purity in business English is based\non effective conversational usage in the everyday affairs of life.\nWHY?\n\nOnly a business man instinctively realizes the absolute necessity for\ndealing only with facts, employing excessive emphasis, and using colloquialisms or slang.\nTherefore the first great necessity is to learn and teach how to do\nbusiness — how to deal with human nature with tact, directness, simplicity,\nand force. The ordinary person (the customer) is quite different from\nthe school teacher, whose mind is spoiled by the habit of child-driving,\nso that it doesn't understand how common people are led.\nHOW?\n\nYou will never have any success in teaching business English unless\nyou first teach business and how to handle human nature (salesmanship)\n— that is systematic common-sense and good nature.\na) Daily practice. — You must have practice every day, or at least\nfour days out of five. But no teacher on earth can correct twenty or\nthirty papers a day (to say nothing of fifty or seventy-five) so it will do\nany good. The successful daily composition, therefore, requires a system\nby which the subject-matter is supplied, but the wording must be original.\nThen the recitation becomes one long, thoro, effective criticism of good\nand bad wording for this subject, and punils are required to correct their\nown papers and report their own marks. This develops responsibility\nand compels attention better than anything else. Monthly examinations\nhelp to check up results.\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nh) Grammar is disliked by the average pupil, and teaching it does\nlittle good except as pupils see the usefulness of it in helping them make\ntheir composition more correct. Start with composition. Leave grammar\ntill later. Teach it by calling for rules or principles governing the correction oferrors in the composition work. Or after a month of composition, give an examination on grammar (for the purpose of excusing those\nwho pass it), and then give one lesson a week (no more) along with the\ncomposition. A good examination convinces many how little they know.\nBut it is fatal to try to begin with teaching analysis, before you have\nconcrete problems to analyze.\nc) Letter-writing is in all school curricula and is supposed to be taught\nin the seventh and eighth grades. Business English is simple English\n— the simplest, just as talking is simple.\nBut teachers who have never been taught themselves cannot teach\nletter-writing so as to make anything of it. Simple things are hard to\nhandle — the simpler they are the harder they are — and when a teacher\nconsents to teach a naturally simple subject like business EngHsh without\nany preparation and without any system, failure is certain.\nGet a good book (there are so many bad ones it is not easy to find\na book that a real business man would tolerate in his office for one moment)\nand above all a good collection of real, high-grade business letters, circulars,\nand advertisements — not the kind that are dictated offhand by a cheap\nclerk but such as have been studied for hours by successful business managers and skilled advertising specialists. They alone write business\nEnglish worthy to be set up as a model; yet teachers are constantly taking\nreal letters out of current files — letters .that are often full of errors of grammar— which are to real business English what the most slipshod newspaper\nreporting is to standard literature.\nSUMMARY\n1. Teach how to do business — that is, common-sense in dealing with human nature.\n2. Insist on daily composition driUs, and get a system which makes that possible.\n3. Make grammar a criticism of composition work, subordinate to composition,\nwhen pupils have been made to feel the need of it.\n4. Above all, don't confuse the slipshod, inaccurate, current letter-writing with\nthe masterpieces of educated business writers, which alone are the best models.\n5. Recognize business English as a great subject, worthy of profound study, and\ndon't be afraid to follow the lead of a business specialist, someone who has really done\nbusiness and who knows the subject practically and not merely theoretically.\nDISCUSSION\nQuestion: Would you advise a continuous course in business English at some point\nin the course, or perhaps one hour a week over a longer period ?\nMr. Cody: I am strongly in favor of a continuous course in the very first year.\nBusiness English is simple English, and I believe it ought to be good for all pupils in the\nhigh school. It can be made harmonious with the regular English, and will tend to make\nthat English more effective.\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nENGLISH\n\n84 1\n\nQuestion: Would you intrust this work to one of the regular teachers of English, or\nhave a special teacher for it ?\nMr. Cody: If you want to get marked results you will probably have to have a\nspecial teacher. The trouble with the ordinary teacher of English is that she is usually\nfirst of all a teacher of literature — she likes to teach literature and she doesn't like to teach\ncomposition of any kind; and a careful report of conditions as they were actually found to\nexist in the lUinois high schools by a committee of the Illinois High-School Teachers\nAssociation showed that on the average composition was receiving considerably less\nthan its allotted time, simply because the literature and the composition were taught\ntogether, and if the work in literature became too absorbing the work of composition\ngot crowded out. Perhaps you can find a teacher of bookkeeping or a teacher of shorthand who is an enthusiast on the subject of business English and knows something about\nit. Such a teacher will get far better results.\nStephen H. Dwan, head of commercial department, Broadway High School, Seattle,\nWash. — ^The great word in business English is naturalness. If the pupil can learn to\nbe natural and write in simple language that which he really knows, he will probably be\nsuccessful.\nOur greatest diflSculty lies in the fact that the pupils when they come to us know so\nlittle about business that they cannot express themselves at all effectively on a business\nsubject. For that reason we do not introduce the subject of business English until the\nsecond semester of the second year. Then the pupils begin to know something about\nhow business is done, so they are able to express themselves more intelligently in letters.\nWe make them rewrite a letter many times. There is no other way in which it is\npossible to get results except to require the repeated rewriting of letters offered as exercises.\nI think you will find it absolutely necessary to have a teacher who is a specialist on\nbusiness English if you want to get results.\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, president, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. — I am\nglad that emphasis has been laid on the statement that business English is simple English,\nfor I believe that simple English is the most important thing for us to teach in the high\nschools, and we have got lost in a maze of literary study. This literary study has become\na fetich with us, and I regard this fetich as our greatest educational incubus to-day.\nIt has been said that Greek was our great incubus, but it is no longer so. Nobody\npays any attention to Greek any more. Nobody has to take Greek any longer if he does\nnot want to do so.\nOf course it is necessary to teach writing English, but it is infinitely more necessary\nto teach oral English, for we all have to talk and few of us know how to talk. If business\nEnglish will promote the effective study of oral English, it is something we ought to give\nto every pupil, in every high school — it is the kind of English that we are at present most\nin need of in our schools.\nUnfortunately, however, many writers of business English seem to think that those\nset, cant business phrases with which so many business letters open and close are the\nvery essence of business English. They are in reality a dialect, like baseball slang, which\nmany people do not understand and which ought to be eliminated completely. It ought\nto be considered a crime to close a business letter with ** Thanking you for your,\" etc.\nThe so-called lies of the newspaper reporters when they try to report what we say\nare not really lies at all, but are due to the fact that the reporters do not hear very clearly\nand afterward in trying to think out for themselves what we really said they obtain as a\nresult something we had no intention whatever %f saying. If we were trained to talk\nbetter, and they were trained in oral English, a great many of the misstatements in\nnewspapers would be avoided.\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCOMMERCIAL-ECONOMIC\nC. W.\n\nCHILDS,\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAND\n\nOAKLAND,\n\n[Business\n\nGEOGRAPHY\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCAL.\n\nIt is usually assumed by the majority of people that the curriculum of\nschools represents the patient thought of generations of teachers, and that\nit is a gradual accumulation of subjects which must be mastered in order\nthat one may be educated. In a business school, especially, each subject\nis supposed to be a necessary part of a student's equipment for active\nwork in the world.\nWe are discovering that the graduates of our grammar schools and high\nschools are, as a rule, not fitted to enter readily into any of the active\nduties of life. In many ways they are deficient, not only in practical\nscholarship and ability to work out business problems, but also in good\nbusiness habits. We are now scrutinizing our curricula carefully with a\nview of eliminating undesirable subjects and bad methods of study and\nteaching, and of substituting work of a more practical character, presented\nin such mrmner as to train the student to think, to work out by and for\nhimself many business problems. We find that we are spreading out\nover too much surface and not delving deep enough. The majority of\npupils from the grammar schools who enter my geography classes do not\nwant to work, do not know how to work. They want to be entertained\nand amused. Perhaps some of these bad characteristics are the result of\n\"feminization\"; many, yes, most of these pupils have never had a male\nteacher.\nThere was a tendency a few years ago to drop physical and commercial\ngeography from courses of study in high schools, and business colleges\nseldom gave any time to the discussion of these subjects. Considering\nthe subject-matter of the old textbooks, and that teachers without any\nspecial preparation in geography were assigned to teach these subjects,\nthe omission of physical and commercial geography was not very hurtful\nto the student. Each subject in a course of study ought to gain and hold\nits place because a reasonable mastery of it is a part of the student's equipment for an active part in the world's work. It must assist in training\nhim to think and to accumulate a fund of desirable knowledge. Physical\ngeography is now very properly in the curriculum of our best high schools,\nfor the new textbooks have a much fuller treatment of life in relation to\nland, air, and ocean, the human interest of each being emphasized. The\nbest of these new books are far from perfect, but as they are written and\ntaught they serve as a basis of considerable commercial geography and\nsome history and economics. Where possible, physical geography should\nprecede commercial geography in the course of study. Physiographic\ninfluences must be recognized as important factors in shaping human affairs.\nIn the case of commercial geography less progress has been made in\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL-ECONOMIC\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n843\n\npreparing proper textbooks and in presenting the subject in an interesting\nand practical manner to the student. Writers of textbooks differ considerably in regard to the nature and the scope of the subject-matter. Manycommercial geographies are largely commercial statistics — a mass of imrelated facts which the student is not asked to interpret. Probably one of\nthe best of the new textbooks on commercial geography is Robinson's. It\ntreats the subject scientifically and leads the student to think and to interpret. The author has blazed the way for better books on this subject.\nHe says, \"Commercial geography is the study of the locaHzation of industries, and the three governing factors are the natural, the human, and the\neconomic.\" His treatment of transportation is good but might profitably\nbe amplified. Transportation has much to do with all kinds of production— agricultural, mining, and manufacturing. The Gregory-Keller-Bishop\nPhysical and Commercial Geography is an excellent book for the teacher.\nThe subject-matter to be used and the methods of instruction will\nvary with the location of the school and its condition. A school fully\nequipped for this work will have a museum of products and models systematically arranged, and a classroom with maps, charts, globes, pictures,\nand library. In such a school you can use the topical method of instruction to the best advantage, as all these appliances constitute the textbook.\nIn other places with meager helps you must depend largely upon a good\ntextbook supplemented with such talks and illustrations as you may be\nable to give.\nPerhaps an account of what we are trying to do in a small, old building\n(we have just voted $600,000 for a commercial and polytechnic highschool building) will explain my conception of the nature and scope of\nthis subject. Each student has a copy of Robinson's Commercial Geography\nand several notebooks and map paper on which are printed outlines of the\ncontinents and various countries. Geological formation, topography, soil,\nand climate are the foundations of our threefold division of geographical\nwork — production of raw material, manufacturing, and transportation —\nthe human element being an important factor. My classroom has double\nwindow shades so that it can be darkened for stereopticon pictures. I\nhave several hundred lantern-slides, many of which I have made and others\nI have caused to be made to illustrate various phases of production, manufacturing, and transportation. When I want only outlines or diagrams,\nsuch as may frequently be found in newspapers, magazines, and books, I\nplace a small sheet of gelatine paper over the diagram and make a pen copy\non the gelatine paper. Place this pen sketch between two pieces of lanternsUde glass and bind the edges with prepared binding material. These\nstereopticon views are not used for amusement or entertainment, but they\nconstitute an important part of the recitation and must be discussed and\ninterpreted just as we discuss and interpret the facts stated in the textbook.\nWe have views of typical harbors in various regions and they are studied\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nwith reference to present conditions and to natural and artificial changes\nin the processes of evolution. By natural changes I mean the shallowing of\nharbors thru the action of rivers, tides, etc., and by oscillation of sea level.\nBy artificial I mean the dredging, building sea-walls, wharves, piers, docks,\netc. We make a special study of harbors that we can visit, such as San\nFrancisco and Oakland. Before visiting our home harbors we study by\npictures, slides, and textbooks the work done and now being done on the\nbest harbors in the United States and in Europe. Errors in planning and\nconstructing, and in various forms of graft, have caused the waste of millions of dollars. If our high schools had studied this one subject as we are\nnow pursuing it I think much of this wasted money might have been saved,\nfor harbor boards and employees are graduates of our schools.\nWe are now giving talks on many of these commercial subjects in the\nhighest grades of our grammar schools. Each school building has a room\nthat can be darkened and a white screen as a background for lantern views.\nAll of these rooms are furnished with electrical appliances for lantern use.\nI have a valise constructed to hold a lantern, slides, etc. When a talk is\nneeded I pack my valise, ride over to the school, connect my lantern with\nthe electrical switchboard, darken the room, and touch the button. We\nfind these illustrated talks very interesting and instructive to pupils.\nWe shall give these talks to the parents of these children as there is a\ndemand for them. All of our new grammar buildings have large assembly\nrooms for public use.\nWe have slides of the great canals, showing their construction and use,\nand the maps thrown on the screen show why they were built. The Suez\nand the Panama Canals are studied with regard to the probable influence\nupon all kinds of work on this Pacific Coast. The vast expenditure of\nmoney contemplated by our national government in deepening rivers, making an inside waterway along the Atlantic side of the United States, building breakwaters, dredging, making dams and canals for irrigation, etc.,\nare clearly illustrated in these stereopticon views. If these lessons had\nbeen given fully and clearly in all our schools as we are giving them, many\nof the errors and grafts of congressional appropriations might have been\navoided.\nWe have slides illustrating the various phases of conservation.\nOne set of slides shows the cause of the recent famine in China. The\ndestruction of forests on several thousand square miles of territory in the\nmountains and hills along the upper courses of the tributaries of the great\nChinese river caused the soil of these regions to be washed away and carried by great floods, which were formerly prevented from occurring by\nforest covers, down into the valleys, aggrading the river-bed and spreading\ndestruction to farming lands and crops by the overflows of the river. Other\nslides. foreshadow similar conditions and results in our own country.\nSlides showing the evolution of ship-building and other agents of transportation, and of agricultural, mining, and manufacturing machinery throw\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmcntl\n\nVALUE OF SHORTHAND\n\n84s\n\nconsiderable light upon the rapid spread of civilization in recent times.\nWe have slides of birdlife, insects, and other animals, showing their economic relations to agriculture. Every phase of physical and of commercial\ngeography may be shown with stereopticon views. We shall use movingpicture films soon.\nExcursions to inspect ocean and river vessels, warehouses, shops, manufacturing establishments, and public works are made occasionally and\nthe students make written reports for class discussions. We use the commercial pages of our large daily newspapers and the student learns to interpret these condensed reports.\nSome talk about the \" gift of prophecy. \" This is an error of expression,\nfor prophecy, the abihty to foresee, to forecast, is the result of intelligent\nstudy, correct observation, and practical experience. I know of no other\nstudy that so fully endows the student with the true spirit of prophecy.\nThis is a very large subject, and in the short time given to its study in\nour school we try to present the subject in such manner as to give the\nstudent a little taste of it but a considerable taste for it.\nSHORTHAND— ITS EDUCATIONAL\nGEORGE\n\nARCHIBALD\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nCLARK,\nLELAND\nSTANFORD\nJUNIOR\nSTANFORD UOTVERSITY, CAL.\n\nVALUE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nI wish this morning to make a plea for a more general recognition and\na wider use of shorthand as a means of writing. By shorthand in this\nsense I do not mean any particular form of phonography, stenography,\nbrachygraphy, tachygraphy, aristography, or any other -ography. I am\nnot advocating the Pitman system, the Graham, the Munson, the Longley,\nthe Cross, the Gregg, or any other mere system. My interest is in shorthand as a form of language representation, briefer and more facile than\nlonghand and hence capable of saving time and labor to those whose\nbusiness it is to write.\nShorthand is no new thing. It was used in the days of Cicero. It\nis supposed that St. Paul dictated some of his epistles to amanuenses\nskilled in its use. In the days of St. Augustine a church assemblage in\nCarthage used eight stenographers to record its deliberations. The\nemperors Titus and Charlemagne were proficient in the art. A working\nsystem of shorthand, adapted to English, was published in London by\nTimothy Bright in 1588. Mr. J. Ensign Rockwell in his monograph on\nshorthand, published by the Bureau of Education in 1893, enumerates\nover 600 forms or editions of shorthand which had been published to that\ndate from the time of Bright.\nThe history of shorthand is a long and interesting one. I do not,\nhowever, intend to dwell upon it beyond pointing out by these recorded\nfacts its antiquity.\nWherever the need of recording spoken utterance has\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nbeen felt, some form of shorthand has been invented and used to meet\nthe need which ordinary longhand has failed to meet.\nIt was in 1837 that shorthand in its most popular modern form was\ninvented and published by Isaac Pitman, of Bath, England. The intervening period has been the most' important of its history and has seen\nthe art placed upon a firm and practical basis. Coming into existence\nas a medium of recording spoken utterance, its early place was in legislative halls, in meetings of learned societies, in courts of law, and other\nassemblages, where discussions, debates, and original records of any kind\nwere to be preserved. It still holds this very important place, but in the\npast quarter of a century the art has entered the field of business and has\nrevolutionized the whole method of business correspondence.\nEveryone is familiar with the stenographer's place in the business\nofiice. It is an important, nay, an indispensable one. The business man\ncould no more get along without his stenographer than without his telephone or the telegraph. The United States census of 1900 shows 112,000\nmen and women engaged in the occupation of stenography. The census\nof 1 9 10 will show a vast increase over these figures.\nThe basis of this occupation rests in the skill of the stenographer to\nwrite at a rate of speed far in excess of the possibilities of longhand. The\nbusiness man talks his letters instead of writing them out laboriously by\nhand. The stenographer records them in shorthand and transcribes them\nin print on the typewriter.\nBut the business man has no monopoly on this need which the stenographer meets. His mother, wife, daughter, all his relatives, male and\nfemale — the rank and file of humanity who write and receive letters —\nexperience the same need. Each individual cannot have a stenographer\nat hand, but each individual, by possessing this more brief and rapid form\nof writing, can be his or her own stenographer. The art which saves time\nand labor to the employer will also save time and labor to the individual.\nWe have not confined the use of the telephone to business matters\n^to communications between business men and business houses. We\nhave taken it into the home and the club and have utilized its services\nin all social and friendly as well as business intercourse. The same is\ntrue of the telegraph, forms of rapid transit, and labor-saving devices of\nall kinds. Why should we limit the usefulness of shorthand to business ?\nWhen we consider the number of business men who find shorthand a\nnecessity, the great body of teachers who offer instruction in it, and the\narmy of workers who earn their daily bread by its use, it seems strange\nthat so little progress has been made in its adoption for individual and\ngeneral use. The reasons for this are, however, simple. In the first place,\nour longhand writing is virtually inherited. Thrust upon us in our infancy,\nwhen we have not yet learned to distinguish between good and bad in\nmatters of writing, by the time we have attained years of discrimination\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF SHORTHAND\n\n847\n\nlonghand has become a fixed habit. The cumbersome characters thru\nlong use have become automatic, reflex, like the efforts of breathing and\nwalking. We realize the inadequacy of longhand but vaguely, if at all.\nIf we are in business, we employ a stenographer. For the rest we accept\nthe situation as a matter of course and pass on to our children the same\nheritage of toil and strain of eye and nerve which the acquisition and\npractice of longhand means to all who write.\nIf the teachers in our public schools were engaged in teaching adults\na form of writing that was five times as slow and diflicult as another form\nof writing well known and in constant use, there would be rebellion and\nrevolution. It could not be done any more than the farmer of the present\nday could be induced to harvest his grain with the ancient sickle, or the\nnewspaper to set its type by hand, with the self-binding harvester and\nthe linotype available. But our teachers are dealing with children who\nhave no effective means of self-defense. We have laws against child labor,\nbut they apply to the factory and the sweatshop, not to the schoolroom.\nIn the second place, those who use shorthand, and hence are in a position best to understand its possibilities, look upon it as a tool, like the\ntypewriter and the letter-file, strictly for oflSce and not for personal use.\nThis attitude of mind is expressed by the proverbial wisdom which says\nthat \"It is ever the children of the cobbler that go poorly shod; the roof\nof the carpenter that leaks.\"\nBut even if the public were keenly alive to the possibilities of shorthand and practical stenographers aggressively active in extending its use,\nwe should still encounter difficulties. The current presentations of shorthand appear as textbooks of two to three hundred pages. The grammar\nof a language or a treatise on mathematics is scarcely more formidable.\nThe subject-matter of shorthand is amplified in divisions, chapters, sections, with dissertations on the laws of sounds and the philosophy of speech.\nThere are tables of logograms and gramalogs, word-signs, and contractions.\nThe consonants are no longer mere letters, they are grouped as explodents\nand continuents, with subdivisions into frictatives, nasals, and Unguals.\nRules and exceptions, devices and expedients are multiplied without\nnumber. In a word, the system is developed into an intricate mechanism\nto meet the extreme needs of verbatim reporting. The relation of the\nart as a method of writing is wholly lost sight of.\nThen, too, the stenographer working as he does at high speed writes\na form of character which he can translate only with diflSculty. One\nstenographer can rarely read another's notes. The general impression the\nlayman gets of shorthand is that it is a highly specialized form of writing\navailable only to experts and beyond the reach of ordinary mortals.\nFurthermore, there is a constantly iiftreasing series of new versions\nof shorthand. There are more than two hundred forms of the art more\nor less current in the country.\n\nAt least seven of these — the Isaac Pitman,\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nthe Benn Pitman, the Graham, the Munson, the Longley, the Cross, and\nthe Gregg — claim the dignity of distinct systems. The writers of one of\nthese systems, as well as of any one of the many subdivisions of the first\nfive, cannot read the notes of writers of the other systems. The shorthand situation is therefore a babel of confusion. The emphasis is on\nsystem, system, and not on the art itself.\nThis looks like a hopeless tangle, and it is a deplorable tangle, but by\nno means a hopeless or even difficult one. There are really but two forms\nof shorthand — the Pitmanic, which takes its fundamental characters from\nthe arcs and radii of the circle; the other the Gregg, which takes its characters from the ellipse. The two hundred or more varieties of Pitmanic\nshorthand are all in reality but one, having a common alphabet. All\nthe confusion and variety among these forms lie in the ways and means\nof adapting the fundamental characters to the task of verbatim reporting.\nFurthermore, 90 per cent of all the users of shorthand follow the Pitmanic\nalphabet.\nI should like to point out here the difference between the professional\nuse of shorthand, as illustrated in the practice of the stenographer, and\nthe amateur use which I wish to advocate. The making of a stenographer\nis a different thing from the making of a mere writer of shorthand. The\nformer means the training of an individual to take dictation at the rate\nof spoken utterance. It is the training of the race horse as against the\ntraining of the draft or driving horse. We talk easily. The tongue has\nbeen apprenticed to its task from birth. We write comparatively little\nand that with extreme difficulty. Part of this difficulty is due to the\ninconsiderable amount of practice the hand receives, much of it to the\ncumbersome medium in which we write. The result is that the hand is\nno match for the tongue. To put it concretely: we can talk easily at the\nrate of from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five words per minute;\nwe can write in longhand no more than twenty to twenty-five words per\nminute. The stenographer must be trained to overcome this inequality,\nand the task is difficult. He can accomplish it only by long and severe\npractice and by sacrificing every superfluous character, every superfluous\nmotion.\nThe mere substitution of shorthand for longhand as a means of writing\nis a much simpler thing, as the training of a driving horse is a simpler\nthing than the training of a racer. It means merely placing in the hands\nof the writer a simpler and more facile form of character. Longhand\nwriting is based upon an alphabet of twenty-six characters, capable of\nbeing joined in a running script. Shorthand is likewise based upon an\nalphabet of characters. They are forty in number because it is a phonetic\nalphabet, which the alphabet of longhand is not. I need not point out\nthe advantage of a phonetic alphabet. Take the word \"bought.\" There\nare three simple sounds in it, but six letters are used to express them — the\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF SHORTHAND\n\n849\n\nlabor of writing increased 100 per cent for no purpose. Each character\nof the shorthand alphabet stands for a single sound. The consonant\ncharacters join readily and the vowels are written in various positions\nabout them by means of disjoined dots and dashes.\nEach character in the shorthand alphabet is made with a single motion\nof the pen. In longhand, the simplest letter, the letter e, requires three\ndistinct strokes — an upward right curve, a downward left curve, and an\nupward right curve. The most complicated letter, w, requires seven\nstrokes. I need not enumerate them. The average number of strokes\nfor the entire alphabet is four and one-half pen movements for each letter.\nOn a basis of mere substitution of alphabets, shorthand gives a clear\nsaving of seven-ninths of the labor of writing. The actual saving thru\nthe phonetic use of the shorthand characters is considerably greater.\nTo put this matter again in concrete form, consider for a moment the\nwriting of the word \"thought.\" It is a somewhat extreme case, but fairly\ntypical. There are twenty-five distinct pen movements necessary to its\nwriting in longhand. It contains three simple sounds, requiring three\nsimple strokes in shorthand. By a simple device in shorthand this labor\ncan be reduced to two strokes, by making one stroke one-half its natural\nlength. The representation of the word \"thought\" in longhand is twelve\nand one-half times as difficult as in shorthand.\nIf a transportation company, a manufacturing plant, or any other\nbusiness organization could save seven-ninths, to say nothing of eleventwelfths, of the time and labor in any of its operations, how quickly the\nopportunity would be seized upon! What are the 112,000 stenographers\nrecorded in the census of 1900 paid for? Merely to effect this saving in\ntime to a certain class of men. Is the time of other men and women of\nno value, that it should be wasted in drudgery which the business man\npays, and pays liberally, to avoid ?\nThe complete form of shorthand, which I am proposing to substitute\nfor longhand, is not something new or apart from that which the stenographer uses. The beginning of his training is all done in it. It is thru the\ncomplete representation of the commoner words of the language in what\nis known as the corresponding style of shorthand that the stenographer\nacquires the ability to read his reporting notes. The discarded vowels\nand omitted consonants must be read back into the skeleton outlines,\nand experience alone makes this possible. What I am proposing, therefore, is to have this corresponding style of shorthand made a working\nsubstitute for longhand.\nThe Pitmanic alphabet, because of its wider use — it is the common\nheritage from its inventor to fully 90 per cent of all the users of shorthand\n•— is the tried and tested basis on which fliis subject can become a part\nof the general educational scheme. The place for the work is in the sixth,\nseventh, and eighth grades of our public schools. Boys and girls at that\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nage are best adapted to the work. Few boys, at least, pass thru that age\nwithout inventing some form of secret writing resembling shorthand.\nReading and writing by means of the ordinary alphabet will have been\nacquired, eliminating possible confusion from the phonetic form of shorthand. Longhand penmanship is still a subject of practice. The routine\nmovements and drills would be practically the same for the new form of\nwriting. The work of instruction would be taken up very gradually,\ncovering a period of three years. The intention would not be to discard\nlonghand. That can come only when we adopt a phonetic alphabet for\nour printing. Longhand would remain, but as a luxury, not a necessity.\nThose preferring it could use it, just as those who prefer walking or the\nhorse as a means of locomotion are at liberty to use them, eschewing the\nsteam cars or the automobile.\nWhat I am suggesting is not the infliction upon the pupils of the sixth,\nseventh, and eighth grades of what we know as the technical training of\nthe stenographer. It is merely the task of learning a new alphabet of\nforty characters and some simple rules for its use, the whole thing not\nexceeding in complexity or extent the present instruction in longhand\npenmanship. The practice like that of longhand would be on the two\nor three thousand common words, the vocabulary of those grades and of\nordinary intercourse. It is a fact that 2,000 of the most common words\nof the English language can be written and are written, even by the most\nexpert stenographer, with no other principles of shorthand than those\ncomprised in the simple alphabet.\nTo introduce this work would not require special or technical training\non the part of the grade teacher — merely the mastery of the same forty\nsigns and the same simple rules governing their use, with oversight in\ntheir application. A brief period of fifteen minutes a day or an hour a\nweek would suflSce.\nThis early introduction of shorthand would also have an important\nbearing on the professional acquisition of the art. This work is now given\nin the high schools, where it should remain. Every high-school teacher\nof shorthand knows that his or her one supreme task is the development\nof speed. Simple and easy of execution as the shorthand characters are,\nthey are new and confusing. There is none of the automatic, reflex control\nwhich the pupil has of longhand. The rules governing the attainment\nof speed are complex. Shorthand is unlike other subjects in that all its\nrules are in use all the time. Five hundred words of general dictation\nwill call them all into play, and in two or three hours' dictation the whole\nscheme will be revolved over and over again, with endless variety. It\nis this repetition that tends to fix the rules and make phenomenal speed\npossible, but in the beginning it is a bewildering process. The difficulty\nlies in the attempt to accomplish here in a few months what has been\naccomplished thru long years in the case of longhand.\nIt is as if an athletic\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF SHORTHAND\n\n851\n\ntrainer should attempt to bring a raw team into shape for an interschool\nmeet in a few weeks. It requires a whole year to prepare for the running\nand jumping events, and fortunate is the trainer whose material has had\nyears of previous training and experience.\nThen, again, the other work of the high school is chiefly directed along\nanother line — the development of poweis of observation, reflection, reasoning, selection, discrimination. The pupil has passed the stage of response\nto mere authority. He wants to turn the dictation practice into a debate\nas to better and best ways of doing things. This frame of mind must\nbe broken up before progress in speed can be begun. In the case of the\nclass seeking speed in shorthand writing, as in the case of Tennyson's\nNoble Six Hundred, it is action, not reasoning and debate, that is called for.\nThe early introduction of shorthand in its simpler aspects into the\ngrades would eliminate this difficulty and lay a foundation for more rapid\nadvancement in the professional side of the art when the high-school work\nis reached. On this ground alone, if no thought of possible introduction\nof shorthand as a means ot general writing entered into the matter, it would\nbe the part of wisdom to begin the work of instruction and practice on\nthe alphabet of shorthand in the grades.\nI have purposely left little space for the purely educational value of\nshorthand. This has been emphasized over and over again. I yield to\nnone in appreciation of its disciplinary value. An adequate course of\ninstruction in the art is a liberal course in English. Such a course enforces\nin an effective manner attention and concentration. It quickens the\nsenses of sight and hearing. It compels prompt decision and instant\naction. These are elements of the highest educational value.\nThis is the age of manual training. Shorthand is a form of manual\ntraining. The hand and brain are trained together. The effort to gain\nspeed, to equal the rate of a speaker, has the inspiration, the fascination,\nof the racing contest in it for the young. And there is the accompanying\nart of typewriting which is pure manual training. A room full of typewriters would be as attractive to the boy or girl of the sixth, seventh, or\neighth grades as a room full of benches and tools, and the boy or girl who\nis going out into the business world has as much right to such training\nas the boy who is going out to a trade has to the training of the workshop\nwith its tools.\nBut I need not emphasize these things. I want to end as I began,\nwith the individual point of view — every boy and girl, every man and\nevery woman, his or her own stenographer. A very small fraction of\ntime at the proper point in our educational system will make this possible.\nThe time so devoted to the art of shorthand will return in after life a\nhundred fold in saving of time and labor.\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nCURRICULA\nCHARLES\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR HIGH SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE\nUNITED STATES\nH. MURPHY,\n\nPRINCIPAL, COMMERCIAL\nSAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\n(Business\n\nIN THE\n\nHIGH SCHOOL,\n\nA discussion of courses of study for high schools of commerce, without\nlimitation to some special division of the work, cannot lead to any definite\nresults. In discussing this subject, I shall confine myself exclusively to\nthe secondary schools, taking it for granted that the problem of the university course has reached a definite solution, and that the subjects and the\nmethods of presenting them in the business-fcollege course are likewise well\nestablished.\nThe scope and character of the work of the schools of commerce are\nnot clearly worked out. Schools in the centers of international trade\nneed a curriculum different from that which is needed in an agricultural,\nmining, or manufacturing community, or in cities where the trade is largely\nlocal. They must have ideals kept prominently in view, such as the training and development of intellectual power, as well as the application of\nthat power. We have inherited two distinct ideals which have existed from\ntime immemorial, the classical or academic and the practical or utilitarian —\nthe one educational but not useful and the other useful but not educational.\nThe general trend of the public mind is that those subjects which possess\nthe greatest utility have the greatest value in the affairs of life. If this\ndoctrine is carried to extremes our vocational schools might degenerate\ninto a factory for bookkeepers and stenographers or clerks.\nOur courses of study for secondary schools of commerce must be educationally sound if they are to win the respect of educators as well as of\nthe business community. They must be made flexible and not confined\nto hard-and-fast lines. These should be constructed on broad lines so\nthat pupils may elect or select one that will best prepare them for the\nduties of life. They should be broad enough to embrace several co-ordinate\ncourses, allowing some degree of freedom in the selection, so that a diploma\nof graduation from one course would be on a par with the others. They\nshould be something more than preparatory courses for college. Many\nyoung men and young women have neither the desire nor the inclination\nfor a college education, but still want the best possible training they can\nsecure to prepare them for the duties of life. From an eminent authority\nI quote the following:\nOnly 3 per cent of those who enter school go farther than the eighth grade, and onlythree in every thousand graduate from the high school; less than 16 per cent of the total\nenrollment enter the high school; less than 7 per cent of this number graduate from the\nhigh school; about 2 per cent of the total enrollment of the high school take a college,\nuniversity, or professional course in the higher institutions of learning.\n\nIn view of the foregoing, it seems manifestly unfair to require all students to take a special course for college admission when but 2 per cent\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCURRICULA\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF COMMERCE\n\n853\n\nexpect to enter college. More consideration should be given the large\nmajority that must immediately enter upon the duties of life. We should\nhave finishing schools as well as fitting schools, inasmuch as the great\nmajority of students end their school career with the high school. While\nI am in full sympathy with college-preparatory courses in all our secondary schools, provision should also be made for the great majority of our\nyoung men and women who, by force of circumstances, are unable to\nenter the higher institutions of learning. Our boys and girls should be\nprepared for getting along in life rather than getting along in college.\nThe curriculum for our high schools of commerce should aim to give a\ncertain amount of culture work for mental discipline, a working knowledge\nof stenography, typewriting, and bookkeeping, an elementary training in\neconomics and business organization, and an opportunity to acquire some\ntechnical knowledge of particular lines of business which would constitute\n\"the essential mental tools for the business man.\" A good deal of freedom\nshould be allowed during the last year in electing a group of subjects devoted\nto a special field, particularly if the student does not intend to enter the\ncollege or university.\nThe School of Commerce and Finance in New York City is unique in\nitself. While it is intensely practical and narrowly vocational, it is essential y a professional school. Its curriculum covers five years of work, and\nthe minimum requirement for admission to this school is graduation from\nan accredited high school. Most of its students are already engaged in\nsome business occupation and are seeking better preparation for the affairs\nof life. Its teachers are practical men in similar lines of work in which\nthey give instruction.\nThe Central High School of Commerce in Philadelphia has a strong,\npractical vocational course. It is constructed on altogether different lines\nfrom that of the New York institution and articulates with the higher\ninstitutions, the college and the university. The general plan and scope\nof its work may be found in the suggested curriculum for high schools of\ncommerce in the United States by the Committee of Nine, National Education Association, to which that on the following page is similar.\nThere are many other excellent courses of study provided for giving\ninstruction in higher commercial education in the United States, but the\nones given are typical.\nTo cover the entire field of public commercial education, three distinct\nkinds are necessary: (i) for those who can afford but one or two years\nto complete their preparation after leaving the grammar grades; (2) for\nthose who can afford to spend three or four years; and (3) for those who\ncan give additional years to higher training in the higher institutions of\nlearning. The best interests of the comnitmity and of society in general\ndemand this special training all along the line.\nSchools of commerce must have the spirit of business life, or they will\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "8S4\n\nNATIONAL\nCURRICULUM\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR HIGH SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE\nUNITED STATES\n\n[Business\n\nIN THE\n\nFirst Year\nFirst Half\n\nSecond Half\n\nRecitations\n\n23\nEnglish\nModern Language\nAlgebra\nBookkeeping\nRoman History\nPenmanship\n\n4\n5\n5\n4\n3\n2\n\nRecitations\n\nEnglish\nModem Language\nAlgebra\nBookkeeping\nGreek History\nPenmanship\n\n4\n5\n5\n4\n3\n2\n\n,.,\n\nSecond Year\nFirst Half\n\nRecitations\n\nEnglish Literature and Composition ....\n\n4\n\nModem Language\nCommerical Arithmetic\nCommercial Products and Industries. ...\nBookkeeping\n\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nSecond Half\n\nRecitations\n\n2English\n4\n\nLiterature and Commercial Correspondence\nModern Language\nCommercial Geography\nMediaeval and Modern History. . .\nTypewriting\n\n4\n5\n5\n5\n5\n\nThird Year\nFirst Half\n\nRecitations\n\nRhetoric and Composition\nModern Language\n\n4\n5\n\nPhysics or Chemistry\nUnited States History\nShorthand and Typewriting, or Bookkeeping and Office Practice\n\n5\n5\n5\n\nSecond Half\n\nRecitations\n\nPlane Geometry\n\n5\n\n2Commercial\n4\n\nLaw or Modern Language\nPhysics or Chemistry\nPoUtical Economy\nShorthand\nand Typewriting,\nor\nBookkeeping and Office Practice\n\n4\n5\nS\n5\n\nFourth Year\nFirst Half\n\nRecitations\n\nEnglish Literature, Themes\nHistory of Commerce\nSelect 15 periods from Modern Language, or Physics and Chemistry\n\nSecond Half\n\nRecitations\n\nEnglish, Themes, Composition ...\nCivil Government\n\n5\nS\n\nSelect\n15 periods from Modern\n25\n\nShorthand and Typewriting, or Banking\nand Finance\n\nLanguage, or Physics and Chemistry\nShorthand and Typewriting, or\nBanking and Finance\n\nPlane Geometry, or Advertising and Business English\n\nOffice Practice, or Applied Arithmetic, or Accounting\n\n5\n5\n5\n\nNote. — The number of recitations is based on the supposition that the length of a period is forty -five\nminutes.\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "CURRICULA\n\nDepartment)\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nSubjects\nEnglish Language\n\nFOR HIGH\n\nScience\n\nEconomics and\n\nIN THE\n\nFirst Year\n\nSecond Year\n\nThird Year\n\nFourth Year\n\nEnglish and Composition\n4 Recitations\n\nEnglish Composition\n4 Recitations\n\nLiterature, Essays\nand Expression\n4 Recitations\n\nLiterature and\nThesis Writing\n\nSpanish\nor German\n5 Recitations\n\nSpanish\nman\n\nAlgebra\nS Recitations\n\nSpanish\nor German\n4 Recitations\nPlane\nGeometry\nor Commercial\nArithmetic\n4 Recitations\nraphy\nCommercial\nGeog-\n\nCommercial\nproducts and raw\nmaterials of\nconmierce\n4 Recitations\nGreek and Roman\n4 Recitations\n\nHistory\n\nOF COMMERCE\n\nFOR HIGH SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE\nUNITED STATES\n\nModern Language\nMathematics\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n2 Recitations\n\n4 Recitations\nor\n\nGer-\n\n5 Recitations\nReview Course\n4 Recitations\n\nistry\nPhysics and Chem-\n\nIndustrial Chemis-\n\n5 Recitations\n\n5 Recitations\n25\n\n25\n\nHistory of United\nStates\n3 Recitations\nPolitical Economy\n2 Recitations\n\nBookkeeping, and\nShorthand\nand\nTypewriting\n7 Recitations\n\nOffice\nPractice,\nShorthand\nand\nTypewriting\n6 Recitations\n\nEnglish and Modern\n4 Recitations\n\nCivics\n\nIntroductory and\nLocal History\n2 Recitations\n\nBusiness Technique . . . .\n\nBookkeeping, Penmanship, and\nBusiness Paper\n6 Recitations\n\n25\n\n25\n\nHistory\nmerce of Com3 Recitations\nGovernment and\nBanking and Finance\n\n4 Recitations\nEthics of Business,\nCommerical Law\nand Shorthand\n(Elective)\n\nNumber Recitations\n\nnot have the largest measure of success. The future business man should\nreceive a training which he will regard as a means to an end. The schools\nshould have the impress of the board of trade and the chamber of commerce if they would breathe a wholesome atmosphere. Among their\ninstructors should be men who have had business experience, if industry\nand trade are to be elevated to a higher level. The trend of events is\nunmistakable. Society is rapidly becoming industrial and economic.\nWe must be prepared for these changed conditions and for an economic\ncitizenship.\nDISCUSSION\nC. W. Childs, Manual Training and Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal., said\nthat he would like to add physical geography to the courses of study suggested by Colonel\nMurphy. Mr. Murphy replied that he provided for one year of physical geography as\nan elective.\nA. G. Morse, teacher of mathematics. Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, Cal. —\nIt seems to me that the gentleman who has just spoken has outlined courses for three\nentirely different classes of high schools. A subject like dressmaking is very appropriate\nin a certain kind of high school, but I do not see wliat relation it has to a strictly commercial high school. Business men demand first of all accountants and stenographers.\nThey don't care whether the students have studied dressmaking or physical geography.\nThey want persons who understand their business, so that as stenographers they can pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nduce a correct letter with speed, and as bookkeepers can add a column of figures correctly\nand rapidly. If the commercial high school is not going to prepare its pupils to do these\nthings, we shall inevitably drive those pupils into the private schools devoted to real\ncommercial studies.\nR. R. Stuart, San Jose, Cal. — What is the object of a high-school commercial\ncourse ? Is it to make stenographers and bookkeepers, or to educate boys and girls in a\nbroad way for success in the business world and as citizens ?\nStephen H. Dwan, Broadway High School of Seattle, Wash. — I agree with the\ngentleman as far as the point that we should first of all make our pupils good stenographers\nand bookkeepers; but after that point I disagree with him, for I believe we should go\nahead and give our pupils all the additional cultural work that time and circumstances\nwill permit.\nColonel Mtjrphy. — I would give physical geography if it is wanted. The first\nobject of a high-school commercial course is to give an education. Business men demand\nemployees who are educated, who have a broad knowledge and a mind capable of thinking intelligently on a wide variety of subjects. Commercial work has been criticized\nbecause it does not promote culture. We believe that the culture work is wanted, and that\nit is in no way inconsistent with the most effective practical results.\nNot long ago a business man told me the story of a stenographer employed by a friend\nof his. Said that business friend, \"I have one of the most remarkable stenographers I\never heard of. The other day she wrote for me the longest sentence I ever saw. It was\ntwo and a half pages long, and it struck me that a sentence of that length could be\nproduced only by an extraordinary young lady.\" The friend replied, \"Assuredly a\nstenographer who can write two and half pages without breaking a sentence is so remarkable that I should never hope to have such a one in my office.\" The business man who\nhad the remarkable stenographer went home and told her that on account of dullness in\nthe market he would be obliged to dispense with her services; but within two hours he\nwas looking for another stenographer.\nNow, our business men want stenographers who are educated in English, and they\ncannot be too well educated. I want to ask if bookkeeping and shorthand alone would\nmake a real high-school course ?\nL. D. Inskeep, Manual Training and Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal. — We\nspeak of our pupils as if they were always going to be stenographers. Are we not in reality\neducating them first of all to be citizens ? Assuredly a high-school course should not confine itself to making office assistants, but Should educate its pupils first of all to be broadminded, intelligent, and successful citizens; and they will not be less so because their\nwork has been so thoroly practical that they can be stenographers and bookkeepers until\nthey rise to be something else.\nMrs. L. L. Harford, Berkeley, Cal. — ^When we make a dress we do not fit the person\nto the dress but the dress to the person. It seems to me that we ought to fit our course\nto the pupil and not the pupil to the course. The simple fact that there were a great many\nsaloons in San Francisco whose managers might demand that we fit boys and girls so that\nthey would enter saloons, would not make us do that, and thereby sacrifice the boy or\ngirl. Neither should we sacrifice the boy or girl in fitting him or her for a position as\nstenographer or bookkeeper in a business office.\nThe difficulty is that we dont know anything about the direction of a child's mind.\nA mother once said to her little daughter that she could not tell her what she ought to\ndo because she did not know the direction of her mind. The little daughter replied,\n\"But there weren't any directions came with my mind.\"\n\nIt is true that we have not\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR FAILURES\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n857\n\nreceived any directions with the minds of our pupils, and our hardest problem is to find\nout those directions and fit our courses to the life instead of trying to fit the life to our\ncourses.\nColonel Murphy. — For some reason the students in commercial work in San\nFrancisco have been falling ofif, while in other centers like Los Angeles there has been a\ngreat increase. San Francisco also is very low in the percentage of pupils which it holds\nto the end of the course, the loss in San Francisco being 20 per cent greater than in\nLos Angeles. I think the reason is that we don't give them what they want. In San\nFrancisco we have a single rigid course. In Los Angeles there are forty courses from which\nthey may choose.\nA. G. Morse. — ^When so many other extraneous subjects are brought into the course\nthe English teachers have absolutely no chance to make their pupils good spellers and\nwriters. I believe that these extraneous things must be kept out so that it is possible to\ndo thoroly well the first and principal things demanded of us in a commercial course.\nB. F. Hart, Westport, Kans., High School. — Not long ago I sent out a circular letter\nto the business men of our community asking them some questions in regard to our\ngraduates. All these business men said they were deficient in penmanship, business\ncalculation, and spelling. Many also expressed the hope that we would not make our\ncourse so full of other subjects that it would not be possible to give a little time to teaching our pupils how to meet people, or how to deal with people in business or ordinary life.\nSome said they would like to have us try to teach initiative — that is, how to begin and\ndo something and keep at it until it is finished. These business men said, \"Don't fill\nthe course so full that you cannot give a little time to teaching these things.\"\n\nTO WHAT\n\nEXTENT\n\nFAILURES\n(l) THOMAS\n\nL.\n\nARE\n\nTEACHERS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\nRESPONSIBLE\n\nFOR\n\nIN THE CLASSROOM'/\n\nBRECHEEN,\nCOMMERCIAL\nDEPARTMENT,\nSCHOOL, OAKLAND, CAL.\n\nFREMONT\n\nHIGH\n\nThis is not an easy question to answer. It requires considerable thought\nin many directions. There are so many loopholes in it, and so many\nphases to it, that it is hard to tell just what kind of answer is expected to\nbe given to it. In the first place, the question is limited to the classroom.\nJust why this is done I do not know. Perhaps the author of this had several\nthings in his mind when he made up this question, and he was thinking of\nthe actual work in the classroom and the nature and quality of work students were required to do in the classroom; and perhaps he was thinking\nof the many students who are considered failures, in the sense of not being promoted to other and higher grades of work at the end of each promotion\nperiod. And again, he might have been thinking of the character of students that are sent out of the high schools each year into the world to battle\nfor existence, and wondered to what extent the teacher was responsible\nfor those students not making progress to the end that they might be of\nsome use to society in general, and to the community in particular. Then\nagain, he may have been thinking of the ]iarticular group of high-school\nstudents who take up the commercial course in our high schools, and who\nfail to grasp a sufficient knowledge of the subject to justify their being\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\npassed on to newer fields of labor. If this is what was in the mind of the\nauthor of this question, and I presume it is, it limits the field of investigation to a narrow sphere. At any rate, I shall take it to mean that I am\nto confine my remarks to the classroom, and to find out so far as possible\njust who is to blame for students' not succeeding in the limited sphere of the\nclassroom, and to what extent the teacher is responsible.\nThere are two forces w^orking together in the classroom for a certain\npurpose, and to a desired end. In other words, one is the d)niamic power;\nthe other is the highway thru which this power is to pass, and in which it\nis expected to lodge and take root and grow and blossom into fruition in the\nform of useful, well-developed, successful men and women, who are to\nshoulder the reins of government for future generations. The dynamic\nforce in this instance is the teacher. He is the fountain head, the inspiration, the source from which the other force rises, and by which it is enabled to\ngo on the road to success or to failure, according to the character of the work,\nthe goal in view, the directions given, the energy put forth, the personality invoked, and the enthusiasm turned loose.\nThe teacher, in most instances, is the sum total of the success of the\nstudents in the classroom. The teacher must possess several things to\ninsure against failure on his part in the classroom. Among these may be mentioned: {a) a thoro preparation and training for his work; {h) natural\nadaptability to do the work; and {c) a personality of the magnetic type.\nIt is a true saying that a student will rise to the fountain head of his\nknowledge if rightly guided and properly directed. Very few of the students who enter high school for the first time know just what kind of work\nthey want to fit themselves for and just what studies to take up. They\nare influenced in taking certain subjects thru friends or chums, and more\noften by their chums, who in turn are influenced by someone else's chum,\nwhen in reality they are not adapted to do that particular kind of work for\nwhich they are preparing. It is useless to try to force a student to learn\nsomething that will never be of any use to him in after life; thus students\nare often forced to continue studies after they have found out that they do\nnot need to study that particular branch to fit them for the kind of position\nfor which they are adapted, lose interest in school, and eventually fail at\nthe end of the promotion period. The teacher should be a close observer\nof human nature, and of the needs of the students under his care, and fit\nthe subject to the student and not try to fit the student to the subject. Too\noften this latter is the case. A thoro preparation on the part of the teacher\nis one of the first requisites to success in teaching, but this must be followed\nby a natural adaptability for teaching. Many teachers come out of the\nuniversities and normal schools thoroly prepared from a mental, moral,\nand physical point of view who utterly fail for lack of natural adaptation\nfor the work. Some of them succeed, it is true, but this is on account\nof their youthful enthusiasm^and not from any natural adaptability on their\npart.\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR FAILURES\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n-\n\n859\n\nWe are told that only 5 per cent of the people who enter the mercantile\nbusiness succeed at it. What is the matter? Is it the fault of the goods\nthey are selling ? Is it the fault of the men they buy from ? Or is it the\ninability to cope with something for which the merchant is not adapted ?\nJust so with the teacher. He must be not only well prepared for the work,\nbut he must be adapted to it.\nThese two characteristics are not enough to insure him not to fail. He\nmust possess a personality that will attract students to his classes and will\nhold them there, and will cause those students to study, and to study to a\ndefinite purpose, and to have a desire to do something. The teacher's\npersonality must be tempered with an ambition to go higher up, and to be\nmaster of a situation. In one sense it must be of the Napoleonic type —\nto conquer all fear, all fallacies, to reach the topmost pinnacle of success in\nhis chosen line of work. In another meaning his ambition must be of the\ntype of Abraham Lincoln, an ambition to be of use to humanity in general\nand to his community in particular, an ambition to serve to a fixed purpose,\nto assist in the upbuilding of his own immediate neighborhood.\nNot only must the teacher be ambitious, he must be patient. He must\npossess the patience of Job, that he can forbear the many weaknesses of\nhis pupils, or the complaints of his patrons without any outward sign of\nsmarting, or resentful revenge, or intemperate tact in dealing with them.\nHe must also have perseverance. He must be as persevering as Cyrus\nW. Field. When his students seem to be failing he must rally his strength\nand resources and keep his students in the right path. Because a boy or\ngirl may be slow in grasping a subject is no cause to become impatient with\nthem; forbearance is a virtue to be cultivated, and it is one of the guides\nto success in directing students on the road to a better life, a nobler citizenship, and the final accomplishment of the happiness that all are striving\nto attain.\nSympathy is the next requisite to success in teaching boys and girls.\nThe teacher must show his students that he is human; that he has an\ninterest in their well-being; in their progress; in their success in all undertakings of a high and noble desire. He must prove his sympathy by his\nacts. He must have that sympathy that will be inspiring to his students,\nand will cause them to put forth all their ability to master whatever may be\nset before them to do. Whatever may be the students' troubles are his\ntroubles, and whatever may be their joys are his joys.\nThe teacher that is not enthusiastic about his work will never succeed.\nHow can he arouse interest in a subject if he is not interested in it himself ?\nHow can he expect a student to do something that he would \"not do himself ?\nThere never was any great and lasting suq:ess that was not accomplished\non a wave of enthusiasm.\nHaving briefly outlined the requisite qualifications of the teacher, I\nwill next turn to the other force, the student.\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nAs stated already, many students on entering high school for the first\ntime are led into taking up subjects which they are by nature unfitted to\npursue. They are influenced in doing so by outsiders, or by those with\nwhom they associate. And after they have studied these subjects for a\nlittle while, they are disappointed, and want to drop out of the class. And\nagain, many students take up the commercial studies because they think\nthey afford an easy avenue for credits for graduation from the high school.\nMany students work under an erroneous idea that it is time they are to\npass, instead of the complete mastery of the subject they are studying. I\nfind that many students who have been in high school for two or three\nyears are still laboring under the impression that all they have to do is to\nput in so many periods each week in the particular subject for a term, and\nthen they will be entitled to so many credits toward graduation. The\naverage high-school pupil seems to think of but two things, viz., time and\ncredit toward graduation. Now whose fault is this ? Are the students to\nblame ? I think not. They have not been instructed differently, and the\ncustom has grown up, and is still growing; each class coming into the high\nschool inherits this same impression, and it continues to grow from year to\nyear. What the teachers should do, is to begin right now, and instill into\nthe students a desire to be something, to prepare for a definite career, and\ncleanse their minds of that false idea that time and credits are the ultimate\ngoals to be reached in their high-school life.\nThe environment of the student determines to a great extent his progress in school. The student may have inherited a lazy and indifferent\ndisposition, and by his associates cultivated this to such an extent that\nall of the ambition, patience, perseverance, sympathy, and enthusiasm of\nthe best teacher in the country would be a failure with such students. The\nstudent may be of a temperament that requires tact and skillful effort\nin directing into right channels, in which case the teacher must ever be\nalert to his duty to guide the student properly along lines of least resistance,\nand in highways of most usefulness.\nA student may be ambitious and have tendencies that hinder his progress under the most skillful guidance of his teacher. These must be\novercome, and the avenues of success pointed out to th6 boy or the girl,\nthat they may keep in view one object and only one, viz., the complete\nmastery of the subjects they are studying, to the end that they will be tools\nin the students' hands for wielding power and conquering difficulties in the\nbattles for existence.\nThe teacher who possesses a thoro training for his chosen line of work,\nand is adapted for it, and has a personality that will grasp his students\nand hold them, and has the relative amount of ambition, patience, perseverence, sympathy, and enthusiasm, and uses his best efforts in l^is work\nwill not be responsible for failures of the students in the classroom. In proportion ashe falls short of this will his responsibility be.\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\nI\n\nDepartment)\n\n(ll)\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nC. A. BERNHARD,\n\nFOR\n\nFAILURES\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\nCOMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT,\nUKIAH, CAL.\n\nUKIAH\n\nHIGH\n\n86 1\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nAfter reading the subject assigned I cannot see that it calls for a brief\neither for or against my fellow-teachers. Rather it ahould be a discussion\nof responsibility: For what are we responsible and for what not? For\ninstance, the opportunity is here to give ourselves a most excellent \"roast\"\nfor all our classroom failures. On the other hand, the opportunity is\nequally good to blame the other fellow.\nThere are some things for which we teachers are largely responsible.\nFor the first one we will mark preparation.\nDo we prepare as we should ? I think not. Why ? Well, there are\na number of reasons. One is the unstability of the occupation — or profession, as many of us like to call it; occupation is the better word.\nUnstable you say. You point me to the great army of teachers here and\nremind me that there is none other like it and point to the fact that for\na hundred years we have been rolling down the corridors of time, making\nhistory as we go and making ourselves one of the strongest factors in the\ndevelopment of this great nation. Unstable! And I answer, \"Of course\nwe are.\"\nDid I hear some Missourian over there say \"Show me\"? Well, here\nyou are. It is indeed a great army of teachers we have in the United\nStates, but it is about as changing as the sands of the sea. Look at the\ngreat majority of women it contains. Now why does any woman teach\nschool? That question we dare not answer, but I am going to lay you\ndown this proposition as bearing on the subject. If the right man should\ncome along in each case and ask the right question, backed up by the\nright amount of security, nearly every lady teacher would answer in the\naffirmative and enter upon her real \" prof ession \"^that of home-builder.\nAs it is, a large percentage of our lady teachers will have married before\nwe meet again.\nAnd how about the men? I have never known a man who honestly\nand truly started out to be a school teacher for life. For a hundred years\nwe have been making it a stepping-stone for law, medicine, politics, or\nbusiness. The young man \"graduates\" and must have some quick money.\nHe knows he can get a certificate, and a school job will support him and\ngive him some spare time until he can find something better. Some of\nus soon fall into the salary rut, others teach on because they are unfitted\nfor anything else, and while they hate the work they cannot give up one\nhundred dollars per month for the uncertainty of business. Pretty\nsoon they are too old and too proud to begin business at the beginning\nand unfit to begin anywhere else. They ^are chained to the teacher's\ndesk. The chains gall them and they chafe and fret, yet they cannot\nmove.\nWe see them, down to old age, unsatisfied and half-failures.\nNot long ago a school superintendent complained to me that all his\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nfirst-class lady teachers get married as soon as they really learn to do\ngood work. I said \"How about the men?\" '*0h, they are promoted to\nprincipalships.\" \"Then what?\" And after a moment's thought he\nreplied, \"Well, I see what you mean. All our best men soon go into\nsomething else. We seem to be doomed as superintendents to carry on\nour work with young stock, unbroken, mixed in with the old, discouraged\nhalf-failures, and sometimes the friction is terrific, consuming nearly as\nmuch energy as goes into the real work.\"\nBecause of this unstability we do not take the trouble to prepare as\nwe should. In fact it is not even a question of preparedness. It is a\nquestion of getting a certificate and a school. With the great majority\nthe preparation ceases as soon as they can secure a certificate.\nWith law it is not thus. A lawyer begins to practice and keeps right\non studying as long as he practices. He must — or be crowded out by\nhis more progressive fellows. In medicine and in business a man's success\ndepends upon the degree of his preparedness. In teaching his success\ndepends upon his certificate and how politic he is. His preparation has\nceased and his surplus energies are directed toward a future occupation\nor profession.\nOf course temperament and good-nature are important factors for\nsuccess. These two terms may be condensed into that one word \"tact.\"\nIf a teacher has tact he can surmount great difficulties with ease.\nI maintain that the teacher who has a certificate and is endowed with\na reasonable amount of tact can go right on indefinitely without any\nfurther preparation. This is not true in the outside business and professional world. There men must majie good. The teacher's product is\nnot judged until long after. In the business world our work is judged\nevery day.\nNow I am supposed to be discussing our responsibility for classroom\nfailures. It may look as tho I am a long way off the track, but really I\nthink not. If we were properly prepared for our work and used the best\neffort we knew, we would have no responsibility for the failures. I maintain that we are not properly prepared and that there does rest upon us\na heavy responsibility.\nWe commercial teachers are preparing men and women for earning a\nliveHhood in the great commercial world. We have in our classes the\nfuture great accountants, general managers of vast corporations, expert\nreporters — ^both court and verbatim. We are supposed to be teaching\nthese things to them. Dare I ask you. Have you ever done the thing you\nare trying to teach these boys and girls to do? Could you expert the\nbooks of your home county? Could you formulate and install an up-todate set of books for a department store such as is found in our cities\nof five thousand to ten thousand population ? Do you understand department accounting ? Could you show your class just how cost accounting\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nFOR\n\nFAILURES\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n863\n\nis conducted in an ordinary manufacturing plant ? Can you readily draw\nup in correct form all the legal documents discussed in your commerciallaw class ? You are better than the average if you can. Or can you go\ninto the courtroom and properly report the next murder trial in your\nhome county? Suppose one of the great city papers had said to you,\n\"We will give you one hundred dollars if you will send us in a complete\ntranscript of everything said and done at this meeting today\"; could you\nget that one hundred dollars? If we can all answer these queries and\nsome more of the same nature in the affirmative, I will take back my\nstatement about unpreparedness.\nThe plap fact is that many of us are trying to teach boys and girls\nto do something that we cannot ourselves do. In our bookkeeping classes\nwe use about twice as much time as we should on the work we accomplish. We have some textbooks with high-sounding titles and we teach\nthese thru, and call the product \"bookkeepers.\" In shorthand we have\na great variety of systems and we teach the book thru, doing about so\nmuch scolding about poor lessons, but when the end of the term comes,\ncertain ones are passed on and called stenographers. Are they?\nI give it to you as the opinion of one, that no person can properly\nteach a thing he cannot himself do. I once knew a great piano teacher\nwho had but one arm. He had, however, learned to play the piano before\nhe lost his arm. It takes more than ability to write to make a reporter.\nBefore a teacher is qualified to teach shorthand to a pupil for any purpose\nhe should be a master of the science — a real reporter. Before a teacher\nis quaUfied to teach bookkeeping he should be a tried and proven bookkeeper, for by that means only will he know how it is done in the rush\nand hurry of the business world. Commercial law should be taught by\na good lawyer.\nWe teachers are not responsible for this state of the profession. It\nis the result of our form of civilization. We are, however, responsible\nto our pupils for undertaking to teach what we cannot properly teach.\nWe are also responsible if we allow this condition to remain.\nI believe that we get in this world about what we pay for. The communities inwhich we live have set their price for teaching. They have\nthen proceeded to certify teachers. If the examinations are too rigid\nthose of proper training wiU not apply because the business world offers\nmore money for their services. The examinations have year by year\nbeen set low enough to get teachers enough to go around. When teachers\nget plenty the examinations are made more difficult. When teachers are\nscarce they are made easier, and you know that is the fact.\nThe price should be set for this work juska little higher than the business world can afford to pay. The very cfeam of men and women in\nthis land should be in our schoolrooms. There is a great moral question\ninvolved.\nWe are dealing with the lives of men and women of the future.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThey should be handled by experts whose services are paid for at the\nhighest market price as established by the market where such services\nare consumed.\nOf course we teachers are not responsible for the \"poor material\"\nwhich comes to our rooms. The Great Book tells us that their sins shall\nbe visited upon them even unto the seventh generation, in speaking of\nparents.\nIn all our classes there are those bright boys who hardly need a teacher,\nbut the most of them are not thus: many in fact are very hard to manage,\nlet alone instruct, but these are the sins of their grandparents away back.\nAbout one hundred years after all the parents learn how to re3,r the model\nchild our problems with this kind of pupil will be solved. In the meantime we must give him the best there is and allow the responsibility to\nremain with the grandparents.\nIn conclusion, then, I feel that we owe a great moral responsibility to\nthe children in our classes for the kind of instruction placed before them\neach day. We owe them kind and courteous treatment and a world of\npatience, but we do not owe any responsibility for the result. That is\naway back over and beyond our sphere. We know not the physical and\nmental handicaps these children may be suffering from. If we are morally\nblameless we will see that the instruction they get is the very best and\nmost up-to-date, and then trust to the great God of the universe for the\nresult.\nAnd how shall this be brought about? Briefly: Our salaries must\nbe doubled and trebled, and even quadrupled in many cases. Next we\nmust earn those high salaries — actually earn them. More men must be\nbrought from the business world and put into our schools. Our whole\nAmerican system of taxation is wrong and must be changed until it is\nright. We teachers must study it and help to right it. I think our first\nplain duty is a strong organization and demand for much higher salaries\nand in the meantime a strenuous effort for better textbooks, better equipment, and a much greater knowledge of the work we are trying to do.\nLastly, we must write the word co-operation on our hearts so that\nit can never be effaced. We must study its meaning until we can co-operate in the fullest sense of the word. The great majority of women now\nworking on salaries should be mistresses of happy homes and if men were\ntrained and then paid as they should be this could be brought about.\nThere never was a time when teachers needed to know so much or be so\nwise as at the present. In conclusion I give you three words for thought:\norganization, co-operation, and preparation. When these are mastered\nwe will not need to worry over classroom failures, for they will not exist.\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTHE IDEAL COMMERCIAL\n\nESSENTIALS\np. M. nSHER,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\nTEACHER\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nPRINCIPAL, MANUAL TRAINING AND\nHIGH SCHOOL, OAKLAND, CAL.\n\nTEACHER\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nIn considering the character of the teacher it is well first to review\nbriefly the commercial course offered in the public schools; for I shall\nconfine my remarks to public education, diverging only for purposes of\nillustration. I shall therefore briefly consider: (i) the growth and present status of commercial education and its probable future; (2) the present\nprovision for the preparation of commercial teachers {a) in subject-matter,\n{h) in method; (3) The qualifications desirable and essential in the teacher\n{a) because of subject-matter to be treated, {b) because of association with\nother members of the school faculty teaching other courses, (c) because of\nthe condition and needs of the students, id) because of the field for which\nthe student is preparing.\nI have followed very carefully the reports and addresses and discussions in the general and in the department meetings of this session of the\nNational Education Association. There are two dominant notes: (i)\nthe physical welfare of the child; (2) the pupil's preparation for social,\ncivic, and business service. About the importance of the first there can be\nno great difference of opinion. Under the second, we have the reason and\njustification for commercial education.\nThe American state presents a case of monopoly in education. The\nstate of California provides for and practically guarantees that every child\nin the state shall be offered at public expense an education. Somewhat\nsimilar provision is made in the other states of the Union. The state does\nthis from a high order of selfish motive; namely, to the end that the state\nmay be perpetuated. A government founded on the will of the people\nmust provide that this will shall be intelligently expressed and administered,\nin order that the ends of the community may be subserved by the state.\nThe growth of that phase of education denominated industrial, or business,\nis phenomenal. It cannot be an accident. It must arise from the nature\nof things, in a country where government and institutions respond to popular needs when pressed. The statements that I make of California are\ntherefore measurably applicable to the situation in other states.\nIn 1 89 1 there were m California about 24 high schools, in none of which\ndid the commercial course figure. In 1911 there are 212 high schools, in\n172 of which there are commercial courses with nearly 400 teachers employed in teaching the same, out of an entire high-school force of about\n1,900. Stanford University in its wide field of electives has for years\nrecognized and accredited attainment in the mechanic arts and in business.\nWithin the last two years the more conservative University of California\nhas declared for the acceptance in matriculation of attainment in these\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nsame lines. In very recent years there was a discrimination in the CaUfornia high schools between teachers of commercial subjects and teachers\nof the traditional academic subjects in the matter of salary. The movement now is in the direction of equal pay in all subjects taught in the\nhigh schools. This is as it should be. Nothing is more embarrassing or\nhumiliating in a high-school faculty than a salary discrimination based on\nthe supposed relative value of subjects taught. For years in California,\nunder our State University system of high-school accrediting, the teachers\nof mechanic arts and commercial subjects were humiUated by the fact that\ntheir work was not considered in the matter of accrediting. This unwholesome condition has been changed, and so far as the subjects of the curriculum are concerned all members of the high-school faculty are on an equal\nfooting. In providing instruction in commercial subjects the attitude of\nschool boards, principals, and teachers should not only be one of friendliness, but there should be a manly, unapologetic declaration that every\nsubject worthy to be put in a high-school course and well taught is of\nequal rank. There should not only be no humiliation of teachers but there\nshould also be no humiliation of students.\nAgain, we should find ourselves thinking of the years of a high-school\nand college course as going in couples rather than in fours. No more\nsignificant thing appears in recent high-school administration than the\naction of the Chicago Board of Education, under the superintendency of\nMrs. Ella Flagg Young, in the provision for various two-year courses in\nthe high schools of Chicago. There are plain economic conditions which\njustify this. Educators lament the small percentage of public-school\npupils who enter the high school. A very considerable percentage of\ngrammar-school students could be induced to take a definite and practical\ntwo-year course in a high school, who could not for a moment consider a\nproposition of a four-year course — and they and the state would be gainers.\nWe must not lose sight of the fact that the period during which young\npeople, for economic and psychological reasons, have long been accustomed\nto prepare themselves for a trade or for business, is the period between\nfourteen and eighteen years of age. To meet this condition the high\nschools should give lines of work, pursuing which the student will feel\nthat he is being prepared for some vocation. We must not be too sensitive about the terms \"vocation\" and \"vocational education.\" The time\nhas come when our public schools should begin to make payments on a\nlong-deferred obligation to the industrial classes of the country. We\nshould emerge from the dusk and twilight of the old notions of education\ninto the sunlight of the modern interpretation of the duty of the public\nschools; namely, to prepare young people for definite service to themselves,\nthe community, and the state.\nThe subjects to be treated in the commercial courses of high schools\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTEACHER\n\n867\n\nare naturally still a matter for discussion as to scope and quantity; as to\nquality the teacher should see to it, and boards of education should insist\nupon it, that it be of a high order. It has been the experience of the\npast, and may still obtain in cases, that the commercial teacher has less\nscholastic training than his associates in the faculty. This has happened\nbecause there have been no special schools for the liberal education of such\nteachers either in subject-matter or in method. Teachers are apt to make\ncomparison among their fellows based upon the time spent in preparation,\nand the character of preparation received. There must be provision for\nthis training of a high order. The two universities in California are about\nready to give it now. Meanwhile, it should be the determination of every\ncommercial teacher to give instruction in his classes of such high quality\nthat there could be no odious comparison.\nNow as to the ideal teacher. It may be accepted as a matter of course\nthat the commercial teacher should understand his subject. Knowledge\nis such a unit that no man can be greatly proficient in hi s specialty unless\nhe is at least well informed in some other lines. Therefore it follows that\nthe more general his equipment may be, the better he will teach his own\nspecialty. The great advantage of the commercial teacher is that his\nsubjects are intensely alive, that they are applied constantly before\nhim and his classes in the community. Every principal of a commercial\nschool and every man teaching in it should be a member of his local board\nof trade or chamber of commerce. Every woman teacher should be a\nmember of at least one club, organization, or society which deals with\nsubjects pertaining to the welfare of the community. The principal\nusually sounds the keynote of the school. It is he who is planning for it\nas a working organism in the community. It is he who should give it\ndirection and purpose. But every member of the faculty, in addition to\nteaching his own subject, should seek to catch the spirit of the school as a\nwhole, so as to contribute at as many points as possible to its usefulness.\nI would like to commend to all commercial teachers the sentiment\nuttered at this session of the Association by Miss Julia E. Crane, of Potsdam,\nN.Y., when she said: \"Great teachers are those whose love of youth makes\nthem open-minded to the viewpoint of their pupils.\"\nCommercial education need not imduly emphasize the dollar. There\nis no better field for the display and exercise of principles of rectitude and\nhigh honor than the field, of business. Let me commend to the teacher\nwho finds herself decrying business, business methods, and business training, that charming character, Betty Vanderpoel, in that wonderful story\nof English and American life. The Shuttle. No woman reading that book\nshould ever again fail to pay proper tribute to business instinct, methods,\nand practice.\nTo close: Commercial instruction in our secondary schools has come\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nto stay. It is growing to be more and more an expression of community\nneeds. It remains for those to whom this great work of the state is committed, namely, the school officers and teachers, to recognize this situation,\nto treat it with proper respect, and to seek so to administer it that these\nschools and this line of education shall to the utmost and highest serve\nthe community and the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nHYGIENE\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Will Grant Chambers, University of Pittsburgh\nVice-President — Lewis M. Terman, Leland Stanford Jr. University\nSecretary — Percy E. Davidson, Leland Stanford Jr. University\n\nFIRST\n\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nStanford University, Cal.\nStanford University, Cal.\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July ii, 191 i\n\nThe meeting of the Department of Child Study was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by\nthe vice-president, Lewis M. Terman, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford\nUniversity, Cal.\nThe subject of the first paper was, \"Two Thousand Children Tested by the Binet\nMeasuring Scale for Intelligence,\" by Henry H. Goadard, director of psychological\nlaboratory, New Jersey Institute for Feeble-Minded, Vineland, N.J.\nThis was followed by a paper on \"Results and Impressions of a Preliminary Study\nof Pedagogical Retardation,\" by Percy E. Davidson, associate professor of education,\nLeland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nThe third paper of this session was on \"Health and Ventilation\" by Leonard P.\nAyres, associate director of Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation, New\nYork, N.Y.\nThe chairman appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nLeonard P. Ayres, associate director. Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage\nFoundation, New York, N.Y.\nFrank G. Bruner, Department of Child Study, public schools, Chicago, HI.\nEverett Shepardson, head of practice school. State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION, ROUND\n\nTABLE— Tuesday Afternoon, July ii, 191 i\n\nThe department met in Round Table Conference for the discussion of the topic,\n\"The Qualifications and Training of the School Health Ofl&cer.\" The following took part\nin that discussion: N. C. Bullock, M.D., director of medical inspection, public schools,\nSan Jose, Cal.; N. K. Foster, M.D., director of Department of Health and Development,\nOakland, Cal,; Leonard P. Ayres, associate director of Department of Child Hygiene,\nRussell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.; William F. Snow, M.D., secretary of State\nBoard of Health, Sacramento, Cal.; and Lewis M. Terman, Department of Education,\nLeland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 13, 1911\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 : 30 a.m. by the vice-president.\nA paper on \"Effects of Low Temperature and Open- Air Classrooms upon Mental\nAlertness of Pupils\" was read by Frank G. Bruner, assistant director of Department\nof Child Study, public schools, Chicago, 111.\n869\nLeonard P. Ayres, associate director, Depa^ment\nof Child Hygiene, Russell Sage\nFoundation, New York, N.Y., then presented a paper on \"Open- Air Schools.\"\nThe last topic on the program, \"The Field for Clinical Child Psychology in the Public\nSchools,\" was discussed by Lewis M. Terman, Department of Education, Leland Stan-\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "870\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Chad-Hygiene\n\nford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. ; Leonard P. Ayres, associate director,\nDepartment of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.; and Mrs.\nVinnie C. Hicks, special psychologist, public schools, Oakland, Cal.\nThe following resolution was presented by B. S. Go wan, superintendent of schools.\nNational City, Cal.:\nWhereas, The science of school and child hygiene has in recent years undergone\nrevolutionary advances; and\nWhereas, Thoro investigation of the teaching of this subject in the normal schools\nof the United States reveals the fact that they have almost universally failed to keep\npace with this progress; therefore be it\nResolved, That the Department of Child Study of the National Education Association formally memorialize the normal schools thruout the country to extend and modernize their teaching of the subject of child hygiene and related topics.\nThe resolution was seconded and carried unanimously.\nThe following resolution was then offered by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres:\nWhereas, In the opinion of the membership of the Department of Child Study of\nthe National Education Association, the work and interests of this department have\noutgrown the scope and intent of the term \"child study\" and have become centered upon\nproblems for the mental and physical hygiene of children; be it\nResolved, That we hereby respectfully petition the Association thru its Board of\nDirectors to change the name of this department from the \"Department of Child Study\"\nto the \"Department of Child Hygiene.\" •\nThis resolution was put as a motion, was seconded by Frank G. Bruner, and carried\nunanimously.\nAbout two himdred active members were present.\nThe Committee on Nominations gave the following report:\nMass.For President — W. H. Burnham, professor of pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester,\nFor Vice-President — ^William C. Bagley, professor of education. University of\nIllinois, Urbana, 111.\nFor Secretary — Miss Theda Gildemeister, supervisor of training. State Normal\nSchool, Winona, Minn.\nThe report of the committee was unanimously adopted.\nThe department was then adjourned. ^\nPercy E. Davidson, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nTWO\nHENRY\n\nH.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHOUSAND CHILDREN TESTED BY THE BINET\nMEASURING SCALE FOR INTELLIGENCE\nGODDARD,\nSCHOOL\n\nDIRECTOR\nFOR\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\n\nFEEBLE-MINDED,\n\nOF RESEARCH,\n\nVINELAND,\n\nTRAINING\n\nN.J.\n\nIn April of this year the New Jersey legislature passed a law which\namong other things says that the Commissioner of Education of the state\nshall, with the advice and consent of the State Board of Examination, prescribe the\nBinet or such other methods as to him may seem best for ascertaining what children\nare three years or more below the normal.^\n\nThis gives the Binet Scale of Intelligence official recognition in the state of\nNew Jersey.\nIt has already attracted considerable attention in other parts\n' Since the above was written it appears that at the last moment the word \"Binet\" was stricken out of\nthe law. But since there is no other method by which we can discover \"what children are three years below\nnormal,\" the Binet scale is recognized in reality, tho not named.\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nBINET\n\nMEASURING\n\nSCALE\n\nFOR\n\nINTELLIGENCE\n\n871\n\nof the country and it is very desirable to have some statement of results\nfrom its use.\nIt is with this thought that we at this time present the results of testing\nan entire school system by this method.\nThe purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to show that the Binet scale\nis a method of marvelous accuracy and great practical value; and second,\nto show how it can be apphed to help us solve some of our problems and\nhelp make the school system more efficient.\nNow that we are beginning to recognize that many of our difficulties\nin school are the result of differences in inborn capacity rather than in inborn\nwickedness, it is necessary that we have some method of measuring that\ncapacity, so that we may know in each case where we stand. Recognizing\nthis, we undertook at the beginning of the last school year to apply these\ntests to an entire public-school system, consisting of about two thousand\nchildren. The methods and details of this work, together with the gross\nresults, have been published in the Training School Magazine, and the more\ncareful analysis of the results in the Pedagogical Seminary for June of this\nyear. This we shall not repeat at this time, but shall give only such facts\nand figures as are essential to our present purpose.\nThe gross results of the tests in the first six grades are shown in the\nfollowing curve. The figures on this curve mean this: that of 1,547 children tested, 554 tested exactly at age — that is to say, they answered correctly\nthe questions that had been set for their respective ages. Three hundred\nand twenty-nine (329) tested one year above the average and 312 tested\none year below — that is, they could do the questions for a year older or a\nyear younger, respectively, than their age. Again, 49 were two years above\nthe average, 14 were three years above the average, and 2 were four years\nabove; while 156 were two years below, 79 three years below, 37 four\nyears below, 8 five years, 6 six years, and one 7 years below, making a total\nof 1,547 in these six grades who were tested.\nIt will be noticed that this is practically a normal distribution, and therefore this curve is practically a mathematical demonstration of the wonderful accuracy of the Binet scale. We may digress here to point out the\nsignificance of the results thus obtained, because they demonstrate the\nvalue of the Binet method.\nFor practical purposes it will be entirely satisfactory to consider those\na year above and those a year below as forming a group with those who\nare just \"at age\" and consider all of these as satisfactory pupils. These\nconstitute 78 per cent. Above this group we have those who are\ntwo, three, and four years ahead of the average. These are the children that\nare especially well endowed. And one may pause here for just a moment\nto ask whether we should not in our school systems recognize these children and give them every opportunity to profit by and make use of the\ngifts that they have by nature. We shall know what is actually done with\nthese children in a later part of the paper.\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n872\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nBelow the average group we find two groups. First, there are those\nthat are two years and those that are three years behind the average.\nThese constitute a group of children whom we call \"merely backward,\"\nthat is to say, they are backward but they may catch up with the group,\nor at least they may learn the things usually taught in the elementary\ngrades and may go thru school learning enough so that they may become\nuseful and respectable citizens in the community. They may always be a\nlittle slow but they will be useful citizens. They ought not to be asked to\ndo the regular work in the regular time. They are slow and dull and heavy\nand should be put in special classes, where there will be only about ten or\ntwelve of them. They should be given a teacher who understands the\n\nJ2.\n\n7 Yrs,\n\n6 Yrs.\n\n5 Yrs.\n\nt Yrs. 3 Yrs.\n2 Yrs.\ni Yr.\nAt age\nJelow\n\ni Yr.\n\n2 Yrs.\n3 Yrs.\nAbove\n\n4 Yrs.\n1\n\n%\n\nFig. I. — Showing distribution of public-school children on mental development as\nshown by the Binet-Simon measuring scale for intelligence.\n\nproblem and can help them along and enable them to learn what they can\nnever learn without more help than they can possibly get in a class of\nthirty or forty.\nBelow this group, again, we have those children that are four years and\nmore below the average child. Experience is conclusive on this point that\nsuch children are so far behind that they can never catch up with the average. With these there is a fundamental and serious reason why they are\nso backward, and that is that for some cause or other their brain has never\ndeveloped and never will develop, and they can never learn those things\nthat are necessary and they can never have the judgment and commonsense that is needed in order to live a normal life in any modern community.\nThese children ought by rights to be segregated, not only for the sake of\nthe normal children but for the sake of the future of society. They should\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBINET\n\nMEASURING\n\nSCALE\n\nFOR\n\nINTELLIGENCE\n\n873\n\nbe placed in large colonies, well managed and fully adapted to make them as\nhappy and as useful as their limited capacity will allow. Such a thing is\nentirely feasible, and if we would only take hold of the question we could\nsolve in a generation three-fifths of the problem of feeble-mindedness.\nBut, at least until we can get the machinery going, we must take care of\nthese children in the public schools. But we now know that 65 per cent of\nthese children have inherited the condition and that if they grow up and\nmarry they will transmit the same condition to their offspring. Indeed,\nwe know that this class of people is today increasing at an enormous rate\nin every community and unless we do something to stop this great stream\nof bad protoplasm, we shall some day be swamped in a sea of degeneracy.\nI have reported elsewhere {Pedagogical Seminary^ September, 1910)\nthe result of testing four hundred feeble-minded children with the same\ntests and the remarkable agreement of that result with the institution\nexperience.\nThey have since been used by Huey at Lincoln, 111., and reported in the\nVolta Review J and by Wallin on Epileptics. They have been used on several\nsmaller groups of school children, notably by Miss Johnson in England.\nIn all of these cases I believe the method has justified itself, the users\nhaving made no suggestion that the method is not valuable, but only that\nit might be improved. We have suggested some changes which will, we\nbelieve, improve it in some of its details.\nIt should perhaps be stated here that the great success of the tests lies\nin the fact that they are based not on training or conscious learning on the\npart of the child, but on fundamental processes which develop at different\nages. This is well illustrated by the square and diamond tests. Binet\nfinds (and we have abundantly confirmed it) that a child can copy a square\nat five years of age but he cannot copy a diamond until he is seven. This\nseems to be due to the fact that certain eye-muscle (and perhaps fingermuscle) co-ordinations necessary to the drawing of oblique lines do not\ndevelop until seven years of age.\nIn a similar manner the tests for the other ages are largely dependent\nupon processes that develop at the respective ages.\nIn other words, we may say that any child who has lived in the world\nin any reasonable environment may be expected to have acquired the power\nto answer these questions without having been consciously taught. The\nresult of the use of the tests proves that this assumption is surprisingly\ncorrect.\nLet us now turn to our second point and see of what practical use the\ntests can be to schoolmen.\nSpace does not permit me to reproduce here the tables — they will be\nfound in the Pedagogical Seminary , Jtine, 191 1; but some illustrations\nwill show the argument.\nWe have taken those children who are one year behind grade, two\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nyears behind grade, etc., in the school and then, by getting their mental\nage as determined by the Binet-Simon tests, we have determined whether\nthe two agree; whether, for example, according to the Binet scale, they have\nmentality enough to be up to grade and are kept back for some reason that\nreally ought not to apply; or, on the other hand, are they farther back than\nthey ought to be; or, again, are they in their right place? And the same\nwith those who are ahead of grade.\nIn another count we have taken those who are at age, one year behind\n(according to the Binet scale), two years behind, etc., and have found out\nwhere they are in their school graaes.\nWe found 20 children of the mental age of eight in the first school\nyear. It might be thought that these had just entered school and consequently were properly placed.\nBut looking up their physical age, we find\n13 of them are eight physically as well as mentally. One is ten years\nold physically, eight years old mentally, and still in the first year. These\n14 children are certainly old enough to be in a higher grade. Of the other\n6, 3 are physically seven years old, i is six years old, and 2 are only five\nyears old.\nAgain, at ten years of age mentally, we find that there are 17 children\nin the third year of school. Let us see how these children are distributed.\nWe find 4 of them who are ten years old physically as well as mentally.\nThese children should, of course, be in the fifth year of school, and there\nseems to be no reason why they should not be there. Three more are\neleven years old physically. These 3 are really one year backward but are\nheld back two years, possibly thru some technicality, or because they are\nespecially weak in some one branch. Seven more are nine years old physically; inother words, they are one year in advance of their age. Another\nis only eight years of age and 2 more are only seven. It is probable that\nthese children are kept back to fit into the grade that corresponds most\nnearly to their age, even tho their mental ability would warrant their being\ntwo years ahead.\nOnce again, we find at the mental age of nine there are 17 children in\nthe fifth school year. Three are nine years old physically also. They have\nbeen put ahead a year, perhaps because of good memory or because of some\nprecocious ways, altho they are not anything above the normal mentality\nand should be in the fourth year of school. Six others are ten years old\nphysically, thus showing that they are one year backward and that they\nhave been pushed ahead undoubtedly in an effort to keep them up to the\ngrade which their physical age requires. Five more of this group are eleven\nyears old physically. They, again, have been pushed forward a year, altho\nit has not been possible to push them forward two years, as their physical\nage would demand. Three more are only eight years old physically (altho\nmentally nine). Here you have the precocious child. He is a year ahead\nof the average child and consequently is pushed along by his ambitious par-\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nBINET\n\nMEASURING\n\nSCALE\n\nFOR INTELLIGENCE\n\n875\n\nents or his ambitious teacher, so that altho he has not the mentality to be\nin the fifth grade, yet he is found there. This is the child that later breaks\ndown and gives rise to the belief that the precocious child is destined to\nfailure later on. He is destined to failure if his precocity is made the basis\nfor his being crowded way beyond what his actual mental endowments\nwill warrant.\nLet us now analyze the situation from the standpoint of the physical\nage. We find that at age ten, there are 14 children in the second school\nyear. Two of these are ten years old mentally as well as physically. They\nhave the right to be in the fifth school year and yet they are held back to\nthe second. Five more are of the mental age of eight. They have the\nability to be in the third school year but are held back in the second.\nThey are dull and slow, as is shown by the fact that while they are ten\nyears old they test only eight, and consequently they are not only held\nback to what their mental age would warrant but a year beyond that.\nThe remaining 7 are seven years old mentally, and consequently are in\ntheir right place. One-half of the total number are thus found to be\nwhere they ought to be; the rest are unjustly treated.\nThis is the type of child that makes the truant and incorrigible. He\ntakes no interest in the work because it is below him, and consequently\nhe plays truant or gets into mischief.\nAs a final illustration, at age nine we find there are four children in\nthe sixth school year, two years ahead of what their physical age would\nwarrant. Three of these are ten years old mentally. In other words, they\nare one year precocious but they are placed two years ahead. They are\nthus a year ahead of what even their mental ability would warrant. This\nis perhaps a case of a bright, attractive child who is pushed along because\nhe is above the average. And because he is above the average he is pushed\nalong at twice the rate at which he ought to be. Another case where Jater\nthe child must break down and become useless.\nWe find the fourth one is two years ahead of his physical age and is\nconsequently placed where he should be according to his mental ability.\nIn other words, out of four children, one is correctly placed.\nNow all this is precisely what we all know does happen in our schools.\nWe know that children are held back because they are too bright; we know\nthat they are pushed forward because they are too large for their grade;\nwe know that they are held back because of some technicality — they are\nnot up in their arithmetic, or they cannot read quite well enough, while in\nother things they are abundantly able to go ahead. Besides that, we know\nthat this is true from the experience of these children in after life.\nWithout going farther into the details of this which has been fully\ndescribed elsewhere {Pedagogical Seminary, June, 191 1), the general result is\nthis: We find there are two tendencies in each case. First, there is a tendency to keep all children close to the average. Now, if a child is a little\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nbackward or a little precocious, the tendency is to keep the one up to the\naverage that is ahead of his abihty, and bring the other down to the average\nthat is below his mental ability. The evils of this in either case are of course\nmanifest. The child who is of too slow mentality to keep up with the class\nis dragged along faster than he can follow, does not understand the work, and\nbecomes more and more stultified, while the child that is ahead of grade is\nable to do his work in less time than is required for the others and then he\neither falls into mischievous habits which may possibly become vicious, or\nhe becomes lazy, which is perhaps little less serious from the standpoint of\nindividual and race efficiency. Secondly, if the child is too far backward\nto be kept up to grade, he is apparently given up as hopeless and is not\nhelped to do even that which he might do, and we find them very often in\ngrades much farther back than their mentality would justify. This means\nthat they get discouraged. Such a child is generally conscious that he is\nnot equal to the average of the class, but on the other hand he knows he is\nnot as poor as those with whom he is placed; he knows that he understands\nthe work that they are doing and it degrades him. It hurts what little\npride and self-respect he has to find himself in the class with children so\nmuch younger and smaller than he, and to hear himself continually asked\nquestions that are so easy as to be silly. The result is that he often becomes\nstubborn and obstinate and does not even answer the questions that he\nmight. Sometimes these children have gotten back where they are thru\nsome technicality. Consequently they have not been promoted, when in\nreality, general intelligence would put them a year, or even two, and sometimes three years ahead of where they are found.\nIn the case of the precocious child there is a tendency to send many of\nthem ahead farther than they can go, while the tendency is acting on the one\nhand, as already stated, to keep them with the average. There are\napparently quite a few children who either because of their bright, sprightly\nways, their industry, or the ambition of their parents, are pushed ahead\nand their year of precocity, so to speak, is credited as two, and we find them\ninstead of a year ahead of grade, where perhaps their mental endowment\nwould permit, two years ahead, or even three years ahead; that is, a year\nor two years farther ahead than they have any right to be.\nAll of this demonstrates very clearly that we need some method of grading these children more carefully than we have been able to do by our ordinary school methods. Many will say at once, \"But what right have we to\nassume that this new Binet scale is more vaUd as a method of determining\nwhere a child ought to be than the experience of thousands of teachers in\nschools and our beautiful system of promotion ? \" In reply to that I can\nonly say that so far as our present system is concerned I believe that every\nschoolman has more or less misgivings as to the accuracy of our ordinary\njudgment of a child, that very few people have great confidence in our\nmethods of promoting as doing actual justice to the child. And if anyone\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBINET\n\nMEASURING\n\nSCALE\n\nFOR\n\nINTELLIGENCE\n\n877\n\ndoes have an overamount of confidence in our procedure in the past,' it is\nonly necessary to compare the estimates that are placed upon children in\nschool with their after-experience in life and see how often the two are\nradically in disagreement for him to have his faith in the old regime very\nseriously shaken. The poorest man in high school or college is often the\ngreatest success in life.\nFor the Binet tests I can only repeat what has already been said and add\na little more in the same line. The distribution curve is an unanswerable\nargument. We have now been using the tests for nearly two years and with\never-growing confidence. They have stood every test. We have had\nconfirmation in many ways that we never expected and the result is that\nwe have come to feel, much against our first prejudices, that the Binet scale\nis a marvel of accuracy. The figures obtained in this particular study\nhave been worked over in a great many different ways, and at every turn\nthey confirm the feeling that they are based upon a very accurate estimate\nof the child. Take this very matter that we have just been discussing.\nEvery schoolman and every parent knows that this is exactly what does\nhappen, that many children are kept up to the average who ought not to be,\nwhile many others are held back; that every one of the conclusions that\nwe have drawn from this paper is known to be true; the only point is that\nwe are not always sure of the particular individual. Now, the Binet\nscale will tell us to a nicety just where a child stands in his mental capacity,\nand consequently, just where he ought to be placed in his work.\nAt the Training School at Vineland every child that enters is now examined and his mental age determined and he is afterward treated in accordance with his mental age. He is placed in the classes or at the work that\nhis mental age justifies. He is periodically retested and his condition noted\nin order that his treatment may be adapted to any change or progress that\nhe makes.\nThe same thing could be done in every public school with tremedous\nsatisfaction to all persons concerned. Suppose when the child enters the\nprimary grade he is carefully examined by the Binet scale and his mental\ncapacity determined. Then the teacher knows what to do with him and\nwhat to expect of him. He then may be examined from time to time by\nthe same scale and his progress noted. If he is found to be feeble-minded,\nthat fact should be noted, and if he cannot be sent to a colony or school for\nsuch persons where he will be happy and reasonably useful, then he should,\nas before said, be placed in a special class and be given the best possible\ntreatment in the public school.\nI believe that such a procedure, carried out, would largely solve our problem of truancy and incorrigibility, because tj;iese truants and incorrigibles are\nlargely the results of a misunderstanding of the mental capacity of the\nchildren. On the one hand we try to hold the dull child up to average\nand thereby utterly discourage him, and on the other hand, we let the pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\ncocious child dawdle along with the average child, wasting his time and\ngetting into unhealthy habits, becoming lazy, or else devoting his time to\nmischievous or mahcious practices.\nFrom the study of the answers given by children of different ages to the\nvarious questions, we have concluded that while the scale as a whole is\nentirely satisfactory, yet there are some questions that are a little too easy\nfor the age in which they are placed and others that are a little too hard, and\nthat the scale would be somewhat improved if these were changed about a\nlittle. We find that Professor Binet himself in a recent issue of the scale\nproposed some changes. We do not find that our results agree entirely with\nthose changes, probably due to the differences in the nationality, but we\nhave published a revised scale and we now propose to use it, adopting as\nmany of Binet's later suggestions as our experience warrants and changing\nother questions in accordance with the results of this study.\nIn conclusion, let me say that if anyone doubts the value of this method\nof determining the intelligence of children, let him try it. He will certainly\ncome to the conclusion that we have in this system an enormous aid in\nour school work. We owe many things to France and the Frenchman, but\nI predict that we shall find \\r\\ the future that we owe them for nothing that\nis of more value to us than this scale, which will enable us to understand\nchildren better than we have understood them before and to treat them more\nwisely.\nRESULTS\nPERCY\n\nAND\n\nIMPRESSIONS OF A PRELIMINARY\nPEDAGOGICAL RETARDATION\n\nSTUDY\n\nE. DAVIDSON, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND\nJUNIOR UNIVERSITY,\nSTANFORD\nUNIVERSITY,\nCAL.\n\nOF\n\nSTANFORD\n\nWhat is reported in this paper is an experience rather than an experiment, a reconnoitering sally rather than a determined attack. It reflects\nin part the new interest in individual children so well illustrated in the\nwork of Dr. Witmer at the University of Pennsylvania, but quite as much\na growing conviction that educational work in universities stands greatly\nin need of a closer contact with, and a sounder basis in, the actual subjectmatter with which it presumes to deal; that is, individual growing minds,\nmaturing under the conditions of the average American pubhc school. The\nboys who served as subjects in the study were not of the mentally defective\ngroup. They seem to represent a status below normal as the school population goes, but of the rapidly and less rapidly recoverable sort, far above\nthat of the apparently imbecile and wayward children of the recently\nreported studies. This group has not had the consideration it deserves.\nIts significance is great not only as a very large element in the school\npopulation in need of special attention, but particularly because it seems\nto represent a very likely field for the study of current pedagogy, not in the\nabstract as right or wrong from principle, but at the much more striking\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nA STUDY\n\nOF PEDAGOGICAL\n\nRETARDATION\n\npoint at which it breaks down and fails to yield the ordinary results. Time\nwill permit the description of three^ cases only. These descriptions are\nbased upon an acquaintance of three months while the boys were members\nof a special class.\nThis boy entered school when he was six, and was fourteen when he came to us. If he\nhad been promoted regularly he would now be in the first year in the high school. Instead\nhe is in the low sixth, or rather he was tried in the low sixth and returned to the high fifth\nas being unprepared. He has lost, therefore, at least three years and a half. He failed\nin the first grade, his experience in the second grade is unknown. He failed twice in the\nfifth grade, once in the sixth, and spent some time in trying to make up losses in a parochial school. Only two pupils in the five hundred in his school system have lost as much\ntime, so that we have here one of the most serious cases of school retardation. The\npresumption is usually made that retardation to this amount must necessarily be due\nto a feeble mind. He tested at about eleven years on the Binet scale and at the same age\non two supplementary tests for general intelligence. His vocabulary is that reached by\ntwo-thirds of the twelve-year-olds. His marks show that he has not excelled in any\nbranch at any time except in writing. His sixth-grade teacher regarded him as naturally\nstupid. One fifth-grade teacher would place him in the group of normal minds but at\nthe bottom. Another fifth-grade teacher considered him to possess a good mind of\nwhich no use had been made. His third-grade teacher gives him credit for possessing a\nnormal intellect. His teacher in the first grade found him dull, stupid, and unresponsive\nand he was not promoted. I have found very few outside interests of an admirable sort.\nHe hkes horses and has worked for several years about a livery stable. The proprietor\nhere regards him as above the average in intelligence about the stable and with teams.\nHe was the most capable member of the group in games, learning rapidly and quickly\nbecoming proficient in new ones. He had a comparatively quick wit, had no difficulty\nwhatever in saying things that gave amusement to the other boys, and often caused the\nadults present to smile. He was extremely fertile in gestures, grimaces, and postures,\nand delighted in them. He was never at a loss for arguments in justification of his\nconduct.\nIn our examination of him we found that he was densely ignorant of all geographical\nand historical facts, had an exceedingly fragmentary knowledge of natural phenomena,\nhad never read a book, did not know his multiplication tables, and added by counting.\nHis arithmetical reasoning was practically nil. He did not understand what a fraction\nwas. After lively class discussions he was able to report a few scattered ideas. He read\nconsistently during the time set apart for this but was wholly unable to keep the different\nportions separated. Often he could not recall anything in entire sections of a book.\nHe could not get interested in The Call of the Wild. He was exceedingly clumsy with\ntools and did not finish properly one piece of work. He did, however, write well and\ntook pride in it. His compositions were easy, sensible, and correct, within the limits of his\nknowledge. Latef his imagination was completely captivated by The First Jungle Book,\nwhich he read thru. There were times when he learned with unexpected ease and rapidity,\nand gave unmistakable evidence of native capacity. His intellect seemed at these times\nto catch a glimpse of light thru the heavy clouds of his ignorance. After three months'\ndaily experience with him I felt convinced that I dealt with a normal intellect astonishingly lacking in the usual idea equipment. There was nothing eccentric, queer, or\npathological about his reactions. His mind seemed primitive, untutored, barbarian, to\nsuch a degree that it took practically the three months to get a realizing sense of the\nextent of it. His formal education will have to return practically to the rudiments, if\n' One case only is described in the Proceedings.\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Hygiene\n\nindeed he can now be kept in school long enough to accomplish anything. He is desirous\nof going to work.\nThe possible causes of this remarkable case of retardation may now be considered.\nThe school facilities have been excellent. He has been very regular in attendance.\nHe has had only the usual childhood diseases. There are no physical defects noticeable.\nIt is to be noted that there was a lack of interest in school from the first grade, and from\nall reports the retardation of the very first year was never made up. From the beginning, schoolwork had no point of attachment for his mind, and his successive promotions\nbut served to carry him into deeper water. He is reported as being a baby, undeveloped\nin the first grade, and moreover, sleepy, stupid, and not interested in play. This condition issuggestive of physical obstructions; yet the mother reports that he had uniformly excellent health. One thing only gives evidence of physical peculiarity — he has\nbeen exceptional about his diet from his earliest childhood. There have been, however,\nfrom the beginning, emotional eccentricities of a noteworthy sort. His second-grade\nteacher is reported to have pointed him out as the cause of her leaving town. He liked\nhis first- and third-grade teachers, and was amenable to their control when watched. He\nwas very untrustworthy in the absence of the teacher and given to mischief. In later\nyears he became more and more impudent, and now is so insolent and insulting in manner\nand speech at times as to approach incorrigibility. In recent years he has lived largely\nupon the street, frequenting the nickelodeons and following up every possibility of excitement. His insolence is but one side of his nature, however. Several of his teachers\ncalled attention to a streak of tenderness in him. He takes likings and has moods of\namusing docility often, after his outbreaks. He was no hand at picking on small boys,\nand plainly had his own code of honor. He made a record for truthfulness with several\nof his teachers and with us gave the impression of believing in his own veracity by leaning\nheavily on childish technicalities. He was so sensitive about his own ignorance that he\nmade use of any makeshift to conceal it. He would ask questions so simple as to be\nobviously insincere. He would never by preference work at the board except when he\nclearly excelled the others, as he did in writing English. Then he was bold and confident.\nOnce caught in ignorance so great as to astonish the class, he would \"save his face\" by\nresorting to the mischievous vaudeville in which he was irresistible. His mischief-making\nwas so confirmed that he refrained from it only after the most earnest kind of individual\npersuasion. He had a record of petty thieving with the local officer, but of the sort that\nmight be construed as exciting adventure. Altogether he is a curious complex of good\nand evil.\nI conclude by remarking that this is an astonishing case of great retardation, both\nin school and out, and that there is small evidence that it is due to defective intellect.\nTwo causes of sufficient force to account for it are available apart from this. The first\nis an unprofitable school history due to a failure to make a successful beginning and an\naccumulated retardation thereafter. This was uncorrected, and if anything aggravated\nby the influence of an untutored home. Associated with this are undisciplined instincts\nand emotions, and a complete absence of restraint as a result of maternal negligence and\na life on the street.\n\nWe have here an exhibit of the most marked cases of retardation in a\nPacific Coast town of excellent general population and superior school\nsystem. What general statements of value can be made with safety on\nthis showing? They were the noteworthy cases among the boys in a\nschool enrollment of about five hundred.\nIt is to be noted that aside from the cause of unacquaintance with the\nEngUsh language, so important in some of the large immigrating cities, the\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA STUDY\n\nOF PEDAGOGICAL\n\nRETARDATION\n\n88i\n\nusual causes are well represented. Suppose these causes to be classified as,\nfirst, hereditary or congenital; second, hygienic; third, illness; fourth,\nphysical defect; fifth, parental neglect and ignorance; sixth, pedagogical\ncauses, or those associated with inadequate attention in school; then all\nthese are present, the one notable point being that they rarely come separately, but very generally in combinations too diflBcult of exact analysis.\nIn one case all these types of cause were plainly operative. The importance of these several causes has been sufliciently dwelt upon in the literature of the subject and need not here be further emphasized except in a\nfew particulars. The effect of heredity or prenatal factors is often limited\nto the explanation of actual feeble-mind edness. It should perhaps be\nurged that the congenital factor may be of such force as to call merely for\ngreater 'caution and unusual methods in order to prevent deviation, and\nthat this influence may take rather specialized directions. The matter of\nthe specialization of ability is still poorly understood, but within the group\nof normals we are led to suspect from the studies made thus far that it is\nthe usual thing.\nParental neglect as a cause, resulting in emotional and volitional disorder, isemphasized in our cases. Learning in school is conditioned largely\nby what Witmer calls \"pedagogical rapport,\" w^herein a deference to the\nprestige of the teacher and the school and a sensitiveness to its rewards\nand punishments are such as rapidly to produce a habit of voluntary effort\nor active attention. Confirmed willfulness at home and undisciplined\nimpulsiveness must undoubtedly figure in the matter of learning. If the\nchild's organic habit after five or six years of poor home training makes\navoidance of the painfulness of effort the usual thing, we may be sure the\nteacher in the first grade will have unusual diflSculty in inducing a disciplined attention forthwith, and a bad beginning on this account may\nestablish a backwardness which may not later be overcome without the\nspecial attention that is impossible in the teaching of large classes.\nParental ignorance works in a similar way. Thanks to the Herbartian\nand the more recent psychology of thinking, we now know that learning\nis quite as much a function of ideas as it is of a mental faculty or organic\ntendency. All children, then, do not start alike in the first grade by any\nmeans. The six preceding years have been very differently employed in\nthe different homes. Different learning power should be the expected\nthing. The child that has many old ideas to be disturbed by the stimuli\nof the schoolroom will be the learning one, as contrasted with the one\nthat has been given the minimum of attention and thrown wholly upon\nits own resources. This may be sufficient to induce first-grade backwardness. And first-grade backwardness is exceedingly significant, in that\nthereafter the child, instead of being stimulated to normal effort and achievement and habituated to regard himself as one of the group, must endeavor\nto reach a standard really beyond his powers and inevitably come to regard\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nhimself as a black sheep. No one thing, perhaps, is more essentially\ndisruptive of mental health and good working condition than the sense of\npersonal queerness and unfitness for the normal activities of one''s fellows.\nThere is small reason for supposing that first-grade children are different\nfrom older people in this regard.\nThis brings us naturally to pedagogical causes, or those associated with\nthe tuition and administration of school classes. The teachers of these boys\nwere undoubtedly among the best, the first-grade teacher, seemingly,\nespecially efficient. The school system is superior in its organization. No\nblame can attach to this particular school system for the backwardness of\nthese boys. The teachers uniformly gave of their time after school for\nextra instruction. But it must be noted that in practically every one of\nthese cases the causes operating were active from the beginning? They\nmanaged to stumble along to the sixth and seventh grades, when they\nneeded a greater amount of studying and care at the beginning of their\nschool career than is possible under ordinary conditions. Apparently three\nof these boys were not promoted after one year in the first grade. There\nis but one obvious conclusion: retardation must be taken early, and a\nfailure is to be regarded as symptomatic of underlying difficulties demanding\ncareful examination and special instruction, rather than a mere lack of\ninformation to be made good by repeating the grade. From this viewpoint\nthe assumption of the statisticians that two years of retardation is not\nsignificant is decidedly misleading.\nTurning, now, from causes of retardation to its diagnosis, we are compelled to admit that we are lamentably lacking in adequate methods of\nmeasuring either status in school acquisition or in mental and moral attitudes. When it is perfected, the Binet, or some similar scale, will aid us\nin locating the individual broadly in the amount of retardation in development and in distinguishing the defective from the merely backward. But\nthis can be done without giving us a point of departure for a program of\ncure and correction. For this we must have tests that will locate the kind\nand amount of backwardness in its infinite complexity and variety. Two\nof our boys of about the same chronological age show about the same\namount of retardation by the Binet scale, yet the pictures they make have\nvery little in common and their future treatment will be wholly dissimilar.\nThe measurement of pedagogical status will be made possible by working\nout norms of performance in the different school subjects for the school\nsystems from which the individuals come and for the country at large.\nFor the discovery of the types of defect these same tests or others must be\nconstructed in such fashion as to show up the defects in mental attitude\nand habit as well as the lapses in knowledge and information. Inasmuch\nas any one subject, such as arithmetic, or literature, or English composition, breaks up into a very large number of constituent elements, the\ntest must cover these various elements, in order that with a minimum of\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nA STUDY\n\nOF PEDAGOGICAL\n\nRETARDATION\n\n883\n\ntime and energy the whole characteristic performance of the individual\nmay be laid out plainly before the examiner. The discovery of specialized\nignorance will perhaps not give much trouble. It appears already that\nthe discovery of differences in attitude and niental habit is less easy.\nThe work thus far shows two tendencies: One consists of the use of\nthe categories of pure psychology as bases for testing; the other employs\nwell-defined social products like arithmetic, spelling, and handwriting.\nThe obstacles to the successful use of tests based upon psychological categories are at least twofold. They presuppose a unanimity of mind among\nexaminers far from being yet attained as to what constitutes reasoning,\nimagination, perception, memory, etc., and they presuppose, also, transference ofability. The noteworthy thing about the tests given by Whipple\nin his Manual is the variety of function the several examiners have\nattempted to measure by the same test. It would seem that two lines of\nprogress in this matter of testing lie before us. One is to study at length\nindividual tests of the unpractical and psychological sort until there is a\nconsensus of opinion as to their inside psychic significance; the other is\nfrankly to use important social performances like reading, arithmetic, and\nspelling in their several aspects, whether we fully understand the nature of\nthe processes or not. For the study of pedagogical retardation, in the\nlong run both methods are plainly indispensable, but there can be little\ndoubt of the superiority of the second method for immediate, practical\nreturns. The really important practical matter is to know where the individual stands along the lines of his social equipment.\nComing, finally, to the matter of the treatment of backwardness, we\nmust urge again that it is here we touch the all-essential matter. By all\nmeans let us make use of every aid — tests, mental measurements, classifications, definitions, diagnostic devices — that gives the least hope of a more\naccurate comprehension of the subjects with which we deal. But shall\nwe not keep firmly before us the fact that after all this is merely a necessary\npreliminary and that our real concern is treatment, cure, control, and —\nin spite of the Philistines — that odious thing known as \"pedagogy\"? In\nthe practice of medicine we sometimes hear of physicians making a separate\ncharge upon the patient for diagnosis, as if one cared in the least for a\ndiagnosis when professional treatment is necessary to a cure. Furthermore, one excellent way of judging a diagnosis is by the degree of success\nyielded by the treatment based upon it. Notwithstanding the speaking\nobviousness of these considerations, pedagogy is in disrepute, for reasons\nthat need not now concern us. In university circles the word is either\nanathema or a recognized source of academic levity. Even within departments of education it is often considered too frivolous a topic for stern\nscientific minds, and we are quite accustomed to seeing ambitious young\nmen, in a position to do something of value in the teaching of special\nbranches, hasten away to teachers' colleges to align themselves imder more\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\ndignified standards, such as the history, administration, theory, psychology,\nsociology, or philosophy of education. The farther they get from actual\nteaching the more impressive they become. Now, successful teaching and\ngood pedagogy amount to the same thing ; therefore pedagogy needs rehabilitation. Ifit shall be necessary to sacrifice to tradition this good old\nword, let us do it with what heroism we can. Words equally good have\ngone to oblivion. The idea is the thing.\nThere is comfort in the small beginnings of a better pedagogy to be\nnoticed here and there. There is much help to be had from the newer\nlogic if students will but study it with an open mind and apply it with\ndiscrimination. The special pedagogy of experience has much of value in\nit, and awaits quantitative appraisement. The new Journal of Educational\nPsychology forecasts the appearance of carefully conducted studies on the\ndifferent approaches to the several branches of culture. Unless the writer\nerrs, there is much to be hoped for from the care and instruction of backward children. There is something very tangible and appealing about the\nreform of a disordered or arrested intelligence. The appeal is at once\nspectacular, humanitarian, and scientific. A method or methods or a\npedagogy that can bring about such concrete consequences commands\nattention and respect. Who knows but what this respect might carry over\nto the extent that teachers might be graded by the public on a basis of\nperformance rather than on the criteria of pleasing address and the capacity\nfor frightening boys ? As physical valuation is necessary to the adequate\ntaxation of railroad properties, so measurable results are needed for the\nright estimation of teaching talent and method. Remuneration, then, will\nreflect differences and salaries will improve, not from motives of kindly\nconsideration to a deserving and overworked class of rather innocuous\npublic servants, but from the far more effective and honorable respect and\nesteem which attaches to anything worth having and hard to get. Another advantage which must inevitably come to pedagogy from a study of\nindividual cases is that which is involved in the proposition that individuals\nin the normal and supernormal group are by nature and circumstances\nunique. No study of mass results can hope to accomplish what is available\nfrom the thorogoing study of one organic mind. Because all minds are\ndifferent, a general method or pedagogy must always be varied for the case.\nBecause minds are more alike than different, a general pedagogy is possible.\nThe speaker will not easily forget the discipline he received as he observed\nthe responses on the part of these few individual boys to his time-honored\npractices. He made a firm resolution to do better. This in itself is result\nenough for a preliminary trial and may well serve as the concluding item\nin this casual report.\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nVENTILATION\n\nAND\n\nVENTILATION\n\n885\n\nI\n\nHEALTH\nLEONARD\n\nP. AYRES, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE,\nRUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nFor more than a year past. Dr. Luther H. Gulick,of the Russell Sage\nFoundation, has been conducting a series of investigations of the ventilation of buildings. This paper is based on his work and may be considered,\nin a modest way, to be a partial preliminary report of his investigations.\nIn the past twenty-five years the civilized world has succeeded in\nsolving a problem on which it has been working for many centuries and\nnow it is bitterly disappointed in the result. By the use of modern building methods it has succeeded in constructing air-tight dwelling houses in\nwhich midsummer temperatures may be achieved in midwinter. As the\nrace has struggled onward and upward from life in the open to life in dens\nand caves, and thru the centuries of dwelling in thatched huts, log cabins,\nand finally in modern houses, its progress has been marked by successive\nand successful efforts to ward off the rigors of winter.\nFinally — and only in very recent years — these efforts have been crowned\nwith success, and now we have reached the point where we can and do\nmaintain summer temperatures in our homes despite the coldest and most\ninclement weather out of doors. Unfortunately we are discontented with\nthe results of our triumph. A prolonged stay in these warm, air-tight\nrooms makes us irritable. We fuss and quarrel over trifles. We have headaches, colds spread among the members of the family with wonderful vigor\nand celerity, the servants leave, the children are fretful, the meals are awful,\nmarriage is a failure, and everything chooses to go wrong rather than right.\nMoreover, these unfortunate results are found not only in our dwellinghouses, which are commonly much heated and little ventilated; they\nare found in an almost equal degree in our costliest and most modern schools\nand public buildings, in which we have installed batteries of furnaces and\nboilers and powerful fans which draw out the old impure air and force in\nnew and bounteous supplies of fresh, heated air. Each year we spend\nsomething like three hundred thousand dollars in installing these modern\nheating and ventilating plants in our city schools and the result is an everswelling chorus of protest and complaint from those who are compelled to\nenjoy their supposed benefits.\nThe one fundamental cause for this colossal failure seems to be that\nwe have constructed our ventilating systems on the theory that the best\nair to breathe is air containing the lowest possible percentage of carbon\ndioxid and have utterly overlooked the fact that the truly important\ndesideratum is not a low percentage of carbon dioxid, but a proper relation of temperature and humidity. *\nThis trust in the efficacy of the carbon-dioxid test is reflected in our\nventilating laws, where such laws exist, which almost invariably provide\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\njChild-Hygiene\n\nthat the air in public buildings shall not be permitted to contain more than\nvery low, specified proportions of that gas. Now we are confronted with\nthe startling revelation based on a long series of perfectly reliable scientific\nexperiments, that the proportion of carbon dioxid in the air we breathe\nhas no significance whatever, either as being harmful in itself or being a\ntrustworthy indicator of the presence in the ^ir of other harmful substances. Hand in hand with this discovery go other equally trustworthy\nscientific results demonstrating that humidity is the important factor in\nthe problem of ventilation.\nIn the tropic seas the presence of the pilot-fish gives warning that\nsharks are near. If the fishermen, for the protection of their industry,\nmade war on the pilot-fish as a means for exterminating the sharks, we\nshould think that they had attained the pinnacle of human folly. In the\nfight against bad ventilation, carbon dioxid is the pilot-fish — and a counterfeit pilot-fish at that — against which we have been waging futile warfare;\nwhile deficient humidity is the death-deaUng shark that has lurked unseen\nbut ever-present in the background.\nOur great store of misapprehension and misinformation about carbon\ndioxid has been steadily growing since the identification of the gas by the\ngreat scientist Lavoisier, one hundred and twenty-five years ago. For\nthree-quarters of a century after this discovery scientific authorities agreed\nthat the harmful element in impure air was this poisonous gas. Then,\nfifty years ago, came the German chemist, von Pettenkofer, who proved\nthat the symptoms produced in overcrowded and ill- ventilated rooms were\nnot the result of an excess of carbon dioxid. Nevertheless, he formulated\nthe rule that, while the gas itself is never present in quantities sufficient\nto cause physical harm, unless artificially produced by such causes as manufacturing, itspresence in considerable quantities does offer a trustworthy\nindex or indicator of the presence in the air of other harmful impurities.\nJust as von Pettenkofer demonstrated the invalidity of the theory that\ncarbon dioxid is the harmful element in impure air, so later scientists have\ndemonstrated that he was wrong in concluding that its presence was an\nindicator of the presence of other harmful impurities.\nOur ventilating laws specify that the percentage of carbon dioxid in\nthe air of buildings shall not be permitted to exceed from seven to ten\nparts in ten thousand, and our ventilating systems are built to keep the\namount of the gas within these limits. Recent investigations have been\nconducted in France, Germany, England, and in Wesleyan University\nin this country, in which persons have been enclosed in air-tight glass or\nmetal chambers, and careful observations made of the physical and mental\nresults of varying conditions of atmosphere. In these chambers the subjects have lived and worked for days at a time in perfect comfort and\nunimpaired good health in air contaminated to an almost incredible degree.\nThe normal proportion of carbon dioxid in outdoor air is about three parts\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nVENTILATION\n\n887\n\nin ten thousand; the greatest amount permitted by ventilating laws is\ncommonly ten parts; in these experiment chambers the proportion has\nrisen as high as two hundred and thirty-one parts, or eighty times the\nnormal amount, without any bad results whatever.\nAlmost more surprising are the experiments conducted at the University of Minnesota with cattle. In one case a steer was confined in an airtight stall for thirty-seven days and lived in perfect comfort and robust\nhealth. He made true and steady gains in weight and seemed not to suffer\nin any way. Another steer was kept for twenty-eight days in a stall\nrendered as air-tight as possible. This animal's horn was accidentally\nbroken, but not only did he enjoy perfect health and comfort, but his\nwound healed with remarkable celerity in an atmosphere so contaminated\nthat the carbon dioxid content rose to ninety times the normal.\nThere is an equally convincing mass of evidence demonstrating that the\nimportant factor in ventilation is humidity. When we heat our homes\nto seventy degrees in winter time, we are trying to reproduce balmy June\nweather indoors. What we entirely overlook is the fact that when we take\na cubic foot of out-door air at a temperature of thirty-two degrees and heat\nit to seventy degrees, we have multiplied its capacity for holding moisture\nthree and one-half times. The result is thirsty air, having a true avidity\nfor moisture, and finding it most readily in the bodies, throats and lungs\nof the occupants of the building. In all of this discussion I am of course\nusing the term \"air\" in its popular, not its scientific significance.\nA hot climate is considered dry when the average relative humidity\nfalls below 60 per cent. In the average schoolroom the relative humidity\nis less than 30 per cent. It is an actual fact that the driest spots of the\ndeserts of Sahara and Arizona are more moist and humid than many of\nour schools. This is why plants will not grow in schoolrooms. They\nare parched to death. This, too, is why children will not grow in schoolrooms, and only survive because they spend most of their time elsewhere.\nThe solution of the problem lies in artificial humidification, which is\nnow being successfully applied in dozens of schools and which has long since\npassed the experimental stage. Its effectiveness can only be appreciated\nby seeing what it accomplishes. It produces comfortable and healthful\natmospheric conditions at a lower temperature and with a consequent\nsaving in fuel over the old systems.\nA recent impressive illustration occurred last winter during the final\nstages of construction of a Connecticut school building equipped with\nhumidifying apparatus. During very cold weather in December, the\ncarpenters employed on the inside finishing work complained of the cold\nwith the thermometer at seventy-five degrees. The foreman did not\nwish to force the temperature higher becail^e the new woodwork was already\nopening badly at the joints. Suddenly his discussions with the architect\nabout the new humidifying apparatus occurred to him, and he had the\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nsteam turned on in the fresh-air chambers. Soon frost began to appear\non the windows, and in three hours the cracks in the new woodwork were\nentirely closed.\nThe most remarkable results, however, were the effects of the humidity\non the workmen. Before the steam had been on for half an hour, the men\nwho had been complaining of cold began to take off their coats and then\ntheir vests. The temperature was lowered and soon the men were happily\nworking in their shirt sleeves with the temperature at sixty-eight degrees.\nAt the Horace Mann School in New York City the engineer in charge\nwill take you into the basement and show you how the air first passes\nthru a curtain of steam coils, where it is heated to a temperature of sixtyfour degrees. A great fan then draws it over a tank of steaming water,\nand drives it thru a set of flues to the 150 rooms upstairs, where it enters\nat a temperature of sixty-six degrees. Because of the humidity in the air\nthis temperature is found entirely comfortable, and except for a few rooms\nin the most remote parts of the building, the problem of ventilating that\nschool is solved and solved correctly. Moreover, the low temperature\nmaintained results in a saving of 10 per cent in cost of fuel.\nHow rational all this is becomes apparent on a moment's thought. In\nearly spring we often sit out of doors in perfect comfort in temperatures\nthat would cause us to shiver in our rooms in the winter. The real\ndifference in quality between the two atmospheres is not a question of\nheat and cold, but of humidity. This is the balance wheel which regulates\nour comfort at different temperatures.\nThere is no single physiological explanation of the harmful effects of\nthe hot, dry atmosphere common in schoolhouses during the winter months.\nThe whole matter is complex. In the first place, there is the yery serious\nquestion of dust. This does harm in various ways. It lacerates the\ndelicate surfaces of the breathing tract, parched by the desiccated air, and\nso makes ideal resting-places for the pathogenic germs which it carries with\nit as it is blown about in the air. This is the explanation of the marvelous\nspread of colds in such buildings.\nIn the second place, the artificially dried atmosphere produces feelings\nof discomfort, irritability, and disinclination to mental work. This is\nbecause of the effect of the dry air on the skin of the body. Most of our\nsensations come from the skin. In rooms where the air is pure, but nearly\nstationary, and artificially dried, the blood in the body rushes to the skin\nin order to start up a gentle perspiration in the endeavor to reduce the\ntemperature. Thus the body becomes surrounded by an envelope of warm,\nmoist atmosphere, producing useless perspiration. This causes great\nrestlessness. More serious still, the blood is engaged in dilating the small\nblood vessels at the surface of the skin, when it ought to be engaged in\nflushing the brain, and helping it to solve problems in arithmetic and to\nassimilate facts in history and geography.\nIt cannot perform both func-\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nVENTILATION\n\n889\n\ntions at the same time so it deserts the brain and devotes itself to the skin\nall over the body surface. This is the explanation of the great difficulty\nexperienced in trying to teach children in superheated, kilndried schoolrooms.\nAll authorities on ventilation insist that where plenum systems are in\nuse classroom windows must not be opened, and they demonstrate the\nreasonableness of their command by tests showing the purity of the classroom air. There is no teacher but has violated the rules, and in despair\nopened the windows; and there is no teacher but has been surprised to\nnote the beneficial results on the mental attitude and ability to work of\nthe children. The explanation is that, while the air was comparatively\npure, it was dry and not fresh. Opening the windows put the air in motion,\nbroke up the body envelope, replacing it with a layer of cooler air, and\nreleased the blood, so that it could return to the children's brains.\nThis' all shows that there are other factors in ventilation even more\nimportant than the chemical purity of the air. One of these factors is\nchange of temperature. The necessity for this is illustrated by the success\nof the experiment of opening the windows from time to time. No heating\nsystem can possibly succeed that maintains an even temperature. The\nreason is that we are changeable creatures, accustomed by nature not only\nto withstand, but to require, variations and needing from time to time the\nstimulus of cold air. There is no one best degree. We all need changes\nfrom time to time.\nTo summarize : The solution of the problem of ventilation lies in attacking the dangerous shark of desiccated and thirsty air, and ignoring the\ncounterfeit pilot-fish of carbon dioxid. The three prime requisites for\nbetter conditions are greater freedom from dust, more humidity, and lower\ntemperatures. These conditions can be secured in our existing schoolhouses as well as in those constructed in the future and at no prohibitive\nexpense.\nEighty-nine cities are already cleaning their schoolhouses with vacuum\ncleaners, and the number is rapidly increasing. This is the solution of\nthe dust evil. Aitkens has shown that the number of dust particles in a\ncubic inch of air ranges from eight thousand in the country to fifty millions\nin some city streets. Riding about on these dust particles are bacteria\nnumbering sometimes as high as two million to a gram of dust. These\nconstitute the argument for vacuum cleaning. The time is coming when^\nwe will keep our schools as clean as our hospitals and for the same reasons.\nThe next requisite is greater humidity. This is obtained by drawing\nthe heated air over shallow pans of water heated by steam pipes or by\ninjecting steam directly into the hot air flues. A number of companies\ndealing in heating and ventilating apparatus have developed satisfactory\nmeans for insuring a proper condition of humidity and at least one concern is\nnow marketing a small apparatus for use in small buildings and rural schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sgo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nAfter the proper humidity has been secured, the question of heat is\neasily dealt with, for rooms are then entirely comfortable at much lower\ntemperatures. The best combination seems to be a temperature of from\nsixty-six to sixty-eight degrees with a relative humidity of about 60 per\ncent. The degree of humidity is measured by an instrument called a\nhygrometer, which in its most convenient form is a combination thermometer and hygrometer, and should form part of the equipment of evety\nschoolroom where automatic control of both temperature and humidity\nis not a feature of the heating and ventilating system.\nThe marvelous success of the open-air school is attracting worldwide\nattention, and city after city across this and all other civilized countries is\nnow opening schools of this new type. The conditions necessary for success\nwith the open-air school are neither possible nor desirable in all schoolrooms,\nbut it is both possible and desirable to obtain conditions of ventilation in\nevery classroom that shall insure pure, fresh, and health-conserving air.\nThis need is now recognized by schoolmen and the possibility of solving\nthe problem is admitted by school architects and heating and ventilating\nengineers, who are even now discarding their traditional ideas of ventilation and constructing school buildings with the avowed object of bringing\nto every boy and girl the advantages hitherto reserved for the tuberculous.\n\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE OF OPEN-AIR AND LOW -TEMPERATURE\nSCHOOLROOMS ON THE MENTAL ALERTNESS\nAND SCHOLARSHIP OF PUPILS\n\nFRANK\nAND\n\nG. BRUNER,\nASSISTANT\nDIRECTOR,\nDEPARTMENT\nOF CHILD STUDY\nEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH,\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOLS,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nLess than ten years ago a discussion of the topic of the open-air schoolroom would have been impossible, for the simple reason that aside from an\nisolated experiment at Charlottenberg, in Germany, seven years ago, there\nexisted no material upon which to base it. The idea of placing children\nfor teaching purposes under low-temperature conditions or in the open\nair is distinctively new. It marks a change in emphasis, in consideration\nof the child's and youth's education, from an almost exclusive regard for\nhis mental equipment to a concern for his more comprehensive needs —\nthe whole child in all of his relations. Yet many of us permit ourselves\nstill to be misled by the belief that education is a dual or multiple process,\none set of activities having to do with mind, another with brawn, another\nwith culture, and still another with morals, etc. Educational effort all\ntoo largely has simply failed to conceive that the child as a whole, his\ndevelopment as a coherent process, and his individuality in its integrity,\nshould form the point of attack. Education, according to modern most\nprogressive views, is concerned not alone with activities and processes, but\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nAND\n\nLOW -TEMPERATURE\n\nSCHOOLROOMS\n\n891\n\nwith the total environmental surroundings conditioning the child's growth\nand development. Comfort as regards seating, favorable lighting conditions, the elimination of physical and sensory abnormalities and handicaps, an optimum temperature in which to work, provision for a wholesome supply of fresh air; in fine, the entire routine of hygienic school\naccessories are quite as much educational questions, and are so considered,\nas the place of numbers in the school curriculum or the methodology of the\nteaching of reading. As educators we should be concerned rather less\nwith the efficiency of teaching methods and the immediate successes of\nour children and youth in the pursuits and callings which they will enter\nafter leaving our schools; but we ought to be rather more concerned that\nthe child's environment be such as to minister to a healthful development\nand growth. Happily, if the space allotted to hygienic questions on educational programs affords any criterion, this desideratum is at hand. We\nare coming to consider the child in his entirety, to know that the mental\nand the physical are not dual interacting organic processes, but that in\nrelation to growth and development they are identical; that what ministers\nto one, ministers to the other equally; that fresh air and wholesome food\nare as essential to mental as to physical efficiency; and conversely that an\nactive mind and congenial surroundings make for a sound body as well as a\nsound mind. This leads us directly to a consideration of the topic under\ndiscussion — open-air and low-temperature schoolrooms.\nIt may be inquired as to what is meant by low-temperature and openair schoolrooms ? The open-air classrooms as operated, in Chicago, New\nYork, and most other places are prett}^ much alike. The first in Chicago\nwere operated on the tops of buildings. Some are now conducted in regular classrooms with windows wide open and the provisions for heating not\nin use. In other respects the roofrooms and open-window classrooms are\nidentical. In the roof classrooms a roof protects the children from the\nrays of the sun and rain, and for walls there are used removable windows\nof muslin cloth. On the side o^ the room away from the wind these windows likewise, altho permeable to air, are removed, even during the coldest\nweather. Of course the rooms are not heated, but on very cold days the\nchild, in addition to his own clothing, is provided with an Eskimo suit,\na blanket, and a soapstone foot-warmer. The enrollment is limited to\ntwenty-five.\nThe children for these rooms are selected by the regular school physician in consultation with the medical specialist who directly supervises\nthe open-air classes, and they are entered only upon the approval of their\nparents. Of course, membership in these centers is limited to those who\nare tubercular, in the active or latent stag^ and to those so anaemic that\nthere is danger that tuberculosis will ensue.\nThe routine of the school day varies significantly from that in the regular classrooms. On reaching school in the morning the child is first given a\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nbath in the school bathroom. He is then given a breakfast consisting of\nan egg, some oatmeal porridge, and all the milk he will drink. Then with\nfrequent interspersions of physical exercises, games, and drills he pursues\nthe ordinary school work till noon. At noon he is provided with a heavy\nsoup or broth, two soft-boiled eggs, bread, butter, and jelly, a simple\ndessert, and again all the milk he will drink. After the noonday meal^\npartaken of within doors, the children again repair to the open air, and on\ncots provided for the purpose, and snugly wrapped in woolen blankets,\nsleep for an hour. They are then awakened and they pursue their regular\nschool work until a quarter past three, when they return to their homes\nfor the night, just as do other children.\nIn all of the exercises of the day pains are taken that the child shall\nenjoy every freedom that does not partake of license. He arises from his\nseat and walks about the room whenever he chooses, the aim being to\nmaintain a cheerful and unstrained mental attitude, so that the circulation,\ndigestion, and assimilative processes shall be stimulated and kept at a\nmaximum. In these rooms the temperature and humidity of course fluctuate with the out-of-doors atmospheric conditions.\nIt will be seen from what has just been detailed that several factors other\nthan pure air must be taken into account as possibly contributing to any\nmental alertness and improved scholarship that may result. They are:\n(i) a higher relative humidity, (2) a liberal provision of nutritious food,\n(3) a smaller class membership (twenty-five as compared with fifty in the\nregular classes), (4) a freedom from restraint and consequent lowering of\nnervous tension and nervous dissipation, (5) a period of complete relaxation and recuperation in the middle of the day. So far as my knowledge\ngoes, no attempt has anywhere been made to isolate these factors in a\nscientific manner, so as to determine the relative influence of each in contributing tohealth and accelerated mental growth. It would be clearly\nillogical to ascribe all of the improvement to the open-air regime. Indeed,\none would be clearly unwarranted in selecting any one of the factors\nenumerated and attributing any improvement noted to it alone.\nWe are practically altogether at sea regarding differences in constitution between impure, vitiated air and pure, wholesome air. We do know,\nhowever, that delicate tuberculous children and adults become stronger\nand get well out of doors, whUe they become weaker and die when confined in rooms in which others live with them, such as schoolrooms, dwelling-houses, and factories. Purity of the air, especially in cities, moreover,\nis affected by a number of complex factors, other than those simply of\nventilation. Among others are the construction of streets, the amount\nof dust raised by vehicles of transportation, the disposition of waste materials in alleys and streets, noxious gases and soot particles thrown out of\nchimneys which inevitably find their way into the air passages and lungs,\nbad teeth, noxious catarrhs, dirty clothing, and the unclean, ill-smeUing\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nAND\n\nLOW -TEMPERATURE\n\nSCHOOLROOMS\n\n893\n\nbodies of those occupying the same room. It is thus not safe always to\nassume that the air is pure and vitalizing because one is out of doors.\nIt has been estimated that between thirteen and twenty thousand tons\nof sulphurous dioxid, not to mention particles of carbon in the soot, are\npoured into the air daily from the burning of fuel in such centers of population as Chicago and New York, thus poisoning the air which must be\nbreathed. Decaying cavities in teeth — and 60 per cent of children in\nmany neighborhoods are afflicted with bad teeth — and chronic catarrhal\nconditions of the nose • and throat are sending out millions of harmful\nbacteria all about us. The odors arising from putrid and catarrhal\nconditions, dirty clothing, and unsanitary bodies exercise a depressing\ninfluence on mental and physiological activities.\nDr. Segwick examined the contents of a cubic foot of air five feet above\na macadamized street of a city when the dust had been raised by a brisk\nwind and found it contained approximately six hundred thousand microorganisms, many of them extremely injurious. Fortunately most microbes\ndo not get into the system. They are filtered out and oxidized in the\nupper air passages of the nose, which are peculiarly constructed to perform\nthis function, and especially if the individual habitually breathes thru his\nnose; but some, notwithstanding, find their way into the lungs.\nBut what is the main defect in the air of rooms poorly ventUated\nthat makes it depressing and unfit to breath? Investigations have been\nnumerous seeking to determine what are the constituents of expired air that\nmake it unwholesome. The popular belief is that it is due to the presence\nof CO2. But careful experimental investigations have proven conclusively\nthat only under extremely extraordinary conditions is the amount of CO2\nin a room in which people are living, or in a classroom or lecture-room,\nsufficient to affect, in any detectable manner, the physiological processes\nor mental work of an individual. Indeed, only a few instances are on record\nin which the ratio of eight parts in ten thousand — the alleged perfectly safe\nnormal ratio — has been exceeded. Artificial ventilating systems which\nsupply above one thousand five hundred cubic feet of air per hour for each\ninmate easily keep the quantity of CO2 below the required ratio. The\nMassachusetts law requires that the inflow of fresh air per person shall\nexceed eighteen hundred cubic feet, so that in classrooms the air practically\nnever contains an injurious excess of carbonic-acid gas.\nPure air, moreover, does not imply that air shaU be rich in oxygen and\nozone. More oxygen does not necessarily mean more vitality. Concentrated doses of oxygen, indeed, in amounts of one part to two hundred and\nfifty act as a poison on the human organism. They induce convulsions,\ninflammation of the lungs, and death. There is a small quantity of free\nozone to be sure in the air, but ordinarily this does not reach the lungs; it\nis caught by the organic matter in the air passages leading to the lungs,\noxydizing it and helps, therefore, to purify the air. but even a norma\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nquantity of free ozone in the air may induce nasal catarrh, bronchitis, and\nasthma by the constant irritating of the mucous surfaces with which it\ncomes in contact.\nWith reference to the anthropo toxins (the organic matters) exhaled in\nrespiration, Brown-Sequard, Billings, Mitchell, and others have given us\nsome definite experimental data upon which to base a conclusion. When\nexpired air is condensed and liquefied, there results a clear, odorless liquid\nwhich contains only a trace of organic matter. Its effect on guinea-pigs\nand human beings when taken internally or injected into the blood is\nfound to be wholly indifferent and harmless. Other experiments in\nwhich mice were compelled to breath the expired air, each of the other,\nwhen other conditions were normalized also gave negative results. The\nconclusion is thus forced upon one that other factors than deficient oxygen,\nexcess of CO2, or the presence of anthropotoxins are responsible for the\ndevitalization of indoor air.\nOf late there is a disposition to attribute the stuffiness and deadness of\nair in heated schoolrooms and dwellings to its lack of moisture, its low\nrelative humidity as compared with the out-of-door air. In the lake\nregion in which Chicago is located the average outside humidity is in the\nneighborhood of 72 per cent, varying greatly, to be sure, from day to day,\nwith fluctuations in temperature. In artificially heated rooms (schoolhouses,\nfactories, and dwellings) the average relative humidity rarely exceeds 30\nper cent. In Nebraska the relative humidity of artificially heated rooms\nseldom gets as high as 20 per cent for the winter months. These differences between the moisture indoors and out of doors are striking, but outof-door variations are often quite as pronounced. Along the California\ncoast, day after day, the average relative humidity may approach 100 per\ncent at dawn and fall to 22 per cent at noon. At Denver the out-of-door\nmean relative humidity for the entire year is only 42 per cent.\nAttempts have been made to overcome the great differences between\nout-of-door and indoor relative humidity by a process of humidifying the\nair, and if we are to beheve reports the results have been gratifyingly satisfactory. The air in the American Bell Telephone Building at Boston is\nkept at a relative humidity of 50 per cent by injecting into the entering hotair current a jet of steam; 675 gallons of water (twenty-two barrels) in the\nform of steam is required for this purpose every ten hours. The practice of\nhumidifying the air was followed also in one of the Chicago school buildings, but the results were not accurately tabulated, so it is impossible to\nstate just how much the air was humidified. A few years ago some careful\nexperiments on humidifying air were made by Professor Loveland at the\nUniversity of Nebraska. These covered thirty days. Two seven-room\nhouses, alike in construction and each heated by a hot-air furnace of the\nsame make, were selected for experimentation. It was found that to\nraise the relative humidity of one 10 per cent above the other, as indicated\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nAND\n\nLOW-TEMPtRATURE\n\nSCHOOLROOMS\n\n895\n\nby the hygrometer — i.e., from 20 per cent to 30 per cent — it was necessary\nto evaporate sixty-four gallons of water daily. It was further demonstrated that the ordinary furnace or radiator pan, or vessels of water placed\nabout rooms, affect the humidity so little that it is not registered by the\nhygrometer, which means the influence is less than a fraction of one per\ncent. Most persons will testify to feeling a considerable difference in\nthe character of the air as a result of such evaporating devices, but the\ndifference is unquestionably psychological rather than physical.\nAt the Boston Telephone Building it is asserted the rooms are as comfortable with a. temperature of sixty-nine degrees Fahrenheit, relative\nhumidity 50 per cent, as they formerly were at seventy degrees Fahrenheit\nand the drier air. The relation between dry or humidified air and bodily\ncomfort is by no means a simple one. To determine exactly what this\nrelation is requires a finer and more discriminating line of experimentation\nthan has yet been undertaken. We know, for example, that a temperature\nof eighty to eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit with a high relative humidity is\nmore oppressive than a temperature of ninety degrees Fahrenheit with a\nvery low relative humidity. But what are the physiological effects of\nhigh and low humidity in temperatures ranging from sixty to seventy-two\ndegrees Fahrenheit we know little or nothing definite. After all, it is\nnot the relative humidity of the air which is significant in affecting vital\nprocesses so much as the air's thirst or drying power. Thus air at fifty\ndegrees Fahrenheit with a relative humidity of 36 per cent and air with a\ntemperature of eighty-six degrees Fahrenheit and relative humidity of 80 per\ncent have exactly the same drying power. That is, to become completely\nsaturated, each requires the same quantity of watery vapor per unit volume.\nA cubic foot of air at fifty degrees Fahrenheit, relative humidity 36 per cent,\nand a cubic foot of air at eighty-six degrees Fahrenheit, relative humidity\n80 per cent, will each absorb .0,003,756 pounds of water, and hence the\neffect on the mucous tissues of the nose, throat, and lungs ought to be the\nsame, altho a relative humidity of 80 per cent, eighty-six degrees Fahrenheit,\nis considered high, while a relative humidity of 36 per cent is thought of as\nvery low, when dissociated from the temperature of the air. Arid climates are\ngenerally not thought of as being particularly conducive to catarrhal affections.\nNeither do the wide ranges in humidity experienced along the California\ncoast during the course of each day seem to be particularly unheal thful.\nPlaces of low relative humidity indeed appear to be famous as health\nretreats for those afllicted with bronchial and lung troubles. In truth, the\nhumidity factor is still very largely an undetermined one, and before one\ncan become assertive more will have to be learned as to how it affects\nphysiological functions, and that under careful experimental conditions.\nWhether a room not heated beyond sixty to sixty-eight degrees Fahrenheit,\nwith a relative humidity of 60 per cent, or 70 per cent, is as comfortable\nas one heated to seventy-two degrees Fahrenheit, relative humidity 40 per\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Hygiene\n\ncent is also still problematical. Dr. Hill claimed to have gotten very good\nresults with a schoolroom temperature of fifty-seven to sixty degrees,\nrelative humidity 70 per cent. German and English homes, moreover,\nare rarely heated above sixty-nine degrees Fahrenheit, but these peoples\nhave accustomed themselves to a lower temperature. They are healthy,\nbut whether under our different climatic conditions this would be true\ngenerally remains yet to be determined. In Germany and England\nsudden wide fluctuations in out-of-door temperatures do not occur.\nRises and falls in temperature from twenty degrees to forty degrees\nFahrenheit do not occur within the space of a few hours, as is common in\nthe lake states, and their human organisms are not subjected to the strain\nof sudden adaptations to the changes they are unprepared for as are ours.\nThese sudden adaptations and other factors yet to be determined must\nbe reckoned with in a consideration of the optimum condition of the air\nfor good health. Three factors conditioning the results obtained in openair and low-temperature rooms have yet to be considered: {a) the influence\nof a small class enrollment; {b) the period of complete relaxation and rest\nin the middle of the day, and (c) that of wholesome food and proper habits\nof eating.\nInasmuch as the open-air rooms look to the improved health rather\nthan to a bettering of the scholarship of the children, a general freedom and\nfeeling of lack of restraint was encouraged. This is possible with an enrollment as small as twenty-five, whereas it offers a problem far more complicated when a teacher has larger numbers to handle. The children were\nencouraged to be happy, to forget their afflictions and the handicaps which\ncaused them to fall behind in their classwork. The emotional reactions\nwere striking. Truant habits were broken up, the aforetime helplessness\nand mental indifference disappeared, and a consequent alertness and spontaneous interest in the routine of the school work developed. Not the\nsmall enrollment, to be sure, nor any other one factor alone was responsible\nfor this change. It is more probable that each contributed its share, of\nwhich the part due to the small enrollment unquestionably was not insignificant.\nIt seems like indulging in platitudes to mention the role played by the\nfactor of wholesome food. Many of the children coming to the rooms\nwere injudiciously fed, and nearly all underfed. So weak, anaemic, and\nimpoverished were their little bodies that even a modicum of mental\nvigor was altogether impossible. With the increased metabolism and the\nbuilding up of their physical organisms there followed, very obviously, an\nacceleration in the mental responsiveness, which in the absence of all\nother factors would of course have been clearly manifest.\nThe importance of the last factor, that of complete relaxation and rest,\nis not often considered. Its significance, too, it is to be feared, is altogether\ntoo lightly held. During the past two or three decades a not inconsider-\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nAND\n\nLOW-TEMPERATURE\n\nSCHOOLROOMS\n\n897\n\nable number of studies have been made of school children, all pointing to\nthe fact that the curve of fatigue during the school day runs astonishingly\nhigh. The reaction of the results of these fatigue studies has been in the\ndirection of a rearrangement of the daily program, so as to put diflScult\nand taxing studies at those hours when the fatigue curves were least manifest and to fill in the periods of high fatigue with recreation exercises.\nThe advisability of allowing the children opportunity for complete relaxation, sound sleep, with a lowering of the pulse rate, a slowing down of\nrespiration, a diminished metabolism, and a consequent recuperation of\nthe nerve centers, had not received notice until put into practice by those\ndealing with children of low vitality and physical depletion — those with\ntubercular and anaemic tendencies.\nThe effect of this daily siesta in the way of enhancing the children's\nphysical vigor and developing an increased mental alertness and plasticity,\nit is perfectly logical to believe, must be very striking. It doubtless contributed no small part toward developing more efl&cient school reactions\non the part of the children in the open-air and low-temperature rooms.\nChicago's experiment with this special class of schoolrooms has been\ntoo brief for us to become dogmatic. Yet some results which are fairly\nastounding have been attained. It is really unfortunate that it is impossible to isolate, differentiate, and assign the proper weights to the several\nfactors responsible for them. On the mental side alone, children who had\nshown three and four years of retardation in their studies were able to\ncomplete the school work of one and a-half , and in four instances of two,\ngrades in a single year. The truant records which followed many of the\nchildren of the schools disappeared. The discipline cases vanished, and\nthe forcing process on the part of the teacher was displaced by a wholesome individual initiative and interest. The maximum number of taps\nthat could be made in a minute's time with tapping device, in the course\nof three months, increased from 4 per cent in some cases to 23 per cent in\nothers. There was observed an increased adaptability, a greater resourcefulnes ,keener\na\ninsight in the unraveling of puzzling situations, and appreciable development in persistence and tenacity in solving difficult and\ncomplex problems.\nThe fruits which the open-air and low-temperature rooms have yielded\nare well worth the financial outlay entailed, when the heightened physical\nand mental efficiency of the children, who were enrolled, are taken into\naccount. A large percentage of the two hundred odd children who were\ngiven these special advantages would otherwise unquestionably have succumbed as a result of the deadly inroads of tuberculosis, and the economic\nloss resulting from the death or the physi^l and mental impairment of a\ngrowing individual is easily reckoned. In the aggregate the economic waste,\naside from humanitarian considerations, would have been tremendous.\nAs it stands, the children have been developed into producers, and thus\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nthru their contributions to society will far more than remunerate it for\nthe additional expense incurred in a few months of their special education.\nThe possibilities, however, of making such school advantages as obtain\nin the open-air rooms more universal, rest largely upon financial grounds.\nThe increased per-capita cost incident to maintaining such schools is of\ncourse prohibitive when considered in the large, and until some means for\nobtaining school revenues not now available is at hand, open-air rooms\nwill have to be limited to those children whose health is in peril. They\nwill have to be considered in the light of instrumentalities for recovering\nthose who have gotten beyond the reach of the ordinary school and health\nagencies.\nBut the experiment of the open-air and low- temperature rooms has\nhad a wider import. As in the case of most activities for the amelioration\nof the condition of the unfortunates, there has resulted a reflex effect upon\nthe habits and methods of ministering to the needs of normal individuals.\nWere no other effect manifest, the reaction which open-air rooms have had\nin directing attention to the proper ventilation of schoolhouses, dwellings,\nand factories, to directing attention to the need for pure air — as near outof-door air as possible — on the part of all individuals, would be abundantly\nworth the effort and expense entailed. Only recently and all unconsciously\nhas the human been making the transition from an out-of-door to an indoor\ndwelling animal and it always requires a rather intense agitation to bring\nto an individual's consciousness the necessity for modifying the conditions\nof his habitat so as to make his readjustment to a new order of life safe and\nwholesome. Such the focus of attention upon open-air schoolrooms, it\nis hoped, has accomplished.\nOPEN-AIR\nLEONARD\n\nP. AYRES,\n\nRUSSELL\n\nSAGE\n\nSCHOOLS\nFOUNDATION,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe report of the recent United States Census will tell us that the\ngreatest industry in San Francisco is that of trade, in which some twelve\nthousand merchants and dealers are engaged. It will further tell us that\nthe greatest sedentary class in this city is that made up of clerks and copyists, including a total of some nine thousand people. Altho these will be\nthe official figures, they will be wrong; for the greatest industry in San\nFrancisco is not trade, but education; and the greatest sedentary class\nis not made up of the clerks and copyists, but rather of the fifty-five thousand people engaged in teaching and being taught in the public and private\nschools.\nA similar condition exists in every city thruout the land. Everywhere\nthe largest as well as the oldest organized industry is education, and everywhere the greatest sedentary class is made up of our school children. It is\nonly within the last few years that schoolmen have begun to ask what\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n899\n\neffect these long years of sedentary, indoor life have on the physical welfare\nof our school children, but now they are awakened to the significance of\nthe problem they are facing it squarely and acting energetically.\nTen years ago the National Education Association met in Detroit\nand discussed the problems then foremost in educational thought and action.\nDiligent search thru the printed report of that meeting discloses no single\naddress devoted to the physical welfare of childhood. On this year's\nprogram in San Francisco no fewer than twenty-six papers are devoted\nto the subject of health.\nThis profound change reflects no temporary fad or passing whim. It\nmeans that a fundamental change has taken place in educational ideals.\nIt means that schooolmen have come to a startled realization that compulsory education under modern city conditions too often spells compulsory disease. Except our jails and our insane asylums, our schools are\nthe only institutions where attendance is compulsory, and fortunately\nfew of us have to attend our jails and insane asylums long or frequently.\nIt is a tardy realization of the significance of this feature of compulsion\nthat has brought us to see that when the state compels every child to attend\nschool, it incurs the obligation of furnishing an education fitted to the needs\nof every child.\nThis necessity has brought schoolmen face to face with the problem\nof what to do for the child who is in poor physical condition and is at the\nsame time compelled to attend school. The solution was found about\nseven years ago in Germany in the open-air school, in which the ailing\nchild could continue his education, and at the same time regain his health.\nThis educational innovation combined the best features of the sanatorium,\nthe playground, and the school. The classes were held in the open air,\nthe children were well fed and warmly clad, and the school work was cut\nin half.\nThe results were marked and immediate. The children who had been\nchosen for the new school because they were pale, pinched, thin, and anaemic,\nbecame in a few short weeks strong, rosy, and healthy. They put on\nweight and gained in mental alertness. Altho they spent less than half\nas much time at their lessons as the normal children in the regular classes,\nthey made even better progress. The working plan of the new type of\nschool has been summarized as consisting of double rations of air, double\nrations of food, and half-rations of work; and it may be added that the\nresult was double portions of progress, both physical and mental.\nSo complete and convincing was the success of the first school that its\nfame spread abroad, and in quick succession other similar schools were\nopened thruout Germany, in England, and in France. The credit and\nhonor of starting the first open-air school in America must be shared by\nNew York and Providence. In 1904 the former city loaned the services\nof one of its public-school teachers and supplied school material for teach-\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "900\n\n^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd-Hygiene\n\ning the children of an out-of-door hospital for tuberculous children. The\nfirst American open-air school, as that term is now understood, was opened\nin the city of Providence, R.I.\nIn the year 1907 there was in that city a group of children whom the\nmedical inspectors had noted as being particularly thin, sickly, and emaciated. The solution of the problem that these children presented offered\na splendid opportunity for co-operation between the educator and the\nschool physician. If these children were kept in the regular classrooms\nit was evident that they would continue to go downhill physically. If\nthey were excused from attendance at school, there was no place for them\nto go, and plainly they would suffer educationally and probably would be\nno better off physically.\nThe solution came in January, 1908, when the school authorities of\nProvidence remodeled a schoolroom of an abandoned building so as to\nconvert the ordinary four-sided room into one of three sides, leaving one\nentire side open to the air. In this room they began in the dead of winter\nto teach a class of children variously termed anaemic and pre-tubercular.\nThe children wore their outdoor wraps, sat in warm sitting-out bags, and\non cold days had warm soapstones at their feet. They were well fed, and\ntheir school studies reduced in quantity but not in quality.\nImmediately they began to improve both physically and mentally,\nand, just as in the case of the German school, they made marked improvement in their school work.\nSix months after Providence began work an open-air school for tubercular children was started in one of the Boston parks. There were fortyone children in that school, and after the first summer's work it was found\nthat there were twenty-three cases where the disease was either arrested\nor entirely cured. These twenty-three children were sent back to the\nregular schools, and at last reports all but two of them were still enjoying\ngood health. Five months later, in December of 1908, a new school was\nopened in New York. This latter instance is particularly interesting for\ntwo reasons; first, because the school was opened on an abandoned ferryboat, which 'shows what good use may be made of apparently useless\nlocalities even in the most congested cities. The second interesting feature\nis that this school was opened on the petition of the children themselves.\nThey were the patients from one of the hospitals who were convalescing\nand who were being given open-air treatment on the old ferry-boat. One\nday these children got together and organized a strike. They told the\ndoctor in charge that they wanted to have a school. The Board of Education at once offered to furnish them a teacher and school material, and\nso the school was opened. Since that time three ferry-boats, a roof, and\na number of rooms have been pressed into seivice.\nIn Chicago, work was begun in a camp during the summer of 1909 and\nsince that time very notable progress has been made in that city both in\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departm^ntl\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nQOI\n\nopen-air schools and in cold-air rooms. These were the only schools in\nChicago which had no Christmas vacation last winter. The children\nsimply refused to take a vacation. They demanded that they be allowed\nto go to school, and the school authorities yielded to their demands.\nThe same story, with minor variations, was repeated in city after city\nacross the country, and in every case the open-air school demonstrated its\nability to take pale, wasted, and sickly children, and convert them into\nstrong, vigorous, and healthy children. Because of these results, the\nopen-air school has made an appeal to the popular imagination quite\nunequaled by that of any other educational innovation.\nNo single case of failure has yet been recorded and no city that has\nundertaken the work has subsequently abandoned it. Providence and\ntwo other cities began the work a little more than three years ago. During\nthe following year, seven cities had open-air schools. Last year the number\nwas fifteen, and this year it is thirty-two. Each year the increase has\nbeen over loo per cent.\nThere is but scant time in which to treat the important problems of\nadministration and cost. In most cases the open-air schools are administered by a partnership of responsibility. In the majority of the cities\nthe cost for teachers' salaries, added equipment, etc., is met by the board\nof education, while the expense for food and clothing is defrayed by hospitals, charitable organizations, and societies for the prevention and cure\nof tuberculosis. Data as to the administration of forty-seven open-air\nschools in different American cities are as follows:\nBoard of education and tuberculosis association\nBoard of education and private association\nBoard of education only\nBoard of education and other city department\nTuberculosis association only\nBoard of education and private fund\n\n20\n11\n7\n6\n2\ni\n47\n\nThe premises occupied by the new schools are as varied as the form of\nadministration.\nAmong thirty-nine schools the following variations are\nfound :\nRemodeled rooms\nSpecial buildings\nRoofs\nRegular classrooms with open windows\nBoats\nTents\nBam\n\n14\n6\n6\nS\nS\n2\nI\n39\n\nThe children received by the schools vary from those openly tuberculous to classes of entirely normal children in expensive and exclusive\nprivate schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child-Hygiene\n\nThe matter of cost is difficult to determine, for it depends almost entirely\non local conditions. The only certainty is that the cost will always be\ngreater than that of the ordinary class. To begin with, there are only\nabout half as many children per teacher, the desirable limit being about\ntwenty. In the second place, the expense for food must be met from some\nsource. This expense amounts to about sixteen cents per child per day, and\nin some cases runs as high as twenty-five cents. In the third place, there\nis the individual equipment of each child, which is necessarily expensive.\nIts items, with their cost, are about as follows:\nBlanket\nEskimo suit\nSitting-out bag\nCot.\nFelt boots\nMittens\nThermometer\nToothbrush\n\n$5 .00\n3 • So\n3 . 00\n1 . 75\n50\n40\n25\n20\n$14.60\n\nThis individual equipment is in the nature of permanent investment,\nand can be used, with slight repairs and replacement, for several years.\nTaking all of these different added expenses into account, it is fair to say\nthat the education of a child in an open-air school costs nearly three times\nas much as does the education of the same child in the ordinary school.\nThe other side of this proposition is that it is worth three times as much.\nTo summarize: The open-air school is a combination of sanatorium,\nplayground, and schoolroom, in which the daily regime consists of double\nrations of air, double rations of food, and half-rations of work. There are\neight requisites, of which the first three are imperatively essential. These\nthree cardinal requisites are: first, abundance of pure air; second, plenty\nof good food; and third, sufficient warm clothing. The other requisites\nare only less important. We have enumerated three. Number four is\nshelter from the wind, for experience teaches nothing more clearly than\nthat it is wind and not low temperature that causes suffering from cold.\nNumber five is shelter or refuge where the children can be taken during\nvery inclement weather, and where any child who gets chilly during the\nsession may at once go to get warm. The sixth requisite is provision for\nsleeping after the noonday meal. For this purpose short folding cots are\nmuch more satisfactory than the steamer chairs ordinarily used. Number\nseven consists of the services of a skillful doctor and a competent nurse.\nThese do not, of course, have to be in attendance continuously, but should\nbe available. Last, but not least, it is essential to have in charge a teacher\nwho is intelligent, able, and imbued with the habit of success.\nThese requisites are many, and they are essentially expensive in time,\nintelligence, energy, and money cost, and yet the real question is not\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nOPEN-AIR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n903\n\nwhether a, city like San Francisco can afford to establish open-air schools,\nbut rather whether it can afford not to establish them.\nFigures for Germany, England, Sweden, and seven American cities\nindicate that in the average city the children in need of such treatment\nas that afforded by the open-air schools constitute about 3 per cent of the\nentire school membership. This means that San Francisco should have\nopen-air schools for about sixteen hundred children. When such figures\nas these are mentioned, the objection of expense at once looms high, but\nit must not be forgotten when we are considering expense, that about\nninety-five children of school age die each year of tuberculosis in San Francisco. On the average they have had about seven years of schooling for\nwhich the city has paid about $340 each. This means a loss of about\nthirty- two thousand dollars each year in this city in money expended in\neducating children who die of tuberculosis before they grow up. Thirtytwo thousand dollars a year spent on open-air schools designed to prevent\nthis frightful waste would go far toward meeting the entire expense.\nBut the matter of expense and preventable money loss are not the\nmost important phases of the problem of the open-air school. Compute\nas we will, we can never arrive at an estimate in dollars and cents of the\nvalue of wrecked hopes and ruined homes.\nI do not believe that the open-air school is to win its most notable\nvictories merely as a factor in the fight against tuberculosis. Wonderful\nas its brief history has been, it is still one of promise rather than of fulfillment.\nThe open-air school will take its place in the history of education as\nmarking one long step toward that school system of the future in which\nhealth will be contagious, instead of disease, and where pure air, pure water,\nand abundant sunshine will be rights, and not privileges. In that school\nof the future, the child will not have to be either truant or tuberculous or\ndelinquent or defective to get the best and fullest measure of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— Clasx. W. Hetherington, Jos. Fels Endowment\nVice-President— Ais:^ M. Romans, Wellesley College\nSecretary — Clara G. Baer, Sophie Newcomb College\n\nChicago, IlL\nWellesley, Mass.\nNew Orleans, La.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July ii, 191 i\nThe department met in Joint session with the Department of School Patrons in\nScottish Rite Hall, San Francisco.\nIn the absence of President Hetherington, the meeting was called to order by Mrs.\nO. Shepard Bamum, president of the Department of School Patrons.\nA report of the School Health Committee of the Department of School Patrons was\nread by Mrs. May L. Cheney, appointment secretary, University of California, Berkeley,\nCal.\nA report of the Public Health Education Committee of the American Medical Association was given by Eleanor Seymour, M.D., chairman for California, Los Angeles, Cal.\nIn the absence of Professor Tyler an address was given on \"The Health of the Child\nthe Joint Concern of Parent and Teacher,\" by W. A. Evans, M.D., former health commissioner, Chicago, 111.\nThen followed a paper on \"Sex Hygiene,\" by Frances M. Greene, M.D., Cambridge,\nMass. Discussion of this paper occupied the afternoon at the Round Table Conference\nof the Department of School Patrons.\nThe chairman appointed the following Committee on Nominations for the Department of School Patrons:\nArthur L. Hamilton, superintendent of schools, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorgia L. Chamberlin, instructor, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nLucy E. Prichard, principal of high school, Huntington, W.Va.\nMrs. Clara M. Preston, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nKate S. Kellogg, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nLucy E. Prichard, Secretary pro tempore\nSECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 12, 191 1\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:45 a.m. In the absence of the president and\nvice-president, Dr. William F. Snow, of the California State Board of Health, presided\nand gave a paper on \"Teaching Twentieth Century Hygiene.\"\nDr. Corwin, of Pueblo, Colo., sent by the American Medical Association from the\nLos Angeles meeting in July, gave a discussion on hygiene and sanitation.\nL. H. Weir, Pacific Coast field secretary of the Playground and Recreation Association of America, Seattle, Wash., gave an address on \"The Playground Movement in\nAmerica,\" which was discussed by Ethel Moore, president of the Playground Association\nof California, Oakland, Cal.\nTHIRD SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 13, 19 11\nThis session was a joint meeting with the Department of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation.\nThe minutes will be found with that department.\n\n90s\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "906\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nFOURTH SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 14, 191 1\nIn the absence of the president, the meeting was called to order at 10:00 a.m. by\nMr. George Braden, who presided. The first part of the meeting was taken up with a\ndiscussion of the advisabihty of organizing a Pacific Coast association of physical education. It was finally decided to organize such a society, and Miss Signe E. Hagelthorn,\ndirector of physical education, Mills College, Cal., was elected president.\nIn the absence of John M. Tyler, professor of biology, Amherst College, Amherst,\nMass., his paper on the \"Physical Education for Girls of High-School Age — ^The Biological Point of View,\" was read by Miss Hagelthorn.\nThe paper was discussed by Cleha D. Mosher, director of physical education, Stanford University, Cal.; Everett C. Beach, M.D., director of physical training, public\nschools, Los Angeles, Cal.; George Braden, central Y.M.C.A., Philadelphia, Pa., and\nothers.\nThe following ofl&cers were duly elected for the ensuing year :\nPresident — Wilbur P. Bowen, professor of physical education. State Normal School,\nYpsilanti, Mich.\nVice-President — George E. Johnson, professor of play. University of Pittsburgh,\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nSecretary — Blanche Trilling, associate director of physical training, Chicago\nNormal School, Chicago, 111.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nREPORT\n\nSigne E. Hagelthorn, Acting Secretary\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE SCHOOL HEALTH COMMITTEE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS, NATIONAL\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nTo the Members of the Department of School Patrons of the National Education Association:\nThe School Health Committee of the Department of School Patrons\nwas organized in response to a request from the President of the National\nEducation Association \"to ascertain conditions and formulate a plan whereby volunteer organizations can best assist in improving the health conditions of school children.\" The committee is too young to give a report\nof work accomplished; it can merely submit its plans and hopes for future\nservice.\nBelieving that concentration of effort upon some one phase of the very\nlarge subject of school health would secure the best results, the committee\ndecided to give its attention first to the teaching of the essentials of personal\nand sex hygiene in the normal schools and other institutions where teachers\nare prepared. It is unnecessary to mention here the considerations that\nled to the selection of this particular subject. The mere fact that many of\nthe diseases that are undermining the physical and moral soundness of our\nmen and women are too frequently the result of ignorance of the essentials\nof personal and sex hygiene justifies the selection.\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHEALTH\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n907\n\nIn planning its work the committee had two purposes in view: First,\nto ascertain conditions; and second, to formulate a plan whereby volunteer\norganizations might best assist in improving those conditions. The first\nstep toward this was a questionnaire sent to normal schools, education\ndepartments of universities and colleges, and state superintendents of\npublic instruction.\nIn this way it was hoped to get information as to where and to what\nextent this subject is already being taught. The next work of the committee\nwas suggesting plans by which these committees might co-operate with\nschool and health authorities and social and educational organizations in\narousing public interest. The suggestions, briefly summarized, are : Give the\nsubject of personal and sex hygiene a place on the program of summer\nnormals and teachers' institutes, in the study courses of all women's organizations, on the programs of their annual meetings; organize a social hygiene\ncommittee in each community with a representative from every club or\norganization interested in social or educational advancement; let this\ncommittee, in co-operation with school and city authorities, arrange for\nfree public talks by speakers prepared to discuss the subject.\nThe committee hopes, thru the questionnaire referred to, to have ready\nfor publication in the early fall a full report of what is now being done in\nnormal schools toward instructing teachers in wise methods of presenting\nthe essentials of personal and sex hygiene, with some suggestions that may\nbe helpful in arousing the public to a reaUzation of the need of such instruction.\nThe committee feels that it is encouraging to note in going over the\nanswers already received to question No. i of the questionnaire — ''Are\nthe essentials of personal and sex hygiene taught in the school with which\nyou are associated?\" — that out of two hundred answers there are only\ntwenty unqualified \"No's.\" This means that a large percentage of the\nschools are making some effort to give this instruction, tho only a very\nfew have specific courses. No state reported makes a knowledge of these\nessentials requisite to obtaining a teacher's certificate, tho Washington\nhas begun to agitate the question. Very rarely is the subject given a place\non the programs of teachers' institutes. A few women's clubs include it in\ntheir study course. Here again Washington seems to be the banner state,\nreporting that — \"The Congress of Mothers includes sex hygiene on all\nprograms.\" We hope for the coming year this may be true of all the\norganizations included in the Department of School Patrons.\nThe belief seems to be almost universal among educators that the young\nmen and women of today should have more comprehensive instruction in\nschools in the physiology and hygiene of sex. The day of the expurgated\nphysiology is passing. While this is true tfiere is a great diversity of opinion\nas to how and to what extent the subject should be taught, especially in\nelementary and secondary schools. What is now being done is largely\nexperimental.\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe part of the joint state committee in this work will be to keep the\nsubject before the people by talks and lectures and reading courses.\nTeachers should inform themselves and then educate the mothers. In\nDes Moines the president of the women's clubs in the city, with the superintendent of city schools, constituted a committee to arrange a mothers'\nmeeting at each of the fifty-two schools, and advertised that a physician\nwould speak to them on this subject. The possibilities of such co-operation\nare limitless. We especially urge that the joint committees try to have the\nsubject given a place on the programs of the teachers' institutes, both\ncounty and city. In several states this has proven a most satisfactory\nmeans for interesting teachers and thru them the mothers, and here again\nwe realize that the school of today is but a projection of the home, and that\nteachers and parents must work together for the good of the child.\nThe state committees are advised also to co-operate with the social\nhygiene societies that are now organized in almost every state. If possible,\nsecure for your state a suitable set of slides for an illustrated talk on personal\nhygiene that may be used by schools and clubs.\nWhile conditions in each state make it necessary that each joint committee shall have its own plans for getting results, yet all should have this\ncommon aim — to arouse public interest and to educate mothers and teachers\nthat they may work together intelligently to eliminate from our social life\nthe ugliness of sin and disease and the curse of ignorance.\nWomen's organizations interested in educational progress realize as\nnever before that physical soundness is the basis of efficiency in men and\nwomen, and that the mere teaching of school textbooks on physiology and\nhygiene, from which facts most vital to our physical and moral life are carefully eliminated, is not sufficient to meet the needs of today. There must\nbe something more direct, more practical, more appealing. What shall it\nbe and how shall it be given ? If it were the mere planting of new seed in\nfallow soil the problem would be easy, but too frequently the garden must\nbe weeded first and cleared of things gross and rank in nature. Here is our\nmost serious consideration, lest the stirring of the soil bring forth a more\nluxuriant growth of weeds.\nSome interesting comments and suggestions have come to the committee.\nMany write, \"I am fully in sympathy with the purpose; I am in doubt\nabout the method.\" After an extensive study of the status of personal and\nsex hygiene in the normals, one president of a large university concludes:\n\"We normals are asleep as far as hygiene is concerned.\" The professor of\nhygiene and physical education in another university suggests great caution\nin presenting the subject, and believes that the teaching should follow and\nbe closely allied with general work in biology; while one of the most eminent\neducators of the time thinks: \"The enthusiasts about raising the moral\ntone thru biology take too narrow a view of the subject.\"\nAn eminent\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\nEDUCATION\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n909\n\nphysician thinks we are in danger of emphasizing too much the physiological side of the question and that the problem is largely a moral one.\nThe following from a normal-school president is notable:\nThat a knowledge of the essentials of personal and sex hygiene be requisite to the\nobtaining of a teacher's certificate and an outline of minimum work on the subject required\nby the state, should be made obligatory upon our training schools, with special conditions\nas to the qualifications of the teachers or phy^cians who do the work —\n\nand here, perhaps, is the logical beginning.\nRespectfully submitted,\nMaggie W. Barry, Chairman\nREPORT\n\nOF PUBLIC HEALTH EDUCATION COMMITTEE\nAMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION\n\nOF\n\nThe American Medical Association Conmiittee for Public Health\nEducation among women was appointed foi: the express purpose of meeting\nthe ever-growing and popular demand for scientific instruction concerning\nthe nature and prevention of disease.\nAppreciating the efforts put forth by countless public-spirited women,\nwho thru their various organizations have striven for improved conditions in\nhome and community, and realizing what a power intelligent women exert\nin the molding of public sentiment, this committee from among the medical\nprofession offers in a spirit of altruism to co-operate with them in this vital\nwork of health education, the importance of which cannot be overestimated.\nThe psychological moment has come for such instruction, for the\nindividual life has assumed an economic value, and health is now regarded\nas a national asset. The day of preventive medicine has arrived and our\ngreat national organization of physicians is delighted to recognize and\nencourage the arousing health conscience.\nWhile the laity is beginning to have a permanent glimmering of health\ntruths, many of the older generation have been anaesthetized by repeated\nmonotonies and it is in the plastic, receptive minds of the coming generation that the seeds of hygiene will bear richest fruit. It is easy to start\na child right. He accepts and assimilates new truths, and these, becoming\na part of his composition, find practical expression in adult life.\nTo the grown-up the introduction of sanitary science seems an intrusion;\nit has survived primeval customs and conditions. Why disrupt them?\nThe children are, therefore, the sanitarian's greatest asset and the improvement of their condition is the work of the century. This necessitates the\neducation of their superiors in the science of right living, for in this\nmovement for health conservation, parent, teacher, and child are vital and\ninseparable factors; while the sanitarian stands ready to lend advice or\nrender active assistance wherever indicated.\nTo quote President David Starr Jordan:\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "910\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nIf the great army of philanthropists ever exterminate sin and pestilence, if they\never work out our race's salvation, it will be because a little child has led them.\n\nAnd Dr. I. N. Hurty, chairman of the Committee on Methods of Public\nEducation in Hygiene, affirms that if hygiene be effectually taught in the\npublic schools and if medical inspection of school children is in force, then\nwithin a decade public health exhibits and pamphlet distribution may\nlargely be done away with.\nIn our United States there are always three million people sick and\none million, five hundred thousand die annually. Heart and kidney diseases\nare steadily increasing, due to overwork of these organs, while as a most conservative estimate 75 per cent of our population is infected with venereal\ndiseases. This amount of lost efficiency is matter for grave consideration.\nThe developing child is entitled to a knowledge of his anatomy and\nphysiology, of the laws of health, and the results of their infraction. Education is the only means of eradicating the venereal peril, and as citizens we\nowe every boy and girl a knowledge concerning these diseases and their\ncommunicability. As 85 per cent of our children leave school before the\nfifteenth year, this instruction must be given early. The parent is the\nideal source of this information, but the school teacher or physical director\nmust be prepared to supplement the all too frequently faulty home training. It is here that the American Medical Association Health Committee\ncan sometimes be of service in instructing both parents and children in\nsex hygiene.\nA valuable bibliography on the prevention of disease, including the\nsubject of social hygiene, has been compiled by the committee and these\nbooks and pamphlets should form an important part of every library.\nDuring the year just closed the American Medical Association Health\nCommittee, with its one thousand and eight hundred enlisted physicians,\nhas given two thousand and eight hundred public lectures to audiences\naggregating two hundred and thirty thousand, besides accomplishing much\nof a practical nature. For instance, it has been instrumental in securing\nmedical inspection of schools, the introduction of bubble cups and individual towels, improved ventilating systems in cars, and the establishment\nof comfort stations.\nIn addition to the Central Committee of Ten appointed by the American\nMedical Association, there are forty-four state chairmen, also representatives\nin Panama, Alaska, and Hawaii. Their work in turn is divided among\ncounty chairmen .\nFor the convenience of those who may desire the co-operation of this\ncommittee in the arrangement of health programs, a list of the state chairmen is appended and also a list of suggestive topics in use by the committee.\nRespectfully submitted,\nEleanor Seymour,\nState Chairman, California\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nHEALTH\n\nLIST OF SUGGESTIVE\n\nEDUCATION\nTOPICS\n\nFOR\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nHEALTH\n\n91 1\n\nLECTURES\n\n1. The cause and prevention of common colds.\n2. The air we breathe and the value of ventilation.\n3. The prevention and cure of tuberculosis.\n4. The importance of early diagnosis and treatment of adenoids.\n5. The causes and prevention of deafness.\n6. The value of pure food and the physiology of digestion.\n7. The relation of wholesome food to good health, and the proper food for school children.\n8. The relation of pure water to the public health.\n9. Water-borne diseases.\n10. The relation of flies, mosquitoes, and other insects to the public health.\n11. Pure milk and infant hygiene.\n12. The care of the food at home.\n13. The use and abuse of stimulants.\n14. The relation of teeth to good health.\n15. The causes and results of eye strain.\n16. The causes and prevention of blindness.\n17. The prevention of acquired deformities.\n18. The medical examination of school children.\n19. The prevention of some of the commoner diseases (skin diseases).\n20. The hygienic management of nervous children.\n21. The causes and prevention of mental diseases.\n22. The value of exercise and rest.\n23. The responsibility of girlhood to motherhood.\n24. The health of women in youth and maturity.\n25. The importance of early diagnosis of cancer in women.\n26. The relation of social diseases to the family.\n27. The responsibility of boyhood to fatherhood.\n28. How to instruct children regarding the origin of life.\n29. The value of vaccination and serum therapy.\n30. The value of animal experimentation.\n3 1 . The prevention of infectious diseases.\n32. How to meet emergencies, hemorrhage, burns, etc.\n33. Diseases induced by certain industries.\n34. The causes and prevention of rheumatism, appendicitis, and Bright's disease.\nCENTRAL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nRosalie Slaughter Morton, M.D., Honorary Chairman, New York, N.Y.\nEleanora S. Everhard, M.D., Chairman, Dayton, Ohio.\nGertrude Felker, M.D., Secretary, Dayton, Ohio.\nAlice L. Hamilton, M.D., Boston, Mass.\nI. N. Hurty, M.D., Secretary, Indiana State Board of Health.\nOscar Dowling, M.D., Secretary, Louisiana State Board of Health.\nLaura L. Liebhardt, M.D., Denver, Col.\nW. F. Snow, M.D., Secretary, California State Board of Health.\nSTATE\n\nCHAIRMEN\n\nAlabama — Dr. Anna May Robinson, 620 North Nineteenth Street, Birmingham.\nArizona — Dr. Agnes McKee Wallace, 137 East Goodwin Street, Prescott.\nArkansas — Dr. Nina Hardin, Fayetteville.\nCalifornia — Dr. Eleanor Seymour, State Hygienic Laboratory, Berkeley.\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nColorado — Dr. Alice Guthrie, 431 Temple Court Building, Denver.\nConnecticut — Dr. Mary B. Moody, 154 East Grand Avenue, New Haven.\nDr. Kate Campbell Mead, assistant state chairman, Middletown.\nDistrict of Columbia — Dr. Frances Foye, 11 18 Thirteenth Street N.W.\nFlorida — Dr. Ellen Lowell Stevens, 2050 Hill Street, Jacksonville.\nGeorgia — Dr. Frances Bradley, 706 Empire Building, Atlanta.\nIdaho — Dr. Jessie Clark, 1211 Rigby Lane, Lewiston.\nIllinois — Dr. Josephine Milligan, Jacksonville.\nIndiana— Dr. I. N. Hurty, IndianapoUs.\nIowa — Dr. Jennie McCowen, Davenport.\nKansas — Dr. Ida C. Barnes, 726 Kansas Avenue, Topeka.\nKentucky— Dr. Delia Caldwell, Paducah.\nLouisiana — Dr. Oscar Dowling, Shreveport.\nMaine — Dr. Lucinda B. Hatch, Spring and Emery Streets, Portland.\nMaryland — Dr. Anna Schultze-Abercrombie, 827 Hamilton Terrace, Baltimore.\nMassachusetts — Dr. Laura A. C. Hughes, 98 Huntington Avenue, Boston.\nDr. Evangeline W. Young, assistant state chairman, 131 Newbury Street, Boston.\nMichigan — Dr. Delia T. Pierce, Kalamazoo.\nMinnesota — Dr. Laura A. Lane, 430 Mahoning Street, Hibbing.\n*\nMississippi — Dr. Sara Allen Castle, 2008 Eleventh Street, Meridian.\nMissom-i — Dr. Dora Greene Wilson, Kansas City.\nNebraska— Dr. Marie L. Grote, Ponca.\nNevada— Dr. M. R. Walker, Reno.\nNew Jersey — Dr. Maria Mitchell Vinton, 15 Halstead Place, East Orange.\nNew Hampshire — Dr. Marion L. Bugbee, New Hampshire Memorial Hall, Concord.\nNew Mexico — Dr. Cecil W. Taylor-Goodman, New Armijo Block, Albuquerque.\nNew York — Dr. May Allen, state secretary, 297 Alexander Street, Rochester.\nDr. Anna White Marquis, assistant chairman, Norwich.\nNorth Carolina — Dr. Delia G. Dixon-Carroll, Raleigh.\nNorth Dakota — Dr. Elizabeth Rindlaub, Fargo.\nOhio — Dr. Eleanora S. Everhard, The Calvert, Dayton.\nOklahoma — Dr. Leila E. Andrews, Oklahoma City.\nOregon — Dr. Ethel Gray, Portland.\nPennsylvania — Dr. Elizabeth Leiper Martin, 329 South Dallas Avenue, Pittsburgh.\nRhode Island — Dr. G. L. Swartz, Providence.\nSouth Carolina — Dr. L. Rosa H. Gantt, Spartanburg.\nSouth Dakota — Dr. Annie B. Hainer, Sioux Falls.\nTennessee — Dr. Elizabeth C. Kane, 732 Exchange Building, Memphis.\nTexas — Dr. Minnie C. Archer, Houston.\nUtah— Dr. Belle A. Gemmell, Salt Lake City.\nVermont — Dr. Grace Sherwood, St. Albans.\nVirginia — Dr. Emily C. Runyon, 1022 West Grace Street, Richmond.\nWest Virginia — Dr. Mary Virginia McCune, Martinsburg.\nWashington — Dr. Marietta M. Armstrong, 520 Leary Building, Seattle.\nWisconsin — Dr. Sara Eliott, 506 Grand Avenue, Waukesha.\nWyoming — Dr. Letitia Wiseman, 4 Bank Block, Cheyenne.\nAlaska — Dr. Beatrice Pearce Dickenson, Ketchikan.\nPanama — Dr. Helen L. Doherty-McGillicuddy.\nHawaii — Dr. Minnette Burnham, Honolulu.\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nHEALTH\n\nHEALTH\n\nOF CHILD:\n\nPARENT\n\nOF THE CHILD\nPARENT AND\n\nAND\n\nTEACHER\n\nTHE JOINT\nTEACHER\n\nCONCERN\n\n913\n\nOF\n\nW. A. EVANS, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PREVENTIVE MEDICINE, NORTHWESTERN\nUNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILL., FORMERLY HEALTH COMMISSIONER\nOF CHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nThis audience is composed of two portions — school teachers on the one\nhand and school patrons on the other. Between you responsibility is\nshared for the care of children during their most important years. A child\ngoes into school with little memory and less judgment, with a small vocabulary and with less power of observation, with an untrained, unstored mind.\nIn ten years, thru your joint care this mind is to be transformed. This function was primarily a family duty. Many years ago the state assumed its ,\nresponsibility. The rights and obligations of the state in their legal and\neconomic relations are almost universally accepted. That there is an\nimplied partnership between teacher and parent to do this work is now\nwidely tho not universally accepted. But the physical life of the child\nduring those years is just as overshadowing as its mental life. By \"overshadowing,\"mean\nI\nthat when the child is growing from forty to one hundred and forty pounds and passing thru puberty, its physical being is more\nimpressionable than at any other time in its life. The experiences of these\nyears do not cause many deaths, but they determine the resistance and physical well-being of the person for many years after childhood has ended, and in\nsome phases until the end of life.\nIn fact, the child is not one. It is three in one — a physical, a mental,\nand a moral life — each separate, yet each so interwoven with the other that\nany impression made on any one is felt by each of the others. These phases\nof life are just dawning on our consciousness. Some parents are seeing it,\nsome teachers are seeing it, and a few governments are seeing it. What we\nwant is that teacher and parent may understand their joint responsibility\nin this field. I am sure that you teachers have often seen pupils who were not\nlearning and who were not in good physical condition, where you felt certain\nthat you could work it out satisfactorily if you could have an understanding with the parents. I am sure that you parents have known of children\nwhose home influences made for a good physique, a good physical brain as\na basis for an alert, sane, psychic mind, yet who were not thriving mentally\nor physically. You have concluded that the schoolroom was too hot, too\ndry, or too foul, or the pupils carried too much infection — acute infection,\nsubinfection, or latent infection.\nSo you have drifted on.\nMay we not then spend this hour in talking together about those physical\ninfluences which exist in schoolrooms someiimes — the responsibility for\nwhich lies sometimes with the teacher and sometimes with the parent ?\nI think school children are more frequently harmed by bad air in the\nschoolrooms than by any other cause.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nWe believe more in the spread of infection by contact than by air conveyance. This is certainly true of diphtheria and typhoid. It is probably true of measles and scarlet fever. But an infection with colds, pneumonia, tuberculosis, infantile paralysis, cerebrospinal meningitis, and\nsmallpox is to be reckoned with. Yet bad air as a contributing cause of\ninfections is more important than its capacity as a physical transporter\nof disease germs.\nSchoolroom air is usually too dry. It dries out the nose and pharynx,\nand disease germs, which should easily have been thrown off, get into the\ntissues and blood and cause infections. Schoolroom air should have the\nsame relative humidity as outside air. It should never be more than thirty\ndegrees less. It is usually sixty degrees less. When there is an outside\nhumidity of eighty-five, the usual schoolroom humidity is twenty-five.\nHumidity can be measured with a hygrometer, a wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer, or with accuracy by simpler instruments. On a very cold day the\nradiation must heat the outside walls and windows must be double, else\nsweating and frosting will be considerable when the relative humidity passes\nfifty. That is one of the objections to hot-air heating. It is not possible\nto concentrate the heat at the outside walls, about the only place where it\nis needed in a large school building several stories in height. As between\nlow humidity and sweating walls and frosting windows my advice to you is\nalways to put up with the latter. The humidity can be raised by jets of\nsteam playing into the incoming air, by some patent humidifiers, by fountains and sprays of water, by exposed water on radiators, stoves, etc.\nWhenever the humidity rises over fifty the temperature of the room can\nbe lowered. When the humidity is low the perspiration and lung moisture\nevaporate so rapidly that the pupil gets cold if the temperature is not fairly\nhigh. Therefore, humidity and temperature go hand in hand. A child\nliving several hours in a temperature which is too high wilts mentally and\nphysically. This repeated day after day takes the bloom from the cheek,\nthe sparkle from the eye, and acting in unison with a humidity which is too\nlow is responsible for the glands of the neck, adenoids, and enlarged tonsils.\nThe school temperature should not pass sixty-eight degrees Fahrenheit. A\nfew years from now we will be able to fix sixty degrees Fahrenheit, a better\nfigure, but inadvisable now. By sixty-eight degrees Fahrenheit I mean\nthis should be the general temperature of the lower five feet of air in the\nschoolroom.\nSomeone, the teacher or some pupil, should keep an hourly written\nrecord of the temperature and humidity of the schoolroom. The methods\nof heating and ventilating schoolrooms is meat for a full discussion and I\ncannot enter into it here. But you school teachers can refuse to teach in\nrooms over sixty-eight degrees Fahrenheit, and you school patrons can\nrefuse to allow your children to go to school in a room which is over sixtyeight degrees Fahrenheit, and the battle is won.\nTechnically you may be\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nOF CHILD:\n\nPARENT\n\nAND\n\nTEACHER\n\n915\n\ntranscending your rights, but the basic good will be so overwhelmingly on\nyour side that you will get your point, and that is what counts. Any\noccupied room should be blown out several times a day. When the\npupils go out for recess or lunch, throw the windows wide open and freshen\nthe air in the rooms. The temperature should drop well below sixty\ndegrees Fahrenheit. It should be fifty-five to sixty degrees when the\npupils come in from play. They have been running and exercising vigorously; therefore they are making and have just made a lot of heat which\nmust be radiated. If they come into a temperature of sixty-eight they are\nliable to catch cold or some other kind of infection. If air is right as to\ntemperature and humidity the two main points are covered. There should\nbe a good deal of air movement in the room. Whenever the air in an inclosure has a more-like stillness it is either unhealthy or easily made so ;\nsometimes electric fans are available. These are very comfortable in the\nsummer time; they are great aids to good air conditions in the winter time.\nI should say that they are more needed in the winter than in the summer.\nIf fans are not available, then a window raised a few inches from the\nbottom and provided with a deflector does quite well.\nThe air must be clean, and that means that the floors must be kept clean.\nTo train the pupils to clean their feet as they enter the building is of immense\nservice. The blackboard dust can be held down by using an eraser which\nhas been slightly moistened. A piece of cheesecloth fastened over the\neraser can be kept just damp enough and not too wet.\nMost of the ills of children in school years are communicable. It is\nsaid that no man can live his life alone — that every act of every man in\nsome way influences every other man. In childhood lives touch at even\nmore points than in adult life, and in addition the plasm is softer and every\npoint of contact becomes a facet.\nTeachers might say that if parents did their duty children with measles,\ndiphtheria, scarlet fever, colds, and other forms of contagion would not come\nto the schoolroom. Parents might say that if teachers were sufficiently alert\ntheir children would not be thrown in contact with infected children. Each\nof you is right — each of you is wrong. There are cases of diphtheria infection which show the appearance of diphtheria so that no one can mistake\nthem. But in addition there are subinfections and latent infections with\ndiphtheria bacilli. Subinfections are sore throats due to diphtheria bacillus— sore throats looking very much Hke the ordinary sore throats. Latent\ninfections are throats containing diphtheria bacilli, which throats look\nalmost normal. Other names for these conditions are atypical cases and\ncarriers. In the present state of our knowledge teacher cannot blame\nparent — parent cannot blame teacher. Nor does diphtheria stand alone\nin this particular. It is just as true of scarlet fever, measles, infantile\nparalysis, and meningitis. Maybe it is also true of consumption, pneumonia, and colds.\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "9i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIPhyskal\n\nI have no intention of absolving either of you from responsibihty. No\nchild having an open infection should be allowed in a closed room with\nother children. By \"open infection\" is meant any infection which is giving\noff bacteria into the sputum or mouth or nose secretions.\nYou will notice the stress which is put on the orifices in the face — particularly the mouth and nose. If parents and teachers will watch these\nclosely enough to see that they are always clean and free from infecting\nsecretion they can be excused for overlooking almost anything else.\nMeasles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, meningitis, and infantile paralysis\nalways start as a throat or nose infection; therefore every sore throat should\nbe regarded as contagious until it is proven otherwise. The burden of\nproof should be on the defense.\nI wish I felt that the time was ripe to pursue the same policy with all\ncolds, particularly those with some fevers and aches. Such colds are just\nas catching as diphtheria. But if we were to exclude colds from the schoolrooms, the teachers would teach very small and select classes at times.\nWhen bedrooms, playrooms, and schools are properly ventilated we will be\nable to exclude colds from the schoolroom and good health and good scholarship will move up several pegs.\nBut be as careful as you may, some infectors will get into the schoolroom.\nRemember that people more than things spread contagion. Then pupils\nmust not exchange pencils — slate pencils must be kept in an antiseptic\nfluid, a 3 per cent carbolic solution. Mouths must be kept away from common drinking- cups; handkerchiefs or other cloths must be used to cover\nthe face in sneezing and coughing.\nThere should be medical examination of the children. No other course\nis fair to the teacher or to the children in the room. Medical inspection\nin the long run operates to increase the attendance rather than diminish it.\nIf taking out one pupil operates to prevent contagion which would result in\ntaking out three pupils, there is a net gain of two pupils. Exclusion by\nmedical examination averages a few days in duration. Exclusion by reason\nof confining sickness averages several times as long. Occasionally we read\nthat the schools of a certain town have closed down because of an epidemic\nin the town. This is always in the towns without school inspection. It\nnever occurs in towns with school inspection. Aside from the lack of necessity itis bad judgment — contagion can be controlled better when the children of a town meet daily at school under observation than it can be where\nthey are meeting promiscuously on the streets.\nThere should always be physical examination of the school children.\nChildren in bad physical condition cannot study well. Many of them fail to\nmake grade. Others hold their grades back so that the average amount of\nground covered is not what it should be. It is expensive for the school, for\nother children in the school, for the laggards themselves. It is not fair\nto anybody.\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSEX\n\nHYGIENE\n\n917\n\nThe most frequent defect found is bad teeth. Teeth are bad because\nthey are dirty or decayed. Then come adenoids and tonsils giving mouth\nbreathing. Now kernels are found in the 'neck. The expression of the\nface changes. The child becomes pale, flabby, sickly, and is a \"catcher.\"\nThe mother thinks luck's against her. Her children are always catching\nsomething. They have become catchers thru some physical neglect. It\nisn't fair to the teacher to ask her to worry her life away trying to teach\nchildren of this type. Try as hard as she can she can only make a halfway job out of it. She loses her pedagogic pride in the product.\nBut then, if the teacher knows what is really and fundamentally the\nmatter with the child, should she not tell the mother and father ? But she\ndoes and they do not heed. Here, as a supplementer of the teacher, is one\nof the important duties of the school nurse.\nIt may be argued that all of this is an invasion of parental rights — a\nchild with contagion coming in contact with another child invades parental rights — a physically neglected child determining the rate of progress\nof another child, taking from that other child some part of its portion of the\nteacher's time, energy, and thought, invades another child's parental rights.\nShall there be the right of invasion for harm without the right of invasion\nfor cure ?\nHas not compulsory education fixed the right of good to rout evil\nregardless of small concepts of liberty? Are these aspects of education\nless important than attendance — the aspect whose standing in law and\nprocedure has been definitely fixed? If it is right, should not teachers\nand parents put it into practice wherever they can, and besides work for a\nsupporting public sentiment? To this end the schools, the schoolrooms,\nthe school teachers, the pupils, and the patrons should be used first to\ndetermine position and then to popularize information. Councils between\nteachers and parents individually and in groups can be of great service,\nas well as popular education on the harm of hot schoolrooms, of dry air,\nof still air, of dirty air, of uncontrolled contagion, of practices which spread\ncontagion, of the evil of neglected physical defects. Popular education on\nsuch subjects can best come thru the joint efforts of school patrons and\nschool teachers, and nothing which you can do will be a greater community\nservice.\n\nI\n\nSEX HYGIENE\nFRANCES M. GREENE, M.D., CAMBRIDGE, MASS.\n\nTwo years ago a physician in California wrote a physiology and ventured to insert a chapter on \"Reproduction.\" His pubUsher refused to\nprint that chapter. Today the question of aex education and sex hygiene\nis occupying the attention of the entire country. We have been caught\nin a wave of the movement which is destined to revolutionize the social\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "91 8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nworld and base man's future happiness upon the solid foundation of knowledge, purity, and a perfect understanding between the sexes.\nIt is to the credit of the medical profession that the initiative in this\ngreat work was taken by them. For the last decade the greatest scientific\nminds have occupied themselves with an ever-growing evil — the spread\nof venereal disease.\nWith the discovery of the germ of the gonoccorus infection it was\nfound that the untold sufferings of enormous numbers of innocent women\ncould be traced to that cause. The discovery of the germ of syphilis has\nled to the inclusion in its deadly work of many serious conditions, previously attributed to other causes. An ever-increasing number of the victims of the one or the other of these infectious diseases fill the institutions\nfor the blind and for feeble-minded children. The loss to the population\nof countries thru the sterility caused by both gonoccorus infection and\nsyphilis mounts into astonishing figures.\nGreat medical specialists felt that the responsibility was too heavy for\nthem to bear and that the secrecy which had so long obtained in these\nmatters was no longer tenable. Imbued with the spirit of an era the\nwatchword of which is \"prevention,\" these men realized that a condition,\nthe roots of which are imbedded in social ideas and social customs, could\nnot be overcome by medical science alone.\nWhen the great International Congresses for the purpose of investigating\nthis evil met in Brussels in 1899 and 1903 their members were composed\nnot only of medical men but also of educators, jurists, clergymen, writers,\nstatesmen, and economists. They found that, allowing for the difference\nof race, temperament, and econ6mic conditions, all countries were suffering\nfrom the same evil. Prompt action was urgently necessary. In their\nsincere and earnest search for a solution, every side of the question was\nstudied, but it was felt that the root of the matter had not been touched\nuntil the conclusion was advanced that if the world wanted a radical change,\na firm foundation upon which to build a society of individuals endowed\nwith moral and physical strength, the work must begin with the infant.\nThen the cry went up that found its echo on all sides, the call upon one\nwithout whom this change could not be wrought — the mother. The\nbearer of the child stands closest to it. She is therefore the most fitting\ninstrument to begin this regeneration of mankind. Parents should be\ntaught the dangers and their dire consequences which may assail their\nsons and daughters. The children who are going out into the world must\nbe sent out prepared for the struggle and impressed with their individual\nand moral responsibility. Our babies should be born into an atmosphere\nof truth and knowledge unashamed. In a word, it was hoped that the\nsex education of the parents would give them the courage of conviction\nso that the first steps might be taken in the home.\nIn Europe, family-life retains a certain patriarchal quality.\nThere is\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSEX HYGIENE\n\n919\n\nstill that strong tradition, that instinct of the clan which recognizes the\nwise head and resort of last appeal, the tender home-maker — the community\nof interest and the indissoluble bond of the single purpose. The son more\noften than not continues the work of the father. The destinies of children\nare usually arranged at their birth. Where there is a break in the tradition of a family it is of a violent character and takes the form of an extreme\nreaction. But the parent once convinced of his duty as regards a new\nnote in education, a new point of view, finds it not difficult to charge the\nhome atmosphere with the new idea. He has, moreover, the comfortable\nassurance that the schools are prepared to support and further the development of any ideal which means the betterment of the race.\nIn our more complex civilization, family relations are not so easily\ndefined. The keynote of the American family is the absence of tradition.\nThe intelligent American father of today knows that if he does not make a\nfriend of his boy, it is a mere matter of tune when he shall lose him. The\nmother is, as a rule, entirely resigned to the fact that from the age of puberty her sons and daughters drift from her. The incompatibility is not\none of years. The parents drop out of the child's life because they do\nnot fit into it. The constant flux in American life is reflected in the family.\nNowhere can it be so truly said that if our mothers begin our education\nour children complete it. The tradition upon which the parents' lives\nwere formed do not exist for their children and the parents give them\nnothing to take its place. The earliest questionings which might lead\nto the most real and sweetest of intimacies are met by deceit, falsehood,\ncoldness, or abuse. The first link in the chain of misunderstanding is\nforged. The very strength of youth which today finds its expression in\nso-called independence and arrogance, rightly developed, might express\nitself in reverence and effort for the mother who has not severed the spiritual bond between them by being ashamed of having given him birth, but\nwho could tell him with simple earnestness something of her inner Hfe at\nthat supreme moment. Instead of this, only too often is the child thrown\nupon himself. He misses the training and restraint which parental and\nfamily tradition would impose upon his early years. He develops an\nindependence which would be the crowning glory of our country were it\nnot for one thing: freedom, in the sense which our youth understand it,\nmeans the will to have — not the will to do without, or self-control.\nThe ever-increasing mass of foreigners, in their delight at becoming a\npart of this great republic, cast from them every tradition of the mothercountry. In this wonderful land they think all are free and equal. The\ngovernment will take the children into its care and deliver them back\neducated men and women — ^American citizens. We have helped them to\nforget their traditions but we are to give them something greater — ideals.\nThe work on this problem is infinitely difficult. It should begin with\nthe mother; but are all mothers, even tho they feel the force and truth of\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Physica i\n\nthe appeal, capable of at once overcoming the false position of so many\ndecades ? Many of them bring to the civilization of the twentieth century\nan ignorance of the machinery of life outside the actual family circle and\nthe mistaken modesty of women whose lives have always been sheltered.\nThey cannot therefore understand the rude shocks which await their sons\nand daughters and the helplessness of these mentally, morally, and physically unprepared children in the face of temptation.\nThere are as many varieties of mothers as there are children, but the\nmother for whom this is most difficult is the one who, convinced of the\nneglect of her duty, attempts to re-establish confidential relations with\nher growing girls and is met with a distinct rebuff. It is a very common\noccurrence. The confidence on these subjects has been placed elsewhere:\nmother is out of it.\nThe children of today are destined to be the units of a society whose\npoint of view is to make it unique in the world's history. It will be characterized bya single standard of morality for both sexes. To achieve\nthis result parents must be taught that sexual intercourse before marriage\nis not necessary to health. The. child must be so trained and educated that\nit will later be possible and natural for him to live up to the high standard\nwhich the women of his age (who will not wait at home for his coming but\nmarch thru life at his side) shall demand of him. The ideas of society\nmust be changed into ideals that young men may not be weakened and\ncorrupted by the passive acceptance of false standards of morality.\nOne of the most important factors for the attainment of this end is\nthe same education of both girls and boys in matters of sex, from which\nall secrecy, except that which is necessary for true modesty and refinement,\nshall have disappeared. The schools must carry on the work; an enlightened society complete it. Information, however, is not education. The\nchildren should be provided with an environment not only favorable to the\ndevelopment of ideals of moral and physical cleanliness, but also calculated\nto awaken in them a moral responsibility and to develop the self-control\nnecessary to maintain those ideals. Nothing is truer than that \"a character\nis a completely fashioned will.\" If we could but teach our children that the\nmost completely fashioned will is the will to do without !\nThe school physician is fast becoming a recognized necessity. Much\nis being done to change physical conditions in the homes. Parents are\nbeing taught that proper food, cleanliness, fresh air, are necessary to the\nnormal development of the child. Playgrounds are multiplying in order\nto fill his leisure with healthful, clean exercise. But when we have brought\ninto the blood of the child the substances necessary to build up his body\nto a certain norm, when so much has been done to make the child realize\nthat honor and truth are actual, tangible, workable, even profitable elements\nin life, we still have the most important, fundamental side of his development untouched. We cultivate and satisfy only that side of his healthy\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSEX\n\nHYGIENE\n\n921\n\ncuriosity which agrees with our preconceived ideas of what he ought to\nknow, and allow that interest which would naturally be first aroused about\nhimself and his kind to develop under the unfavorable conditions of secrecy,\ndeceit, and neglect. Being obliged to get his information at second hand,\nthru half-truths, from evil-minded sources, he will still feel that there is\nmore to know, that the mystery is not yet solved and will be led still farther,\nthe result often being a mental degradation and unchastity with frequent\nserious physical results.\nIt is to meet this evil that biology should be taught in the schools; not\nin fragments, but as a complete system of development from the lowest ^\nforms of life to the highest. To the child, reproduction in the human\nshould be the last link in the whole chain of natural phenomena, instead\nof something quite apart from the natural order of things, which will\ninevitably arouse his curiosity, which is kept in secrecy and mystery, and\nbranded with the stigma of unclean.\nIt would be unfair to impose upon the already overburdened teacher\nanother special scientific branch of study. The actual teaching should be\ndone by those trained for this purpose. There are now in the University\nof California several young men and women in the scientific and premedical\ndepartment whose profession it will be to teach biology and sex hygiene.\nAt present the school physician is to be relied upon, but it would be wiser\nwere his office confined to the practical consideration of the physical health\nof the children. Nor less in importance will be his office of informing all\nchildren who are leaving school for the world of work, or who have reached\nthe age of self-assertion (very early in this country), of the physical dangers\nand their consequences which await the weak and willful.\nThe doctor, however, is, even in the child's mind, still too closely associated with the pathological. To the growing child the presentation of\nbiology and reproduction should appeal as a normal and beautiful process.\nIt ought to be so stirring and uplifting that the child will feel a pride in his\nhuman superiority. Once the habit of thought is established that development is the keynote of all creation, once he is made to feel that his high\nposition in the scale of existence entails a certain noblesse oblige, gives to\nhim privileges but demands of him duties, it is not difficult to imagine how\nmoral responsibility may be awakened and how profoundly ethical such a\ntraining could be made.\nAltho the actual teaching is the specialist's work it will fail of its highest\npurpose if we do not provide an atmosphere in the school to counteract\nthe only too frequently unfavorable home and outside influences. For\nthis we depend upon the teacher, who must have sufficiently studied and\nfelt into the subject to have a broad, sane point of view, a sympathy not\nonly with externals but with deeper impulses. This sympathy is an\nessence which children quickly recognize and which would draw many a\nchild to the teacher in its hour of psychological need, thus making her fit\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physica\n\nto be a savior of children's souls as well as bodies. We cannot educate this\nfine essence of sympathy into people, but it is the glory of womanhood to\npossess it naturally in large measure, and are not nearly all our teachers\nwomen ? Therefore the first absolute essential is that teachers and mothers\nbe trained in all matters pertaining to sex hygiene and sex education.\nThey will learn to look upon sexual questions not as unclean and impure,\nto be enveloped in mystery and spoken of ^ith embarrassment. They will\nrealize that human life and happiness is based upon the proper comprehension ofsuch questions and that untold misery has been caused by their\nmisunderstanding and neglect.\nIt has been no rare occurrence for pioneer workers in this movement\nto discover in college professors, clergymen, and other men and women\nholding positions of great responsibility in the training of our youth, an\nignorance or false conception of the essential questions of sex equaled\nonly by that of the street Arab who, after all, has the advantage of a certain\nrough knowledge lent him by the exigencies of his unprotected life. One and\nall, high and low, have been lulled into a mental and moral lethargy by that\nmaster-slave. Habit.\nWe are born with certain tendencies, but our training and environment\nare responsible for their development and fixation. Every act, every\nthought of our daily life is a habit, the result of repetition. Our religions,\nour morals, our immoralities, our loves, and our hates are habits. Let\nan action or thought be never so deliberate, its constant repetition will make\nit involuntary. Be the action, the thought, good or bad, if the soul sleeps,\nthe response is equally prompt. But if the soul awakes in time before our\nhabits are crystallized, we may overcome them, and form new channels\nof thought and action. The power is given us to decide. Shall we be\nmasters or slaves ?\nThis psychological fact is of the greatest significance in training the\nyoung. The habit of thinking pure and clean thoughts is one of the most\nimportant assets of a child's education. When we can combine habits\nof clean thought and reverence with self-control we may send the child\ninto the world assured that the high ideals of hi's time are safe in his keeping.\nA psychologist has said.\nThe sounds of a violin improve by use in the hands of an able artist, because the\nfibers of wood at last contract habits of vibration conformed with harmonious relations.\nThis is what gives such inestimable value to the instruments that have belonged to great\nmasters.\n\nThe souls of children are like violins and will respond to the touch of\nthe teachers who play upon them. It should surely be one of the most\ninspiring aims of the future fitly to train such teachers. In their hands\nwe may safely place our children, but let us not forget that the influence\nof the home precedes that of the school.\nLet us ever remember that we.\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSEX\n\nUYGIENE\n\n^i^\n\neach and all, form part of a society which is to receive these children from\nthe hands of the teachers. May they find us striving for those ideals which\nperhaps it will be their privilege to attain.\nDISCUSSION\nRoMiLDA Paroni, M.D., lecturcF in hygiene, University of California, Berkeley,\nCal. — ^In rising to discuss the subject of sex hygiene, I want first of all to express my deep\nappreciation of Dr. Greene's thoro and illuminating paper, which expresses so clearly,\nespecially to Californians, her earnest, self-sacrificing devotion to the interests of the\nproblems of sex hygiene.\nFor several years I have been deeply interested in this subject. My interest has\nnaturally grown with my recent opportunities — the physical examination of deUnquent\ngirls of the Detention Home of Alameda County and the physical examination of five\nhundred girls in the Berkeley High School during this last year.\nNo one can have had much to do with young men and young women without abundant experiences with the tragedies of life due largely to ignorance along lines of hygiene,\nespecially sex hygiene. It is safe to say that many of the habits which result in physical,\nmental, and moral disease are due to ignorance along these lines. The need of plain\nspeaking has repeatedly been brought home to me in connection with my examination\nof the deUnquent girls of the Detention Home of Alameda County. What strikes one\nin deaUng with juvenile deUnquents is the appalUng amount of sexual wrong-doing among\nvery young girls and boys — many of grammar-school age and from intelligent families.\nJudging from the inquiry of many children, we must conclude either that parents are\ngrossly ignorant of the facts of sex or that they misjudge the time of life when such instruction must be given. Simple questions require simple but truthful answers.\nEvery parent and teacher may take it as an absolute fact that nine-tenths of school\nboys and girls, both in the city and country, whether in public or private schools, are\nnormally extremely curious regarding matters of sex, and learn much of matters of sex\nand reproduction as early as eight and ten years, and where not so carefully guarded, as\nearly as six.\nI wish here to emphasize the point made by Dr. Greene that the perfectly normal sex\ninstinct and curiosity should be respected and diverted into natural channels by teaching\nbiology in schools. With Dean Sumner I take decided issue that we should delay teaching\nof sex hygiene until adolescence. That method of delay has proved a failure. We are\ntrying to do preventive work. As Professor Rugh of the University of California has said :\nThe prevention of syphilis and gonorrhoea is but a part of the larger problem of sex\nhygiene — and sex hygiene is but part of the still larger problem of individual health,\npurity, and efficiency.\nIt is clearly the duty of education, both at home and in the school, to keep children\nnot ignorant, and too often impure as a result, but to keep them pure by giving the right\nknowledge and demanding of them right action by the exercise of \"the will to do without,\nor self-control.\"\nMost teachers and parents unfortunately are fit neither in knowledge nor in courage^\nas has been said, to give information in sex hygiene. There are also fathers and mothers\nwho resent the intimation that their children are in need of protection against moral or\nphysical disease. For children who have no mother or father, or whose parents do not\ndo their duty or do not have the necessary knowledge, I hold sex education should be\ntaught in school as a part of a general course in biology.\nInstruction can best begin by observing the analogy of plant and animal life and\nshould begin early in the child's life, at home thru the mother, at school thru teachers\nespecially trained in biology.\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nBoys and girls of the \"self-asserting age\" should be taught their sex anatomy and\nphysiology by the aid of specimens, models, and diagrams. They should be taught\nrespect for the dignity and sacredness of marriage, their responsibility to future generations. The false, antiquated impression instilled in the minds of many young men that\nsex indulgence is essential to health, and that continence leads to loss of vigor of mind\nand body, must be corrected. Without too many particulars, when discussing diseases\nin general and in particular, venereal diseases and their serious results and effects on public\nhealth and family-life should be discussed.\nI wish to emphasize strongly the need of making sex education a natural part of a\ngeneral course in hygiene and not detached and isolated to give it mystery. This has been\nthe plan I have attempted to carry out this last year in a series of twelve half-hour\ntalks on hygiene, personal, sex, and public, before about seventy-five senior girls in the\nBerkeley High School. Mothers, teachers, or anyone interested were invited to be present. This opened up a way for freer discussion between mother and daughter at home.\nFor girls I beheve the instruction, especially in sex hygiene, should preferably be\ngiven by a woman physician who has the respect and confidence of the young women.\nDr. Greene has emphasized the fact that this is a problem for the physician to initiate,\nbut because it is so firmly grounded in social life it needs the interest and work of every\nmember of society to eradicate an evil so deeply rooted. It is the duty of every good man\namd woman in this world to do all in his or her power to stamp out the double standard\nof morality.\nCharles E. Rugh, associate professor of education. University of California, Berkeley, Cal. — The paper of Dr. Greene is a real and timely contribution toward a solution\nof this pressing problem. To right-thinking people, whether we teach sex hygiene is no\nlonger a problem. To thoughtful people, whether the school shall teach sex hygiene is\nno longer debatable. These questions are settled. The school must do it as a part of\nthe greater movement for individual and national efficiency.\nWhen ? Who ? What ? How ? are problems.\nOne thing is absolutely certain: each normal child will have sex knowledge. Innocence isimpossible. The alternatives are not innocence or impurity; they are pure or\nimpure sex-life : or better, the alternatives are scientific intelligence or ignorant vulgarity.\nTwo irresistible processes produce sex knowledge and sex action: first, the growth\nand development of the sex organs along with the corresponding instincts and impulses\nsimply force sex problems into consciousness; second, the present social order furnishes\nabundant stimuli and occasions for the development of these instincts. The natural\nand normal instincts may lead to abnormal conditions, but their suggestions and development are just natural — neither pure nor impure. The source of both physical and immoral\ncontagion is society.\nOur hope lies in the fact that the child as a growing organism is just as susceptible to\ngood influences as it is to bad ones. Children are ready and anxious to be inoculated\nwith the germs of knowledge and action, and if children continue to be inoculated with\nvulgar vocabularies and impure practices and the germs of venereal diseases, it will be\nbecause parents and teachers fail to inoculate them with pure language and right habits.\nAlmost all opposition to the teaching of sex hygiene comes from persons thinking of their\nown knowledge and action in these matters; and be it said to our shame that common\nknowledge and common practice about sex-life are not fit material to be taught to anybody. Under present social conditions most teachers, and, be it said again to our shame,\nmost parents, are neither fit in knowledge or courage to give instruction in sex hygiene.\nBut there is coming to be an increasing number of teachers and physicians not only fit\nbut specially qualified to give positive instruction in general hygiene and then in sex\nhygiene as a special phase of the work.\nWhen sex hygiene shall be taught almost answers itself. If boys and girls are to get\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "li\n\nDepartment)\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n925\n\npure scientific sex knowledge from teachers they must get it before the other boys and\ngirls give them impure and vulgar information. A local physician put this forcibly by\nrelating his own experience. He undertook to instruct his twelve-year-old boy and learned\nthat the boy could tell him things. He then started in on the nine-year-old and said,\n\"I could tell him nothing.\" The physician said with an oath that the intended to save\nthe youngest who is four and one-half years old, and so he had begun on him.\nThe educational problem in the present social order is not how to keep children innocent but is how to keep them pure in heart. This can only be accomplished by thorogoing\nintelligence and continued right action. Tennyson gave the keynote to personal efficiency\nin the lines,\nMy strength is as the strength of ten\nBecause my heart is pure.\nThe educational means for realizing this aim are such social conditions as insure that\neach child gets its knowledge of sex matters from intelligent, pure-minded persons, instead\nof from the ignorant and careless or, still worse, from the vicious. Said John Wanamaker,\n\"Reform a man and you reform one. Reform a boy and you reform a whole multiplication table.\" Horace Mann had the same principle in mind when he said that \"Where\nlife is involved one former is worth a thousand reformers.\"\n\nTHE PLAYGROUND\nL. H. .WEIR, FIELD\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nSECRETARY, PLAYGROUND\nSEATTLE, WASH.\n\nIN AMERICA\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF AMERICA,\n\nThe playground movement had its origin in the various social, educational, economic, and civic problems growing out of the change from country\nto urban life; in an awakened conscience relative to the welfare of children;\nand in a keener, more intelligent, and sympathetic appreciation of young\nlife, if that life were to be healthy, vigorous, and happy.\nHistorically the movement began in Boston about 1882, and was concerned only with the needs and pleasures of little children. During the\nyears intervening between that date and the last years of the last century\nthe movement lay dormant. This was a period of tremendous city and\ntown growth, of a wonderful increase in the intricacies and complexities of\nsocial, industrial, educational, and civic problems. One great fact among\nmany others borne up from the depths of the turmoil of conflicting forces\nof that time was that the children and the young people were finding themselves hard put to it to survive. The abnormal conditions of almost instantaneous city growth had come upon them unawares. They cried out for\nbread but were given stones. Industrial conditions made heavier and\nheavier demands upon them; schools increased their curricula; homes were\nno longer homes in the old sense; living quarters became more and more\ncompact, and ofttimes unwholesome ; ordinances and laws restricted their\nliberties within narrower and narrower bounds; in short, it seemed that\nurban communities had deliberately determined upon a policy of ignoring\nthe rights and needs of their future citizens. No age has, however, been\nwithout its visionaries, who saw the light and led the way; so, luckily,\nthere were men and women, especially women, who saw and understood\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(Physical\n\nand acted. The year that saw the inauguration of a complete revolution\n(juvenile courts) in the legal-social treatment of the unfortunate children\nsaw also the beginning in the same city, Chicago, of the recognition on the\npart of the community that it was as important to provide for the play\nneeds of the children and young people and for the recreational needs of all\nthe people as it was to have efficient departments of public service, and far\nmore important than to have efficient departments of public safety; for\nthe safety of the people lies not in repression of the wrong-doer or in curing\nthe maimed, the halt, the blind, but in preventing him from ever becoming\na wrong-doer, or from ever becoming diseased and inefficient, by giving\nhim more of a chance of being a healthy, vigorous, and happy-minded citizen.\nThe scheme of playgrounds, athletic fields, parks, and recreation centers of\nChicago, especially that of South Park, has set the type for the whole\ncountry and from that year (1898) the movement has progressed with such\nleaps and bounds that no other national movement has ever paralleled it.\nSpace and time prohibit a full statement of the material progress of the\nplayground movement, but the few following statistics will indicate clearly\nthe marvelous growth. Before 1906 there were but 41 communities that\nhad supervised playgrounds; there were but 8 playground associations, and\nno state had playground legislation. The number of cities maintaining\nplaygrounds grew from 90 in 1907 to 177 in 1908, to 336 in 1909, and in June,\n1910, 195 cities were conducting playground campaigns. Most of the playgrounds in the early days were started under private auspices. Last year\nin about half of the cities maintaining playgrounds the play centers were,\nat least in part, under municipal management. Ninety cities have organized playground associations, 26 cities have established playground or\nrecreation commissions. During the year ending November, 19 10, 184\ncities, maintaining playgrounds, from whom reports were received, maintained 1,244 playgrounds, employed 3,345 workers, and expended $3,025,779.\nThirty-two cities alone employed 643 workers thruout the year. Thirty-one\ncities reported that their schoolhouses were used as recreation centers.\nNew Jersey, Massachusetts, Virginia, Ohio, and Washington have enacted\nplayground laws. There is pending now before the state legislature of\nPennsylvania a bill providing for the creation of recreation departments\nin all cities of the first class and the New York legislature has recently passed\nsuch a law providing for the creation of a recreation commission for the city\nof New York. Columbus, Ohio, has already such a commission created by\nordinance, St. Louis also, while Boston is working upon the same plan.\nWithin the last decade there has been expended by the various municipalities and towns of this country alone in extending this work, over\n$60,000,000.\n\nThinking people all over the United States have come to realize the\nimportance of making some provision not only for the play of the children,\nbut also for the recreation of the entire community.\nThey realize that in\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n927\n\nthis way they are making workers more efi&cient, so that factory work and\nother industrial work in our modern society will be better done because the\nworkers will be more alive and better fitted for their tasks. They realize\nthat the scientific study made of juvenile delinquency in Chicago has shown\nthat recreation centers are one of the most powerful agents for reducing\njuvenile crime thru giving an outlet for juvenile energy. They realize\nthat there is no more effective means for fighting tuberculosis than by providing means for outdoor recreation, so that people shall spend their leisure\nhours in happy, vigorous exercise out of doors. They realize that thru\nfestivals and thru the other meetings in recreation centers by which neighborhoods and communities are brought together, a community spirit is\ndeveloped which insures better citizenship. Those who are interested\nin the assimilation of the immigrants coming to our cities are anxious for\nrecreation centers where the newly arrived citizens may more quickly\ncome into contact with American life and learn American traditions. They\ncall our modern recreation centers the melting-pot of our civilization.\nMany of those who wish to destroy the white-slave traffic feel that as\nfundamentally constructive work as any which they can do is that of providing recreation centers where the young women of the country may\nobtain under normal conditions the highest ideals and at the same time find\nhappiness and satisfy the spirit of youth which is the sign of life itself.\nBut it is not for all these reasons that the great majority of the people\nof the country are today ready to spend their time and give their money to\nthe recreation movement. It is because they realize that life is worth living for its own sake and that anything which gives the people the capacity\nfor greater enjoyment, which enables them to live more keenly while they\ndo live, is doing just as much for society as any discovery which lengthens the period of life itself. Altho in the beginning playgrounds were\ngenerally originated and managed under private auspices, and this still\nremains true in a large percentage of communities today; nevertheless the\nimportance of the movement is such that it is a settled principle today that\nthe organization, management, and maintenance of playgrounds and other\nforms of recreation shall be under some regularly organized municipal\n(using the term ''municipal\" in a broad sense) authority and that the work\nshould be supported by public funds.\nThe second principle is that there shall be provision made for all-yearround activity, otherwise it will be impossible to secure and keep a corps\nof efficient, well-trained leaders and directors. This all-year-round work\ncan be developed thru use of school buildings for evening recreation purposes; thru the construction of municipal recreation buildings; thru the\nuse of other public buildings; or thru utilizing all these agencies, as is the\ncase in Columbus, Ohio. The most economical, and perhaps the most effective, way is to utilize school buildings for this purpose, altho there will\nalways be need for special buildings, in large cities at least, and in* the case\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nof the school buildings there will have to be certain architectural changes in\norder to make the buildings very practical. The necessity for all-year\nwork is absolute when we consider that the evening and winter work is\nconcerned most largely with the great mass of working young people and\nwith adults, and that the recreation movement now involves the great and\nfundamental question of the right use of their leisure on the part of all the\npeople.\nThe third principle is that playground and recreation work must be\nin charge of trained leaders, directors, and supervisors — men and women\nskilled in calisthenics, gymnastics, athletics, plays and games, folk-dancing,\nmusic, child hygiene, first aid to the injured, child psychology perhaps,\nhaving a knowledge of social conditions and relations, and above everything\nelse filled with the spirit of childhood and possessing a wide social and\nspiritual vision. This type of man and woman is the great need of the movement today. Its material progress has been far greater than the movement\nfor the preparation of leaders. Some twenty-seven schools and colleges\nhave added embryonic playground courses to their curricula, but there is\nno school in America today prepared to grant a certificate of qualification\nfor leader or director in this grdat educational and social-recreational field\nof work. But with the interest now being shown by the universities,\nnormal schools, and colleges, inspired by the growing demand on the\npart of communities that the teachers in the public schools have some\nknowledge of play activities, as well'as the demand for professional leaders\nand directors, the next half-decade will find this weakness of the movement\nmuch strenghtened.\nThat there should be a separate department of the municipal organization, composed of men and women representative of various other departments and interests public and private, charged with the duty of studying\nthe recreational needs and facilities, and of organizing and managing the\nrecreational system, especially in cities of the first class, seems to be another\nsettled principle of development. This department will be known and is\nknown as a department of public recreation, having an executive officer\nknown as the \"superintendent of public recreation,\" corresponding to the\nsuperintendent of schools. This departrnent will of necessity have to cooperate with and utilize agencies belonging to other departments of the\ncivic organization, such as the schools, health department, parks, public\nlibrary, police, fire, docks, etc. It will include in the scope of its activities\nplaygrounds, athletics, boy scouts, municipal farms and gardens, municipal\ncamps, excursions, development of play and recreation in the homes of the\npeople; it will develop and encourage opportunities for recreation in connection with stores and industrial establishments, carry out celebrations\nof national holidays, organize and manage recreation centers, popular lecture courses, dramatics, musicals, band concerts, baths and bathing beaches,\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n929\n\nand perhaps many other forms of activity having to do with the proper use\nof the leisure moments of the people.\nIn the smaller cities and towns and in rural communities the best results\ncan possibly be attained by making the schools the focal point of organization and activity. This brings us to a discussion of the public-school system\nin its relation to the playground and recreation movement.\nEven if the commission form of organization and management of a\ncommunity's recreation program becomes the prevailing method, as seems\nto be the tendency now, the public schools will of necessity be the gathering\npoint of much of the activity. There are several reasons why this is so.\nAmong them are the following:\n1. In the first place, even from a very early age, thru the gradual increase of kindergartens, the schools for three-fourths of the year have the majority of the children up to\nthe thirteenth or fourteenth year, and modem city-life conditions are such that a feeling\nis developing that the schools should keep control for twelve months of the year and perhaps for a greater number of hours during the day. In some cities the children are coming\nunder the supervisory control of the schools even in the evening for a portion of the time for\nstudy purposes (regular day pupils).\n2. Again, the schools have the grounds, buildings, equipment, and most important of\nall, the teachers and leaders. It is significant that in the laying out of a playground system in any city the school grounds furnish a ready-made basis, inasmuch as they are in\neffective radius of every child in every community of the city. The school building does\naway immediately, as a general rule, with the necessity of erecting special buildings, such\nas lavatories, field houses or recreation buildings, which represents a great economic\nsaving to the community.\n3. There is a growing sentiment that the material expenditure represented in school\ngrounds, buildings, and equipment ought to be returning to the community a greater\ndividend upon the investment than they are now doing, hence we have the movement\nfor the wider use of the school buildings and grounds. This movement aims to make the\nschool the center not only of the educational life of the community but of the recreational,\nsocial, health, and civic life as well. This has taken many forms, such as evening schools,\nvacation schools, popular lecture courses, community meetings, evening recreation centers,\nsocial centers, public baths, branch libraries, dental clinics, moving-picture shows, public\ngymnasia, clubs of all sorts, and other forms of activity of both the old and the young that\nmight be mentioned. Perhaps it is not wise for the schools to branch out into this great\nfield of social and recreational activity; but whether the school organization itself does\nthis or whether it co-operates with a public recreation commission, the possibilities for\nconstructive educational, social work are so great thru the larger use of this equipment\nready at hand that the field ought not to lie fallow because of want of working.\n4. The educational value of play is a matter of very old knowledge, but its significance\nand power have been largely lost under our present system of curricula organization. I\nshall not attempt to discuss at length this phase of the relation of the {)lay movement to\nthe school, but will refer you to that admirable little book Education by Plays and Games,\nby Professor George E. Johnson, as a basis for the study of this subject. If it be true,\nhowever, that play is the law of. the development of the child; if it be true that his early\nyears, to the adolescent period at least, are concerned with motor development primarily\nand not with intellectual development; if it be trueW:hat we are basing our educational\nefforts, in part at least, upon an appeal to the interest of the child; if it be true that the\nhigher social relations of life cannot well be taught by precept but best thru action: we\ngrievously err in not making the greatest possible use of this natural and fundamental\ninstinct of the child known as \"play.\"\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF PLAY\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\n[Physical\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1. Space to play upon is the first consideration. It was the common\ncustom of school boards in former days to secure just enough ground for\nthe site of the building and a very small area of unoccupied ground around\nit. In the large cities of the East where the buildings were large, land values\nhigh, and the emphasis was placed upon the work of the child in the classroom, itwas not thought necessary or economical to purchase large areas of\nground. The same sentiment generally prevailed even in small cities and\ntowns and in the rural districts of the entire country, altho there were many\nisolated instances to the contrary. The development of the play idea has\ngiven rise to a new sentiment regarding grounds, so that there is being set\nin many states a definite standard as to the number of square feet of play\nspace per child that ought to be provided around the school building. This\nvaries from thirty square feet per child in the large eastern and middlewestern cities to a maximum of one hundred square feet in the Northwest\ncoast region. A bill was actually before the legislature of the state of Washington making it obligatory upon school boards to provide one hundred\nsquare feet of ground for each child. This failed to become a law because\nof the governor's veto, but serves to show the remarkable change in attitude\nregarding the question of space within the very recent years. There are a\nnumber of concrete illustrations of this attitude also. The school board of\nPortland, Ore., this year spent $150,000 in enlarging their school grounds;\nOakland, Cal., voted nearly half a million of bonds for the same purpose;\nSacramento voted a large sum of money, some of which will be used for\nenlarging school grounds; Tacoma, Wash., likewise. It is the plan of Spokane when the million-dollar bond issue is available, which will probably\nbe this fall, to purchase twenty-seven sites in connection with already\nexisting school grounds, thus making them more adaptable and efiicient\nin developing the play idea. There are many other instances of the same\ntendency even in the country districts, but these cannot be mentioned in\nthis brief discussion.\nThe Playground and Recreation Association of America advocates the\nsecuring of at least three acres for every grade building and at least five\nacres for every high school.\nFor the latter, ten or fifteen would be better.\nBecause of the cold and rain, and rain alone in some parts of the country,\ninclosed play spaces are necessary. These are generally located in the basement in most cities that have them, and as they are quite common no further\nmention of them is necessary. Play at its best, however, must be out of\ndoors. In those sections of the country, notably the west coast, where the\ntemperature is never so low as to be a hindrance to play in the open all the\nyear around, but where rain is a preventing factor, covered playground areas\nare highly desirable. One such covered outdoor gymnasium and playground\nis to be found in connection with the Portland Academy, Portland, Ore.\n2. The building should not be located in the center of the plot of ground\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nIN AMERICA\n\n931\n\nbut in one corner or well toward the edge of one or the other side, thus leaving as much available space for plays and games as possible.\n3. The school playground should be fenced for the purpose of management, of protection of property, and so as to guard against the grounds\nbecoming the resort of undesirable persons. Sufficient ground around the\nfence should be provided for the planting of shrubs, vines, and perhaps for\na strip of lawn. This parking gives greater seclusion and adds greatly to\nthe beauty of the surroundings.\nIt may be found necessary to have a fence dividing the girls' and boys'\nside of the ground. For the prevention of accidents it is also advisable to\nhave a low fence around the swings.\nAs to equipment, reduce it to a minimum. A sand court, a slide,\nsome little swings, and building-blocks for the little children; swings, teeterboard, slide, volley-ball and basket-ball court, tennis perhaps, for the girls ;\nand swings, teeter-boards, traveling rings, slide, horizontal bar, jumping\npit and ball outfits for the boys — make a fairly good equipment outfit, and\nsome of this may be done without. In locating apparatus, place wherever\npossible near the edge of the ground so as to leave as large, open space in\nthe center as possible for running games and plays. If there is a manualtraining department connected with the school, get the big boys interestQ,d\nby permitting them to make much of the apparatus, or parents' associations\nmight be interested in doing this. If the money is available, it is probably\nmore economical in the long run to buy the best commercial apparatus.\nSUPERVISION\n\nor\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPLAYGROUNDS\n\nDuring the school year this will fall largely upon the teachers themselves,\nboth for the recess and noon activities as well as for the activities before\nand after school if this system be adopted. For supervision outside of\nschool hours, teachers should receive extra compensation based upon some\nregularly adopted schedule of payment ior extra services. For the general\nsupervision and in order to secure uniform work, the plan of having a physical director with one or more assistants trained in plays and games as well\nas in caHsthenics and gymnastics might be followed. Playground classes\nmight be organized among the teachers under the direction of the physical\ndirector or an assistant, as is done in Cincinnati and some other cities, so\nas to fit the teachers for leadership in plays and games. Teachers would\nfind it profitable and interesting to attend the summer session of those\ncolleges and universities giving courses in play, as in California State University, Wisconsin, Columbia, etc.\nVacation-school playgrounds if under school management are generally\nsupervised by regular teachers who are willing to employ their time in this\nmanner. In order to secure all-year-round work the suggestion is made\nthat the broadly trained physical director be employed for twelve months of\nthe year instead of nine, giving him charge of all play and recreational\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nactivities centering in the school, with such assistants as the size of the\nschool system and amount of money available warrant.\nThe kind of activities conducted upon school playgrounds we shall not\ndiscuss here, but will pass to a brief discussion of the possible changes in\nschool architecture that the wider use of the school by the community\ndemands. Suppose, for example, the school principal or the superintendent\nshould desire to take up the recreational problem of the working boy and\ngirl; of furnishing continued educational advantages to them and to adults;\nto assist in the assimilation of the adult foreign elements; to organize\nclubs; to hold music festivals; lectures, dramatic performances; to have a\npublic bath-house or a public gymnasium — would the average school building of the cities and towns be fitted for this wide range of educational,\nsocial, and health activities ? At the present time — no. Therefore certain\nfeatures of the modern high-school and grade building must be extended\nand others must be added to meet this growing community need. A description of one such building in Cincinnati will serve to make this plain. The\nEleventh District School in this city, in addition to the regular classrooms,\nhas very large playrooms in the basement, with exceedingly high ceiling,\na large auditorium, with stage and dressing-rooms, a library room, a reception room, a museum room, double kindergarten rooms, domestic-science\nand manual-training rooms, shower baths, and a large, splendidly equipped\ngymnasium. With the addition of a swimming-pool this type of building\nwould be almost ideal for any use to which the community might desire\nto put it. The plans of the future grade buildings in this city call for\nswimming-pools also. A model building erected in Lexington, Ky., this\nsummer has all these features, including a swimming-pool and a public\nlaundry. School workers can do much in furthering the development of\nthis more useful type of building by acquainting their school boards with\nthese new features, and inasmuch as a great deal depends upon the advice\nof the architect as to the form of, the building, they likewise could wield a\ntremendous power along the line of this development.\nSUMMARY\n\n1. The playground movement had its origin in the peculiar social conditions growing\nout of the urbanization of the population.\n2. Its growth has been more rapid than that of any other national movement.\n3. It has broadened its scope to include the play and recreational needs of all the\npeople.\n4. The fundamental principles of municipal control, need of all-year-round activities,\nneed of adequate number of trained leaders, and of some special body to organize and\nmanage a recreation system (especially in large cities) , are well established.\n5. Schools will always be important centers of play and recreational activity because\nthey have the children, effectively located; have the ground, buildings, and equipment;\nhave the leaders, who know the educational importance of play; and because of a growing\nsentiment for greater efficiency thru wider use, and because of larger vision of true\neducation.\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nGIRLS\n\n933\n\n6. To meet these larger possible expansions of the school there must be larger grounds,\nbetter-trained teachers in plays and games, better organization of physical-training departments, correlation of play activities as a regular part of school system, proper laying out\nand equipment of grounds, and a modification of the architecture of the buildings.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING FOR\nGIRLS OF HIGH SCHOOL\nTHE BIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW*\n\nAGE—\n\nJOHN M. TYLER, PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, AMHERST COLLEGE,\nAMHERST, MASS.\n\nThe goal of education in our public schools is not merely learning or\nmental discipline, but power and efficiency. A century ago, when farming\nwas almost universal, the home could furnish physical and manual training ;\ncould teach nature-study, agriculture, and the care of animals; and could\neducate to efficiency, industry, ingenuity, and responsibility. The disap earance ofarm-Kfe has crippled the educational efficiency of the home,\nand the whole burden of education is thrown upon the school.\nMeanwhile the complexity of our civilization has increased vastly the\nwear and strain of life. We live mostly in cities and large towns, work\nin hot, ill-ventilated rooms, and use our brains almost to the exclusion of\nour heavier muscles. This, as Dr. Baxter has taught us, necessarily\nmeans increase of disease and weakness. The strain falls heaviest not\non the tough muscles, but on the delicate nerves. It is an unhealthy life,\nwhich we cannot well avoid or greatly improve. We must train our boys\nand girls to meet and endure under unfavorable conditions a strain vastly\ngreater and more severe than fell to the lot of our ancestors. Hence our\nsystem of education must make it its first business to train young men and\nwomen of overflowing vitality, of sturdy and abounding health, of toughness\nand endurance, of great power and efficiency. They must possess the largely\nphysical virtues of courage, hope, and faith; of strong purpose and persistence; of dogged endurance in overcoming obstacles; of calm confidence in emergencies. These qualities I call physical virtues because\nthey depend so largely upon the physical condition of the vital organs of\nthe body, especially of the muscles and viscera.\nThe physical trainer deals directly and immediately mainly with the\nmuscles and sensory organs. But indirectly or directly he can reach and\nmold every organ in the body from the digestive system to the highest\ncenters and powers of the brain. \"Health\" — whether physical, mental,\nmoral, or religious — \"comes in thru the muscles and flies out thru the\nnerves.\" Physical trainers should do vastly more educational and missionary work in insisting upon the vital importance and wide scope of\ntheir grand calling.\n••\nBut our muscles are of different kinds and ages. We have central\n•Read before the National Convention Public School Society, April 9, 1909. Reprinted from the\nAmerican Physical Education Review, May, 1909.\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nmuscles of trunk, shoulder, and thigh, inherited from ancient fish or worm.\nThey are fitted for the heavy work of life, far from precise in action, simple\nin movement. In their use a slight nervous effort or impulse calls forth\na great muscular response. Their use reacts mainly upon the vital organs,\nstimulating heart, lungs, and viscera, and is largely, tho not entirely,\nhygienic.\nAs we pass outward toward the fingers or upward toward throat, mouth,\nand face, toward more peripheral muscles, their character and use gradually change. They are smaller and lighter, far more precise in action,\ncapable of many and complex combinations and movements. Their use\ninvolves far more nervous strain or activity; and reacts, partly thru the\naccompanying use of the sensory organs, on the higher centers and powers\nof the brain. Their exercise is far less hygienic, and far more educational\nin the narrow sense of the word.\nThe human neuro-muscular system may be compared to a great cathedral organ. It has its fundamental bass and its peripheral upper register.\nIt has its bass pedals, and its three banks of keys, which we may compare\nin our fancy to Hughlings- Jackson's three levels of nervous activity. There\nare simple stops and combinations. Think well before you pull. Attempts\nof a novice produce only discords; - under the touch of the master a grand\nsymphony, rolls out.\nSo in physical training we must consider the individual, his or her daily\nwork, need of relaxation or stimulus, age and calling, weak and strong\npoints, and many other things. We must know just what. results we are\nworking for, and what combination and shade of exercise will attain this;\nwe must pull the right stops and touch the right keys. System is of less\nimportance than the results. By these we shall be judged. Let us now,\ntherefore, glance at the high-school girl and her needs.\nIn the life of every individual at least three periods are distinct and\nwell marked. Infancy and childhood form a period which should be\ndevoted mainly to healthy growth. This is even more essential and\nfundamental than development. If growth be hampered, there will be\nless, perhaps very little, substance to be developed. The size and power\nof the man depends primarily upon how fast and far he can grow. A\nhalf-grown or stunted organ cannot possibly develop fully and normally,\nand remains a source of weakness and probable center of disease. Hence,\nin the lower grades we need mainly play and games to stimulate physical\ngrowth, and just enough work to stimulate the development of the sensory\norgans and the growth of the higher centers of the brain. Intellectual\nfatigue during this period is sin. Any output of energy which does not\nresult in physical growth, especially if it demands the combustion of food\nand material which might be added to the growing tissues, is a permanent\nloss and injury to the organism. Hence, during this period the playground\nis a better means of education than the schoolroom; the game, than desk\nand book.\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH -SCHOOL\n\nGIRLS\n\n935\n\nEven in the young adult, growth has ceased and development is slackening fast. Now comes the definite and final use of the organs built up\nduring childhood. The aim of life is now the largest possible output of\nenergy. The heart is large, the blood-pressure high, the tissues are less\nwatery and far more resistant than in childhood. The adult expends\nfreely what the child has put in the savings-bank of growth. Thus the\nhabits, life, structure, and constitution of adult and child are altogether\ndifferent and in some respects quite opposite.\nBut at some time the child must put away childish things and change\ninto the man or woman of very different qualities and powers. This time\nof changes, so profound that they have been compared to the metamorphosis of a tadpole into a frog or of a caterpillar into a butterfly, is the\nperiod of puberty.\nThe girl enters it during her stay in the grammar school. At about\nten her increase in height and weight falls to a minimum. Nature has\nbegun to save and economize. Then come three or four years of very\nrapid increase in height, followed later, but partially overlapped, by a\nsimilar period of increase in girth. She enters the high school long,\nlank, and awkward, as if she had been violently stretched; she may leave\nit a few years later rounded and graceful as a woman, with full height and\nweight, but with tissues still immature. You all know how great and\nprofound are the changes during this period — especially in the girl.\nThe growth in height has been an expensive process and has necessitated\nchanges in the form of all the muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves. Nearly\nall the organs of the body are remodeled at the same time. Very large\namounts of waste products are poured into the blood. This threatens to\nclog and poison every organ. Hence, the pubertal period, while one of\nvery low death-rate, is one of maximum morbidity; one of very large\namount of disorder, if we do not wish to call it sickness. Anaemia or\npoverty of blood, and pallor are often very apparent. The appetite for\nhealthy food sinks. The clogged brain may become so dull that even a\nbright girl may temporarily be almost stupid. She suffers from cold, and\nis disinclined to the active exercise which she sadly needs. Constipation,\nheadaches, and other disorders are altogether too frequent. The weakness\nof the muscles and bad habits of posture may have started spinal curvature.\nIn almost every city where a careful examination has been made of\nthe health and physical condition of the girls entering the high school,\nthere is surprise and often alarm at the results of the examination. Yet\nthere is no reason for surprise or ground for great alarm. All these evils\nhave been, and can be, completely cured or greatly mitigated by a rational\ncourse of physical training. If they are neglected and become deepseated, disease or a period of invahdism is the logical consequence.\nThe first year in the high school is a trying and critical time for the\naverage girl. If she has inherited any weakness of constitution or bad\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ntendencies, if growth has been hampered by unwise training or overpressure athome or in the earlier grades of school, if any disorders in the\nsystem consequent upon the pubertal changes have become more or less\nfirmly established, the results of past evils will now become apparent.\nThe first year of the high school demands close application and hard mental\nwork just when she is least able to meet this demand. Frequently home\nduties occupy more or less of her time, or lessons in music or painting add\nto the already heavy burden. The results of overpressure or of physical\ndisorder pass unnoticed or neglected by parents, who, like most, think\nthat the critical period comes much later than it really does. Often the\nyoung woman of twenty or thirty pays the penalty of mistakes made\nignorantly at ten or fifteen.\nIf at this time health can be thoroly established and maintained, and\nis not now or later undermined by social enjoyment and excitement, and\nthe late hours of parties and theaters, her health and strength will steadily\nimprove. This would seem to be a fair inference from the study of abundant statistics carefully gathered here and abroad.\nThe seat of the difiiculty in the girl entering the high school seems\nto be that the waste is not rapidly and completely removed from the blood,\nthe appetite is poor, or disordered; hence the tissues of the body are not\nproperly nourished at the very time when the most nourishment is needed\nto enable the organism successfully to complete the metamorphosis. The\nwaste can be removed only when and as it is completely oxidized; hence,\nlung capacity is of essential and fundamental importance. The average\ngirl at this period has for each pound of weight hardly more than threefourths of the lung capacity of the boy of the same age; and he certainly\nhas none too much. Dr. Anderson's experience in a New York school\nseems to prove that rational and regular physical training will give the\ngirl of twelve or fifteen lung capacity at least 30 per cent above that of\nthe average girl of these ages. The exercise increases and improves the\nappetite, and stimulates all the vital organs by flooding them with pure\nand healthful blood. The nervous system is ''toned up,\" the tissues are\nnourished properly, disorders already started on their evil course are\ncorrected.\nThe pubertal period of the girl is usually somewhat or considerably\nshorter than in the boy. Hence the changes are more rapid, and the period\nis likely to be stormy. The boy is saved from the worst disorders by his\nopen-air games. As a result of his freer and more healthful life, the waves\nof increase in girth and lung capacity occur with striking regularity about\nfourteen and sixteen. This increase in trunk capacity, and in size and\npower of the vital organs, enables him to meet all emergencies. Hence,\nat fourteen and sixteen the amount of morbidity falls sharply.\nThe average girl has no open-air games. As a rule, she never learns\nto play vigorously and properly, or to use the heavy muscles. She is\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenti\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nGIRLS\n\n937\n\nvery fortunate if her mother and aunts are not continually discouraging\ntomboy play, and insisting on quiet, refined, dignified, and ladylike behavior. As a result of these differences of habit and of sex, the development of the high-school girl is quite different from that of her brother of\nthe same age. The periods of rapid increase in girth and lung capacity\nwhich should correspond to those of the boy at fourteen and sixteen do\nnot appear in her case, or are very irregular. Hence, there is no marked\ndecrease in the amount of morbidity or disorder, which remains high from\ntwelve or thirteen until eighteen or even later. The physical trainer must\ndiscover or invent suitable plays for girls, and must teach them to play.\nBut this will avail little unless suitable places are provided where, free\nfrom all prying observation, the girl may play with all the freedom and\nabandon of her brothers.\nWhen the biologist has analyzed the case and conditions, and has\npresented the problem, his work is done. It remains for you to suit the\nremedy to the girl's needs. But possibly you will pardon a few suggestions.\nPuberty is a peculiar period, and demands a peculiar training. Systems admirably adapted to the needs of the adult woman or of the college\ngirl may be altogether unsuited to the needs of the younger classes in the\nhigh school. Hence, we may well be cautious about holding too close to\nany system, however admirable for adults, or however highly recommended,\nuntil we have asked ourselves carefully whether it is just what the girl\nneeds and how it should be modified for her case. The ideal system for\nyoung girls will come only from long and careful experiment. Otherwise\nwe may increase the fatigue and disorder which we would remove. Our\naim is very largely hygienic; hence, we use mostly the heavy muscles.\nTo stimulate the lungs the exercise must be vigorous. The girl is anything\nbut strong and mature; hence, our exercise must be light. The girl has\nlittle endurance; hence active exercise and rest periods should alternate\nrapidly as in any good game. If we exhaust or even fatigue, we have\nprobably done more harm than good. The best time to stop is probably\nwhen the girl feels that she would like to continue the exercise forever.\n\"Too much of nothing,\" not even of the best, is a very wise old Greek\nmotto. The light or moderate dose of exercise should be practiced frequently; hence we should make it so interesting and enjoyable that she\nwill repeat it at home. The more like play we can make it, the more of\nplay we can put into it, the better.\nWe wish to give refreshment and recreation from the nervous strain\nand long sitting of school hours. We introduce plays and games. But\nwhen in interclass games we allow or encourage competition to run high,\nwe are inducing the worst form of nervou^ fatigue. We may very easily\nexhaust rather than stimulate. Interscholastic and interclas§ basket-ball\ngames, even in college^ are probably more harmful than beneficial; they\nare surely worse for high-school girls.\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Physical\n\nDuring the last years of high-school life we may rightly hope for more\nvigor, strength, and endurance; and the exercise may well be made somewhat more difficult and strenuous. But the high-school girl is not yet a\nwoman, like her teacher; her tissues are far from mature, and her heart\nfar from strong. Our question is not. How much, and what kinds of\nexercise can she endure without evident and positive exhaustion ? but. How\nmuch and what will best stimulate, without forcing, a healthy development? Finally, if we are to have healthy school girls and women, we\nmust have a wise system of physical training in all the lower grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— George A. Cowen, West Roxbury High School\nVice-President — W. J. V. OsTERHAtrr, Harvard University\nSecretary — H. T. Clifton, Pasadena High School\n\nJamaica Plain, Mass.\nCambridge, Mass.\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July ii, 191 i\nThe meeting was called to order by President George A. Cowen with about one hundred members present.\nThe following papers were presented:\n\"Elementary or General Science from the Standpoint of an Eastern Schoolmaster,\"\nby George A. Cowen, head of Department of Science, West Roxbury High School, Jamaica\nPlain, Mass.\n\"General Science in the High School,\" by Lewis B. Avery, principal of High School,\nSan Jose, Cal.\n\"Elementary or General Science for High Schools as It Appears to a Western College\nProfessor,\" by W. C. Morgan, assistant professor of chemistry in the University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nThe papers were then discussed by the following: Fred H. Cowan, junior master.\nGirls' Latin School, Boston, Mass.; Percy E. Rowell, Gardena Agricultural High School,\nLos Angeles, Cal.; Willis E. Tower, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.; H. L. Terry,\nstate high-school inspector, Madison, Wis.; and W. T. Skilling, State Normal School,\nSan Diego, Cal.\nThe President appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nS. E. Coleman, Oakland, Cal.\nOtis W. Caldwell, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nH. L. Terry, state high-school inspector, Madison, Wis.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION, ROUND\n\nTABLE— Tuesday Afternoon, July ii, 1911\n\nThe department met in round-table conference at 2:30 p.m. to discuss the topic,\n\"Conservation of Natural Resources.\"\nAbout two hundred members were present.\nThe various phases of the topic were discussed in papers as follows:\n\"Forests,\" by E. T. Allen, forester and secretary, Western Forestry and Conservation Association, Portland, Ore.\n\"Water-powers, Lands, and Minerals,\" by George C. Pardee, former governor of\nCalifornia, and member of the National Conservation Commission, Oakland, Cal.\n\"National Vitality,\" by William F. Snow, M.D., secretary, California State Board\nof Health, Sacramento, Cal.\n\"The Teacher's Part in Conservation,\" by Frederic Burk, president. State Normal\nSchool, San Francisco, Cal.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday Fo«:noon, July 14, 1911\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Cowen, with forty members present.\nHelen C. Putnam, M.D., chairman of the Committee of the American Academy of\nMedicine to Investigate the Teaching of Hygiene, Providence, R.I., was introduced and\n939\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nexplained the work of the Committee on Efl5ciency of Janitor Service in School Buildings,\nemphasizing the great need for study and action on this subject.\nDr. Putnam also read a part of the committee's report dealing with the scientific\nbasis for ventilation standards, the material being collected by C.-E. A. Winslow, professor\nof biology. College of the City of New York, New York City.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations, read by the chairman, was as follows :\nFor President — W. C. Morgan, assistant professor of chemistry, University of\nCalifornia, Berkeley, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — William Orr, deputy commissioner of education, Boston, Mass.\nFor Secretary — C. Riborg Mann, associate professor of physics. University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111.\nOn motion duly seconded, the ballot was cast for the above-named as officers of the\ndepartment for the ensuing year.\nIt was voted to continue the Committee on Efficiency of Janitor Service in School\nBuildings for another year to make a further study and to report at the next meeting.\nA vote of thanks was extended to Miss M. Alice King, chairman, and to the members\nof the local committee assisting, for their excellent arrangements and kind attention in\nconnection with the department sessions.\nH. T. Clifton, Secretary\nSince adjourment of the convention President W. C. Morgan and Secretary C. Riborg\nMann have declined to accept the offices to which they were respectively elected for the\nreason of their inability to attend the next convention. These two offices have been\nfilled by appointment, on authority of the General Executive Committee of the Association, as follows:\nPresident — David Starr Jordan, president of Leland Stanford Junior University,\nStanford University, Cal.\nSecretary — ^H. L. Terry, state high-school inspector, Madison, Wis.\nIrwin Shepard, General Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nOR GENERAL SCIENCE\nFROM THE\nPOINT OF THE EASTERN SCHOOLMASTER\n\nGEORGE\n\nHEAD\n\nA.\n\nCO WEN,\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nJAMAICA\n\nDEPARTMENT,\nPLAIN,\n\nWEST\n\nSTAND-\n\nROXBURY\n\nHIGH\n\nMASS.\n\nWhen from all over a great country there arises a demand for political\nreform, there is hot haste on the part of legislators to amend or change\nthe law.\nAt the present time there is an unmistakable demand for some change\nin the method of science teaching, so that some kind of elementary or\ngeneral science may be taught in the early years of the high-school course.\nAs evidence of this demand all over the United States may be mentioned the many articles in the educational magazines, showing what\ncourses have already been estabHshed in cities like Boston, Springfield,\nChicago, and San Francisco, and in addition to this the requests that are\nbeing constantly sent to publishing houses for textbooks covering such\ncourses.\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nEASTERN\n\nSCHOOLMASTER\n\n941\n\nThis demand shows a healthful condition in the country at large. This\nsecond decade of the twentieth century has a right to ask that its children\nget the largest possible amount of scientific training.\nA large percentage of the children entering the high school never graduate; never even arrive at a point in the course where the more serious\ncourses in science are pursued. If these children are to be served by the\nschool, instruction in science must be given at such a time as they will\nbe able to avail themselves of it.\nUnfortunately these are the ones who will enter business houses where\nscientific knowledge will be at a premium, not as engineers and experts,\nbut as important cogs in some industrial process, as heads of departments\nand managers. The course for these boys must be of such a nature that\ntheir minds will be directed in such channels, that in later years or at\nonce, they will be able in their own way under no particular guidance, to\nfollow intelligently the development of industrial science. The parent\nand the community have the right, are under obligation even, to demand\nsuch training for their children.\nAnother class served by an elementary first-year course will be those\nboys who in the later years of their high-school course will be called upon\nto choose intelligently the science that will be of greatest use to them in\nlater years, and who will then go to some technical school. It would\ndiscover the boy with the mind best fitted for science, so that ''no mute\ninglorious genius\" may remain hidden. It is designed to awaken the\nboy's mind at the time when such an awakening should come.\nA third class to be benefited will be the high-school girl, who in many\ncases will find such a course all she needs of science in her scheme of education. The girl destined for a scientific career will be served by this\ncourse to the same extent as the boy.\nThe general purpose of the course is to give to everyone a glimpse into\nthe fields of science with the hope of awakening some, stimulating others,\nand to make the best use of a great educational factor.\nTo be of greatest benefit to the child and to the community the work\nmust be based upon the common phenomena of everyday life. In the\nfirst place the child must realize that the knowledge gained will be of use\nto him at once, to lighten his own labor or to add to his enjoyment. This\nwill most often be accomplished by passing the information gained in school\non to the parent. By way of illustration it is safe to say that no country\nboy who has toiled at the old-fashioned grindstone will be content to do\nso longer when he has found out the advantage of roller or ball bearings,\nwhich can be so easily applied to this machine. This knowledge gained\nwill be of benefit to both father and son. No girl who has learned the\nease with which a fireless cooker can be made and the economy that is\nsecured by its use, will be content to live in a hot kitchen. These two\nillustrations will serve for the many that might be given.\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nIn the second place, the child will be working upon problems that he\nhas long appreciated and wished to understand. The method of finding\nthe circumference of the earth, the distance of the sun and moon, can\neasily be made clear to a mind rather immature. It is one of the ways\nto show to a child that there is really some value to the study of mathematics beyond the most elementary processes. But above all it is a great\nsatisfaction to make clear what have so long been the great mysteries of\nthe universe.\nOf necessity a large amount of demonstration experiments must be made\nby the teacher before the class, to secure an appreciation of the care and\nskill with which experimental work must be done. In fact, at the age\nat which pupils enter the secondary school it is the motor side of the mind\nthat is most active. It is necessary that he learn from models, things in\nmotion, forces acting, rather than from the abstract statements of books.\nSuch work makes heavy demands upon the strength and resourcefulness\nof the teacher, but it pays. I am not certain that this method is not\napplicable to boys and girls of more mature years than those we are considering here.\nThe most vital part of the work under consideration is the experimental\nwork done by the pupil at home. There are several reasons why this\nmethod is successful and therefore desirable.\nIt interests and instructs the parent as well as the boy or girl, and\nhas led to a spirit of comradeship between the two. The mother often\nholds while the boy turns, or takes some other part in the operation. In\nsome cases it has aroused and revived past experiences; in others it has\nhelped the parent to get in touch with the development of science that\nhas taken place between her youth and her maturity.\nIt stimulates resourcefulness, because in the home there will not be\nfound the same kind of apparatus that would be found in the school laboratory, but oftentimes none the less effective, and many times much better\nfor the purpose. It is much more interesting and instructive to classify\nthe kinds of machines in a sewing-machine found at home than to work\nwith small models of machines found in the laboratory. The making of\na good diagram of the cook stove, combined with a description of the\nparts and an explanation of their use, will always be a valuable exercise.\nThe interest of the child in this kind of work is such that it will compete\nwith the attractions of the street in the cities and larger towns. It is\nreally more fun to work at some of these problems than to loaf.\nSome of the things made are of use in the home and will be of service\nfor years. To make the course effective some apparatus must be loaned\nto the child in the same manner that school books are loaned. It has\nbeen estimated that such a list of apparatus would cost not far from $i . 50.\nThe things loaned have been Bunsen burners, alcohol lamps, thermometers,\ntest tubes, glass tubes, rubber tubes, lenses, and a metric rule. The other\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nEASTERN\n\nSCHOOLMASTER\n\n943\n\nthings have been found in the kitchen or somewhere on the place. Some\nthings have to be borrowed, an advantage as it brings a larger part of\nthe community into the game. The best part of it is that they are glad\nto join in the work. A certain group of boys owes a debt of gratitude to\nan engineer at a sausage factory where was an artesian well. In his younger\nyears he had made oil wells in Virginia. He was as glad to tell what he\nknew as the boys were to hear.\nBut after all it is the apparatus that has been made that is the greatest\nsource of satisfaction. The samples that I have brought with me show\nwhat has been actually done, and what can be done by anyone anywhere.\nOf course if a child has unlimited money at his command many of the\nneeded articles would be bought, and he would lose some of the benefits\nof the course, which is designed for the child that will have to bear the\nburden and heat of the day as soon as he is able to bear it.\nIt is the careful experimental work of the teacher in the classroom\nthat enables the boy to work in what is a fairly accurate manner. He\nmust never be left without supervision. The written record of everything\ndone must be closely watched. The apparatus must often be brought\nto the classroom for criticism, and for suggestions for improvement. The\nbest of everything is sometimes presented to the school as a part of its\npermanent equipment. The pieces I have with me will serve in that\nway till something better appears.\nThe notebook also should be a scrapbook containing many things from\nthe daily press and magazines bearing upon the topics under consideration\nat the time. A book so kept will be of use all one's life.\nThe course has been so arranged that the work is taken up in the order\nin which it would arrange itself in the mind. No attempt is made to\nseparate the different sciences. The phenomena of nature do not present\nthemselves as chemical or physical facts, but as facts to be explained in\nthe best possible manner.\nThe part of the work devoted to the study of air will illustrate my\nmeaning in a very simple manner.\nThe air is made up of three very important gases, oxygen, nitrogen,\nand carbon dioxide, which are each prepared and described. Each of\nthem has some important relation to vital processes, which are explained.\nThe weight and pressure of the air and the dependence of many important\nfacts of everyday experience upon these facts naturally follows. The\nbuoyancy of the air suggests balloons, clouds, and airships. Air in motion\nintroduces winds, storms, and weather. The wind as a servant of man\nbrings out windmills, sailing vessels, transportation by sea, the dissemination of seeds, climatic conditions.\nIt is plain to see that the beginning of the topic dealt with things generally studied in a course in chemistry, which was followed by subjects\nconsidered in physics, after which came physical geography and botany,\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nall of which were necessary to a complete understanding of the nature\nand behavior of the air. Other topics are taken up in much the same\nmanner.\nIn the course under consideration the work has been divided into\nsections as shown in the following outline :\nSome units of measurement and their history.\nThe earth as a planet.\nThe envelope of water.\nThe envelope of air.\nThe earth a store-house of energy.\nMachines to use energy.\nFuel.\nHeat and heat engines.\nSound and sound waves, simple musical instruments.\nEther and Hght waves, simple optical instruments.\nAcids, alkalies and their combination.\nThe chemistry of some very common household commodities.\nElectricity and some of its applications.\nThe earth's crust.\nSoil. Plant life.\n\nExperience has proved that a course like this awakens a healthy interest\nin scientific things, a desire to know more, shown by the eagerness to\nfollow other and later courses in chemistry, physics, and biology.\nIt also certainly gives a survey of the whole field that cannot help\nbeing a lasting asset to the child compelled to leave school early in the\ncourse.\nGENERAL\nLEWIS\n\nSCIENCE\n\nB. AVERY, PRINCIPAL\n\nIN THE HIGH SCHOOL\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSAN JOSE,\n\nCAL.\n\nIn the following discussion, it is my aim to answer two questions — one,\nas to whether the high-school curriculum should include a course in general\nscience, and the other, as to how such a course, if included, should be\norganized.\nGeneral science today, to use the Harris-onian and Hegelian terminology,\nseems to be in a state of ''becoming.\" Proponents and skeptics alike will\nagree that it has not \"arrived.\" The skeptics will urge this against it and\nits friends will commend it therefor. The ordinary science of the high\nschool has \"arrived.\" Few lines of school study are today as logically\narranged, as refined in methods, as clearly defined in field, as well and uniformly taught, and none others so well equipped as the sciences in the high\nschool. They begin somewhere and go somewhere by clearly ordered steps.\nThey \"arrive.\"\nBut unfortunately, the young people do not.\nThe very processes that have perfected the sciences in the high school\nhave served to narrow their field of usefulness, and this has occurred in\nconjunction with a most marvelous spread of the rule of science in the affairs\nof men. Nature-study — the natural way for science to begin, ever since\nthe Almighty brought the animals before Adam that he might name them —\nis, at the best, sporadic, rare, and seldom arriving at perfection.\nPupils\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n945\n\nenter high school with no definite attempt having been made to acquaint\nthem with the field of science. Of all the fields, that is the only one that\nhas been left uncultivated — and that, notwithstanding they are about to\nenter a life where science is largely ruling. Pupils have no rational basis\nfor choosing among the excellent science courses. They must take the\nadvice of some school comrade as to whether the subject is a \"snap,\" or is\ninteresting, or decide by the requirements of the universities. In beginning a science they enter a study logically arranged on the clear principle\nthat the subject-matter should proceed \"from the simple to the complex.\"\nThey meet the simple cell, remote from their previous experience. The\ndelightful definitions of atoms, molecules, and the like, and the elements\nand principles of simple machines generally fail to arouse the enthusiastic\nresponse in the beginner's mind that they do in that of the teacher, who sees\nand feels their vital significance as making nature \"one tremendous whole.\"\nBut further, high-school pupils ordinarily take but one or two sciences to\ngraduate, and those who do not graduate generally take none. Even the\ncoming collegian finds his course will allow but the usual amount, and takes\nphysics and chemistry perhaps, and goes thru life with no comprehension\nof the simplest biological principles, or, choosing biological subjects, fails to\nhave any education in the laws of energy. The mission of machines in an\nage of machines, and the ordinary processes of combustion may remain to\nhim, tho an educated man, as much of a mystery as to the fire-worshiper,\nwhile the ignorance of the ordinary college graduate in the simplest\nastronomical relations sustained between our planet and its neighbors\nwould justify Ptolemy in posing as an advanced scientist.\nIn short, in our present high-school courses, any general view of the\nfield of science is lacking, the choice among sciences in the high school is a\nrandom choice, and small effort is made to approach the subjects thru the\nchannel of real interest.\nLet me dwell on this last point a moment. There was a time when\nreading was taught by beginning with the letters — the elements. Today\nwe seek something with a content with which to begin, as the word or\nsentence. We further try to have the content a real one to the pupil.\nWhen the publishers rushed into the Philippines to assist the American\nschool teacher so nobly (as they always do) they brought forward their\nAmerican reading-books. But an obscure publisher bethought himself\nthat it might be well for the first reading-lessons to have a Filipino content —\nin other words, they should be \" about something about which the Filipinos\nknow something about,\" and the American- Filipino teacher responded, and\nthe books today possess the islands. This principle that has been recognized in reading has also leavened teaching generally, even in high school.\nLatin no more clings to the logical mode. Tne \"rule first\" method is long\nago obsolete. The doctrine of interest has vitalized all teaching and has\nconverted methods of approach.\nBut the high-school sciences remain an\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nexception till they shall be preceded by a general view of the whole field of\nscience, after which they can be chosen rationally and pursued with a purpose, an interest, an efficiency, and a profit heretofore unobtainable, and\nincidentally, the student who does not get to the special scientific course in\nhis education will be the superior of the graduate of today both in interest\nand in knowledge in much of the scientific field.\nThis is the age of the specialist, and specialization is at the foundation\nof efficiency in the narrow fields in which specialists must work, and on\nthem is founded much of the movement of this marvelous scientific age.\nBut the work of the specialist is today endangered by a lack of general\nscientific knowledge on the part of the public it aims to serve, so that the\nordinarily educated man is unable to distinguish among speciaUsts. The\nspurious as well as the genuine are apt to receive equal homage. Label\nit scientific and it goes! A broader general foundation will benefit the\npeople, will create a more intelligent appreciation of the truly scientific,\nand will give a better soil in which to discover and develop specialists.\nThe present science curriculum of the high school is made distinctly for the\nspecialist and by the specialist. It should be preceded by a science curriculum based upon the people and their interests.\nThis is the foundation of the call for the general-science course and the\ncall will continue until it is properly met. I know of but three courses that\nhave been organized by the high school to meet this call, and wish to suggest afourth.\nFirst. It has been met by an eclectic course of a little from each of the\nsciences. This has not been without value. Teachers, however, soon\nfind that the attempt to present physics in six or seven weeks to immature\nminds is impossible. As long as one tries to teach physics as such, the\nlogical nature of the subject as a unified body of theory will not down. It\ncan scarcely be so presented in a year to seniors. The attempt so to present\nit to ninth-year pupils has proved unsatisfying.\nSecond. In the second method, interest has been made the guiding\nprinciple. This has really been a course in nature study transferred to the\nhigh school. It proves inspirational whenever at any age we may wander\nat will with a leader filled with his subject and able to inspire others. Such\nleaders are rare, however, and the high-school age is pequliarly the age\nwhen it is the work of the teacher to teach concentration. Nature-study\nis not a study at all and it is hence impossible to discuss its value. It has\nno guide but interest, and interest may be caprice, and the value of caprice\nas a guiding principle is too varied to admit of discussion. The naturestudy method of conducting general science doubtless sometimes produces\ngood results, even in high schools, but it is too heterogeneous in composition,\nuncertain in content, and indefinite in aim and accomplishment to allow\nit a place in the curriculum.\nThird. The physical-geography treatment of general science acquires\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n947\n\nthe dignity of a high-school subject. The physiographic core gives it\nhomogeneity and definiteness. The natural laws which have operated\nto build this earth into the home of man extend into all fields of science, and\nof the three methods, this stands in my mind markedly superior to the other\ntwo in its adequacy as a foundation for a high-school subject covering the\nscientific field.\nIt presents a few marked limitations and defects, however. Its scientific field is primarily that of natural phenomena while the scientific environ\nment of the high-school pupil of today has more to do with the artificial\napplications of science to life. Indeed the whole movement of civilization\nthe last fifty years has been directly due to the appHcation of science to\nlife. Science, and invention founded upon science, have remodeled the\nmodes of living. Nature, perhaps unfortunately, is no longer the tutor of\nour youth. Applications of science to life envelop them on all sides, take\ntheir attention, and demand their mastery and explanation as the price of\nsupremacy.\nFourth. These conditions form the foundation for the call for the new^\nsubject, general science. It must deal with the real scientific environment\nof youth, linking it clearly with the field of nature and natural phenomena,\nand delving as far therein as circumstances and surroundings warrant.\nThis limit will evidently vary with country and city, and in general, with\nconditions.\nThe organization of such a subject must be along the lines in which\nscience ministers to the life of man, and particularly, the life of the pupil.\nThese lines may be largely summed up under the foUpwing heads: sanitation\nand hygiene, food, clothing and shelter, heating, lighting, communication,\nand transportation. Thru these channels natural laws have been made to\ncontribute to the progress and enlightenment of men. Thru these concrete applications the youth are to be led back to the field of nature and\nnatural laws — the field of thought and theory.\nSuch a course will be elastic both in time and in content. It may\ncover one year of the present high school. It would better cover three\nyears beginning with the seventh year — -the first year of the coming intermediate, or preliminary, high school. A class is not by it limited from\nwandering afield in the laboratory of nature, but the teacher may at any\ntime determine his distance from the core of his subject, the application\nof science to life. Interest may still inspire but caprice cannot run riot.\nPhysiography may then cease to serve as a mere cement to hold together\notherwise unrelated phenomena and take its appropriate place as a somewhat technical science by the side of other high-school sciences.\nGeneral science has doubtless come to stay. Nowhere save in the high\nschool and only thru some such course as is t^day under discussion, can a\ncatholic scientific interest and individual culture be promoted. The accomplishment of these general educational ends will also make possible the\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndiscovery and development of better specialists along with a saner and more\nappreciative public. What the form of this course shall be depends upon\nthe teachers of the high schools, and not a little upon you here present.\nELEMENTARY OR GENERAL SCIENCE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS\nIT APPEARS TO A WESTERN COLLEGE PROFESSOR\nW.\n\nC.\n\nMORGAN,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nAS\n\nCAL.\n\n(Abstract)\nWe must admit in approaching this subject that the conditions found\nin the average high school are not what its inception promised. The high\nschool has not yet found itself. When we find in an actual curriculum four\nyears of Latin, four years of history, four years of English, two years of\nscience, and two years of mathematics, we are forced to the conclusion\nthat this curriculum is the result of some special interest or that someone\nhas been using some leading string and tying up the course of study with it.\nThe question should not be the entrance requirements of some particular higher school, nor the needs of some particular subject, nor the hobby\nof some particular teacher, a specialist in a science, but rather what will\ngive the average students the best training in fitting them for the problems\nof life. For, as is well known to you, the statistics show that not more\nthan one-half of the students of our high schools get beyond the first year,\nthree-fourths of them never enter the third year, and less than i per cent\ngo to college. It is for those, therefore, who must make the most of the\none year of the high-school work which they get and for those who do not\nreach the final years or go on to college that this \"best\" training should\nbe planned.\nBut more significant than these to me are the figures of the United States\nBureau of Education for the decade from 1896 to 1906, which show that\nevery single other subject with the exception of Greek, which held its own,\nshows an increase in the number of students enrolled. The science subjects sho*w a decrease. However impleasant these facts are, we must face\nthe situation. No argument offered in explanation of this decrease, which\nI have found, can account for this, except it be that the sciences have been\ntried, but have not produced the results which could confidently be expected\nof them. It is not that the sciences alone are faihng to produce entirely\nacceptable results, but only that since we have our problems, we should\nface them and earnestly endeavor to bring about then* solution.\nIt is therefore after such a preliminary consideration that some of us\nare ready to suggest as a solution the incorporation of a general-science\ncourse into the curriculum of the high school, \"general\" in the sense that\nit shall include the underlying principles which are common to all sciences —\nthose underlying principles which are basic in our scientific knowledge and\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCIENCE\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n949\n\nwhich it is important that all students should get before leaving our high\nschools. A course in general science should contain something which is\nvaluable to every citizen and such a course should take from any source\nthat which is general.\nThe older sciences have become stereotyped and one of the best signs\nof the virility of general science is that no one feels sure what the details\nof such a course should be. It will not do to present such a course as so\nmany weeks of this science or so many weeks of that; for such a course\nthere is no more admirable series of textbooks than that series known as\n''Steele's Fourteen Weeks\" in the various sciences. They were published\nforty years ago. The old method of keeping each science in waterproof\ncompartments of the brain, with no method of communication, is bad.\nOne of the hopes of a course in general science is that this will be overcome.\nI should prefer that there should be no textbook for such a course, for as\nsoon as this occurs we shall find that the teacher who is in doubt about the\nproper method* of approach to the problem in hand, will climb upon the\ntextbook and float around as upon a life preserver.\nIt will require the best teacher in the school. It should not be the\nyoungest teacher who is asked to teach the course, because \"the high\nschool in the next town has put in such a course, and surely this school\nmust not be left behind.\"\nIt will require a teacher with many years of preparation on a broad\nfoundation, a specialist perhaps in one line, to give the training in getting\nto the bottom of one subject, but in addition a broad training in science\nas a whole. There are few such teachers now. Those who have listened\nto such men as Dana, Lyell, Brewer, Aggassiz, or the two Le Contes of\nour own University of California, will realize the ideal type I have in mind.\nIt is perhaps well that we have little work of this sort in operation now;\nthat it is to be. It must be a slow process and be carefully developed.\nThis course must make a blend, as it were, of the various sciences.\nThe best illustration I can offer you, the one which best expresses to me\nthe idea of the course I have in mind, is that of a shuttle, which in the hands\nof a skillful teacher shall weave back and forth over the whole field of\nscience, now on this side, now on that, yet keeping thruout that thread of\nthe basic principles.\nAs long as general science does not become crystallized into a minimum\nrequirement it will grow. This course cannot end in a definite time, it\nmerely stops at the end of the year.\nDo not mistake me, I am not decrying in any way the various sciences\nas a part of our curriculum. I am a teacher of chemistry myself. I am\nrather trying to find the co-ordination and unifying factor which will aid\nus in our work as science teachers, besides giving those students who do\nnot go far with the higher courses, some really worth-while knowledge of\nthe world about them.\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nGeneral science will not give to all students ideas which will be of the\ngreatest service to them, but by eliminating elementary material common\nto all, it will advance the standard of work in subsequent scientific courses.\nThe course is bound to come. Let us, therefore, each one of us, when\nconvinced it is a good thing, put our shoulder to the wheel and help push\nalong the work that is before us.\nDISCUSSION\nFred H. Cowan, junior master, Girls' Latin School, Boston, Mass. — If general\nscience is to be found in the high-school curriculum of today, it will be because there is\ngood reason for its being there. This reason may be briefly stated by saying that the\neyes of the pupil must be opened and incidentally he will be fitted for other science which\nmay follow.\nI am not alone in beUeving that there is a time when the mind of the pupil is particularly open to interest in scientific things. If at this time he is given an opportunity\nto see a little of the various sciences in the right way, interest may be awakened that\nwill follow him thru life, being a great blessing, for which there is no real substitute. We\nhave excellent examples of this in the pleasure that comes to some Hves thru the study\nof the flowers and the birds. In addition to all this, many a boy or girl may obtain the\nvision of a future livelihood along the various avenues that lead out from physics and\nchemistry as a starting-point.\nI have heard it said that if one neglects for too long a time to give attention to music,\nhe may finally find it impossible thoroly to enjoy this very desirable branch of the fine\narts. In something the same way, I believe that if a pupil fails during the early years\nof the high school to have his attention called to the general field of science, he may never\nhave a keen appreciation of that which might have been a source of lifelong satisfaction.\nMany pupils never complete the high-school course, and if they get no appreciation of\nscience in the high school, there is less chance for its development afterward. Again,\nif thru deferment or thru its omission altogether, a pupil leaves high school to enter\ncollege without this appreciation, he is not likely to develop it there; and I must say\nthat, in my judgment, a great injustice has been done the pupil. My judgment is based\nupon the observation of men who have led me to believe that he who adds to a thoro\nknowledge of the fine arts a keen appreciation of science in some of her various forms\nhas much more to enjoy in life and, more than that, has a great deal more to give othersMy experience in teaching college-preparatory physics in a Latin school for girls has\nled me to beUeve that a general course in science, in which some of the interesting and\nfundamental principles of science could be taught, would greatly add to the usefulness\nof my present course. Here, almost for the first time, the girls approach the great field\nof science with which the very nature of their lives has made them unfamiliar. They\napproach it so abruptly and with so little real preparation that they stagger under its\nweight and may never see its real beauty. If, before reaching this point, thru the medium\nof general science they could be introduced to a few of the extremely fascinating things\nof science, they would be greatly helped and would be eagerly looking forward to the\nwork.\nI doubt not the same difficulties have been noted in the teaching of other sciences,\nand I am firm in the belief that -a really successful course in physics, chemistry, biology,\nand physical geography needs to be preceded by some preliminary work just as much\nas the reading of Latin with appreciation requires some introductory study.\nIf our courses in science are to hold the place among our high-school courses which\ntheir importance in life demands, they must have sufficient content to win the respect\nnot only of pupils but of fellow-teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCIENCE\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n951\n\nIt is to be hoped that general-science courses will be established which shall open\nthe eyes of all pupils to the beauty of science and shall impress upon them the great\nimportance of science study.\nPercy E. Rowell, science instructor, Gardena Agricultural High School, Los Angeles,\nCal. — I concur with what Dr. Morgan has said in regard to making the course in general\nscience worth while to every citizen, and of drawing from every source its subject-matter.\nThere should be taught the experiences of a life which is broad and complete. The other\nsciences have failed in so far as they were intended to stimulate a desire on the part of\nthe pupils to continue in science. Whether this is due to the sciences or to the method\nof instruction is a question. Many of the poor results which have been manifested in\nscience are due to the wrong method of presentation in the classroom and to the lack of\nintuition on the part of the teacher. Words, rather than sense, have been accepted in\nrecitations. Formulas, and not thought, have carried the pupils thru the class. Parrot\nlearning, and not mental growth, has characterized the effect on the pupils. Nor are the\nother studies exempt from this evil. All suffer equally.\nThe sciences themselves have been taught in a logical manner. It might be well\nto ask from what standpoint a science is taught logically; from the pupil's or the teacher's ?\nFor whose mind is the course given? I believe that sciences have been too logical;\nthere has been too much attention given to \"natural sequence\" and too little consideration\npaid to the wishes of the pupils, who can recognize no \"logical sequence\" until they have\npassed on and can review the subject as a whole. This condition has aroused an unconscious mental shrinking from the formal sciences and a natural drifting either to the less\nhighly organized sciences, or away from science entirely.\nDr. Morgan very happily put it when he mentioned \"stereotyped courses\" and\n\"water-tight compartments\" of the brain, in each of which there might be knowledge of\none science without any possible communication with the other sciences. We have the\n\"stereotyped course,\" a minimum allowance of well-articulated facts joined in \"natural\nsequence.\" \" We also have the results of such courses. Yet the separateness of studies\nother than science is just as manifest. It may be that both the \"stereotyped course\"\nand the \"water-tight compartments\" are the unavoidable results of the accrediting\nsystem, since the pupils think more of units as units and not as indicating parts of their\neducation. There are no connecting links between these parts. General science will\ndo much to break down this wrong idea of units and the sacred individuality of each\ndivision of science.\nA course in general science must be well planned if it is to continue to be general.\nSome guide is necessary and it would be well for each teacher to make an outline to which\nmore material could be added from time to time. A teacher should take notes of what\nhe gives a class after he has given it, as well as preparing beforehand. A corresponding\ngroup of general-science teachers could formulate an excellent plan of work, for each\nwould learn from all of the others. As a preliminary outline it might be well to take\nup a consideration of a person's experiences from the time he awakens in the morning\nuntil he arrives at school. Upon this as a skeleton there could be produced a live course,\ninteresting and instructive, without the much-lauded \"logical sequence.\"\nThe ambition of a good teacher is to make the pupils realize that all sciences are\nbranches of one great science, and that all learning is but one complete whole. To give\nto the pupils this comprehension requires that they be taught first the ability of obtaining\na birds-eye view, a general survey, strong in variety but necessarily lacking in details,\nof much of the school's work. The sciences may so be presented by a true course of general science.\nWillis E. Tower, Englewood High School, Chicago, 111.— We have heard the East\nand we have heard the West and we find them both in favor of a carefully taught generalscience course. I can say that the teachers of the central states are with you. Ten or\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nfifteen years ago a similar movement was started, but the courses which resulted became\nspecialized. I am pleased to hear the statement that such a course should not be allowed\nto become crystallized. We shall not again fall into the former error. The Board of\nEducation of the city of Chicago has authorized courses along these hues and they will\nbe given during the next semester.\nI agree that the best teacher in the school should give such a course — one of extensive\nexperience as a teacher and thoroly grounded in the broad field of science.\nH. L. Terry, state high-school inspector, Madison, Wis. — I am very much pleased\nwith the tone of the discussion. The time has come to plot out constructive work. Let\nus have more in the line of telling us what to do. How can we help teachers to do this\nwork, and give them suggestions to carry away with them? One reason that ^uch a\ncourse probably fell into disrepute before was that the work was standardized too soon.\nThe development of a piece of machinery, as an automobile, requires time to produce\nsatisfactory results. There is danger of ultimate commercial failure if such a machine\nis standardized too soon.\nIndividual initiative is necessary and out of it will come something of value. Teachers\nso often are afraid to try for themselves. Those having authority should be willing to\nsay to the teacher, \"Go ahead and use your own best efforts to do the best thing.\" This\nwill give the teacher confidence.\nTeachers lack ability to test results. They do not know how to tell if they have\naccomphshed something. Questions in the class should be so framed as to make these\ntests. Girls will do as well as the boys; it is a mistake to believe that they cannot do\ngood work in physics. Bring home the lever to' them by the example of the motion and\narrangement of the broom as they use it in sweeping and see if it has the same difficulty\nto them as when tied to something they know nothing about. Expansion could be discussed in connection with the ring used with the lid on a stove, and the discussion may\ndevelop some things you had not thought of yourself. Ask the students if one piece of\nice can be colder than another ? Cannot a meeting of this kind devise such tests ?\nW. T. Skilling, State Normal School, San Diego, Cal. — I am, interested in the work\nmentioned as possible for the seventh and eighth grades. We are now doing some good\nwork in California along this line. It has been mentioned that teachers are very often\nnot well prepared for science teaching. If the universities and normal schools can\nproperly prepare teachers for work in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, I can see\nno reason why the course cannot be made a success.\nThe movement now in progress in California toward making the seventh, eighth,\nand ninth grades an intermediate school will give an opportunity for rearrangement of\ncourses along the Hnes suggested.\n\nFOREST\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nE. T. ALLEN, FORESTER FOR WESTERN FORESTRY AND\nASSOCIATION, PORTLAND, ORE.\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nPresumably discussion here should be definite, practical, and constructive, rather than inspirational. Assuming that you realize the need\nof forest conservation and are most anxious to consider means of promoting\nit, I shall confine myself chiefly to the problems before the worker.\nTo present a subject of so many aspects to representatives of so many\nregions is extremely difficult. The problems at issue are largely local,\ntheir solution much a matter of personal appeal to populations with\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n.\n\nFOREST\n\nCONSERVATION\n\n^\n\n953\n\ndiffering interests. Failure to realize this has often been harmful by giving\ncurrency as axioms to principles sound enough locally but by no means\naxiomatic.\nForest conservation embraces protecting existing forests, growing new\nones, and economical use. The chief local interest may lie in saving the\nlives and homes of settlers from forest fires (it would hardly be this' in\nIllinois); conserving all-important stream-flows, as in southern California;\nmaintaining a primary industry as in the Pacific Northwest; preserving\na necessary commodity, as in localities where the import of lumber is\ncostly; insuring an import supply elsewhere, as in totally non-forested\nregions; or safeguarding school revenues, as in states having timbered\ngrant lands. Some of these things are of national importance in every\nsense, others only in that distress and prosperity are communicable. Game,\nscenery, health, pleasure, and morals are also all indirectly but surely\ninvolved to a considerable extent.\nWhile many of us may have a wide field of endeavor on occasions of this\nkind, and perhaps more in writing, after all our greatest usefulness is in\nour home fields of constant and familiar contact. Presumably we can do\nmost good by the best handling of our local problems, leaving others to do\nlikewise in their fields, and so contributing with them to a completed whole.\nInstead of scattering our effort and necessarily being superficial, we should\nlearn our local ills and remedies thoroly and make the most of our peculiar\nopportunity to teach others. In nothing more than in conservation does\nhammering on one nail till it is driven home build faster than devotion to\nso many and such general projects that ourselves and others become confused. To a certain point, agitation of a general principle is useful. It\nis well to dwell on the evil of forest fires. But when a forest ranger finds\nseveral fires burning he neither talks generalities nor runs from one to the\nother making futile momentary attacks. He puts one out and then goes\nto the next. In almost any locality we find some principle of forest preservation of paramount urgency. I believe it is the part of wisdom to concentrate on this even to the neglect of others if necessary.\nNevertheless, it is well to know enough of our neighbor's problems to\navoid crossfiring. Take, for example, our attitude toward the lumber\nindustry. It may be — I do not know — that in some parts of the United\nStates lumbermen as a class oppose forestry progress because private\ngain conflicts with community good or because they fear unreasonable\nrestriction. Before criticizing the whole industry for this, it is well to\nreflect that in some regions, on the other hand, lumbermen lead the rest\nof the community in advocating better management and better laws. If\nyou antagonize them by unjust censure you lose your best support. Again,\nconsider the controversy over the relation of^ lumber tariff to conservation. While one element was certain it would save our own forests to\nimport Canadian lumber, it was shown equally conclusively that in many\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nof our lumbering regions competition would lead to faster and far more\nwasteful cutting. It is a fairly good rule not to take any side before understanding one as well as the other.\nThere are, however, several wide premises everywhere applicable.\nIn the old world and new they became established with the diminution of\nforest resources. The unfortunate thing is that few communities profit\nby the lessons of others, no matter how often they are reiterated. We\nhear much of European forestry, yet in nearly every European country\nit has been a complete upbuilding after almost total forest destruction.\nEngland in India, and perhaps Japan, are about the only foreign nations\nthat have really tried to forestall. The United States is no exception to\nthe rule, and considering that it has even more examples elsewhere to\nobserve, more modern advantages of education to facihtate deduction,\nmore foundation with which to begin, and more wealth with which to work,\nit is the least excusable of all.\nIt seems to me we must frankly admit, basing our propaganda accordingly, that we do not approach older and more paternally governed nations\nin responsibility for the future. Whether we ascribe it to the still existing\nwealth of resource, or to selfish individuahsm, the fact remains that we are\nprone to safeguard present interests only, and if we postpone forest preservation until this national trait is outgrown we will be making too late a\nstart. Up to very recently, forestry reformers have been too idealistic to\nget results. They have dwelt upon the needs of posterity and urged sacrifice as a duty. I cannot quarrel with this as a matter of ethics and I\nadmit it essential to complete success, but immediate results come most\nsurely from fear of immediate injury. Even good laws are of small use\nunless we have the public of today suflSciently worried to insist on their\nenforcement. The great need is for adding to our preachments of duty\nmore vigorous and skillful appeals to human selfishness. It may not satisfy our reforming instincts, but too many of those who really control our\nforest destinies will respond to nothing else.\nHow, then, shall we do this ? Again I say seek local arguments. Do\nyou live on the Atlantic Coast ? Look up the payroll total for all lumbering and woodworking industries in your state and the total selling receipts\nfrom their manufactured products. The size of the revenue thus kept at\nhome, but which will leave you if these industries have to move nearer\nsome other source of raw material, will probably amaze you as much as it\nwill the public. Learn how much your consumers pay annually for all\nforest products and figure how much they would save if there were no\nimport freight bills. Then learn the rate of growth of your own species\nand refute the popular belief that it is too slow to enable saving these sums\nto those now living. Do you know that Massachusetts is today manufacturing its fourth crop of white pine ?\nLearn your area of waste land, and with the same definite growth\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWREST\n\nCONSERVATION\n\n955\n\nfigures to give your statements news value and convincing business accuracy, show what it might be earning the community by producing forest\ncommodities. Calculate the tax revenues your existing forests bring, and\nthat which forests on now waste land would pay, and show the consequent\nreduction of taxation on other property. On definite premises of area,\ngrowth rate, and conservative crop values, show the revenue obtainable\nby the state from forest reserves of its own, balance this against the cost\nof such a project, and prove that you could lower all taxation just as they\ndo in Europe. Study the effect of deforestation on stream flow, use specific familiar examples, and convert the injury into dollars and cents.\niWhen you get figures in all these calculations, turn them into popular\ncomparisons that are easily grasped.\nIf you five on the Pacific Coast, forget that white pine grows rapidly\nin Massachusetts and appeal to local pride by saying that here, undoubtedly,\nis the nation's woodlot, where climate and rapid-growing species give an\nadvantage over the East which it is a business crime to leave ungrasped.\nShow that the area denuded by fire and use will produce an equally\nvaluable crop in, say, sixty years, and that leaving this land idle is costing\nour five coast forest states about thirty million dollars a year. Add this\nloss to the loss of standing timber by fire and show that the coast is throwing away nearly seventy million dollars a year which otherwise would be\ndistributed thru every channel of industry.\nWithout considering reforestation, show that the lumber industry\nnow brings one hundred and twenty-five millions of dollars a year to the\nPacific Coast, mostly distributed for labor and supplies. Compare this\nto our fruit crop or our wheat crop and remember that it will increase by\nleaps as gulf- and lake-state timber fails. Do you live in California?\nGet at your tongue's end such facts as that California has over three\nhundred billion feet of uncut mature timber, that probably it will all be\ncut in less than fifty years and that even at present prices this means distribution ofat least four billion dollars among Californians. Show the\nwreck of industries that would follow its sudden destruction by fire and\npoint out that partial destruction means the same thing in corresponding\ndegree.\nIf a score of American citizens are endangered by an uprising in China\nno price is too great to pay for their protection. When a few hundred\nsailors went down in the Maine, we were aroused to the supremity of\nnational effort — war. Were the lives of the hundreds of men and women\nwho met a fearful death in last year's forest fires any less precious ? their\nsufferings less cause for national horror and effort to prevent repetition?\nI cannot but believe that the neglect of our people to observe the same care\nwith fire in the woods that they exercise as a matter of course at home, the\nrefusal of our legislatures to appropriate a few thousand dollars for fire\nprevention when they cheerfully do so many less urgent things, the infre-\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nquency with which our courts punish violators of forest-fire laws, must be\ndue to failure by those of us who are responsible for American education\nto impress a true comparison of values upon the pubHc mind. Forest\nfires are a national calamity, akin to riot, invasion, and pestilence, and yet\nalmost entirely unnecessary. Other countries avoid them. It follows\nthat we can. It is only necessary to teach people that fires result from\navoidable carelessness, that this criminally imperils human life, and that\nforest protection is prosperity insurance from which they themselves are\ncertain gainers. That this is a considerable task is all the more reason\nfor giving it far more thought and vigor than we have given.\nDistinct from the individual citizen's personal responsibility and\nconduct is the manifestation of sentiment in the form of collective poHcy\nor endeavor. Considering the specific agencies most active and potent\nin forest conservation, we readily recognize three primary divisions of\nactivity — federal, state, and private. It is desirable to know which can\nmost effectively employ our assistance. In my opinion the government\nneeds least help of the three. It was early to realize the need and has\nbeen the leader in reform. The federal forest service is our highest authority in technique; the national forests are our most conspicuous examples\nof practice. Altho the principles they represent by no means escape\nattack, fortunately they may be regarded as permanent institutions developing steadily for the better.\nThere is far greater need of attention to the situation of our states.\nMany have done nothing. Those that have done most have very generally\ndeveloped certain lines at the sacrifice of others. Hardly any has a comprehensive farseeing policy which takes into account both present and\nfuture conditions and provides for systematic development as one replaces\nthe other. Laws are passed in response to popular clamor or the insistence\nof a few tireless enthusiasts and sometimes they have excellent points.\nOften they contain weaknesses proven and discarded elsewhere long ago.\nThe need of some action is increasingly admitted, but. there is little grasp\nof the fundamental principles of forest legislation.\nHere again we must divide the duty of the propagandist. To get\nand enforce forest legislation he must do the missionary work I have\ndescribed to impress the community that it is profitable and necessary.\nHe must also be competent to present good laws and prevent the passage\nof bad ones. He cannot know too much of the principles and technical\nframework which will insure freedom from politics, just distribution of the\ncost, effective organization, strict and enforceable fire laws, a systematic\npatrol and fire-fighting force, faciUties for educating lumbermen and public,\ntechnical investigation of forest conditions and needs, acquisition and management of state-owned forest lands, and, above all, co-operation with and\nstimulation of endeavor by private forest owners. If he neglects these things,\nhis very success in agitation may result in legislation worse than none.\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFOREST\n\nCONSERVATION\n\n957\n\nAll this involves considerable knowledge of the attitude of the private\nforest owner, which is usually given far too little study. After all he controls most of our forest area. His use of it, our use of it, and the effect of\nour relations upon our joint use of it, largely determine our forest destinies.\nThe extent to which his conduct need be regulated, and the extent to\nwhich we can get equal or better results by encouragement instead of\nregulation, are matters of grave importance. H. S. Graves, chief forester\nfor the United States, believes in the encouragement plan. He says,\n\"Private owners do not practice forestry, for one or more of three reasons: first, the risk of fire; second, burdensome taxation; third, low price\nof products.\"\nMy own experience emphatically corroborates this. Whatever may\nbe true of the past when new fields were easily available, the lumberman\nnow sees his industry dependent upon forest preservation. No laws or\nthreats are as potent to interest him in conservative management as the\npromise of continuing profit. In the Pacific and lake states at least (I\nknow less of other regions), he leads the rest of the community in both\nadvocating and practicing protective methods. The three states in the\nunion making the most notable advance in forest legislation last winter\nwere the three in which the timber industry led the campaign — Washington, Oregon, and Minnesota. The most efficient and liberally supported\nfire-preventive systems in America are the co-operative associations of the\nPacific Northwest, where timber owners spent no less than seven hundred\nthousand dollars in 1910 to protect our forest resources. Admitting that\ntheir motive was largely selfish, the benefit to the public is the same.\nThe same is true of reforestation. The chief, if not the only, thing\nwhich prevents the private owner from adopting a course in this as advantageous to the public as his fire prevention, is his very fear of the public's\nattitude. And he has good reason for this fear. At the same time we\ndemand that he practice forestry and threaten him with legal regulation\nif he refuses, we not only continue to imperil his proposed investment by\nfire, but also* maintain a tax system that will confiscate it if it escapes.\nIt seems to me inconsistent to preach forestry to the lumberman while\nwe are ourselves responsible for a tax system that we know every country\nin the world had to abandon before it could have forestry. We are bound\nsome day to pay for lumber what it costs to grow it. Obviously it will pay\nus to make its growing easy instead of difficult. If we make the growing\nimpossible, we will not be able to get it at any price.\nI have tried to show that many forces are working for better management of our forest resources. They are sure to succeed eventually, for\neconomic laws leave no alternative. I have failed to be clear if it is not\nequally apparent that danger of too much delay lies in their working at\ncross purposes instead of in harmony. There must be more mutual understanding, less mutual suspicion, and more actual and constant co-operation.\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThese things alone will create public sentiment, teach proper methods,\npass wise laws, and lessen cost to all concerned.\nThe moral is that what forest conservation asks most of educators\nnow is not the teaching of more forestry practice so much as it is the teaching of forest economics. And while we make the most of every opportunity to teach the grown-up folks who can do things today, let us not\nforget that had these been taught in school, when they were more easily\nreached and impressed, they would not need it now. The young folks of\ntoday are the doers of tomorrow, and whether they do better than their\nparents depends much upon whether you see that they learn at least the\nelements of the problems I have discussed here.\nWATER-POWERS,\nGEORGE\n\nC. PARDEE,\n\nMEMBER\n\nLANDS,\n\nOF NATIONAL\nOAKLAND,\nCAL.\n\nAND\n\nMINERALS\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nCOMMISSION,\n\n\"Water-powers, lands, and minerals\" are the subjects that have been\nassigned to me for discussion. There are two principal ways in which\nthese subjects may be handled from the standpoint of the conservationist.\nOne way is to present a mass of statistics, confusing both to listeners and\nreader. That way I shall not follow. The other way is to discuss the\nsubjects cursorily from the standpoint of the ordinary, everyday citizen,\nand to point out, from the standpoint of the conservationist, what is being\ndone under present conditions with the water-powers, lands, and minerals,\nonce the property of all the people, but now, to a very large extent, the\nproperty of a very few of the people.\nThe conservationists believe that the natural resources of the country\nthat have not yet fallen into private ownership belong to all the people.\nThey know, do the conservationists, that such of those natural resources\nas are necessary to the ordinary activities of the people have fallen largely\ninto the hands of private owners. They also point to the fact that these\nprivate own'ers have very largely monopolized these natural resources and,\nusing them for the purpose of quickly amassing enormous fortunes, are\neither destroying them absolutely or are withholding them from public\nuse for the purpose of finally compeUing the pubUc, their former owners, to\npay still greater prices for them or their products in the future.\nThe conservationists believe that all the natural resources should be\nused. But they also believe that none of them should be unnecessarily\ndestroyed or wasted or put into cold storage, so to speak, in order that,\nnot being used now, they may be used at some future time when, the supply being less than at present, famine prices may be charged for them.\nThe conservationists point to the fact, for instance, that for every ton\nof coal that has been put into use in this country practically another ton has\nbeen lost, destroyed, or wasted in the mine, not because that extra ton could\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nWATER-POWERS,\n\nLANDS,\n\nAND\n\nMINERALS\n\n959\n\nnot have been saved at a profit, but because more money could be made by\nmining one ton and leaving the other ton in the mine. The conservationists also point to the fact that private ownership of the forests of this\ncountry has resulted in the absolute destruction of a large part of those\nforests and that the present unscientific logging of the privately owned\nforests has led and i^ leading today to the destruction, as forest land, of\npractically every acre that is logged. They also point to the fact that\nthree-fifths of all the remaining forest lands of this country are held in\nprivate ownership; and that, while some of these privately owned two\nhundred million acres are being absolutely stripped of their trees and being\nleft as bare as floors, the rest, a very large half, is being held in cold storage\nin order that when, as will be the case, the children you are teaching in the\nschools of the country shall, within the next twenty-five years, desire lumber\nand timber for their ordinary, everyday use, they will be compelled to pay\nthe then owners of the forests all their necessities will compel them to pay\nfor that which their forefathers gave away for nothing.\nAll conservationists are not socialists; but all conservationists cry out\nagainst that mistaken governmental policy which has permitted private\npersons to acquire ownership of absolutely necessary natural resources and\nso to manipulate them that, shutting out competition, they compel those\nwho gave them away to pay enormous prices for them. But they also\ncry out loudly, do the conservationists, against the loss and waste, most\nof it unnecessary, that have resulted from the money-seeking haste of the\nprivate owners of those natural resources.\nPower is an absolutely necessary adjunct as an instrument of our present-day civilization. It will be still more necessary, and in a constantly\nincreasing ratio, to the children whom you are teaching in the schools. If\nthe people of the United States were suddenly deprived of the use of steam,\nwater-power, and electricity, they would nearly all starve to death. Coal,\noil, water-power, and electricity are the \"Open Sesame\" to the vaults\nof progress and prosperity.\nElectricity, generated by the power of falling water, is the cheapest,\nmost efficient, and best source of power we have. The falling water which\ngenerates this power is, always has been, and always will be the property of\nthe people and cannot be taken away from them. But it has been the\npolicy of all of the states and still is of all but a very few of them to permit\nprivate persons to appropriate, for nothing and forever, the use of that\nfalling water, to make private property of that use, and to make of that\nuse a monopoly which, like all unrestricted private monopolies, is a bad\nthing and detrimental to the public good.\nWith their available coal, oil, and water-powers privately owned and\nmonopolized, the people of this country will be at the mercy of a power that\ncan and, of course, will demand all the traffic will bear and control the activities and commercial productiveness of every man, womanj and child in the\n•\nRepublic.\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nNot a few of the states are, however, beginning to recognize the imminent dangers of this situation. Oregon and California have inaugurated\npolicies that will prevent the private ownership and monopolization of all\nthe water-powers and will provide for the future by making competition\nalways possible in the generation of electricity.\nIllinois is spending one hundred millions of dollars to develop her waterways. Of this sum not a small fraction is being spent to buy back, at high\nprices, of course, water-powers, developed and undeveloped, that she gave\naway for nothing. New York is bestirring herself to get back the control\nof her water-powers, so that her people may not be held in the grasp of a\npower monopoly. Wisconsin is also engaged along similar lines. And\nother states are beginning to appreciate the dangers that confront them.\nThe conservationists do not primarily care who owns the natural\nresources. If they could be assured that it would be best for the country\nto have all the natural resources privately owned, they would favor that.\nIf part private and part pubUc ownership should appear to be best, they\nwould advocate that. If public ownership of all the natural resources\nshould appear to be best, then the conservationistis would earnestly\nadvocate that.\nPubUc ownership would not necessarily mean public exploitation and\nmanagement. Alaska coal, for instance, may continue to be owned by the\npublic and be mined by private enterprise. The public ownership would\nrender impossible the monopolization of that coal and make futile any\nfuture attempts to create out of it the means for extorting from the Pacific\nCoast unnecessarily high dividends from the fuel necessities of our people.\nPublic ownership of that coal would prevent the shutting down of one coal\nmine in order that another coal mine might be worked at a greater profit.\nIt would insure healthy competition in coal on the Pacific Coast and prevent the continuance of the extortions of private monopolies. But it would\nnot necessarily prevent private capital from being invested in Alaska coal\nmines or from making reasonable, even handsome, returns on such investments. It would, however, prevent the holding up of the public for one\nof the necessaries of life that was once the property of that public.\nPublic ownership of the water-powers of the country would not necessarily result in the public development or management of^ those waterpowers. California does not contemplate engaging in the water-power\nbusiness, nor does she contemplate generating electricity for the market.\nBut she has come to the conclusion that it is time to stop giving away her\nwater-powers and allowing them to be used for the purpose of extorting\nfrom her citizens present and future all their necessities will compel them\nto pay for the use of property all of which was once theirs.\nIn California alone the streams are, it is roughly estimated, capable\nof generating five million horse-power of electrical energy. Mr. Andrew\nCarnegie estimates that there are employed, in the whole United States,\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nWATER-POWERS,\n\nLANDS,\n\nAND\n\nMINERALS\n\n961\n\nless than thirty milHon horse-power generated by steam, electricity, and\nother means. One horse-power per annum is said to be equivalent to the\npower generated by the burning of twenty tons of coal under a steamboiler. California's five million horse-power of possible electrical energy\nare, therefore, equivalent to the steam-power generated by the burning\nof one hundred million tons of coal. With coal selling at ten dollars or more\nper ton, our five million horse-power of electrical energy will, when it is all\nin use, represent power equivalent to that generated by the burning of\ncoal to the value of one billion dollars per annum.\nUnder the former lax laws of California the streams from which power\nmay be obtained were filed upon many times over, and the use of their\nwater appropriated many times over; and the water-powers have been\nfalling rapidly into the hands of speculators and monopolists. Mr. Herbert\nKnox Smith, the United States commissioner of corporations, informs us\nthat California's power market is already practically monopoHzed by three\nor four large companies and that there are very positive indications of the\ngradual formation of a power trust all over the country.\nThe price of electric-power in this state is, because of these monopolies,\nmaintained at a price that makes it little if any cheaper than coal approaching in price ten dollars per ton. If the water-powers of this state are\nsaved from complete monopolization and, under partial public ownership,\nso operated by private enterprise that a healthy competition is not only\npossible but certain, the people of this state will save many millions of\ndollars annually in their bills for the use of property that always has been,\nstill is, and always will be, theirs.\nIt is claimed by the opponents of conservation that the conservationists\nare cranks, socialists, communists, even anarchists. We conservationists\nheartily indorse the following from President Roosevelt's address to the\nConference of Governors,\n. . . . it is safe to say that the prosperity of our people depends directly on the\nenergy and intelligence with which our natural resources are used. It is equally clear\nthat these resources are the final basis of national power and perpetuity. Finally, it\nis ominously evident that our resources are in the course of rapid exhaustion.\n\nFormer Governor Hughes, now a justice of the United States Supreme\nCourt, said, in his 1907 message to the New York legislature:\n. . . . it is well to consider the great value of the undeveloped water-powers\nthus placed under state control. They should be preserved and held for the benefit\nof all the people and should not be surrendered to private interests. It would be difficult to exaggerate the advantages which may ultimately accrue from these great resources\nof power if the common right is duly safeguarded.\n\nTo all of which the conservationists say^' Amen.\" For all of our coal\nwill one day be burned up and all our oil will have been pumped from the\nearth. When that time shall have arrived any monopolies in these resources\nwill die of inanition.\nBut water-power will exist so long as the sun and the\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nattraction of gravitation continue to work in co-operation. And, therefore,\nany monopoly of water-powers will have no time limit; but, unless cut short\nby self-defensive, \"socialistic\" laws, will endure \"as long as grass grows and\nwater runs\" and the sons of man are compelled to labor and manufacture.\nThe work of one horse-power of electrical energy is estimated to be\nequivalent to the labor of thirteen men. California's five milHon waterhorse-power, therefore, represent the labor of sixty-five million toiling men;\nand Mr. Carnegie's thirty million horse-power used in the United States\ntoday accomplish the work of three hundred ninety million men.\nHe who controls, then, the water-powers of this country will be, in\neffect, the owner of an army of slaves over four times greater in number\nthan the ninety milHon men, women, and children now within the borders\nof this Union.\nWho shall own that army, direct the energies of that enormous power,\nand levy toll upon those who use the products of its labor ? Shall it be a\nvery few of our people ? Shall that toll, its si«e set by those few, be collected from every American citizen by those whose natural and very human\ndesire it will be to collect \"all the trafiic will bear.\" ? Give me a monopoly\nof a nation's power-plants and I will not care whose foot rocks its cradles,\nwhat hand writes- its songs, or who makes its laws. The cradles and the\nsongs will not interest me at all; and as for the laws, I will write myself\nall of them in which I have any interest, until some kind of a revolution\nunseats me from the throne.\nBut few of our minerals are really necessary to human progress. Gold\nand silver and the precious metals may enrich those who mine them. But\na monopoly of them will destroy itself because they are not necessary to the\nlife of man. Spain, altho she had a virtual, law-created monopoly of the\nworld's gold in the sixteenth century, was poor because she had that monopoly. Gold plows and silver steam-boilers would be of little value as plows\nand boilers. The conservationists, therefore, have little concern about the\ngold and silver mines. Some of them advocate the requirement that those\nwho work them shall pay into the public treasury a small percentage of\ntheir returns. But the great majority of the conservationists had much\nrather see the forests, the coal, the iron, the oil, and the copper used with\neconomy and free from monopoly than that half a hundred gold or silver\nmines should be opened up.\nSpeaking of our iron and coal, Mr. Carnegie said: \"Iron and coal form\nthe foundation of our national prosperity.\" And then he said that, under\nthe wasteful private ownership and monopoly that have controlled our iron\nand coal, we have consumed seventy-five billion tons of coal and wasted\nninety billion tons in getting that which we consumed. And he predicts\nthat all our known deposits of high-grade iron ore will have been worked\nout by 1940, only thirty years from now. Our iron and our forests, therefore, will, if nothing be done to prevent it, disappear about the same time.\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWATER-POWERS,\n\nLANDS,\n\nAND\n\nMINERALS\n\n963\n\nCoal and iron, being public necessities, have, of course, been monopolized under our lax laws. There is plenty of coal to be mined. But coal\nfamines are not infrequent and the price of coal is always kept as high as\nthe necessities of the people will permit. There is plenty of iron ore and its\ncost is very low. But the steel trust that owns it has not reduced the price\nof the steel we use to keep pace with the reduction in the cost of raw material.\nThe man who pays high prices for his coal and iron ought to see the grotesque\nhumor of the situation that forces him to pay exorbitant prices for the\nprivileges of using natural resources that were once his and which, desiring\nto use, he gave away for nothing and forever without any strings on the\ndeed of gift. Had Robinson Crusoe given his Man Friday everything on\nhis island and had therl been compelled by that dusky companion of his\nsolitude to work all day for permission to pick, at nightfall, a few breadfruits to sustain his life, his condition would have been somewhat similar\nto that of the ninety million American men, women, and children who consume the iron and coal they gave away.\nThe conservationists are very willing indeed that those who exploit\nour natural resources shall be handsomely rewarded for their enterprise\nand the risks they take. But the conservationists object very strenuously\nto the wasteful methods used in exploiting them under unrestricted private\nownership. The conservationists also object very strenuously to the\nmonopolization of the natural resources of the country and the consequent\nhigh prices we have to pay for their products. In private retail businesses\nthere are no great monopolies. The retailer is compelled to submit to\ncompetition. He lives or dies in business according to his business ability.\nThe conservationists object to there being no competition in the wholesale\nbusinesses connected with the disposal of the natural resources which we\ngave away in order that we might enjoy their use.\nOur land laws have also been unsatisfactory. While they have enabled\nmillions of American famiUes to acquire cheap homes and farms, they have\nalso enabled less than two hundred private persons and corporations to\ngain ownership of three-fifths of all the remaining forests of the country.\nThey have permitted one corporation to own one-eighth of all that forest\nland. They have enabled one man to own one million acres of that forest\nland in the state of California alone. If one hundred men each owned as\nmuch land as this one man owns, they would own collectively an area\nequal to the area of the state of CaUfornia, the second largest state in the\nUnion. Is it necessary for me to argue the evils of absentee, or even domestic, ownership of enormous tracts of land ?\nSo long as there was fertile and arable public land to be had, the grip\nof the land monopolists did not strangle. But as the available lands of\nthe country passed into private ownership, the large holdings became\nburdens on and menaces to the body politic. True, large holdings of\nfarming land are no longer profitable and are, therefore, being subdivided\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nand disposed of in small holdings. But the former owners have profited\nby the \"unearned increment,\" and many who would have made homes\nin the country have been compelled to join that sorrowful army that has\nso long been marching into the cities in ever-increasing numbers. The\nlast buyer of the acres of the large land-holdings pays many times the price\nfor it that the government — that is, the people — disposed of it for in order\nto \"settle up the country\" and \"encourage and promote agriculture.\"\nThe farming-land situation is in process of settling itself — at great cost,\nto be sure, to those who are settling it. But the forest-land situation is still\nbad and growing worse all the time. The government, it is true, has set\naside certain forest reservations, totahng one hundred fifty million acres,\nhalf again as large as the state of CaUfornia. But the remaining two\nhundred twenty-five million acres, over twice as large as California, are\nheld by less than two hundred individuals and corporations.\nIt would not be so bad, from the standpoint of the conservationists, if\nunrestricted private ownership of forest land did not mean its absolute\ndestruction as forest land. For private owners, very naturally and very\nhumanly, insist on making the most money possible out of their holdings\nwhen they submit them to the ax. And, that means, of course, the absolute destruction of the forests. It is not necessary, I think, to demonstrate\nbefore you the absolute necessity of the forests to human progress and\nprosperity. We need perennial streams for river navigation, irrigation, and\npower and freedom from destructive floods.\nSome of the private owners of large- tracts of forest lands are holding\nthem untouched by the ax; and they imagine that this is conservation.\nIt is not. For conservation means use. And forests may be used, are being\nused in other countries, without reducing their areas or productivity.\nThere is, however, hope for the future. Even the courts, conservative\nto the verge of mulishness, are beginning to see the necessity for the protection ofthe body politic from those who have been given public property.\nThe Supreme Court of Maine, speaking of private real property, said this:\nFirst, such property is not the result of productive labor, but is derived solely from\nthe State itself, the original owner; second, the amount of land being incapable of increase, ifthe owners of large tracts can waste them at will without State restriction,\nthe State and its people may be hopelessly impoverished and one great purpose of government defeated.\n\nAnd the Court of Errors and Appeals of New Jersey has said this:\nThe State, as quasi-sovereign and representative of the pubhc, has a standing in\ncourt to protect the atmosphere, the water and the forests within its territory, irrespective of the assent or dissent of the private owners of land most immediately concerned.\n\nMaybe this is socialistic, communistic, even anarchistic. But let us\nhope that the supreme courts of all the states and the Supreme Court of the\nUnited States may soon become as socialistic, communistic, and anarchistic as the supreme courts of the old states of Maine and New Jersey.\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nNATIONAL\n\nVITALITY\n\n965\n\nLet us hope that all the courts, subordinate and supreme, in every state\nin the Union, may soon be able to appreciate the necessity for the conservation ofall our natural resources, and that they may, all and singular,\nsoon learn that the public good, present and future, is of infinitely more\nimportance and value than any man's private property, especially when\nwaste and destruction of that property will work an irreparable injury to\nthe public.\nThe theory under which our natural resources have been given away\nis the perfectly correct one that they should be used for the benefit of the\npublic. A coal mine or a water-power that is not used is of no benefit to\nthe public. When, therefore, natural resources are given away by the\npeople and put into cold storage by those to whom they are given, the theory\nupon which they were given away is ruthlessly violated in its fundamental\nassumption. For the only present use to which cold-storaged natural\nresources are put is the use of artificially keeping up or increasing the price\nof the products of the things we gave away.\nWater-powers, land, and minerals are, next to the forests, the most\nnecessary of all our natural resources. They must be husbanded; theymust not be unnecessarily wasted or destroyed, if those whose educational\nfootsteps the teachers of this country are guiding shall not be robbed of that\nwhich, by moral and divine, if not by statute, law, is rightfully theirs.\nI know of no class of our people who can do more than our teachers to\ninculcate into the minds of the people of this country the ideas of conservation. The Johnny and Mary of today will be the Mr. Smith and the Mrs.\nBrown of tomorrow. While, as \"young ideas,\" they are being taught\nto shoot in other directions, let them also be taught that there is a conservation target, a bright and shining one, at which their aim should be directed,\nand bound up in which are their future prosperity and material happiness.\nLet them also be taught that what is ours today will be theirs tomorrow,\nand that they have the right to demand that we shall hand over to them\ntheir property undiminished in value and volume except in so far as that\nvalue and that volume may be diminished by our reasonable, careful, and\nnecessary use of it.\nNATIONAL\nWILLIAM\n\nF. SNOW,\n\nVITALITY\n\nM.D., SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA\nSACRAMENTO,\nCAL.\n\nSTATE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF HEALTH,\n\nAll who have occasion to glance thru the many literary and scientific\nperiodicals as they app.ear on our news stands from month to month must\nbe impressed with the increasing frequency with which articles on health\nappear. There can be no doubt that the nafion is awakening to a realization of the great possibilties of health conservation. The remarkable\nReport on National Vitality prepared for the National Conservation Com-\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[Science\n\nmission by Professor Irving Fisher, and published in 1909, has had much\nto do with this awakening. The realization of the great saving of human\nlife now proven to be scientifically possible can only be brought about\nthru educating the public in the application of the hygienic and sanitary\nprinciples involved.\nIn the first place parents must be taught that planting good health\ndoes not differ in principle from planting any other crop. Good seed must\nbe sown in the right soil and with due regard to the environment. Many\nthings must be done between the planting and the harvest if one expects\na maximum jdeld. The fruit farmer follows up his planting by making\na business of aiding the growth of his trees. He protects them against\ndrought by irrigation, against frost by smudging, against insect pests by\nfumigation and by the importation of friendly insects to prey upon the\npest. The infant trees are wrapped in swaddling clothes in winter and\nprovided with sun shades in summer. Being clothed they must be fed.\nThe farmer studies their diet and buys the necessary fertilizing chemicals\nadvocated by the horticultural experts. Their leaves must have sun and\ntheir roots must be housed in properly ventilated soil; therefore, the farmer\ncultivates his land and battles with the weeds. And all the time he is\nsaying to himself: ''In a few years more they will begin to bear fruit.\"\nThe placing of wind stakes and props, the digging for borers, the all-night\nirrigation, the fight with the birds and the rabbits, are but incidents in\nthe day's work of the successful fruit farmer. All these things about the\ngrowing of trees the public understands and practices. Similar things are\nknown and practiced in the growing of animals, but the growing of humans\nhas never been taught as an important business enterprise. There are\ntwo great reasons for this. In the first place, the normal baby born to\nhealthy parents has a tremendous vitality and power of adaptability to\nits environment, which distinguishes it from the little tree. This gives\nrise to the impression that with the baby the proportions of food and sleep,\nair and sunshine, work and play, are of little consequence. In the second\nplace, from fifteen to twenty years are required to mature the crop, which\nsince the days of slavery has had no directly quotable market value\nwhen produced.\nIt can be demonstrated, however, that good health is a valuable crop.\nEach of us, for example, expects to live to be at least sixty or seventy\nyears old. And if we come of good stock, have been carefully cultivated,\nand have developed good habits we ought to live so long. Yet each of\nus knows of a number of friends with similar expectations who became\nblighted and died. Some of tuberculosis, some of typhoid fever, or malaria,\nor diphtheria, or scarlet fever, or any one of a hundred other causes. When\nwe stop to think of it most of them died before the age of thirty or thirtyfive. The twenty years or more they might have lived would have been\nmost valuable to the prosperity of our nation.\nMany of these friends\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nVITALITY\n\n967\n\nhave been young men with families. Each man's labor would have provided at least one thousand dollars a year, which means a loss of at least\ntwenty thousand dollars to thirty thousand dollars for his family.\nThe public must be taught that the problem of conserving national\nvitality is not in preventing death so much as in postponing it. On every\nhand one hears the statement ''Well, I've got to die sometime\"; but it\nmakes a very great difference in the nation's prosperity and in the happiness of individual homes whether this event transpires before twenty-five\nor after fifty years of age.\nGrowing humans is an industry which far outranks all others in importance to the nation, but it has not been properly taught. President\nJordan says:\nThe best gift to a baby is a healthy father and mother — ^physically healthy, mentally\nhealthy, morally healthy. Such a gift is not to be found every day, but it is rather\nto be chosen than great riches. It is great riches, for, accident or mischance aside,\nit means efficient life, joyous life, life that is worth while.\n\nThis is absolutely true, but the means for developing such gifts has\nnot been perfected. Our schools have struggled with partial success to\nprovide the \"mentally healthy\" part of the gift. Our churches have\nstruggled with less degree of success to provide the \"morally healthy\"\npart of this gift. It has been nobody's business to provide the \"physically\nhealthy\" part of this great gift to the baby; so nobody has done it. We\nare all at fault — educators, ministers, statesmen, laymen, all alike. We\nhave been too much occupied with our personal affairs to give the child\nin his entirety a thought. President Wheeler referring forcibly to the\nimportance of the family in California's future, said:\nIt is my observation that the finest thing in life is a strong man, married to a strong\nwoman, living within their means, and providing the personal care and physical necessities for the up-bringing of strong children.\n\nThese are the statements of presidents of universities that rank among\nthose most progressive in the United States today; yet the curriculum of\neither institution will hardly stand investigation in the light of its president's statement. Our universities are doing practically nothing to train\nour young men and young women in the knowledge essential to the building\nof happy, successful homes, and providing the baby with that best of gifts\nso well described by President Jordan.\nIf this were true only of our universities it would not matter so greatly,\nfor less than 3 per cent of our school children graduate from them. It\ndoes matter that our grammar schools fail to grasp their opportunity to\nadequately teach health conservation. In%California, as doubtless in the\nrest of the United States, approximately 85 per cent of our school children\nleave school to enter our industrial occupations before the age of sixteen.\nHere then lies our great problem in conserving national vitality. How\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nshall we reach these young boys and girls with the facts about individual\nhealth preservation and community protection against invasions of disease ?\nWe must teach the children that it is an inevitable law of civilization\nthat co-operative citizenship results in the growth of great cities where\neach individual citizen becomes merely a unit performing in return for\nhis living, his share of the work necessary to the life of the whole. In\nthe biological world the law of physiological division of labor operates\nsimilarly. The human body is made up of several millions of cells working\ntogether to accomplish the work of man.\nNew York City is estimated to have food supplies within its borders\nfor less than forty-eight hours. Obviously, the defense of New York\nagainst an enemy depends quite as much on the protection of its contributing farms and its water supply as upon its harbor fortifications.\nThe case is not different in the wars of the human body with disease.\nThe food supply of the body is gathered from the markets of the world.\nDisease germs that may contrive to get into a food which is being shipped\nfrom Japan have only to keep alive during the vicissitudes of transportation until they pass the lips of the consumer in California in order to begin\ntheir battles for supremacy over the human body. It is not the primary\npurpose of these arrriies of disease to destroy the body, but to subjugate\nit, and to obtain for themselves a living at the expense of the body's cellinhabitants. Once the battle begins, however, no one can foresee whether\nthe fierceness of the conflict may not result in the complete destruction\nof both defender and foe.\nNo city is well fortified which has not provided many methods of\nchecking the advance of the enemy after the outer defe'nses have given\nway. It is necessary to remember thru all that may be said and printed\nabout fighting disease thru pubHc co-operation, that a normal, healthy,\nactive body provides within itself the means for effectively resisting the\nattacks of these disease-producing germs ninety-nine times out of a hundred,\neven after they have succeeded in penetrating its outer defenses — the skin\nand mucous membranes. This failure one time in a hundred, however,\nis sufficient to cause annually approximately ten thousand deaths in California and upward of five hundred thousand each year in the United States.\nIf we would hope to save year by year these ten thousand Californians from\ndeath and one hundred thousand more from lives of painful and needless\ninvalidism, we must study the methods of the enemy and take the offensive.\nThe two great resources of these enemies lie in their invisibility and their\nability to multiply with incredible rapidity.\nScience has demonstrated ways and means of preventing the more\ndeadly of the disease-producing \"germs\" from reaching those members\nof a community whose physiological defenses will not protect them. It\nis for us as teachers to popularize these demonstrations of science, and to\nencourage effective work in their application to the locahties in which\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nNATIONAL\n\nVITALITY\n\n969\n\nwe live. Can you calculate for your community what it would mean to\nhave no malaria, no typhoid fever, no diphtheria? Can you conceive\nthe possibility of having no tuberculosis, measles, scarlet fever, whooping\ncough, mumps, lockjaw, blood poisoning, pneumonia? If you can determine this in terms of human happiness, industrial efficiency, savings-bank\naccounts, you will realize what it will mean to teach the coming generation\nhow to fight these great enemies, among which the ones mentioned are\nonly those familiar to us in every community.\nThe teachers of today have in their classes the trustees, legislators,\neducators, business men, and most important of all — the mothers — of tomorrow. If they will accept the opportunity before them to make themselves\nfield generals, and their students a well-trained militia for these battles\nof the human race against disease, we may yet realize the statement of\nPasteur when he first conceived the agency of bacteria in the production\nof disease.\nIt is a significant fact that many hundred thousands of dollars are being\nsubscribed annually in the United States for educating the public in health\npreservation. It is still more significant that this money is not being\nspent thru our public schools, which ought to represent the highest efficiency\nin economy and effectiveness of educational work.\nIt is not a valid argument that much of this education deals with the\nadult. If we need schools for the adults, our educational system should\nbe elastic enough, and our educators should be quick enough to foresee\nthe need and provide for it.\nWhen we realize the needlessness of the tremendous sacrifice of life —\nespecially of young adults and infants— we wonder why it is permitted\nIn the words of former Governor Hughes:\nto continue.\nIt is only because we are accustomed to this waste of life and are prone to think\nit is one of the dispensations of Providence, that we go on about our business, little\nthinking of the preventive measures that are possible.\n\nThis is literally true, we do not think the thing out, but if anyone\ndoubts the truth of these things let him go to the cemetery with his local\nregistrar of deaths and have pointed out to him the graves that should\nnot be; then let him go the rounds of the empty homes where struggle,\npoverty, and sadness have replaced independence, joy, and the fullness of\nlife; after he has made his computations let him challenge their accuracy.\nWith the adult public it is necessary to emphasize the economic and\nsocial phases of the problem of national vitality in order to enlist their\nattention and action, but among ourselves as teachers this is not essential\nand because the time is limited I shall speak briefly of only two points\nwhich should be discussed:\n%\n1. What shall we teach about the body and its resistance to disease ?\n2. What shall we teach about sex hygiene?\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "970\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nThere are two classes in the United States: one believing us surrounded\non every side by invisible agents of disease, enemies from which only\ncareful sanitation will save us; the other believing, on the other hand,\nthat we should endeavor to increase the physical efficiency of the human\nbody and with cheerfulness and optimism to the front we need have none\nof these disease germs.\nIt see.ms best to take a middle ground. One would not think of willfully disturbing a rattlesnake to the end of allowing him to place his bite\nupon the body. The difficulty comes in teaching those not studying such\nsubjects, things of danger so minute that it is hard to believe that they\nreally exist. It is true that 50 per cent or liigher, if in perfect health,\ndo escape evil results even tho the germs find an entrance. Nevertheless\nthe only safe course is to surround ourselves with the best conditions.\nAs to the second point, we all know the need. What is wise to teach ?\nThere is no question of today in which there is greater need of instruction.\nEighty-five per cent of our young people leave school to go into the\nindustries, receiving no knowledge in either the home or the school upon\nthis important topic — important because it enters most intimately into\nthe life of every single one of these.\nLet us each and every one do the best that in us lies to bring this problem\nto an early and satisfactory solution.\nTHE TEACHER'S\nFREDERIC\n\nBURK,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nPART\n\nSTATE\n\nIN CONSERVATION\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSAN\n\nFRANCISCO,\n\nCAL.\n\nSome time ago I undertook to say a few kind words to some young\npeople in the act of graduating from high school. What I said to these\nyoung people was germane to the topic we now have before us. Some of\nwhat I said is as follows:\n\"A gaunt old gentleman in a winding-sheet and with a scythe over his\nleft shoulder is now beckoning to us that the time has come for us to turn\nover to you this American earth and the reins of its government and trudge\nalong with him. But we must first make some hasty and apologetic\nexplanations to you. No, don't be apprehensive — ^you can have the reins;\nwe've preserved them for you, but I fear their connection with the government has been cut by some gentlemen who have run off with the government end of them. And as for your inheritance of the earth I may as well be\nfrank with you at once and admit that there is something the matter with\nthat item also. The earth is in sight, but a few gentlemen of our generation have in some way acquired a private title to most of it and I don't\nthink they would like to have you play upon their grass. No, we have\nnot been playing games of chance with them. They just took your property, of which we were trustees, while we were busy pluming ourselves\nupon our war patriotism.\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nPART\n\nIN CONSERVATION\n\n971\n\n\"We have always thought we were doing wonders in the matter of developing the country and so we have. Our fathers turned over to us a thinly\npopulated region east of the Mississippi, while west of that Father of Rivers\nwas merely wild country over which roamed antelope, prairie-dogs, Mormons, buffalo, and Lo, the poor Indian. We shot the antelope for fun,\nkilled the buffaloes for their hides, disciplined the Mormons into more\neconomical habits in contracting marriages, stole Lo's hunting-grounds and\nwhen he made an unseemly fuss about the matter we killed him off in\nvarious ways, humane and otherwise, until now we are proud to show you\nthe entire country in a high state of Christian civilization. Alt ho we have\naccomplished all these wonders we must now admit that if we had been\neconomical in the cutting of the wood and had not ruthlessly destroyed the\nsaplings, there would now be as much timber for your use as there was\nwhen we commenced cutting. As it is, you will be out of wood in about\nthirty years — according to the report of the Forestry Commission.\n*'We dislike to go on with these embarrassing confessions, but you will\nlearn the whole wretched story yourselves sometime and we may as well\ntell you. As for the coal and iron, our fathers left us enough to last for\ntwo or three thousand years if it had been economi cally mined according\nto some system established by law. We regret to tell you that we've\nwasted carelessly and good-humoredly what should have lasted eighteen\nhundred or two thousand years. The coal may hold out another two\nhundred years and the iron one hundred years, but both will come high\nin your time. We wish we did not have to mention the oil and the natural\ngas, but we may as well tell you that we've sucked them out of the earth\nalmost completely and wasted them. Certain pious gentlemen, by a system\nof railroad rebates which we did not have the sense to prevent, drove out\nall competition and they are now selli ng the oil to us and will sell it to you\nat any figure they please. These gentlemen are now generously using what\nthey can't find time to spend, in endowing colleges, churches, and in\nconverting the foreign heathen. I will not speak of your losses of\nwater rights, electric power, public domain, irrigable deserts, or tidewater\nlands; for we don't know ourselves what these losses have been. Probably nothing much that a church mouse wants is left, for we let down the\nbars for the corporations and never asked them even to keep tally on what\nthey carried off.\n\"Dear next generation, such is part of the shameful explanation truth\ncompels us to make to you concerning the waste and loss of your patrimony.\nNo profligate looters of entailed estates ever robbed their posterity more\nliberally and merrily than we have robbed you. We've skimmed the\ncream and have led jolly lives — ^we do sincerely hope you like skimmed\nmilk, and little of it. When you are shivering with the cold in a coalless\ncountry, when you are nursing one blade of grass to grow for you where\ntwo grew for us, when you have ceased automobiling on account of the\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nhigh price of oil, then you'll remember us in our riotous plenty. We've\nrobbed you — ^you, our babes. We took the bread out of your mouths and\nfed it to the vultures who were fattening upon our national dis'honor.\nOur schooling was at fault. And our sins have been the sins of ignorance,\nrather than of willfulness. The schools which our fathers provided for us\ndid not teach us how in time of peace to take care of the wondrous resources\nthey had patriotically wrested from our enemies and still more savage\nnature. Our schools taught us Latin and Greek, school mathematics,\ngrammar, sailor geography, war history, and things of that kind, but never\na word about the wondrous resources of our patrimony nor how to preserve\nit for you.\n\"We bequeath to you our political ideals. We are glad to be separated\nfrom them for they have ever been a source of worry to us. Our fathers\nin politics were a simple-minded folk. They put together a system of\ngovernment which they called a democracy and very properly labeled it a\ngovernment 'by the people and for 'the people.' We have always liked\nthe sound of these words, but we soon discovered that to run such a government as our fathers planned, thinking was necessary — and thinking is\nhard. So, with our genius as inventors of ingenious machinery, we invented\na poHtical machine which does all of our thinking for us by means of wheels.\nMoreover, it does all the rest as well — manufactures slates for the primary,\nvotes for us, taxes us, makes our laws, sells upon commission our public\nand' private rights for messes of pottage and, in fact, does all the things\nand more, for which our simple-minded forefathers invented their cumbersome thought-power democracy. Our fathers made and left us the plans\nand specifications for a democracy of the people. We have made and leave\nto you a despotism of bosses in full operation. Our fathers' schools taught\nus nothing more than our schools have taught you regarding the higher\nideals and the real mechanism of our political institutions. The teaching\nof this knowledge and tricks of practice were left to the ward club, the\ncorner grocery, and the heelers of the street.\n\"In business as in politics our fathers were an extremely simple-minded\nfolk working for what they got, and expecting to get what they worked for.\nBut when we took the helm we promptly threw their artless and naive\nnotions overboard to the fishes. By a few twists of our superior intelligence— we always have been a generation of wonderful inventors — we\nrigged up business contrivances by which some of us got what the others\nof us worked for, and a few concocted a really remarkable recipe by which\nthey capitalized millions from a simple mixture of paper and water together\nwith the money and gullibility of the rest of us. You can perhaps imagine\nthe consuming thirst which, under the circumstances, the rest of us have\ndeveloped to possess this solution or the recipe for its making. But all we\ncan bequsath to you is that which we have — this thirst for getting dollars\nwe have not earned — our great national curse!\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nPART\n\nIN CONSERVATION\n\n973\n\n\"Capital in relation to the nation is like the bunion which grew upon a\nsmall monkey's tail. The monkey finally took to his bed but the bunion\ngrew larger and larger until it finally crowded the monkey out of bed and\nunder the bed, taking complete possession of the downy couch. That is\nwhat the unearned wealth of this nation is doing for us. The solution of\nthe problem is one for civil patriots. We bequeath the problem to you\nunsolved, for we are war patriots and our head gearing is not fitted to this\nkind of task. If the foe were a foreign one and should treat our nation in\nthis uncivil way, we would trounce it into obedience to, and respect for,\nour flag. But the foe is an internal one— we leave the problem to you.\n\"We bequeath unto you our school system — in principle, just as we\nreceived it from our fathers, and they from their fathers backward thru\nthe ringing grooves of time. We do not claim — in verity we cannot in face\nof manifest facts — great usefulness for it. We, as our fathers before us,\nhave been proud of it because it was not useful ! It has ever been an ornament to the skull. It never taught us more than a definition of patriotism,\nand a poor one at that. Our school system taught us dead languages\nexhumed from the graves of the centuries, school mathematics unknown in\nwojld workshops, peculiar types of history and geography which by dealing with useless stuff made us so silly that we never knew enough of things\npresent to take our and your patrimony out of the rain or out of robbers'\nreach. We pass, along to you the same school system — bulwarks of our\nliberties !\n\"Citizens of the next generation, we bequeath you a pretty mess! When\nwe took the American earth from our fathers we had overabundance of\nnatural resources and they threw in a lot of homely but respectable principles as trimmings.\n\"Your fathers were happy, devil-may-care fellows, whose courage, as war\npatriots, you must in justice honor, but who never had any comprehension\nof the meaning of a civil patriot, nor the slightest realization that it required\nany of the qualities of courage, self-sacrifice for the common good, and\nintelligence which in war patriotism we have exemplified. We could afford\nto be devil-may-care. But you cannot be devil-may-care, for, to start with,\nyou can see the bottom of your dinner pails, and as for the principles, these\nare the same by which we have played havoc — it might be a wise precaution for you to send for the garbage man at once.\n\"But we leave you one bequest of value — of inestimable value if you\nwill use it. We leave you this autograph picture of ourselves as a horrible\nexample of the results of attempting to run a government without any\ninstruction in civic patriotism. I once knew a boy who grew into a great\nand mighty man. His stock in trade wa^he horrible example of his father.\nAt each crossroads in life's highway he would stop, read the signs, and then\nremark: 'Ah, that is the road my poor old dad took — I take the other.'\nIf needs be, so let it be with us. Except for this horrible example we leave\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nyou penniless, but if you read the lessons aright you will find enough\nnegative philosophy in it to equip and run three or four governments\nproperly. We have demonstrated incontestably that any democracy cannot be operated except by civil patriots — by men who will give as much\nattention, honesty, and if needs be, self-sacrifice as war patriots give. We\nhave shown that while the phrase 'all men are created equal' may be\ntrue for the baby age, that when the men grow up they will steal the raw\nbones of this equality from the backs of one another unless there are enough\ncivil patriots to hold the equality in its proper place. We have proved by\nthe method reductio ad absurdum that a representative government without\ncivil patriots to do the representing, and to be represented, is merely a\nlion's skin concealing the bared teeth of a hungry despotism. We have\nproved that we can't run a government by machinery in the place of a\npatriotic heart, brain, and sinew, and that machine-made government is\nlike a machine-made egg — it lacks the germ of its species. All this and\nmore has been demonstrated by experience time and time again; but the\nschools have not taught Us or you this important message. Our schools\nhave been too busy teaching us the dative case and that a° = i, to attend\nto such gross, worldly matter.\n^\n\" These seem simple facts and ought to be easily learned, yet this nation\nhas spent a great deal of time, tremendous effort, a heap of money, and all\nyour natural patrimony — and it has not learned them yet. We have been\nso intent in the pursuit of the dollar that we do not earn that we have not\nrealized that we were losing a nation full of honest wealth in order to\ncapture a few dishonest pennies. The old darkey who crawled out upon\nthe limb of a tree in pursuit of a coon and then proceeded to saw off the\nlimb between himself and the trunk of the tree, remarking as he did so,\n' sumfin is goin' to drap,' was not seeking suicide — he was simply thinking\nintently of the coon.\n''Most of us have learned enough about ships at sea to know that it is\nnot the part of safety for ourselves, when we are embarking upon the\nvoyage, to seek to have our poor relations and our political creditors, if\nthey are ignorant of seamanship, given berths as members of the crew;\nwe would not steal the compass even if it was set with diamonds and rubies,\nnor would we unhinge the compass needle even if we were short a toothpick; neither would we bore holes in the ship's bottom in search of fish\nbait; nor would we cut up the sails to make hammocks; and above all\nwe would support the authority of the captain, even if the captain himself\nhad erred, and we would suppress mutiny to the full strength of the yardarm. We would observe all these simple precautions of health, for we have\nsome sense, and whatever expedition of pleasure or profit in which we\nmight engage, we would realize that the bottom of the ship is all there is\nbetween us and the bottom of the sea. We would observe these precautions because we know something about ships at sea. But manifestly, we\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nPART\n\nIN CONSERVATION\n\n975\n\nknow nothing about a ship of state because our generation, while traveling\nin it, has done all these idiotic things above mentioned. But you need not\ndo them over again. One fool in the family is enough. We bequeath to\nyou our experience in the matter, together with the unpaid bill of costs.\nBoth are voluminous. We wish we could also leave our consciences for\nwe should like better company in the long rest that is coming to us —\nconsciences with as many stickers in them as ours are likely to make discomforting grave-fellows.\n\"I have made a most surprising discovery in the latest dictionary in the\ndefinition of 'patriot.' This most recent definition makes no mention\nwhatever of war or fighting in connection with a patriot. It says simply\nthat a patriot is one who loves his country and zealously supports its\nauthority and interests.\n\"According to this revised version, a person would not have to be a\nsoldier at all in order to be a patriot. Why, a congressman, a tax collector, or even a United States senator could be a patriot. We could also\nhave lady patriots. Very few in our generation, I feel sure, ever had this\nnotion of patriotism. From all our schools or texts have ever taught us\nor you, it has always seemed necessary that in order to have real patriotism\nwe must have the roar of battle, flying shot and shell, and a drummer boy\nrescuing a tattered flag. But if this new definition be true, then an equally\ndramatic setting for patriotic tableau would be a public official with his\nhands in his own pockets when he could just as well have them in the\npublic pocket; or a private citizen urging a just and fair measure for the\ncommon good when an unjust and unfair measure would benefit himself\nor his friends; a taxpayer rendering a true account of his taxable property;\na public officer appointing a deputy for reasons of the deputy's fitness for\nhis duties to the government rather than as a reward for questionable\npolitical services; a man or a group of men supporting, laws in the interest\nof a square deal rather than a crooked deal in the interest of a few; a social,\nindustrial, religious, fraternal, or racial class or organization using its\ninfluence to secure laws of justice to all classes in the nation rather than\nto their particular class, to the injury of the others; a newspaper appeaUng\nto the fairness of the people rather than to their rank prejudice; a man,\nwoman, or child obeying the law of the land because it is the law, without\nfirst employing a lawyer or a dynamiter to uproot the law; a confessed\nthief upon the cross who does not try to prove his own innocence by filing\ncharges of arson against the great-grandfather-in-law of the district attorney; a judge upon the bench rendering a decision upon the question of\nlaw without keeping a weather eye upon the interests of the bloated bondholders who elected him to office. Reallv, if we are to admit the new\ndefinition as true, I must pause in the enumeration of patriotic acts for\nshortage of breath.\n** These deeds of civic patriotism, strangely, require more heroism than\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndeeds of war patriotism, for while, as our histories abundantly prove to\nyou, practically every one of our generation could be counted upon to\nmarch up unflinchingly to the mouth of the yawning cannon in the field\nof battle, there are few of us indeed who have stood the test of patriotic\ncourage demanded by these civic duties. War patriotism has been a glut\nupon our market in our generation, but peace patriotism has commanded\nfamine prices. What indeed would this nation have been could we boast\nof our civil patriotism, in our histories, as loudly and as justly as we do of\nour war patriotism! What indeed would this nation have been had our\nschools taught us and you civic patriotism and the conservation of our\nnatural, our civic, and our moral resources instead of the preachments of\ndead prophets!\"\nThat is what I told the youth who are going out in the world to claim\ntheir patrimony. Doubtless they will not profit by it for they have not\nbeen schooled by us properly. But I do believe as a compromise measure\nthey should teach in their schools for the following generation something\nof that generation's patrimony or what there is left of it. The chief, and\nperhaps only, stumbHng-block in the problem of conservation is ignorance\non the part of the people and the absence of a substantial civil patriotism\nand sound citizenship to protect the wealth of the ignorant many from the\nrapacity of the shrewd individual. The schools and colleges should be the\nchief weapons of the people by which this ignorance should be wiped out\nand by which true citizenship should be recruited; and what should these\nschools teach the youth of the land of their various heritages ?\n1. The schools and colleges should gather the knowledge of coal, water, metals,\nforests, power, and other natural resources, and this knowledge should be given unto\nthe youth of the land even if nothing else.\n2. The schools should teach the rising generation their natural rights in public\nutilities and should teach all that experience and wisdom have contributed regarding\ntheir control, regulation, and maintenance for common good.\n3. Especially should the details of facts concerning natural resources and public\nutilities within their own state be taught to the students of the schools.\n4. But knowledge of these facts is useless unless the state thru its citizenship is\ntaught and trained to administer this wealth of the common weal according to the best\neconomy and moral principles of government which, experience and wisdom can develop.\n\nTherefore, what this nation needs are schools, not more schools, but\nschools of a modern type — schools which shall teach the useful in living\nand not that which is ornamental by courtesy of hoary tradition; schools\nwhich shall teach the great problems of today and not the petty gossip of\nforgotten yesterdays; schools which shall minister to the living and shall\nnot be merely monuments to the dead; schools which shall ring with the\nhammer strokes of the world's workshops and not echo the hollow mockeries of school pedantries; schools which shall educate and train citizens,\nin whose custody the health and wealth of the nation and of their children\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF JANITOR\n\nSERVICE\n\n977\n\nmay be trusted, and who will battle as heroically for civic ideals as our\nsoldiers in the past have battled for war ideals.\nThis is what the schools should do for conservation.\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON EFFICIENCY\nSERVICE\n\nOF JANITOR\n\nThe Scientific Basis For Ventilation Standards\nC.-E. A. WINSLOW, associate PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, COLLEGE OF THE CITY\nOF NEW\nYORK, CURATOR\nOF PUBLIC\nHEALTH,\nAMERICAN\nMUSEUM\nOF NATURAL\nHISTORY,\nNEW\nYORK,\nN.Y.\n\nThe whole subject of the effect of atmospheric conditions upon health\nhas undergone radical revision in the last ten years as a result of certain\nsignificant experiments which have been carried out in Germany and England and in the United States. It is necessary, therefore, before discussing\nventilation standards to consider first what atmospheric conditions are\nreally significant from the sanitary and hygienic standpoints.\nThe most obvious of all requirements for human life is, of course, that\nsufficient oxygen should be present to allow for the performance of the function of respiration. Human beings or other animals in a confined space\ngradually consume the oxygen present and replace it with oxidation products,\nof which carbon dioxid is the most typical. Hence it was natural that\nattention should be fixed primarily upon these points, and it is still the\npopular belief that a crowded room is deficient in oxygen. Quantitative\nexperiments soon showed, however, that these particular dangers were not\nof practical importance. The victims of the Black Hole of Calcutta, and of\nthe underground prison at Austerlitz, and the unfortunate passengers\nwho were imprisoned beneath the hatches of the ship \"Londonderry\"\ndid actually perish from oxygen starvation; and the same thing happens\nnow and again to miners and to sewermen who venture into a clogged manhole or other confined space filled with inert gases, and are there asphyxiated.\nNothing of this sort can, however, happen in an ordinary room or under\nnormal conditions of occupancy. The oxygen in the air must be reduced\nfrom 21 per cent to 15 per cent and the carbon dioxid increased from .04\nper cent to 3 per cent before any marked physiologic effect is manifest.\nThese values are never remotely approached in what we consider an\nordinary ill-ventilated room.\nThe next importanjt theory that took possession of sanitarians and\npseudo-sanitarians depended on the assumption that in addition to its\nmore obvious constituents rebreathed air contained a mysterious organic\nemanation of a poisonous nature, which was called \"crowd poison\" or\n\"morbific matter.\" This theory rested primarily on the observed fact\nthat crowded rooms have a foul, stale odor and on some experiments of\nBrown-Sequard's which were later shown to be erroneous.\n\nIt is certainly\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ntrue that to anyone entering an ill- ventilated room from purer outside air\na marked and characteristic odor is apparent. This is probably due not\nto any organic matter discharged from the lungs but to the emanations\nfrom clothing, bodies, and teeth. It is usually not particularly noticeable\nto those who have been within the room during its gradual increase. There\nis no evidence that it exerts any harmful physiologic effects and some\nevidence that it does not. Careful investigations made by physiologists\nof the highest standing have wholly failed to demonstrate any unfavorable\neffects from rebreathed air with all that it contains, provided only that the\ntemperature be kept at a proper level. Benedict and Milner observed\nseventeen different subjects kept for periods varying from two hours to\nthirteen days in a small chamber with a capacity of one hundred and\neighty-nine cubic feet in which the air was changed only slowly while the\ntemperature was kept down from outside. The amount of carbon dioxid\nwas usually over thirty-five parts (or eight to nine times the normal) and\nduring the daytime, when the subject was active, over one hundred parts,\nand at one time reached two hundred and forty parts; and all the ''morbific\nmatter\" or other deleterious entities which usually accompany carbon\ndioxid must have been present in corresponding proportion. Yet there was\nno discomfort whatever, and no detectable disturbance of normal physiologic\nfunctioning as long as the chamber was kept cool. Dr. Leonard Hill has\nrecently placed eight men in a closed chamber of one hundred and six\ncubic feet capacity. At the end of half an hour the wet-bulb temperature\nin the chamber had risen to eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit. The faces of\nthe subjects were congested and they experienced great discomfort; but\ntheir feelings were at once relieved, without changing the air at all, by stirring it up and cooling their bodies by the motion of electric fans within\nthe chamber.\nFrom these experiments, and from similar ones carried out by Fliigge\nand others, we may safely conclude that danger from the chemical constituents of ordinary rebreathed air is in the light of present knowledge so slight\nas to be practically negligible.\nAnother point, which has received more than its due share of popular\nattention, is the possibility of the spread of disease bacteria in air. It\nis common for the \"yellow sanitarian,\" if one may coin a term, to expose\nplates in a schoolroom and show that a great many bacteria fall upon them,\nand then to call upon us all to share his horror. I have been informed that\nat one large New England college the member of the faculty responsible\nfor hygiene and sanitation is accustomed to order the disinfection of any\nclassroom which shows a count beyond a certain limit. As a matter of\nfact, however, the bacteria in air are in overwhelming proportion, good,\nharmless, saprophytic organisms. It is true that tubercle bacilli and some\nother pathogenic germs have occasionally been found in dust and dusty\nair, but rarely and in small numbers.\nWhile many disease germs are not\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF JANITOR\n\nSERVICE\n\n979\n\nimmediately killed by drying, we may be sure from our knowledge of the\ngeneral behavior of parasitic organisms outside the body that the percentage\nreduction in living, virulent germs is rapid. From bacteriologic evidence\nit is clear that air bacteria must be insignificant in their effects, compared\nfrom a quantitative standpoint with the infection carried from person\nto person by many direct means. Dr. Chapin in his admirable book on\nThe Sources and Modes of Infection has shown that cUnical and epidemiological evidence points in the same direction — that the common diseases\nare not easily transmissible thru the air.\nIt is of course true that in coughing, sneezing, or loud speaking a spray\nof often richly infected droplets is discharged, and Dr. W. A. Evans of\nChicago has drawn a moving picture of the danger from an incipient sick\nperson, who runs for a car and just makes the crowded back platform,\npuffing and coughing in the faces of his neighbors. This is dangerous\nenough but it is not air infection. The mouth spray is a local rain which\ndrops quickly to the ground, not a general pollution of ^ the atmosphere.\nIt could not be detected by any analytical methods, and could not be\nremedied by ventilation. It is a kind of direct contact rather than a problem of air pollution.\nThe really important factors which make for health or disease in the\natmosphere are physical rather than chemical or bacteriological. From\nthis standpoint the effect upon the vitality is great, not only of the air we\nbreathe, but of the air which surrounds our bodies. Mr. R. W. Gilbert of\nthe Massachusetts Institute of Technology begins a suggestive article on\n\"The Economics of Factory Ventilation,\" in the Engineering Magazine\nfor December last, as follows:\nWebster's definition of the word \"ventilation\" is \"to air,\" or \"to replace foul air\nby fresh.\" In actual practice, however, ventilation should mean more than this. It\nshould mean the conditioning (jf the air of any inclosed space to the best requirements of\nthe occupants of that space.\n\nIt is not the quantity of air or even the quantity of \"fresh\" air that is\nimportant; it is the physical quality of the air in its relation to the human\nbody that is significant. Our ideal must be the conditioning of the air so\nthat the human machine may operate at the highest level of health and\nefficiency.\nThe chief factors in air conditioning for the living machine, which in\nmost cases far outweigh all others put together, are the temperature and\nthe humidity of the air. It is a curious instance of the way in which we\nneglect the obvious, practical things and attend to the remote and theoretical\nones, that for years more attention has been bestowed on the testing of\nair for carbon dioxid, which was supposed to indicate some mysterious\ndanger, than on the actual, concrete effects of overheating. Yet heat, and\nparticularly heat combined with excessive humidity, is the one condition\nin air that has been proved beyond a doubt to be universally a cause of\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "qSo\n\nnational\n\neducation\n\nassociation\n\n[Science\n\ndiscomfort, inefficiency, and disease. Fliigge and his pupils in Germany,\nand Haldane in England,^ have shown that when the temperature rises to\neighty degrees with moderate humidity or much above seventy degrees with\nhigh humidity, depression, headache, dizziness, and the other symptoms\nassociated with badly ventilated rooms begin to manifest themselves. At\nseventy-eight degrees with saturated air, Haldane found that the temperature\nof the body itself began to rise. The wonderful heat-regulating mechanism,\nwhich enables us to adjust ourselves to our environment, had broken down,\nand an actual state of fever had set in. Overheating and excess of moisture\nis the very worst condition existing in the atmosphere and the very commonest. We all know the difference between our own sensations on a cool,\nbrisk October morning and on a close, muggy dog-day in August, and\nthis feeUng of discomfort is an accurate measure of the physiological damage\nwhich our organism suffers under such conditions. Yet Dr. Helen C. Putnam reported at your meeting a year ago that in six hundred schoolrooms in\nvarious cities sh^ found only two hundred and ten thermometers; that onethird of these were out of order; and that of the remainder, only twenty\nwere below seventy- two degrees, the rest ranging from seventy- two degrees\nto eighty-five degrees in the winter months. It may be seriously questioned\nwhether the schooling of the children in these rooms was not too dearly\nbought at the expense of the physical harm they suffered.\nExcessive humidity in the air works harm in two ways. At a temperature above seventy degrees the body must rely largely on evaporation of\nthe water of perspiration for maintaining its normal temperature. Professor\nTheodore Hough, of the University of Virginia, described the resulting\nphenomena very clearly and concisely -in the American Journal of Public\nHygiene for May, 1910, in the following passage:\nSo long as this perspiration can evaporate readily, there is little difficulty in keeping\noutput equal to production. When, however, owing to high humidity evaporation is\nlessened, blood is rushed in larger quantities to the skin at the expense of the flow to\nother organs; the temperature of the skin is raised and so heat transfer by radiation,\nconduction, and convection is facilitated. The normal temperature of the body is approximately maintained; but it is at the expense of the working efficiency of other organs and\nespecially that of the brain.\nBetween the circulation in the skin and that in the brain, there is a very close correlation; one is generally, if not always, secured at the expense of the other. Thus sleep is\naccompanied by increased cutaneous circulation; waking is preceded by a sudden, marked\ncutaneous constriction. Mental work, especially that involving interest and attention,\nis accompanied by still further limitation of the flow of the blood to the skin. Conversely,\nwhenever the cutaneous vessels are made to dilate, as on the warm, muggy day, the\nquantity of blood flowing through the brain is lessened. In these facts we probably\nfind the true explanation of the dull, heavy feeling, the difficulty of attention, and the\ndiscomfort both of the muggy, summer day and of the crowded, ill-ventilated room. It\nis not impossible, too, that the unfavorable circulatory conditions in other organs as well\n' The literature on this subject is well summarized with references to original sources, by T. R. Crowder,\nin \"A Study of the Ventilation of Sleeping-Cars,\" Archives of Internal Medicine, VII, 85.\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF JANITOR\n\nSERVICE\n\n981\n\nas the disagreeable sensation of an overheated skin contribute to the interference with\nworking-power.\nI would, therefore, conclude that the most important if not the sole cause of the\nacute effects of poor ventilation is the combination of high temperature and high humidity\nwhich then obtains. It is neither of these acting alone but the two working together\nwhich introduce into the system the unfavorable circulatory conditions we have described.\n\nIf the temperature be below sixty-eight degrees, on the other hand, an\nexcess of moisture may exert deleterious effects of a precisely opposite\nkind. Under these conditions the body tends to cool too rapidly rather than\ntoo slowly, and the secretion of perspiration ceases. The moisture in the\nair no longer has any heating effect but, on the other hand, its presence\nraises the specific heat of the atmosphere, increases the amount of heat a\ngiven volume of air will take up from the body by conduction or convection,\nand thus directly exerts a cooling influence on the body. We have thus\nthe somewhat paradoxical condition that excessive atmospheric moisture\nincreases the bad effect of either heat or cold.\nOn the other hand, an atmosphere which contains too little moisture\nis also undesirable. We have very little sound scientific knowledge about\nthe physiological effect of dry air and much that is written by extremists\non the subject is without solid basis. Many persons can, however, testify\nto the discomfort they experience in steam-heated rooms and it is probable,\nas Professor Hough has elsewhere stated, that\nthis is due to the too rapid evaporation of water from the skin and air passages. The\nskin thereby becomes dry and tends to chap, cutaneous nerves are irritated in an unpleasant manner, with more or less disturbance of afifairs in the central nervous system. Especially the drying of the conjunctival and sclerotic seems to be a matter of considerable\nimportance. I suppose, too, that when the skin dries too quickly there is greater tendency\nto the deposition of the solids of perspiration in the ducts of the sweat glands. These\nducts are not flushed out as they should be.\n\nFinally, dust particles in the air have a distinct and well-established\nphysiological significance, not as possible carriers of disease germs, but\nfrom their direct physical effect upon the tissues of the eye and nose and\nthroat. The normal membranes of the body are usually able to defend\nthemselves against invading microbes, but when lacerated and injured by\nsharp dust particles, tubercle bacilli which are latent in many lungs and the\ngerms of minor diseases and inflammations which are present in all normal\nthroats quickly gain the upper hand. The statistics of tuberculosis in\nvarious industries offer the clearest evidence of this, for in the trades like\ngrinding and granite-cutting where the workers are exposed to large quantities of dust, the tuberculosis death-rate may be four or five times the normal.\nPhysicians have often testified, tho without definite statistical evidence,\nto the relation between dust storms and diseases of the eye and naso-pharynx\nand to the beneficial effect of oiling the streets and preventing the dust\nfrom flying. There can be little doubt that the dust in the air of a schoolroom may exercise a considerably harmful effect, particularly when a class\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nis ordered to breath deeply just after filling the air with clouds of it in the\ncourse of their calisthenics.\nThe most important observation which should be made at frequent\nintervals in regard to the atmospheric conditions of a schoolroom is obviously the determination of temperature and humidity. For temperature\nthe ideal instrument is a recording thermometer which gives a complete\nrecord of atmospheric conditions. For the ordinary school, however, this\nwould be too costly and we must usually be content with thermometers of\nthe ordinary pattern. It should be an absolute essential, however, that\nevery schoolroom should have at least one thermometer and that it should\nbe standardized and compared at intervals with an accurate instrument to\nsee that it is in good, working order.\nHumidity is best determined by the use of a wet and dry bulb thermometer, an instrument which depends on the principle that the depression\nof temperature on the wet bulb thermometer as a result of its cooling by\nevaporation is proportional to the humidity of the air. The form of wet\nand dry bulb thermometer recommended by the Committee of the American\nPublic Health Association on Standard Methods for the Examination of\nAir {American Journal of Public Hygiene , XX, 346) is the SUng Psychrometer employed by the United States Weather Bureau. It consists of\ntwo mercurial thermometers, fastened upon an ajuminum back, and\nmounted on a handle by which it can be whirled. This instrument may be\nobtained from Schneider Brothers, of New York City, or from Queen and\nCo., of Philadelphia, and full directions for its use will be found in Bulletin\nNo. 2j^ of the United States Weather Bureau. Stationary wet and dry\nbulb thermometers mounted on a solid backing are unreliable on account\nof their lag and the likelihood that the wet bulb will not be properly\nmoistened and ventilated.\nFor the determination of dust two methods are recommended by the\nCommittee on Standard Methods. When the dust is not very abundant\nthe koniscope, an instrument invented by Professor Aitken, of Glasgow,\nmay be used. It consists of two brass tubes connected with a small airpump. By exhausting the air from one of the tubes, allowing the space to\nbecome saturated with water vapor by evaporation from wet blottingpaper within, and then allowing the moisture to condense upon the dusty\natmosphere under examination, clouds of different degrees of density are\nformed inside the tube, and the approximate number of dust particles can\nbe calculated from the density of the cloud. Where dust is present in\nconsiderable quantities it can be determined by filtering a measured quantity of air thru a filter of granulated sugar, dissolving the sugar and suspending the dust in a known volume of distilled water, and either weighing the\ndust in a Gooch crucible or counting the number of particles in an aliquot\nportion under the microscope. The sugar should have grains between\ntwenty-five hundredths of a millimeter and one millimeter in diameter\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nOF JANITOR\n\nSERVICE\n\n983\n\nand the filtering layer should be one centimeter deep. It may be held\nconveniently in place in a glass tube of one- or two-centimeter bore by a\nperforated stopper and square of bolting-cloth. A suction cylinder of\nmetal with a closely fitting piston or a Roots blower arranged to operate\non the suction principle should be used for collecting the sample.\nIt might be thought from what has been said above that the determination of carbon dioxid could be entirely dispensed with, and some school\nhygienists have taken that position. Personally, I am not prepared to grant\nthat under actual conditions of occupancy no change of air is necessary,\neven if the temperature be kept down. It may be granted that in the laboratory rebreathed air has not been shown to be harmful when the effects\nof heat and humidity are eliminated. Under the practical conditions of\nthe schoolroom, however, it is generally true that with stale air, carbon\ndioxid and heat and humidity and odors, all increase progressively, tho of\ncourse not all necessarily in the same ratio. The practical method of dealing with all these conditions is to change the air; and the change has an\neffect upon comfort which cannot be measured by a thermometer. Where\nthere are no air currents the hot, moist, vitiated air from the body clings\nround us like an \"aerial blanket,\" as Professor Sedgwick has named it,\nand each individual is surrounded by a zone of concentrated discomfort.\nThe delightful sensation of walking or riding against a wind is largely due,\nperhaps, to the dispersion of this foul envelope, and Professor Hill's experiment with the fan in his closed chamber shows how striking this effect may\nbe. Under working conditions (except where electric fans are used in\nsummer) it is the slow or rapid entrance of fresh air from without that\nbreaks up this blanket of foul air. Change of air is therefore practically\nnecessary and carbon dioxid is a useful indicator of the extent to which\nsuch change has occurred. Its determination should not take the place\nof direct observations of temperature and humidity which are the primary\ntests; but as a supplementary test, used along with them, it is most\ninstructive.\nFor the determination of carbon dioxid, with the approximate accuracy\nwhich is amply sufficient for ordinary sanitary purposes, the time method\nof Cohen and Appleyard is the most convenient. It is fully described in the'\nReport of the Committee on Standard Methods to which reference has been\nmade, but its essential features are as follows: Samples are collected by\nthe use of a pair of bottles connected by a siphon, the one in which the\nsample is to be collected being filled with water. Ten cubic centimeters\nof a dilute solution of lime water tinted with phenolphthalein is run into\nthe bottle of air after collection, and vigorously shaken until the color\ndisappears. From the time required for decolorizing, the amount of carbon\ndioxid may be calculated.\nAll the determinations recommended are simple and require comparatively inexpensive apparatus.\nThere is no reason why every room should\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "984\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nnot have its ordinary thermometer and every school its equipment for the\ndetermination of humidity, dust, and carbon dioxid, which might be in the\nhands of the teacher of physics or chemistry, or nature-study, or hygiene.\nIt has required a somewhat extended discussion to present the scientific\nbasis for ventilation standards and when we come at last to the consideration of the standards themselves it is impossible to speak with very great\ndefiniteness. Extended studies of actual conditions in relation to their\neffect upon physical and mental efficiency can alone furnish a sound basis\nfor such standards as we should like to possess. At present almost no such\nstudies have been made under conditions of scientific control which warrant\ntheir acceptance. If members of the National Education Association\nwould co-operate with trained sanitarians and physiologists and psychologists in carrying on such investigations, they would, I believe, render a\nnotable service to science and to education. At present only a few salient\npoints can be tentatively established.\nIn regard to temperature there is one standard which can be fixed with\nconfidence. It is, I think, quite certain that the temperature of the ordinary thermometer should never under any circumstances be permitted\nto pass seventy degrees Fahrenheit. The statistics quoted above from\nDr. Putnam's study show how much even this simple rule is needed. The\nlower limit for persons with ordinary light clothing should probably be\nplaced at sixty-six degrees, for just below this point, as Sedgwick and Hough\nhave emphasized, there is a likelihood of gradual and unnoticed chilling of\na dangerous kind.\nIn regard to humidity it is not possible to speak with the same certainty\nin the light of present knowledge. If the temperature be maintained\nbetween sixty-six and seventy degrees a relative humidity of about 70\nper cent may be considered as a maximum beyond which it is undesirable\nto go. A lower limit may perhaps be tentatively set at 60 per cent altho\nit is not at all certain that the range might not be safely extended to 50\nper cent at the lower and 75 per cent at the upper end of the range. Only\na study of actual schoolroom conditions in their relation to health and\ncomfort and efficiency can settle these points satisfactorily.\nA standard for permissible dustiness is quite beyond the present range of\nour knowledge. Dr. Soper, in the studies made in connection with the New\nYork subway, found fifty-two milligrams of dust per one thousand cubic\nfeet of air as an average for the street air of New York. In the air of\ncordage factories, I have found over five thousand milligrams in the same\nvolume, and Dr. Graham-Rogers found nine thousand six hundred milligrams in the air of certain rooms where pearl-button working was going\non. If more than fifty milligrams of dust are found per one thousand cubic\nfeet of air, the condition is worse than that which obtains in the streets\nof New York, and there is no reason why an inclosed room should not be\nkept freer from dust than the air of a city street.\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTESTS\n\nOF METHODS\n\nOF CLEANING\n\n985\n\nThe standard for carbon dioxid should be made a fairly liberal one, in\nview of the fact that it is to be used not as an index of any mysterious\npoison, but simply as a measure of air change. Taking the normal for city\nair at . 04 per cent it seems reasonable to allow an increase to . 1 2 per cent,\nor three times the normal. This is the standard suggested in recent English reports for several classes of factories and established for the garment\nshops of New York by the Joint Board of Sanitary Control in the Cloak,\nSuit, and Skirt Industry. It means an allowance of seven hundred cubic\nfeet of air per person per hour, about one-fourth of what is required by\nordinary mechanical standards of ventilation, so that it certainly cannot be\nconsidered excessive. On the other hand, in the light of all recent evidence,\nI cannot see that we have the right to insist on more than this, provided\nthat the temperature and humidity be adequately controlled. It is proper\nto require that air shall be changed at least once an hour, which is about\nwhat this amounts to, but chief emphasis must be laid not on the quantity\nof air but on its physical condition.\nThere is one point which may perhaps be emphasized in closing, altho\nit is not a question of standards. That is the importance of \"perflation\"\nor the complete flushing-out of a room at intervals with vigorous drafts of\nfresh, cool air. The gradual air change accomplished by ventilation is\nnot nearly so effective from the physiological standpoint as the opening of\nwindows for five minutes. A gale of wind not only brings general coolness\nbut it breaks up the aerial blanket and gives a new mental tone to mind\nand body which can be attained in no other way. A five-minute period set\naside every two hours for such a flushing-out of the schoolroom can hardly\nfail to bring a good return in the mental effectiveness of the pupils.\n\nBACTERIOLOGICAL\nW. D. FROST\n\nTESTS OF METHODS\n\nOF CLEANING\n\nAND MISS V. A. ARMSTRONG, DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY,\nUNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS.\n\nUSUAL METHODS\n\nAir analysis. — Practically no work has been done, so far as the authors\nare aware, on bacteriological tests of methods of cleaning, altho, of course,\ndeterminations of the number of bacteria which such methods add to the\nair over and above the normal have frequently been made.\nBacteriological air examinations have been common since the work of\nKoch, who introduced a comparative method for analysis.\nThis method is too well known to need description. It gives comparative and not absolute values, but offersm ready means of determining\nthe relative number of bacteria in one place, compared with another, or\nunder different conditions. The air of the open is usually considered as the\nnormal.\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe quantitative methods of air analysis are long and usually unsatisfactory, altho it is possible to obtain quite accurate results.\nThese methods of air analysis are of value, and while it is important to\nknow how many bacteria there are in the air, and the kinds, it is just as\nimportant to know the number and kinds of bacteria which are on the\nfloor, walls, and furniture of a room, since the bacteria in these places may\nreadily and at almost any time get into the air.\nADHESIVE-DISK\n\nMETHOD\n\nA method is here proposed for determining the number of bacteria on\nvarious surfaces. It is believed that determinations of this kind are fundamental to any discussion of the various methods of cleaning.\nIn determining the value of any method of cleaning, what we really\nwant to know is the proportion of dust and bacteria removed from the\nroom by the cleaning process.\nThis is a difficult matter to test bacteriologically, and one which, so far\nas the writers know, has not been attempted before. None of the ordinary\nmethods of bacteriological analysis are applicable. It seemed necessary,\ntherefore, to devise a method. The problem, as it appeared to us, was to\ndetermine the number of bacteria on a given surface of floor or furniture,\nclean it, and then determine the number of bacteria left. In this way it\nwould be possible to determine the cleaning efficiency of a method measured\nin terms of microbes removed.\nThe first method that suggested itself was to wipe a measured area of\nthe surface to be cleaned with a sterile cotton swab moistened in sterile\nwater, the cotton swab to be put into a flask of sterile water, used as the\ndiluting medium. This idea was put into action and definite areas were\nmarked out on the floor and the method tried out. Not just one swab was\nused but a number consecutively until all of the dirt appeared to be taken\nup. It was found impossible, however, to arrive at any definite conclusion as to the number of bacteria present, because of variations in different trials which apparently could not be overcome. While working at\nthis problem one of the writers had occasion to use some surgeon's adhesive\ntape and this suggested the idea that the principle involved here might\nbe made use of in removing bacteria. Various adhesives were tried. The\nmethod which was finally agreed upon is as follows:^\nMethod of using. — Disks of cheesecloth about four inches in diameter are\nsaturated with a 20 per cent solution of gelatin. When these have hardened they can be pressed against the surface to be studied. When they\nare removed they bring the bacteria with them. They are then dissolved\nin slightly warmed water. All this is done in an asceptic manner so that\nall of the bacteria in the water come from the particular area under test.\nThe number of bacteria in the water are easily determined by the ordinary\nplate cultures.\n' A detailed description of the technique is to appear in the Journal of Infectious Diseases (Chicago, III.).\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTESTS OF METHODS\n\nOF CLEANING\n\n987\n\nAccuracy. — In order to prove that these adhesive discs take up the\ngreater part of the bacteria when they are removed from the surface on\nwhich they have been placed, several discs were consecutively applied to\nthe same area. In this way it was shown that these discs removed practically 99 per cent of the bacteria on the surface.\nTESTS ON\n\nDIFFERENT\n\nMETHODS\n\nDirty floor. — ^A study of the bacteria on a small area of a rather dirty\nlaboratory floor showed 11,850 bacteria per sq. cm. In another place, the\ngarret stairs of a dormitory, curiously enough almost exactly the same\nnumber were found, i.e., 11,820. As an average of a number of trials in\nan ordinary room, 1,166 were found. At another time, on a stairway\nwhich had recently been cleaned, 68 bacteria were found as an average of\na number of tests. In a recitation room 331 bacteria were found as an\naverage of six tests, and 91 as an average of two tests in another room. In\nan exceptionally clean house, where a vacuum cleaner had been used for some\nmonths, an average of two different tests showed 84 bacteria per sq. cm.\nDry cloth. — When a dirty floor was cleaned by rubbing it with a dry\ncloth it was found that there were left 160 bacteria per sq. cm.; while in\na closely contiguous area 11,850 bacteria were found per sq. cm.\nHot water. — When another adjacent area was washed with a rag rinsed\nfrom very hot water, the number of bacteria left per sq. cm. was 17.\nDisinfectants. — Near this, another area of the floor was washed with\nmercuric chlorid (i/iooo), rinsed in sterile water and then covered with a\nbell jar to prevent the bacteria of the air from falling upon it while it was\ndrying. This area was found to have from o to 4 bacteria per sq. cm.\nDry Broom. — In order to test the effect of cleaning by an ordinary\nbroom, a moderately clean floor was selected, the number of ^bacteria was\ndetermined per sq. cm., and then the floor was swept in the ordinary way\nand the number of bacteria per sq. cm. remaining was determined. The\nresults obtained are shown in the following table:\nTABLE I\nCleaning Efficiency of an Ordinary Broom\n(bacteria per square centimeter)\nExperiment\n\n14\nof Bacteria After\nNumber of Bacteria Found Number Sweeping\non Floor\n73\n\nI\n2\nt\n\n9\nS\n3\n39\n\n28\n\n4\nAverage\n\nSweeping^\nPercentage\nof Bacteria\nTaken up in\n\n60\n\n77\n48\n\nIt will be seen from this table that a considerable number of bacteria\n90\nare removed, but it is undoubtedly\ntrue that a large portion of these go\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n[Science\n988\ninto the air only to settle again, so that in order to get at the value of\ncleaning by this process it would be necessary to take this fact into consideration. From some experiments which were done in another connection, itwould seem that the number of bacteria which were in the air after\nsweeping, over and above those ordinarily present, were such that seven\nbacteria were falling each sq. cm. per hour, so that it would not be long\nbefore the floor had nearly as many bacteria as before sweeping by this\nmethod if the room were tightly closed.\nOil Broom. — This is a bristle broom with a reservoir above for holding\noil. This oil trickles down thru the center bristles sufficiently to keep the\nbristles moist. In using the broom the dust is rolled up into little balls\nand largely prevented from getting into the air. If such a broom is tested\nby determining the number of bacteria in the air before and after sweeping\nthe results are quite satisfactory, but the point we were trying to determine here was the condition in which the floor was left, and the results\nobtained are shown in the following table:\nTABLE II\nTests Made with a Patent Oil Broom\n(bacteria per square centimeter)\nExperiment\n\nNumber of Bacteria\nFound on Floor\n\nI\n2\n\n620\n\n•?\n\n1,008\n\n363\n\nAverage\n4c\n\n6::;:::.::.;;;.;::\n7\n\nAverage\n8\nQ\n\nlO\n\nAverage\n\n23\n\n595\n13\n\n660\n50s\n8,900\n6,500\n26,600\n\nPercentage\nTaken ofupBacteria\nin\nCleaning\n\nNumber of Bacteria\nAfter Cleaning\n\n19,500\n17,875\n\n4,450\n16,000\n8,600\n11,087\n15,300\n\n4\n4\n3\n\n118\n\n380\n541\n\n37\n\n4\n450 increase\n\nThis table shows that under certain conditions as much as 37 per cent\nof the \"bacteria can be removed from the floor by this broom; that this\nbroom, on the other hand, may actually increase the number is the interesting fact brought our in Experiments 8 to 10 in this table. In this case\nthere was a 450 per cent increase. The broom tested was one that had\nbeen used several times, and an effort was made to clean it thoroly before\nusing. This seems a difficult if not impossible task. The increase was\ndue to the number of bacteria which, in spite of cleaning, still remained\nin the broom.\n\n23\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTESTS\n\nOF METHODS\n\nOF CLEANING\n\n989\n\nSweeping compound. — The sweeping compound used in this experiment was a patented product, crystalline in nature, and is sprinkled on the\nfloor or put in a reservoir on the broom to be swept ahead of the broom.\nThe following table shows the results which were obtained and hardly\nbears out the statement on the package in large letters '*It kills the germs\nand sterilizes your rooms.\"\nTABLE II A\nTests Made with Sweeping Compound and Broom\n(bacteria per square centimeter)\n\nExperiment\nI\n2 .\n9\n\nBacteria Found on\nthe Floor\n\nNumber of Bacteria\nAfter Cleaning\n\nPercentage of Bacteria\nTaken\nup in\nCleaning\n\n126\n1,084\n.\n\n...\n\nAverage\n\n28\n\n448\n608\n936\n442\n98\n\n3\nVacuum cleaners. — When the vacuum-cleaning\nsystem was introduced\na few years ago, it was quite generally believed 53that\nthe sanitary cleaning\n6\nof buildings could be readily accomplished. But in the last few years\nthere have been many different makes put on the market, which vary so\ngreatly in their mechanical efficiency that it would seem desirable to have\nsome criterion for judging of their efficiency from a sanitary standpoint.\nIf they differ greatly in mechanical efficiency they must also differ in\ncleaning power, and it was our purpose to test some of them. We have\nchosen two permanent systems, one in which the vacuum is produced by\nan electric fan, and the other by means of a steam aspirator. Of the portable types eight have been tested, three where the vacuum is produced by\nrapidly revolving fans, two by bellows electrically driven, and two worked\nby hand.\nBoth of the permanent systems studied proved satisfactory from a\nsanitary standpoint, altho their efficiency varied somewhat. One removed\n95 per cent from the floor and the other 79 per cent. Of the portable\ntypes several proved quite efficient, since the different types removed 82\nper cent, 77 per cent, and 57 per cent respectively, due to variations in\nmotive power, manner of construction, shape, size of brushes, etc.\nIn the permanently installed systems bacteria in the dirt are taken out\nof the rooms entirely, and if the discharge pipe is properly located the\nbacteria removed are of no concern. In the portables, however, the condition isvery different. All the portables examined so far have discharged\nthe air directly into the room. In some of^hem the air has been filtered\nor strained thru a bag, in others the dust and bacteria are retained by a\nseries of baffles. It is very evident upon consideration that it is ordinarily\nquite impossible to keep the bacteria from getting back into the room. In\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "990\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nsome of the machines examined the bacteria pass thru very readily, in\nothers it is with greater difficulty, apparently, that their passage is accomplished. The testing of this point has been carried out by means of placing\nculture plates in front of the discharge pipe. And also by sucking dirt\ncontaining B. prodigiosus into the machine and then determining whether\nor not it escapes from the machine, and if so, the distance to which it is\nthrown.\nThe results of one experiment along this line may be cited which shows\nthat the bacteria are discharged into the room in considerable numbers\nand that some of them are actually thrown to a distance of six feet. It has\nbeen demonstrated that B. prodigiosus may be carried from one room and\ndistributed about another by means of these portable cleaners.\nAnd so while it is true that these machines are able to take up the dirt\nand bacteria in varying degrees of perfection, it is also true that they allow\nthe escape of the bacteria contained in the dirt, and hence they may be\nan actual menace to health. It is possible to obtain abundant data to\nwarrant health officers forbidding the use of these machines by traveling\ncleaners, since it must be every evident that if B. prodigiosus can be carried from one room to another, B. tuberculosis could be carried from one\nhouse to another.\nOUR SHORT\nW.\n\nD.\n\nFROST,\n\nCOURSE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nFOR JANITORS\n\nOF WISCONSIN,\n\nMADISON,\n\nWIS.\n\nThe physical development of the child is quite as important as the\nmental development. In order to secure proper progress in the latter\ndirection, a carefully selected, thoroly trained body of teachers is employed.\nPhysical development depends on environmental conditions. Euthenics\nis the handmaid of eugenics. We admit these facts and yet too often\nallow or select persons of mediocre ability with little or no special training\nand usually with absolutely no real knowledge of fundamental facts to\ncontrol the child's physical environment.\nThe janitor is of necessity an important factor in controlling, not only\nthe comfort, but the health of the occupants of any building, and this\nis true especially of schools. It will be quite impossible immediately to\nsupplant the present janitors; it jnight be possible, however, to educate\nthem. In this way it will be possible to create an interest in them for\nhealth matters which does not now exist.\nBecause of ignorance, people as a rule are not interested in matters of\nhygiene, but few people are so lacking in human interest that they will\nnot do all in their power when they really understand their responsibility.\nIt is in this spirit that the matter has been approached at the University of Wisconsin,\nSo far the course outlined below has been pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHORT\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nJANITORS\n\n991\n\nsented to the janitors of a single building, that in which the Department\nof Bacteriology and Hygiene is housed.\nArrangements have been made, however, by which all of the force\nwill receive instruction this next year.\nEveryone who is responsible for the care of a public building ought to\nknow certain fundamental facts about hygiene, such as the principles of\nventilation, heating, and air moisture; the dangers from impure water,\nand the common drinking-cup; the science and art of cleaning, which\nwould include some knowledge of what dust is and its effects on the human\nsystem when inhaled; what air-borne diseases are and their importance;\nand the methods of cleaning, so as to remove dust and bacteria without\ncontaminating the air.\nThe janitor ought also to have enough knowledge of the essentials of\nplumbing to enable him to take proper care of the closets and traps and\nto recognize errors in construction, as well as leaks or injuries; in small\nplaces where there is no general sewerage system, the principles of sewerage\ndisposal ought to be understood. The principles of disinfection and the\nnature and reliability of certain chemicals should be made a part of his\nequipment, and this is especially true of deodorants, so-called, which are\nso frequently used to mask one odor by making another quite as dangerous, since it gives a false idea of security or cleanliness. In certain buildings attended by adults the janitor will need to know of the dangers of\nspit, the means of preventing, and the kinds and care of spittoons. Such\na course as this is outlined below. It should not be technical, can be\npresented in a comparatively few lectures, and will prove interesting to\nthe average janitor, and profitable.\nDiagrams, pictures, and models will be of great service both to the\njanitor and the instructor. In regard to the models, attention may be\ncalled to one illustrating plumbing, in which in the space of a few feet\na two-story building is completely outfitted showing- proper location of\nvarious fixtures, soil-pipe, grease-trap, back-vents, etc. Working models\nof a continuous sand-filter for a water-supply and of a septic tank and\ncontact-beds are also appreciated. The use of certain instruments such\nas the recording thermometer, the hygrometer, and the anemometer ought\nto be taught.\nIf such a simple course as this could be given to the janitors of our\nschools, there is reason to believe that much interest would be awakened\nin the matter of the proper care of children in the schoolrooms and that\nthe actual conditions therein might be much improved.\nLECTURES\n\nON HYGIENE\n\nIDR\n\nJANITORS\n\nJanitors of all public buildings ought to be acquainted with the matters\nsuggested in the following outline:\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "992\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nVentilation —\nThe composition of the air.\nThe relative importance of the various components from a hygienic standpoint,\nincluding the amount of air required, per head, per hour, etc., etc.\nNatural methods of ventilation, including the principles of air movement.\nMechanical methods of ventilation.\nGeneral principles.\nVarious systems.\nIndependence of heating and ventilating systems.\nThe effect of bad air on health, and the importance of pure air in maintaining the\nhealth tone.\nHeating —\nThe necessity for heat.\nThe amount required.\nThe systems of heating and advantages of each.\nThe effect of insufficient heat on health.\nThe effect of too hot rooms on health.\nThe effect of wide fluctuations on health.\nMoisture in the Air —\nMoisture in normal air.\n• Moisture in air of heated rooms.\nEffect on health.\nMethods of testing and modifying humidity.\nWaterDangers from impure water.\nDangers from common drinking-water.\nPrinciples and types of sanitary fountains.\nCleaning —\nDust and its dangers.\nComposition.\nEffect on the system.\nAir-borne diseases.\nMethods of cleaning.\nDry sweeping and dusting.\nUse of dust-layers and dustcloths.\nVacuum cleaner.\nMethods and frequency of washing floors and woodwork.\nPlumbing —\nElementary principles.\nCare of traps and closets.\nPeriodic inspection.\nDisinfectants —\nGeneral principles.Liquid disinfectants.\nGaseous disinfectants.\nDeodorants.\nSpitting —\nDangers from spitting.\nNecessity of preventing.\n—\nSpittoons\nForms.\nCare.\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\nVice-President — Willard S. Small, principal, Eastern High School\nWashington, D.C.\nSecretary — ^William George Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 12, 191 1\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Golden Gate Doric Hall by the president, Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nIn the absence of the secretary, Frank M. Bruce acted as secretary pro tempore.\nThe order of business was reversed by the presiding officer and the Committee on\nNominations was appointed, as follows:\nC. F. Philbrook, superintendent of schools, Bisbee, Ariz,\nG. B. MacGiJlivray, supervising principal, Los Angeles, Cal.\nE. S. Monroe, superintendent of schools, Muskogee, Okla.'\nPapers were then read by Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind., on \"The Ideal School Board from the Superintendent's Point of View\"; by\nWill A. Myers, superintendent of schools, Hartford City, Ind., on \"The Relation of\nIndiana's Accounting Board to Public Schools\"; and by Richard Welling, chairman of\nthe School Citizens' Committee, New York City, on \"Pupil Self-Government as a Training\nfor Citizenship.\"\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thtjesday Forenoon, July 13, 191 1\n\nThe second meeting of the department was called to order at 9:30 a.m. with the\npresident in the chair.\nNormand S. Patton, formerly architect of the Board of Education, Chicago, 111.,\nread a paper on \"The Present-Day Tendencies in School Architecture.\"\nThis was followed by a long discussion.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was then presented, as follows:\nWe, your Committee on Nomination of Officers for the ensuing year, respectfully\nreport as follows:\nFor President — W. A. Wirt, superintendent of schools, Gary, Ind.\nFor Vice-President — Harlan Updegraff, specialist in school administration, Bureau\nof Education, Washington, D.C.\nFor Secretary — William George Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal,\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n•\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was unanimously adopted, and the\nmeeting then adjourned.\nFrank M. Bruce, Secretary pro tempore\n993\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE IDEAL SCHOOL\nLINNAEUS\n\nNEAL\n\nBOARD FROM THE SUPERINTENDENTS\nPOINT OF VIEW\nHINES, SUPERINTENDENT\nCRAWFORDSVILLE, IND.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe organization of the average school board or school committee\npresents many problems. These problems arise largely because men\ninexperienced in school affairs are put in positions of authority on school\nboards and then proceed to direct their schools according to their inexperience. There is no better opportunity in any community for fine and\nenduring work than that furnished by conscientious service on the school\ncommittee. The school board has a great work to perform, for thru it\nthe community makes known its wants in the school line. In fact, every\nschool system that has a live, progressive board at the head of its affairs\nis fortunate indeed. The school expert, as every superintendent ought to\nbe, sometimes tends to look on onjy one side of a question that affects his\ncommunity in a large way. Thinking of only his one line of work, he may\nnot see all the angles at which his activities may touch the public with\nwhich he is laboring. A school board composed of sane, wide-awake\nbusiness men can be of immense service in correcting any mistakes of\njudgment the superintendent may make, or in pointing out the errors in\npolicies he may propose. They can in all business matters be of inestimable value in weighing and deciding what ought to be done. The superintendent that has such a board can count himself fortunate above all\nthings. If he is the sort of a superintendent he ought to be, he will seek\ngladly all the advice he can get from the broad-minded board members\nwith whom he is associated.\nThe present-day tendencies in all parts of the United States where\nthere is any school progress at all are toward school boards with small\nmemberships. Small boards tend to work thru salaried experts rather\nthan thru board committees, as is done in hundreds of school corporations\nwhere large boards exist. Even in the largest citi-es boards should not\nexceed five or perhaps seven in number. Five men of the right type in\nany city in this country can transact all the school board's business and\ndo it better than it is done in hundreds of places where there are large\nboards elected by wards or otherwise and where each member tries to see\nto it that his section of the city gets the best of it and that his political\nparty is not forgotten in appointing teachers and janitors. With small\nboards responsibility can be more easily fixed. There is not so much chance\nfor one member claiming that some other member is responsible for certain\nobjectionable school activities or legislation. The small board must\nstand squarely up to its business and assume all responsibility for its acts.\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nIDEAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\n995\n\nFactions in large boards are better able to shift responsibilities, becloud\nissues, and make nuisances of themselves generally. Small boards, composed of the highest type of business and professional men, and depending\non a corps of salaried experts sufficiently large to do all their school work\nwell, can get the best results in practically all school corporations. Small\nboards come to depend on their superintendents and their assistants. Such\na board can and should act in a critical capacity as to whether the superintendent isgetting proper results. The members should be ready to\nhelp him by advice and otherwise and then, if he fails, they should tell him\nso and look elsewhere for a man to take charge of their schools. No superintendent should offer excuses for failing when he has had the proper help\nand advice from his board, but no cause will lead to a superintendent's\nfailure more quickly than lack of co-operation on the part of his school\nboard. The large board is less likely to understand or appreciate what the\nsuperintendent is trying to do. He is less likely to get the co-operation\nand sympathy that he needs in the trying work of his position. In fact,\nthe large board is in every way inferior to the small board under all ordinary\ncircumstances.\nThe writer of this paper had some business transactions at one time\nwith the school board in an Illinois city of some twenty-five thousand\npeople. There were thirteen members on this board, the thirteenth man\nacting as president and voting in case of a tie. The board was divided\nup into so many committees that each man had to serve on two or three\ndifferent committees. There was a committee on teachers, another on\njanitors, one on schoolroom lighting, one on sanitary conditions generally,\netc. The whole situation was ridiculous and pathetic. The writer became\nespecially interested in that school-board situation. He made some investigation. Sofar as he could find out, not one of those men had any special\nfitness to do the committee work assigned to him, yet each committee took\nitself seriously, went thru its assigned motions, and was jealous of any\ninterference or dictation. A shop foreman, a manufacturer, a retired\ncapitalist, a publisher of a religious paper, a commission man, an extremely\nbusy lawyer, and a few others of scattered occupations composed this\naustere assemblage of scholastic inefficiency. All of these men were upright\ncitizens and successful in their lines of work. The only trouble was that\nthey thought they knew something about their schools when the truth was\nthat they knew little or nothing. In place of posing as experts, they should\nhave turned over all their committee activities to salaried experts and\nthen set themselves up as fair-minded judges of results, which was their\nsole function under the circumstances.\nThe ridiculous features of such a situation can be best brought out by\nmaking a comparison. Suppose that the board of directors of some big\nhospital should decide to take upon itselt the same relative functions that\nare assumed by a large number of school boards thruout the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nThe hospital board would divide itself up into committees, the function of\neach of which would be to take charge of some phase of the actual work\nin the wards and the operating-rooms. One committee would see to the\nlighting of the rooms, another would attend to the ventilation, another\nwould employ the doctors and nurses, another would have charge of the\nadministering of anaesthetics, another would look after the surgical instruments, etc., ad nauseam. Could anything more ridiculous be imagined\nthan such committees, composed of men with no fitness and no training,\nadministering to the needs of the sick and dying ? It may be answered\nthat such a situation is a different matter, that no one would be foolish\nenough to think of conducting a hospital in such a manner and that no\ndoctor that knows anything or has any self-respect would work in such\na hospital as that. To my mind, it is about time for the general public\nto come to the conclusion that directing the public schools is also a different\nmatter. Living, growing human beings, with their lives to be made or\nimmade largely by the schools, need expert direction, unhampered by all\nsorts of officious meddling by people that know little of the schools of\ntoday and their needs. The ideal school board does not seek to take immediate direction of every activity of the schools under its control.\nA matter that has an important bearing on the character of men that\nare elected for membership on a school board is the amount of salary that\neach member receives. If the salaries are small, the men selected are\nlikely to be of a much higher type than if the salaries are large enough\nto attract men of small caliber, who want the money they can get out of\nschool-board service rather than want to serve their communities in the\nsplendid way that is offered to every high-minded, broad-minded board\nmember. The ideal school board is likely to be composed of men serving\nfor small salaries.\nThe ideal board is usually composed of men appointed at large and not\nelected by the people directly. Board members should never be selected to\nrepresent certain districts or wards. Each member should be appointed\nto serve the whole people of his community and not any particular section.\nA man from the seventh ward or the fifteenth ward on a school board is\ninclined to remember the needs of his own district as against the needs of\nthe whole school city. A board member appointed from a particular ward\nwill likely be just about the size of his ward in place of being just about the\nsize of his city. What every board ought to do is to consider the school\nneeds of its whole community and administer to the entire situation as\nseems best for the entire situation. Further, board membership should\nnever be merely a matter of partisan politics in the sense that candidates\ntherefor must become the candidates of particular parties and submit\ntheir claims to the arbitrament of popular elections. If school-board\nmembers are elected at popular elections, then the tendency is for school\nquestions to get into politics, and school questions have no place in politics.\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nIDEAL SCHOOL BOARD\n\n997\n\nSchool-board members should be appointed by mayors, Judges, or city\ncouncils. In this way the schools may be kept more free of politics, better\nmen are likely to be chosen for board memberships, and the people at the\nsame time can have a voice in the selection of board members without that\nselection becoming tangled up with all the issues that politicians usually\nfight over. The experience in this country is undoubtedly against the\nelection of board members by popular vote, altho, of course, there may be\nexceptions to this rule.\nAs to the personnel of school boards, my own opinion is that as a rule,\nmembership should be confined to wide-awake, sane, progressive, business\nand professional men who have business ideas and the tact and energy to\nget the most efiicient work out of superintendent, supervisors, and teachers. The retired business man or the retired man of any sort, who has\nnothing to do but tinker with the actual administration of the schools, had\nbetter be left in private life. On the school boards of this country there\nare now numberless cases of individual board members who actually think\nthat they were put in their positions to exercise expert supervision over\nschoolroom affairs. A prominent citizen in an Indiana gas-belt city,\nduring his years on the school board, was accustomed actually to go into\nthe schoolroom, listen to the recitations and make suggestions to the\nteachers. He had taught school a little while when he was a boy and he\nnever recovered from what he learned, during that time, about teaching\nschool. His hobby was grammar and he used to lead the teachers of that\nsubject a dog's life by his perpetual interference with their work. That\nboard member was a nuisance and should have been legally enjoined, if he\ncould not have been managed any other way, from interfering with the work\nof the schools. One Indiana city at the present time has a board member\nsomething like the worthy mentioned above. He has plenty of money\nand does not work very much. He spends a great deal of his time inspecting the buildings, looking after the janitors, managing the ventilation,\nwatching the teachers at work, and meddling with the work of the schools\ngenerally. He does not know anything about the school business but he\nthinks he does and he is in a position of authority. The teaching force is\nhelpless. The only hopeful sign is that possibly this officious member\nwill be retired at the end of his term. If the intimate history of American\nschool boards were known, many such cases could be enumerated. In\nIndiana, fortunately, such cases are comparatively few. Our school\nboards are small, having only three members, with the exception of Indianapolis and Terre Haute, which have five board members each. The board\nmembers are appointed by city councils with the exception of Indianapolis\nwhere the people elect at large without Regard to politics. The boards\nreceive very small salaries and as a general rule only the best citizens are\nappointed to board memberships. Our boards are high class, with few exceptions. These exceptions because of their scarcity are noted all the more.\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\n998\nThere is no room on any board for a crank, a hobby-rider, or an extremsane administraist of any sort. There needs to be an evenly balanced, school\nvirtue but\ntion of the schools everywhere. There is not a single\nmember;\nboard\nthat can be made objectionable in the hands of a cranky\nMedical inspection, cleanliness, the teaching of temperance, the teaching\nof patriotism, each and every virtue and rule of conduct can be run into\nthe ground and made ridiculous and fairly loathsome to the pupils and\nteachers alike, if lop-sided board members or superintendents emphasize\none or a few things to the perpetual exclusion of the rest. What we need\nis an all-around administration of the schools, that takes due care of\neverything that is fine and worth while. Almost every community has\nsome citizen that would like to get on the school board so that he could\nrevolutionize things. One man would run to seed on handwork, another\nwould teach nothing but the three R's, another would emphasize the\nclassics, etc. One prominent citizen in a certain city wants to be on the\nschool board so that he can abolish the position of superintendent of\nHe considers the superintendent as purely\nschools in his community.\nornamental and would have the incumbent forced out and put at some\nHe has said over and over again that the ward\nuseful employment.\nprincipals can run the schools by having meetings and voting on all matters\nthat the superintendent usually disposes of. Fortunately for the schools\nof our country, extremists as a rule do not find places on our school boards.\nThe question of whether women shall serve on school boards is being\npushed to the front in many parts of our country. It is contended that\nwomen members of boards can deal better with the schools since most of\nthe teachers are women and all of the pupils are children.\nThe thought\nis that women understand naturally and instinctively the problems of the\nschool better than men do. The thought that women would make better\nboard members than men has its source largely in the erroneous notion\nthat the board member's business is to deal directly with schoolroom\nproblems, have conferences with the teachers and pupils and do many\nthings that a woman can do as well as a man. The board member, according to such ideas, is actually to supervise the work of the schools.\nThe\ntruth of the matter is that the affairs of the school board are largely business matters. The fixing of tax rates, the distribution of funds, the erection of buildings, the providing for repairs to buildings, listening to complaints ofcitizens, buying suppHes, hiring janitors, etc., constitute the\ngreatest part of the school board's business. The average refined, sensitive woman is not fitted in any way to deal with such things. There are\nexceptions, of course, but not enough of them to prove the contrary of the\nstatement that the average woman has little business on a school board.\nThe movement for women board members is a part of the more or less\nhysterical movement over the country, looking to thrusting women into\nevery conceivable position from heaving coal to the presidency of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nIDEAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\n999\n\nUnited States. The truth of the matter is that women as a rule are far\nbetter fitted by nature for positions in the schools as supervisors, principals, and superintendents. In these positions they can come into actual\ncontact with teachers and pupils and do the good that many women think\nthey could do if they were board members. A woman superintendent\nof schools, if she is of the right sort, can do a great work, but as a board\nmember she is likely to tire soon of the only work she can do without interfering with the actual working of the schools with which she is connected.\nThe ideal board member never uses his position to further his own\nselfish ends. One Ohio board member uses his position to sell shoes. The\nemployee of the schools that does not buy shoes in his store can depend on\nnot getting his vote for reappointment. There are cases without number\nwhere teachers are made to feel that they must give their business to board\nmembers, that they must buy groceries and all the necessities of lite of\nsomeone on' the board of education. This sort of brow-beating and graft\nis too small and contemptible to believe possible. It ought to be against\nthe law in some states for any teacher or other employee of any school\nsystem to make any purchase of any sort of any board member. Grafting off of teachers has been carried so far in some instances in some states\nthat teachers have been required to pay for their appointments, cash in\nhand. Board members have been known also to make their teachers\nunderstand that the members' children must be favored and promoted\nwhether worthy or not. Recently there came into the writer's own schools\nthree boys. They had been attending school elsewhere. Time showed\nthat every one of them was not prepared to do the work of the grade to\nwhich he had been promoted in the other schools. Investigation developed\nthe fact that their father had been a member of the board in the town from\nwhich the family came. Being a firm man and being persuaded that his\nboys were as smart as other children, they were pushed ahead by the\nteachers because the father wanted them pushed ahead. The youngest\nof the three boys is at least three or four years ahead of where he ought to\nbe, the next one about two years, while the oldest one can hardly hold\nh'is\nin the grade to which he was promoted. So much for schoolboardowndictation.\nThe ideal board member never tries to thrust anyone that is unfit into\na teacher's or other position. Favorites and friends are not shoved into\nplaces for which they are not prepared. Last year one Indiana school\nboard put into two high-school positions, over the determined opposition\nof the superintendent, two young girls who had just completed courses\nin ''finishing\" schools. They were totally unfitted for the work but their\nfathers were influential and were friendly politically and otherwise to the\nboard. The year's work of these two girls was a miserable failure and soon\nbecame a joke. Even the board members saw the situation and let these\ntwo girls out this last spring.\nThis kind of a story is one of the oldest in\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "1000\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nschool-board annals. Politics is one of the most familiar forces in many\nplaces in the appointment of teachers and janitors. One school board a\nfew years ago saw to it that all the men teachers in its employ attended\nall the Republican conventions in that county and whooped it for factional\ncandidates. In cities without number no man can receive an appointment as janitor unless he belongs to the same political party as the majority\nof the board. In many places even the men teachers cannot receive\nappointments unless they are \"right\" politically. T\\it first great question\nis politics — the second is as to whether the candidates can fill their positions.\nSo-called religious and church connections also often play a prominent part\nin school affairs. A number of years ago the writer wrote to a friend in an\nOhio city about a certain position in a high school. The reply came back\n\" No Methodist need apply.\" The inquiry went no further as the applicant\nwas a Methodist. There was never a question as to his fitness for the position. In another city for a long time no one but a Methodist could be\nelected superintendent. That was the first question. The second was\nas to whether he was married. The third was as to whether he was all\n\"right\" politically. Whether that board ever got as far as asking anything about the preparation of the appHcant for the work he was supposed\nto do, I do not know. In a certain small city, for a number of years, the\nPresbyterians have been dominant on the school board and the corps of\nteachers up to this summer has been largely of the same faith. The\nMethodists have now secured control of the board and they have announced their policy of hiring a corps that belongs to the \"right\" church.\nThe superintendent and high-school principal were the first to go and the\nrest have doubtless gone by this time. Such cases need no comment. It\nis easy enough to guess as to the kind of schools that exist in communities\nwhere religion and politics are the dominant standards in the selection\nof teachers. The ideal board never asks any questions as to the religion\nor politics of any applicant. The ideal board asks only: \" Does the applicant live a clean life and can he do the work required ?\"\nAnother element in school-board affairs in many states is the influence\nof certain book companies. Happily in Indiana book companies have\nnothing whatever to do with school-board affairs. Book agents never\ncall on board members. All our grade books are selected by the State\nBoard of Education and the state board also makes recommendations\nas to selected lists of high-school texts. No book company undertakes to\ndictate appointments of teachers anywhere in Indiana. It is not so in\nsome states. Book companies step into local politics, elect board members\nand then appropriate all the adoptions of textbooks. A certain Ohio\nsuperintendent lost his position this last spring. When a member of the\nboard was asked about the matter, he replied: \"I don't think he treated\nthe company right.\" The superintendent had been brave enough to\nthink that a certain high-school text was the one he needed in his school —\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nIDEAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\nlooi\n\na text that was not published by the company that owns that community —\nbody, soul, and school board. In some states the school-board and bookcompany situation is something deplorable. No good schools can exist\nwhere a book company steps in and dictates adoptions and appointments.\nOccasionally it happens that some man totally unfitted either by education or experience for school-board service gets such a place. The\nwhirligig of politics in school affairs some little time ago placed an ignorant\nblacksmith on a certain Ohio board. After his election he was put on the\nboard committee to select textbooks. He had to pass on the merits of\ntexts in Latin, mathematics, etc. He barely knew how to read and\nwrite. A book man who was interested in Latin texts told me that he\nwent to that city to look sifter an adoption. He was compelled to seek an\ninterview with the blacksmith who while shoeing a horse aired his ignorance\nof books in general. The book man soon found out that the board member\nwas being guided by what his boy thought of the high-school texts. The\nboy was a student in the high school. The book man sought the boy, cultivated his acquaintance and told the boy what a fine Latin book the agent\nwanted to put into the liigh school. The result of the whole disgusting\nbusiness was that the Latin book was adopted on the judgment of an\nimmature and callow youth who knew nothing whatever about the merits\nof textbooks. Instances of this kind are likely to happen in any place\nwhere standards other than fitness rule in the selection of members of\nschool boards, the adoption of textbooks, and the appointment of teachers.\nPoliticians of a low sort, saloon-keepers, and kindred spirits have no\nplace on school boards. Men that once taught school and have never\nlearned anything about the business since had better not be placed on\nschool boards. Men who at some time have had school-board experience\nand who think the schools ought to be conducted now just as they were\nat that other time ought to stay off of school boards. As has been said\nbefore, the ideal board member is the man that has business ideas, is sane,\nbroad-minded, free from political and denominational influences so far as\nthe schools are concerned, is progressive, wants only the best things for\nhis schools, does not favor the appointment of any person that is unfit,\nand has an eye single to the welfare of the schools imder his control. The\nideal board member cannot be swerved from his purpose of doing his duty\nwholly and fully. The ideal board member does not think that just anybody with a little training can act as superintendent of schools. The ideal\nboard member is not afraid of the expert in school affairs. He believes in\nplenty of training and experience in the school man. He extends to the\nsuperintendent the broad sympathy that gets the best out of the superintendent and makes him glad that he is^alive and has the privilege of\nworking for such a fine board as he has.\nThe school boards of this country as a class need higher ideals as to\ntheir service and usefulness. They need to take school-board journals and\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "I002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nteachers' journals and keep up with the times. They need to remember\nthat they are serving the people in the highest way. They need further to\nremember the fact that oftentimes they will be misrepresented and misunderstood. Their calling is a high one and worthy of the best work of\nour best citizenship.\nThis paper has contained much of criticism. It would not be complete without saying that the criticisms contained do not apply to all\nschool boards, not even to a big percentage of them in my own state.\nNothing herein said has been said out of a spirit of bitterness because of\nexperience with poor board members. All the boards that the writer has\ndealt with have been men of the highest type of citizenship, working long\nand patiently, and keeping the highest ideals before them. Not one of\nthem has ever asked as to the pohtics or religion of an appointee. All of\nthem have favored the highest possible wages and the best working conditions. Not a single selfish vote has ever prevailed in the board meetings\nthat the writer has officially attended. Every board member has served\nat a sacrifice of time and money. The writer's school board at present\nis composed entirely of college graduates. It is no idle compliment, paid\nin an effort to flatter or to secure favor, but the writer wishes that every\nsuperintendent in the land had a school board so fair-minded, so square,\nso progressive, and so efficient generally as the one with which it has been\nhis rare privilege to work thru these splendid years.\nTHE RELATION\nW.\n\nA.\n\nMYERS,\n\nOF THE INDIANA ACCOUNTING\nTO PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nHARTFORD\n\nBOARD\nCITY,\n\nIND.\n\nThe department of inspection and supervision of public offices in Indiana\nwas created by an act of the Indiana legislature in March, 1909. The work\nof this department is directed by the state board of accounts, consisting\nof the governor, the auditor of state, and the state examiner. The principal\nofficer of this department is the state examiner, who is the executive and\nadministrative officer of the board. He is a skillful accountant and versed\nin public accounting. He is the force that has stirred things in Indiana.\nThere are two deputy examiners, appointed by the governer; a chief clerk\nwith fifteen clerical assistants, appointed by the chief examiner, and a\nforce of fifty- two \"field examiners,\" the law permitting the appointment of\none hundred. The field examiners are skilled accountants, and, while they\nare appointed by the state examiner from a list of persons made eligible\nthru competitive examination, they are selected also for their ability to\nferret out errors, frauds, and crookedness in the accounts examined. The\naccounting board has not been in existence long enough to put into effective\noperation all the powers granted it under the law creating it, or to demonstrate fully its usefulness.\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDIANA\n\nACCOUNTING\n\nBOARD\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1003\n\nThe work of the accounting board covers every public office, public\nofficer, public institution, and public-service industry that receives, disburses, handles, or uses public funds. Thus township trustees, school\nboards in cities and towns, and school commissioners in the larger cities all\ncome under the inspection and supervision of the accounting board. Every\nrelation of this board with the public schools is one directly or indirectly\nconnected with the management of the school funds. Directly, it touches\nevery financial transaction of every public-school officer. Indirectly, it\nbears on every phase of his public conduct. The field examiners make a\ncareful inspection of every account and report thereon to the state examiner.\nIf the report shows any school trustee or treasurer of any school board\nshort in his accounts, action may be had to recover the amount. This\naction under the original law rested with the state's attorney-general.\nUnder the amendment of 19 11 it rests with the county prosecuting attorney.\nThe amendment also authorizes the examiner under certain conditions to\nmake settlement.\nThe work of the board has been in two directions — one retrospective and\ncritical, the other prospective and constructive. The field examiners are\nsent out two by two to do their work. They have examined the accounts of\nreceipts and expenditures of public-school money handled by the 1,017\ntownship trustees, and many of the school boards, covering a period of from\nfour to six years, in some instances going as far back as ten years. They\nhave brought to light many questionable and illegal transactions. Only a\nfew typical illustrations out of scores can be given: One trustee forged a\nreceipt for several hundred dollars' worth of school supplies that had never\nbeen bought. Another raised a receipt of $3. 15 to $13.15 by inserting\nthe figure \"i\" before the \"3\" and awkwardly adding *'teen\" to the word\n''three.\" Investigations were made into funds misappropriated, diverted,\nand unaccounted for. One trustee's books showed that he had paid a teacher\n$445.00 for his services, whereas his contract and his sworn statement\nshowed that $345 . 00 was the amount received. Another trustee in a rich\ntownship failed to account for over three thousand dollars of special school\nfunds.\n■\n\nThe attorney-general, acting on the information set forth in the reports\nof the field examiners, has brought suits to recover these illegal and improper\ndiversions of the public funds.\nMany of these accounts have been paid;\nthe local proselitigation, while others are awaiting action by\nare in\nothers cuting\nI\nattorneys under the amended law.\nThe permanent school fund, a part of which is made up of the surplus\nrevenue distributed to the states by President Andrew Jackson, is distributed among the counties of the state tt) be loaned on first mortgage.\nIt is the duty of the county auditor to transact these loans. Many auditors\nhad not made these loans, thus leaving the county to pay the interest due\nto the state, while other auditors had permitted the loans to lapse or to stand\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "I004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\non property much depreciated in value. No investigation into these loans\nand the status of these funds had been made since 1866 until the state\nboard of accounts examined into them within the past eighteen months.\nThey have now been placed on a \"live\" and proper basis.\nThru the work of the examiners large amounts of taxable property\nmarked \"exempt from taxation\" have been placed on the tax duplicates,\nthus increasing both the local and state school revenue. One instance\nout of many will illustrate this : The county duplicate valuation of a certain\nman's property in Lawrence County in 1904 was $50,247 .00, while the city\nduplicate valuation in the city in which he lived and in which the tax-rate\nwas high was only $26,166.00 — -a difference of $24,108.00, making a\ndifference in his taxes for that year of $225.00.\nMany forms of deceit and petty graft have been exposed by the field\nexaminers. While most of the school officials have kept fairly correct and\naccurate accounts of the funds in their charge, the work of the accounting\nboard has revealed a condition of poor, careless, inaccurate, slip-shod\nmethods of keeping accounts.\nActing on the facts and conditions revealed in these examinations the\naccounting board began a constructive campaign to bring order out of\nchaos. It first devised a simple systematic method of keeping accounts\nfor the township trustees. It will devise later, as it finds time, similar\nmethods for the school boards of towns and cities. It has established\nuniformity of accounts for all funds of the same class. This causes every\ntrustee to keep a separate and accurate account of each fund. Much of\nthe chaotic condition existing has been due to the fact that there was no\nestablished standard, and to the fact that trustees were ignorant of the necessity of keeping a careful^ and separate account of each fund.\nA system of reports is required of each school trustee and school board\nto the state examiner. This includes, among other reports, inventories of\nschool properties, the tax levies and appropriation by the township advisory\nboard for tuition, special school, and bonding fund, and the trustee's estimate for the same items. Copies of all notices for contracts, for bids\nfor supplies, and for materials of any kind, as well as copies of all bids\nsubmitted for these things, must be sent to the state examiner. The trustee\nalso sends to the state examiner a copy of the accepted bid. A form containing aclassified list of all supplies has been arranged by the state examiner.\nThis classified list includes everything needed for school purposes. All\nsuccessful bidders must give bond and make oath that if the price of any\narticle is reduced to any other purchaser, it must also be reduced to the\npurchaser under the bid. Thus it will be seen that the state examiner has\na check on every item of expenditure of the trustee.\nAccounts are examined yearly without notice. By the new system of\nkeeping accounts and by the system of reports indicated above, the examination of the books of any officer can be quickly and accurately made and the\nirregularities promptly detected.\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSELF-GOVERNMENT\n\nAS\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n1005\n\nAll fines and forfeitures of bonds and recognizances are added to the\npermanent school fund of the state. Many of these fines and forfeitures in\nthe courts of justices of the peace, city mayors, and city judges were not\nreported, and many others were illegally remitted. The permanent school\nfund in this manner lost annually many thousands of dollars. Since the\naccounting board has taken hold of this matter and prescribed regular\nand uniform reports, all fines and forfeitures are promptly reported and\npaid into the common-school fund.\nPrior to the operation of the accounting law, school teachers in the rural\ncommunities and the smaller towns were often not paid their wages at regular intervals but were paid portions of their salary at whatever irregular\ntimes they might request them. Now they are paid monthly by a regular\nprescribed form of voucher.\nThe effect of the work of the accounting board has been to promote\nthe wise and economical expenditures of school money. A comparative\nstatement of expenditures of school money in the townships alone in the\nstate in 1908, the year previous to the taking effect of the accounting law,\nwith that of 1909, the first year of the law's operation, shows a decrease of\n$207,175.00 in the expenditures from the special school fund. Altho less\nmoney was expended, better equipment and supplies for the schools were\nprocured, because every dealer had to submit a bid at a definite price for\neach article of a standard value or grade. The period of unnecessary and\nuseless supplies has ended and the day of the persuasive agent with the\nenticing article at a fancy price has passed. It is true in some instances\nthat the law has hindered the expenditure of money for necessary and\nproper supplies because of the timidity of some school officials who do not\nunderstand the law. The accounting board co-operates, advises, and\nsuggests. Its work has befen wholesome and good in the administration of\nthe school fund of the state. The law has proven, in the brief time of two\nyears, to be a wise and useful one.\nPUPIL SELF-GOVERNMENT\nRICHARD\n\nWELLING,\n\nAS A TRAINING\n\nFOR CITIZENSHIP\n\nCHAIRMAN, SCHOOL CITIZENS' COMMITTEE,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe School Citizens' Committee is glad of this opportunity to lay its\ncase before specialists in school administration. Eight years ago I addressed\nthe general body of this Association on \"Training for Citizenship in the\nSchools\" and while there seemed to be a consensus of opinion at that\nmeeting in favor of specific preparation for citizenship it does not seem\nto have resulted in any widespread effort to improve civic training. Indeed,\nin this year, 191 1, our committee finds schoW officials in the main either\napathetic toward the subject or vigorously opposed to the principle we\nadvocate. To the members of this Department this problem is presented\nanew and from you we expect a frank discussion.\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "I006\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nOur point of view is that of citizens interested in the pubHc schools.\nOur interest is the result of a somewhat extended experience in political\nmovements. It is alarming to realize how little the American people are\nconcerned with their public affairs. ' In the few days preceding elections\nthey are much aroused about measures and men. But when the great\nday has passed there is a general sigh of relief that \"it's a good thing it\ncomes only once a year.\" The only other events that rouse them from\ntheir civic slumber are the prosecution of public officials and the uncovering\nof graft. In the absence of these, the average American citizen devotes\nhimself without interruption to his personal affairs. This is what is known\nas public apathy, and instead of its being the object of attack from all\ncitadels of progress, it is looked upon as an elemental fact of civic life.\nWriters, preachers, teachers, publicists, all agree that the greatest asset\nof the political boss and the greatest obstacle to a purer and more enlightened democracy is the apathy of the mass of citizens. We do not ask\nourselves often enough wherein lies the cause of this apathy. Believing\nthe schools were largely to blame, this committee instituted an inquiry\nsome years ago to ascertain what they were doing to prepare the youth\nfor the responsibilities of a democracy. We found the study of books on\ncivics containing the structure and functions of government practically\nthe only attention given to this subject.\nOf course, to expect good citizenship to result from such study would\nbe as reasonable as to look for a proficient engineer among men who had absorbed all the book information about engines but who had never seen one.\nLet me make our position perfectly clear. We believe that the general\ntone of citizenship is low because public education has not yet seriously\nattempted the training of youth for its future place in the commonwealth.\nThis was the ideal of all the great ancient states: Judea, Sparta, Athens,\nand Rome. It is urged that the proper development of the individual\nwill carry with it that community-sense which is the foundation of a democracy. Perhaps it ought to do so but the fact remains that it has not done\nso. This we know — that in the main, our people are lacking in a true\nconception of the benefits of democracy; and this we believe — that by\npermitting the pupils in the school to share in its government they will\nbecome habituated to democratic living.\nThis solution is not put forward as a panacea, but we do believe it to\nbe an efficient method of giving the pupils a habit of mind that will consider the public business a matter of the private citizen's interest.\nWe advocate the vitalization of civics by some form of pupil co-operation. We believe in this as a principle of life. We advocate no one\nmethod. We know of forty schools organized upon differing forms of\npupil co-operation and each has a method of its own. The principle must\nbe applied thru the agency of whatever form fits the needs of a given\nlocality.\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSELF-GOVERNMENT\n\nAS\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n1007\n\nForty principals report their schools working under different forms of\npupil co-operation. Five thousand pupils in the forty schools — while\ncriticizing with admirable frankness some of the shortcomings they have\nnoticed — respond with zest and with understanding as to the part they\nare allowed to take in the government of their schools.\nWe advocate some form of pupil co-operation with a citizenship and\nelected officials in the last three years of the elementary school and thruout the high school. We believe that these seven years of training in\ndemocratic living will so accustom the pupils to sharing their common\nbusiness that when they come to man's estate they will naturally take an\neffective part in public affairs.\nOur efforts to inaugurate this system have brought forth many objections from teachers, principals, and superintendents. These objections\nwere collected and submitted to a principal who has conducted a school\nstate for five years. He has answered the objections out of his experience,\nand I submit both objections and answers for your consideration.\nObjection No. i. — Pupil co-operation calls for a mental development that children\ndo not possess. Neither is it desirable that children should become legislative, judicial,\nand executive. We want to keep . them young as long as we can.\nAnswer. — We have found the pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth years all\nnormally developed, able to conduct their own afifairs — under judicious supervision. As\nfor the contention that co-operation induces precocity, it is imfoimded. The children,\nboth oflficers and citizens, are thoroly normal, healthy, and sport-loving young Americans,\nand, I may add, leaders in general athletics.\nObjection No. 2. — Children, when vested with power, become arrogant.\nAnswer. — Five years of pupil co-operation have failed to bring forth a domineering\nstate official.\nObjection No. 3. — In the last analysis the supervision necessary makes mere\npuppets of the children.\nAnswer. — ^Judicious supervision exercised along the lines of friendly control has\nquite the contrary effect. Pupils, teachers, and principal become co-workers and there\nis a mutual exchange of suggestions that is helpful to all. Initiative is fostered in the\npupils and they experience the miracle of co-operative action.\nObjection No. 4. — The machinery is so elaborate that the purpose is destroyed.\nAnswer. — Yes, if the machinery is so elaborate, this is true; but it need not be, and\nin successful systems it is not. This objection is founded on the erroneous idea that\npupil co-operation is a fixed plan that cannot be modified. Every principal must work out\nher or his own plan — any other- will be liable to failure.\nObjection No. 5. — The energy expended is not worth while.\nAnswer. — If a wealth of school spirit and an attitude of co-operation on the part of\npupils and teachers for the welfare of the school state is not worth while, is anything in\nthis world worth while ?\nObjection No. 6. — Pupil co-operation is simply for show; it cannot take care of\nthose serious cases, e.g., thievery, etc., which come up in every school.\nAnswer. — This objection supposes that the entire government of the school is in the\nhands of the pupils. Rather is pupil government an auxiliary of the regularly constituted school regime, and makes the handling of untoward events a simpler procedure\nthan usual.\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "I008\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nObjection No. 7. — The children of our day are more in need of respect for authority\nthan the exercise of it.\nAnswer. — ^Why? The children of our day have been quickened by the inquiring\nspirit of our times and are quick to detect the shallowness of the autocratic system.\nBut where they are trained to a rational respect for authority thru a realization of the\nnecessity of it and the participation in the exercise of it, their respect and loyalty become\nunshakable.\nObjection No. 8. — Pupil co-operation destroys one of the greatest influences of\nthe school — the principal's and teachers' personal influence.\nAnswer. — ^Thru five years the principal and teachers and pupils have been brought\nconstantly into closer and more efficient co-operation.\nObjection No. g. — ^The activities of self-government are mere play. The children\nrealize that the principal and teachers constitute the real governing power of the school.\nAnswer. — In a well-organized system the jurisdiction of the pupils is clearly defined,\nand realized, and lived up to; that they know an appeal will always lie to the principal\nis only a safeguard against undue punishments. The children, of course, enjoy elections\nand legislating, but what objection is there to that ? Their characters are being molded\nfor democratic living; and are being molded effectively and joyfully. What more can\none ask of an educational method ?\nObjection No. 10. — ^We have self-government without the machinery. Our children\nare orderly, polite, and considerate. We do not need legislatures, courts, police, etc.\nAnswer. — ^And when the children leave the school they will continue to be orderly,\npolite, and considerate. Each will go his way and work out his own salvation, thinking\nthat the government of his city and state and nation is to be left to the poUticians. And\nwhen he awakes to the fact that the politicians are in the governing business for what\nthey can get out of it and he undertakes to ameliorate conditions by enlisting the interest\nof his neighbors and friends he will find them preoccupied and apathetic. Pupil cooperation aims to make apathetic citizenship militant.\nObjection No. 11. — ^There are so many new and desirable suggestions offered for\nimproving the schools that we hesitate to adopt this before we estimate its relative\nimportance.\nAnswer. — Pupil self-government does not compete with vocational training, school\ngardens, and other suggested additions to the curricula. Rather it supplements all\nschool work by putting the pupils on a sounder basis for effective work in every branch\nof study. Under the conventional school regime, regulations and improvements come\nfrom the principal's office. With pupil co-operation each child feels a responsibility\nfor the common welfare and feels free to \"speak up,\" to correct a defect, or to suggest\nan improvement.\nObjection No. 12. — It takes up too much time.\nAnswer. — It takes five minutes of school time for voting at the beginning of the term.\nThe time given to it by the teacher in charge or the principal (about two hours a week\nafter school) is a voluntary offering such as is given to athletics, clubs, school orchestras,\nand other extra class activities.\n\nThe idea has passed the experimental stage. Whether it be the Brownlee system, which emphasizes the prehminary character-training side of\nself-government; the Ray system, which employs a Roman form of selfgovernment; the school-city plan, which applies the principle thru the\norganization of a modified municipal government; the school state, the\nschool country, the student council, the commission plan, or whatever other\nplan may be devised, the vitalization of civics is a growing factor in the\nschools.\nThe pity of it is that it is not growing faster.\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1009\n\nManual training, drawing, chemistry, physics, dancing, are taught by\naction. All these train for individual progress. But civics, the one subject to which the community can look for a direct return for its support, is\nconfined to the perfunctory perusal of the dead letter. Do you think that\nfrom the standpoint of citizenship our public education has been a paying\ninvestment ?\nLet me ask you what actual preparation for civic life has the young\nman had who is approaching his first vote ?\nDo you suppose that spectacles such as the vote selling in Illinois, in\nIndiana, in Ohio, and in Putnam County, N.Y., could take place if those\npeople had been trained to realize the value and the privilege of the vote ?\nThe present situation is this: that we are leaving citizenship to the\nbook, to the platform lecture, and to the patriotic song. The time has\ncome to couple up theory with practice. There is only one way to teach\ncitizenship effectively, that is by action. This is good psychology, good\npedagogy, good administration, and good democracy.\nPRESENT-DAY\n\nTENDENCIES\nNORMAND\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nS. PATTON,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nARCHITECTURE\nILL.\n\nSchool buildings are planned thru the co-operation of educators, architects, and school boards. A knowledge of the tendencies of these three\ngroups would enable one to forecast the school architecture of the near\nfuture. If I were addressing the general public, I would describe those\nchanges in our educational system that call for new types of buildings;\nbut coming as an architect among educators, it is to learn rather than\nteach this branch of the subject.\nOur educators must be the leaders in developing our system of education, and architects must adapt school buildings to the educational program.\nIn searching for the present tendencies of architects, there lies on the\nsurface the fact that architects are coming under the influence of the\neducational system. The route to the architect's ofl&ce lies no longer\nthru the carpenter shop, but thru the college and the technical school.\nRaising the standard of education among architects means better buildings\nof all classes, including schools.\nThe public school boards of today show a disposition to erect better\nbuildings than formerly, and to provide more money both for building\noperations and for the services of the best architects. This liberality is\ndue mainly to the general interest in all that promotes the welfare of\nchildren, and is an expression of the desire of the public.\nThis advance in the quality of school Buildings is keeping step with\nthe general advance in the architecture of all classes of buildings. It is\na part of our higher scale of living and the demand of an educated and\nwell-to-do public.\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOio\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administratioa\n\nThere is a marked tendency toward architectural display in highschool buildings more than in the grade schools, due rather to local pride\nthan to any greater care for the older pupils. There is but one high to\nmany grade schools, and it is natural to select this building as one of the\npublic monuments of the town.\nAs the result of these forces we are now in a time of active evolution\nand improvement in the construction and design of our schools, and the\nmoral of this tale is that if we build our school just good enough for today,\nit will be out of date tomorrow. We must forecast the future and build\nfor it, if our work is to be permanent.\nTo come now from the general to the particular, what are the special\nimprovements toward which we are tending?\nFirst J better construction, especially in resistance to fire and in provision for exits. City and state building-laws aid this advance. Our\nlarger cities require all schools to be of fireproof construction. The\nexample of these buildings leads architects to approximate, at least, fireproof construction in other communities. The approximations consist in\nmore numerous brick walls; the isolation of the stairs, and making stairs\nand corridors fireproof; the substitution of metal for wood lath, or the\nuse of tile partitions; the making of the main floor fireproof, even tho\nthe upper floors and roof be combustible. The object to be sought in\nthe construction of a school is to make a building in which the escape of\nthe pupils cannot be cut off by fire or smoke. A fire in the roof space might\nultimately spread downward and destroy the building, but there would\nbe ample time for the pupils to escape before the fire or smoke could reach\nthem; but a fire in the basement would travel upward rapidly and the\nsmoke would fill the corridors. Hence the value of a fireproof floor above\nthe basement.\nIf a school is reasonably well planned and built, there is little danger\nof actual contact with fire. The greatest danger is from panic and the\nresulting crushing on the stairways. The conspicuous avoidance of all\ncombustible materials in the corridors and stairs will do much to allay\ngroundless fear and thus avoid panic. If, from daily use of fireproof\nexits, both teachers and pupils gain the impression that their escape cannot\nbe cut off by fire, they are not likely to lose self-control in time of actual\nalarm.\nAnother improvement is in the Hne of better sanitation. The heating\nand ventilating system is a most vital part of a model school. Steam\nheat is supplanting hot-air furnaces. Ventilation by natural draft can\nbe made fairly efficient for grade schools of not over eight rooms, but for\nlarger buildings, and all high schools, mechanical ventilation is now considered a necessity. Automatic temperature regulation is no longer an\nexperiment, but an essential part of a ventilating system for schools.\nThe limits of this paper will not permit a discussion of the details\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\n\nlOII\n\nof heating and ventilation. Architects and engineers are in substantial\nagreement as to the methods to be employed. However, the experiment\nof open-air schoolrooms being tried in certain schools is worthy of serious\nconsideration and it seems to be demonstrated that by introducing sufficient moisture into the air of the schoolroom, the winter temperature\ncan be reduced to sixty-six degrees, or even less, with a marked benefit to\nthe health of the pupils.\nSince modern plumbing has become almost universal in the homes of\nthe pupils, there is a tendency to make the fixtures in the school correspond to those with which the pupils are familar at home; and to locate\nthe toilet-rooms on the various classroom floors in place of concentrating\nthe same in the basement. In such sanitary reforms as the abolition of\nthe public drinking-cup, our schools are abreast of the times.\nThe ratio of window surface to the floor area is controlled by law in\nmany states and there is little danger of insufficient windows in the schoolrooms of today. There is danger, however, of cutting off the light by\nan improper use of window shades. The object of shades in a schoolroom\nis not to make the room dark, but to screen it from the direct rays of\nthe sun. Therefore, opaque shades should never be used. The best\nmaterial is Holland cloth of a light buff color. The sun shining upon\nthis material transmits a soft, mellow light. The dark part of a room,\nof course, is the side remote from the window. The light for this side\nmust come from the top of the windows. Therefore window shades should\nnever be hung at the top of a schoolroom window. The best method of\nplacing shades is to hang two shades to each window, both rollers being\nplaced at the meeting rail of the sash, one shade to pull down and the\nother to pull up.\nThere have been great improvements in artificial lighting within the\npast few years. But, as schoolwork is conducted mostly in the daytime,\nthe question of artificial lighting is not important, except in special cases.\nThe greater specialization of our present method of teaching and the\naddition of laboratory work, have led to the provision of special rooms.\nHigh schools, especially, have developed into complex structures. A\nwell-equipped high school will include an assembly hall, a library, and\nperhaps a museum, gymnasium, and laboratories for chemistry, physics,\nand biology; shops for manual training; a kitchen for domestic science,\nwith model dining-room; perhaps a room for sewing; a commercial room;\ndrawing rooms for mechanical and free-hand drawing; modehng rooms\nwith perhaps a kiln for burning pottery. One recent high school has an\nelementary-science room, and special rooms for the study of the classic\nlanguages and EngHsh. The \"classic roogi\" is designed and furnished\nin the Roman style, and the \"English room\" in the English style, with\nred quarry tile floor, brick fireplace, oak beamed ceiling, and stained-glass\nwindows. A large sliding partition between the rooms permits imiting\nthe two into a clubroom for the use of student societies. The intention\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nof these rooms is to stimulate interest in these special studies by appropriate surroundings, and thus compete with the highly specialized science\nequipments.\nGymnasia, which were formerly placed only in large city high schools,\nare now becoming an essential part of every complete high school, and are\nbeing extended to the grade schools. If the movement shall prevail to\nbroaden the usefulness of our schools to the community, further changes\nin the buildings must follow.\nNo one who has observed school buildings of recent years can have\nfailed to notice an improvement in the character of the designs. This\nimprovement is due partly to general advance in the quality of American\narchitecture, but perhaps still more to the improvement in the quality of\nschool boards, and their appreciation of good architecture. This leads\nto the selection of a higher grade of architects. Another tendency that\nmakes for the improvement of school building is the abandonment of the\nevil practice of having architects submit designs in competition. This\npractice has almost passed away, and architects are selected as a superintendent of schools would select his teachers, on the basis of their record\nin work already completed.\n>\nAn examination of recent designs of school buildings, by many architects, and in all parts of the country, shows a tendency to greater individuality ofdesign and a following of no particular architectural style.\nThe best school design is that which follows no historical style of architecture, but is developed rationally from the conditions of the problem. For\nexample, the large window area necessary in a classroom necessitates the\nuse of very narrow piers between the windows. There is thus developed\nthe idea of making the windows of each classroom into a group. If such\nwindow-grouping is adopted, a style of design must be used that will\nlend itself to such treatment.\nWhat is true of schools, holds good for all buildings. Every new\ntype of building requires the development of a new style of architecture,\nor at least the modification of some old style. The breaking-away from\nhistoric styles of architecture, and the evolution of new forms of design\nto meet new conditions in school buildings is one of the hopeful signs in\npresent work.\nThe past ten years have seen rapid changes in building materials.\nArchitectural design is affected not only by the purpose of the building,\nbut by the material used. It is an axiom of architecture that no material\nshould be used in imitation of another, but each material should be treatep\nin accordance with its nature. Therefore the introduction of new materials,\ndiffering in nature' from those formerly used, calls for new forms of design.\nExterior plastering in Portland cement has largely taken the place of\nwood as a covering for wood construction. Such a construction of wood\nframe, covered with plaster, is appropriate only for very small schools-\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\n1013\n\nAt the present time, a construction is developing of hollow tile for walls\nwith a ribbed surface to receive plaster directly on the tile, both exterior\nand interior.\nExterior plastering has been introduced by architects . as something\nbetter than wood siding or shingles, and, as a rule, this material has been\nhandled in a truthful and artistic manner, in accordance with its nature.\nIt is used as plaster, not in imitation of any other material.\nIn contrast to this, cement blocks have been invented as something\ncheaper than stone, and are usually made in imitation of stone. As an\nimitation, they are a fraud, and are not good art. Cement blocks can be\nmade in a truthful and artistic manner, but the large and uniform size\nmakes them a poor material from the point of view of design.\nConcrete, poured in place, can have a satisfactory treatment of the\nsurface, but such treatment is expensive and this material is better adapted\nto constructive than decorative forms.\nOf all new materials, vitrified brick seems the best adapted for general\nuse in school buildings. This material has brought about such a complete\nrevolution in our ideas of what brick should be, which I venture to expand\nsomewhat in description of the new idea in brick. The old idea was\nmechanical perfection. The attention was concentrated on the individual\nbrick rather than on the wall. We sought brick with smooth surfaces,\nstraight edges and uniform color. They were laid with fine joints. When\nthe utmost perfection was attained in this direction, what did we have?\nA wall without force or character. The best brick wall seemed inferior\nto the meanest stone wall. We never escaped from the pettiness of the\nmaterial. The soot of our cities stained the surface and the alkali came\nout of the wall whenever the water penetrated the porous brick.\nNow we no longer think of bricks, but of brickwork. We seek a wall\nsurface of varied colors, and a marked texture. We want a material that\nwill appear as solid as stone and be washed clean by every rain. We\nprefer large joints that bespeak strength rather than fine joints, whose\nnoblest quality is neatness. We think of a wall of a building, as we look\nupon the walls of the Rocky Mountain canyons. The rocks were built\nup by nature layer by layer, and the marks of stratification are apparent.\nWe do not, however, dwell upon the smallness of the layers, but upon the\nmassiveness of the rock. So with our wall of brick, it is built course by\ncourse, but when made of materials vitrified by fire and bound into one\nmass by cement, we lose sight of the individual bricks and see the wall\nwhich rivals stone in durability and massiveness and exceeds it in its\ncapacity for color.\ns^\nThe latest improvement in the manufacture of brick is to roughen\nthe surface of the stiff mud, as it comes from the machine, by cutting\nwith wire, thus producing a variety of beautiful textures, according to\nthe nature of the clay.\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nVitrified brick is so different in character from the smooth and porous\npressed brick that it is leading to the development of new styles of architectural treatment.\nOne of the most important movements in architectural circles has not\nas yet affected school building as it should. I mention it here in the hope\nthat if school architects lag behind, the teachers may spur them on.\nI refer to the grouping of buildings and the treatment of grounds as\nan integral part of architectural design. It is not often that public school\nbuildings are built in groups, but even in the case of a single building,\nthe location should be considered in reference to surrounding buildings,\nand all schools that have open grounds around them should have those\ngrounds designed with as much care as is bestowed upon the building\nitself. Some architects have given study to this subject and can make\ndesigns for landscape accessories, but in most cases it is better to employ\na landscape architect, who should be selected by the architect of the building and work in consultation with him.\nIn conclusion I offer a suggestion to anyone contemplating building,\nthat if you would get the best services from your architect, call him into\nconsultation at the very beginning of your building enterprise, even before\nthe site has been selected or the bonds have been voted.\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Edwin White Gaillard, New York Public Library\nVice-President — ^James L. Gillis, librarian, California State Library\nSecretary — Gilbert O. Ward, librarian. Technical High School\nFIRST\n\nSESSION— Thursday\n\nForenoon,\n\nNew York, N.Y.\nSacramento, Cal.\nCleveland, Ohio\n\nJuly 13, 191 1\n\nThe meeting of the Library Department was called to order in Golden Gate Corinthian\nHall by the vice-president, James L. Gillis, state librarian of California. In the absence\nof the secretary, Harriet G. Eddy, county library organizer. State Library, Sacramento,\nCal., was elected secretary pro tempore.\nThe chairman appointed a committee on nominations, as follows:\n\nI\n\nWilliam R. Watson, librarian, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco, Cal.\nElla S. Morgan, librarian, High-School Library, Los Angeles, Cal.\nLauren W. Ripley, librarian. Public Library, Sacramento, Cal.\n\nA committee on resolutions was named as follows:\nCharles S. Greene, librarian. Public Library, Oakland, Cal.\nJoseph Daniels, librarian. Public Library, Riverside, Cal.\nVictoria Ellis, librarian. Public Library, Long Beach, Cal.\n\nThe first paper on the program was \"The Proper Supervision of the Reading of\nSchool Children,\" by Katherine D. Blake, principal of Public School No. 6, New York\nCity, and was discussed by Mrs. Adelaide Bowles Maltby, librarian, Tompkins Square\nBranch, Public Library, New York City, and also by Miss Blake.\n\"High-School Libraries\" was the subject of a paper by Ethelwyn H. Fagge, librarian.\nPolytechnic High School, Los Angeles,. Cal., which was discussed by W. H. Housh, principal, Los Angeles High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nHarriet G. Eddy, county library organizer. State Library, Sacramento, Cal., read\n\na paper on \"California County Free Libraries,\" which was discussed by L. W. Ripley,\nlibrarian, Public Library, Sacramento, Cal.\nThe Committee on Resolutions then presented its report, as follows:\nResolved, That the Library Department of the National Education Association\nregrets greatly the enforced absence of President Gaillard, detained in New York by the\nstrenuous work of moving into the new building of the New York Public Library. We\nalso regret the absence of Mr. Ward, the faithful secretary.\nResolved, That we reaffirm that it is the duty and the privilege of two great civilizing\nforces, the school and the library, to work together in harmony and close co-operation\nfor the cause common to them both of universal enlightenment.\nResolved, That committees be appointed to advance the interests of school libraries,\nthruout the country, to study the situation, and to encourage and promote a close cooperation between public and school libraries. That one conmiittee ofx five be appointed\nfor the normal schools; one of five for the high schools; and a committee to make out a\nsuitable list of books for reading in the various graded\nResolved, That while the American Library Association booklist is admirable in\nmany ways and is used extensively by all who make the selection of books a matter of\nconscience, we should like to have it give more attention to books for the young, both\nas to number of books and extent of treatment.\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioi6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President — Henry E. Legler, librarian, Public Library, Chicago, 111.\nFor Vice-President — W. L. Brown, librarian, Public Library, Buffalo, N.Y.\nFor Secretary — Miss M. A. Newberry, Public School Library, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nThe following committees were subsequently appointed by the president, in accordance with the resolution presented:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMary E. Hall, librarian, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y., Chairman.\nEthelwyn H. Fagge, Ubrarian, Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nGilbert O. Ward, librarian. Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio.\nFlorence Hopkins, librarian, Central High School, Detroit, Mich.\nAnna Hadley, librarian, Gilbert School, Winsted, Conn.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIda M. Mendenhall, Normal School, Geneseo, N.Y., Chairman.\nMargaret Dold, Normal School, Chico, Cal.\nGrace Salisbury, Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.\nMary Richardson, Normal School, Castine, Me.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nPROPER\n\nKATHERINE\n\nHarriet G. Eddy, Secretary pro tempore\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSUPERVISION OF THE\nCHILDREN\n\nREADING\n\nD. BLAKE, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL\n\nNO.\n\n6, NEW\n\nOF SCHOOL\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nI have come before you to plead for a little piece of constructive work.\nIn the elementary school we have lists of books that are recommended for\nthe use of children. Too often books are put upon these lists for personal\nreasons or without a proper reading by a person who is familiar with the\nneeds of children. Our lists of recommended books, like our courses of\nstudy, are made by people with gray hair, who remember their boyhood\nin the middle of the last century and order for these twentieth-century\nchildren the things that pleased them when they were boys, not reaUzing\nthat times have changed and that we must give these children books\nthat will build for them twentieth-century ideals. I feel particularly\nstrongly about the necessity for the proper supervision of children's reading,\nbecause I, as a child, had the unsupervised range of a very large library.\nThe Arabian Nights and all sorts of fairy tales fed my imagination; I adored\nRobin Hood and Dick Turpin, and a little later Napoleon was my hero. I\nrealize how much time in my life was wasted by having the wrong ideals\nbecause of my absolutely unsupervised reading. We cannot overestimate\nthe effect of books on children at the formative period. The kind of\nfairy tales that they read will leave a lasting impression, and we principals\nof schools are too busy to read all the books that come out. I try to read\nall the books that are ordered for the school library before they go into the\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROPER\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF READING\n\n1017\n\nhands of the children, but sometimes I am rushed and a book slips by and\nis taken because of the honored name that introduces it to us. I feel free\nto mention one instance because the name is so honored and its owner is so\nfar away. I speak of Andrew Lang's Fairy Tales. I do not know whether\nyou are familiar with these books. I ordered them for my girls because\nof his name, and they had been in the hands of the children for some time\nbefore I realized how very objectionable many of the stories were — teaching\nrace prejudice and cruelty. For example, I remember one that ended:\n\nI\n\n\"So they rolled the Jew in a barrel with spikes on the inside until he was\ndead.\" Is it right for us to put in the hands of the children stories that\nend, \"So they got married and lived happily ever after\"? Those of us\nwho have gray hair know that this is not true in real life, and this twentieth\ncentury demands a scientific training of its people; yet we hold out to\nthese children in their childhood ideals that they must change and live\ndown. I know how hard it has been for me to do this. As a child, I lived\n■ in a fairy tale; the world around me was as nothing. I told myself a fairy\nstory that lasted from day to day and from week to week, in which I was the\nheroine of all sorts of wonderful adventures, and always at the end, like\n\nI\n\nmy fairy stories, I \"got married and lived happy ever after.\" It has taken\nme years to live down this fairy-tale age, to open my eyes and see the real\nworld that lies around us and to know how much more wonderful it is than\nany fairy tale that ever was written. I want to save the twentieth-century\nchildren from these wasted years that I have lived thru and so I beg you\nlibrarians to form a committee to make a list of books that we can recommend to children and feel safe in their recommendation; not a list of obligatory reading but just a little set of books for each year of childhood that\nshall take the place, with our children, of Dr. Eliot's five-foot shelf of books.\nI want a short list, not more than twelve for each year of childhood, but\nthey must be books that will inspire these twentieth-century children to\nhigher ideals than those of the nineteenth century. These books must be\ninteresting, cultivate the imagination, and teach them courage— I set that\nfirst because it is fundamental; without courage we have none of the other\nvirtues — ^ideals of real truth, honor, and justice.\nIf it is in order I should like to move the formation of a committee to\nselect the lists that I have suggested.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Adelaide Bowles Maltby, librarian, Tompkins Square Branch, New York,\nN.Y, — If Miss Blake and her work, by her own admission, are the products of such\n\"unmoral\" tales as she has held up as horrible examples, then I am sure you all agree\nwith me when I say I am willing to see children follow in her footsteps. Nor do I shudder\nat the prospect. Dick Turpin may have been corrupt^ Robin Hood, a thief; Napoleon,\na maker of wars; but those were not the only elements which went to make their character,\nAll possessed courage of no mean quality. All fought for what they thought right, which\nis surely what we are doing these days; and the best proof that \"real truth\" was their\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "loi8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\npivot of action is that they have been remembered and honored for so many ages. A\nperson whose every characteristic we could admire would not be human.\nRobin Hood stood as much for fair play to the weak and oppressed as he did for\nknavery; else why should he on pain of arrest take from the rich to feed a poor, strange\nwoman, or why risk his own limb to restore to Allan a-Dale his young bride, who had\nbeen spirited away to marry a rich old man against her will? This did he and more.\nWould not Robin Hood refresh us mightily were he to appear even now ?\nMiss Blake has spoken of Lang's fairy tales. I am sure she means only to warn us\nagainst accepting as wholesome all of them — in fact, all of any author's work merely\nbecause he may be well known. The only safe basis for selection or for interesting children in real literature is by knowing books — ^by having read enough in our own youth\nof the folk-lore, legends, and classic tales to give background, to lend elasticity to our\nadult judgment and scope for imagination. And we must continue to read what we would\nhave the children read, not with a sense of \"ought to,\" but because we wish to. The\nbest books for children are those that are acceptable to both adults and children. Grownups never care for garbled versions — we take the unmodified whole.\nThe making of selected lists for every year has been suggested. Miss Blake has\nfrankly said that the teachers should know books better. To that end normal schools\nhave been shaping their courses here as well as in the East. Of course, prescribed courses\nof reading are good; but shouldn't many of the books so read have been a part of one's\nunconscious development in childhood, and the reading in normal school be merely a\nreview ? It is an endless chain, but it can be worked back in the life of every individual\nto the influence of some lover of the child and of literature for literature's sake. Therefore, teachers and those of us in library work who enjoy bringing the right book to the\nright child at the right time must have both a book sense and a child sense. Mothers,\nrelatives, teachers, librarians, all have a part in the forming of the reading habit. Here,\nas always, example is most potent.\nWe must know books!\nIn closing, may I remind you that we in* the library stand ready to help you whenever possible. The matter of reading and selecting books for the children's departments\nin libraries all over the country is fast falling into the hands of experts who do know books.\nMiss Moore in New York and Miss Bumite in Cleveland — to mention only two of many —\nhave had long and varied experience.\nPerhaps if I tell you briefly of how the work in New York is organized and carried\nout, as an example only, you will find that help is nearer at hand from your own libraries\nthan you think.\nMiss Moore is the supervisor of children's work. There are forty branches in the\nNew York public library, in each of which there is a children's department in charge\nof an assistant especially adapted to the work. Her first duty is to know books, and in\nco-operation with the supervisor and librarian to select the books for the juvenile collection. Miss Moore is, of course, our authority on selection. The best work in the children's rooms is along suggestive rather than prescribed hues. By having the carefully\nselected collection and assistants with a knowledge of books and a wholesome interest\nin children, the introduction of one to the other is quite natural. The children's librarian\nis always at hand to suggest a choice. A teaclier has asked if much reading is done by\nchildren which is not the direct suggestion of their work in school. A great many of\ntheir interests are awakened in school, of course, but thru the freedom to browse their\nnatural tastes are appealed to and many do independent reading. This habit we foster\nso far as is possible, especially by reading aloud to small groups of children and by telling\nstories to larger groups. In these ways we can awaken desire to read in the minds of\neven the indiflferent. On the other hand, whenever we find signs of over-reading, we try\nto influence toward moderation.\nThere is one other department of the library which makes still more careful work\npossible.\nEach branch has a school assistant whose duty and pleasure it is to know the\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1019\n\nteachers of the district and to help them in every way possible in their own reading, as\nwell as with books for their classes.\nWhen Edison was asked, recently, if he thought invention could be taught, he said,\n\"Yes.\" One of the surest helps to himself, and he advised it for others, was the reading\nof any literature which stimulated the imagination. Is that not, after all, the finest use\nof books ?\nMiss Katherine D. Blake. — If in my opening remarks I said anything that cotdd\nbe construed as meaning opposition to fairy tales, let me contradict it emphatically.\nI object, not to fairy tales, but to the wrong kind of fairy tales. Nothing could be more\nbeautiful than the old folk-stories. They all teach courage and truth and the fundamental virtues. No one appreciates more thorqly than I the gift of imagination. I\nam inclined to think it is the best gift of the mind. It lies at the root of all sympathy:\nscience herself accomplishes Uttle unless imagination companions her. But it must be\na trained imagination. It is our duty to see that no hours are wasted on false ideals\nthat must be lived down as the child grows, or that may never be lived down, as is the\ncase with our money-mad financiers of today. We must not give our children fairy stories\nmerely because they are fairy stories, but because they are the best and most beautiful\nstories that can be found; stories with world- truths in them, and world-morals; stories\nthat shall show them that courage and truth and love are the guideposts to happiness.\nOur children should also be guarded against the vice of over-reading — and it is a\nvery real and dangerous vice. People who read to \"pass the time away\" deaden their\nfaculties and squander the hours that are so precious if rightfully used. Librarians\nought to watch the children who change their books too frequently, and talk with them\nand communicate with their parents; for a surfeit of reading dulls the mind just as a\nsurfeit of food lays low the forces of the body.\nThe imagination of the twentieth-century children should be developed first by the\nworld folk-stories gathered from all sources — Scandinavian, German, Russian, Japanese,\nAfrican, as well as EngUsh; then on thru the Arthurian legends, and the stories of chivalry\nand nobility in the history of the past, till their eyes are opened to the poetry and romance\nof present-day life and to the civic responsibilities that shall be theirs ere long.\nSo I pray that you librarians, with your intimate knowledge of what children like\non your bookshelves where they have freedom of choice, will come to the aid of the\nteachers by selecting a tiny Hbrary of the best dozen books for each year of childhood —\ntwelve books that shall touch children's hearts the round world over, north and south,\neast and west, Occident and Orient, and make a bond that shall bind them with the same\n^^\n\nlofty ideals into the worldwide brotherhood of man.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nI^K\n\nETHELWYN\n£1\n\nH. FAGGE,\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nLIBRARIAN, POLYTECHNIC\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\n^^B Should a group of librarians be asked, \"What form will the greatest\nIH development of your work take in the near future ?\" some might answer\n\"A closer tie between the schools and their sister-institution, the library,\nthat it may become more truly a live branch of the educational system.\"\nTeachers, also, from their viewpoint might reply to the same question in a\nlike manner — that among the developments of their work would be the\nIw greater cultivation of appreciation and judgment, the building up of a\nK discriminating sense of the printed page, and, more than all, the laying\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "I020\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nof a foundation for a literary taste which will reject the sensational and\nvulgar, and which will be a never-failing source of knowledge, inspiration,\nand delight.\nThe children's librarians have done and are doing a large share of this\nwork; their department in the public libraries is usually attractive and\nwell equipped; they stimulate the imagination of the child by story-telling\nand in other ways, and the publishers cater to the sense which they have\nawakened. Co-operation between the grammar schools and this department has always been more or less efficient, but when the child leaves\nthe grammar school and enters the high school, apart from formal teaching,\nhis literary sponsors seem to abandon him. He finds in the library no\ndepartment to suit his years; he is, or ought to be, past the interest in\njuvenile books, and he is simply bewildered in the main departments\nwithout special guidance; this guidance he may possibly find, but he\nknows no definite place to go for it. In the school he probably finds\nseveral hundreds or thousands of volumes, which are not, according to\nlibrary science, well looked after; he uses the books in a haphazard way\nfor his class work, and with little, if any, pleasure — the reading for literature's sake is often overlooked. It is only the exceptional student who\ngets anything out of such a library, and the overworked teacher has not\nthe time to foster the latent literary desire in the others. To revise the\nparable — ^it is the ninety and nine who have gone astray and need to be\nbrought into the fold.\nThese grades, then, which are formed of students between the ages\nof fourteen and twenty years — the most important years for laying the\nfoundations of judgment, when the clean, sensitive plates of the brain are\nready to receive clear impressions, all of which will go to make the mature\nman or woman; when they are ready to put away childish things and begin\ntheir real intellectual life — these grades have received hardly sufficient\nattention from teachers and librarians in the matter of books and reading.\nIt is so seldom that library people have an opportunity of speaking to\na number of educators on this point, on which hang all our hopes, that\nhere I feel I am the mouthpiece of all my comrades in saying that the first,\nthe most important, and the really essential step forward in making this\nwork the great force it might become is the recognition by the principals\nand teachers of the absolute necessity for it.\nWe know that unless library instruction is given, students in their\ntenth and eleventh school years often do not know how to use a dictionary\nproperly; that they do not understand what the lettering on the back of\nthe encyclopedia volumes means; that the ''contents\" of a book is invariably\nmistaken for the \"index,\" and that the many short cuts to information are\nclosed to them. Surely one of the keystones in the arch of efficiency is a\nknowledge of the literature of one's subject, and we cannot help the student\nmore strongly than by showing him early how to use books; how to judge.\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nI\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nI02I\n\nas quickly as may be, their worth, and to encourage him to form the\nhabit of going directly to authorities for a solution of old problems, that he\nmay the better put his energies to work on the new ones.\nA mere collection of books is not a library in the modern sense of the\nword. A modern library is not only the storehouse of knowledge, but its\ndistributing point, and we cannot find a depot more ideal or more logical\nthan a high school. A library in a high school is a place where all that\nis taught in class can be driven home; where all that is hinted of in the\nroutine of lessons can be ampUfied and enlarged upon; where the halfformed desire for further knowledge can be fostered and satisfied, and\nwhere the student can step naturally and as soon as possible into his heritage\nof the ages. This is the atmosphere which those keenly interested in the\nlibrary movement are anxious to see within the environment of every\nstudent; they realize that thereby they can give him something which no\nill fortune can take away, and which — thanks to the Hbrary spirit in the\nland — can always be exercised.\nTho it does not yet seem that educators all over the country have\nawakened to the possibilities of this work, still many who agree that it\nis worth doing are daunted by the practical difficulties in the way of its\naccomplishment. Perhaps it is that these difficulties have not been\nsquarely faced, and a consideration of plans in operation in various places\nmay be helpful and lead to their being put into practice elsewhere.\nIn Cleveland the school libraries are owned by the board of education\nand administered by the public library; they report this arrangement as\nbeing satisfactory, and certainly the schools must gain very much in having\nthe benefit of a trained helper, with the mechanical work done at headquarters byexperienced workers. Many arrangements on this idea could\nbe made, and would be feasible almost anywhere.\nOne place reports that the city Hbrarian oversees the work of a student\nassistant. Tho not ideal, this plan would relieve the situation and be a\nlink between school and Ubrary.\nIn towns where the board of education already has the management\nof the pubHc hbrary, or where the public library is on the school grounds,\naffairs are simplffied; tho even in these places, strange to say, we do not\nfind adequate provision for the high-school student.\nIn some places the pubUc library, or a branch of it, is domiciled in the\nschool building; this plan, judiciously managed, can give the results we most\nneed — a Ubrary atmosphere in the school — and also can serve both ends\nof the educational system.\nThe public libraries in many cities, anxious to enlarge their boundaries,\nhave tried to carry on the work in the same manner as with the grammar\ngrades, and to supplement the class work with lists of references on various\nsubjects; they have been ready to lend to the teacher an almost unlimited\nnumber of books; however, except in the case of a small place, we find that\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "I022\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nthis plan has not been satisfactory, either to teacher, Hbrarian, or pupil.\nLibrarians often do not understand the need of the teacher in his work; they\nare inclined to be diffuse in their presentation of a subject, to be anxious\nto put before the student all the resources of their institution, instead of\nconcentrating on the point needed by the teacher; also, they have not\nthe time for individual attention to a small group of patrons. Distances\noften frustrate such a plan as this. The time and exertion required is not to\nbe spared either by teacher or student.\nIn some cases the teacher himself chooses his references and works\nwith his students in the library; this is hardly ever done regularly or systematical y— the tax is too great. There are briUiant exceptions to this\nlast statement, but they shine the brighter by reason of contrast.\nThis plan of what I may call \"loose co-operation\" has been tried thoroly\nin Chicago, where Mr. Legler, the librarian, speaks enthusiastically of the\nwork accompHshed; but he agrees that it is a temporary measure, and\nthat there should be a librarian in each high school. Recommendations\nto that effect have been made to the board of education and it is one of\ntheir plans for the future.\nIn Los Angeles we seem to be working on the same basis as in New\nYork City. In three of our high schools we have librarians as members\nof the faculty; our libraries are \"self-contained\" (as a real-estate man\nmight say), our books are bought by the board of education and the whole\nsystem maintained by them; their organization is identical with that of\na small public library, the methods the same, and we have a clientele which\nmany small libraries would be happy to boast. We strive to make our\nrooms the most attractive in the building, and as unlike classrooms as\npossible; here it is, we think, our students must find rest and relaxation\nas well as concentration. There are many details of management which\nare not yet perfected; we labor under disadvantages of bales of red tape\nin the matter of buying books; we have legally no sanction for being, and\nare classed among mops and brushes in the matter of purchasing suppUes,\nbut we have always had the most loyal support from our superintendent\nand principals, for which we cannot be too grateful, for that alone has\nmade possible the amazing growth of the work. Of course we have not\nhad enough money to care for our young towns of two thousand people\neach, but we cannot but be gratified at the work which is done in those\nrooms day by day.\nThis bare outline of plans and ideas will show which would be practical\nelsewhere and which could be adapted to local needs and conditions.\nAlmost anywhere something can be done systematically.\nThe one point which is obvious in the reports on this situation received\nfrom all over the country is, that no really satisfactory work is done without a librarian; in going over them, I think they show, no matter what\nthey say, that the opportunities are not embraced unless given into the\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1023\n\nhands of one whose duty it is to study ways of helpfulness. For years\nwe have heard the talk of library training in the normal schools and colleges;\nas yet we do not see results, and perhaps the reason that it has not made\nmore headway may be because, tho the simpler principles of each profession\nare necessary to the other, both have their separate functions, and one must\ndominate the other in any one person, and in consequence a teacher is a\nteacher by his first intention, and his library work is not of vital importance.\nCan we expect to have this work thoroly done if it is added to the\nteacher's account, or the principal's secretary gives out the books in addition\nto her clerical duties ? Each looks on it as a duty of supererogation, and\ntho he may on that score look for extra rewards in the next world, this\nworld does not receive the service it should have.\nIn order that this work, which I think you will agree is worth doing well,\nshould reach its fullest usefulness, the library in the school must be thoroly\norganized. Thebooksmust be properly classified; we must have a charging\nsystem which the students will respect; we must have a catalog adapted\nto their needs; we must have the Reader^ s Guide j and the many other aids\nto easier and quicker reference; and, that all these technical aids may be\nused to the best advantage, we must have instruction given in the simplest\nforms of library science. With all this we must have a veiled discipline\nwhich will not allow the freedom of the room to be abused. Besides all\nthe foregoing, the librarian should feel herself directly responsible for the\nliterary welfare of the school — a herculean task and an ambition perhaps\ntoo soaring — ^but to stimulate and interest the student in books outside his\nrequired reading i§ one of the things she feels a part of her duty and pleasure.\nWithout doubt this is work enough and more for one person, but the\nlibrary spirit will sustain the true librarian and she only needs the co-operation of the teachers to make her have what our friend Mr. Roosevelt calls,\n''a bully time.\"\nTo the high schools of California we believe our new County-Library\nLaw is to be of immeasurable value. Judging by its recent progress the\ntime is not far distant when every county 'will maintain its library and\nevery school that wishes to do so may take advantage of its provisions.\nThen each school, no matter how large, how small, or how isolated, will\nby right share in a fortime of books. It is inspiring to consider that a\nworthy student in the smallest district will then have absolutely the same\nopportunities for good work as one belonging to the best-equipped school\nin the land, for his chain of library facilities will begin with the school's\nsmall collection, adequately analyzed and made useful thru the county\nand state libraries, to the Library of Congress itself. Teachers, when they\nrealize its import, will be as enthusiastic as* we librarians are over the\npossibilities of its usefulness. By this plan they will have all the expert\nhelp and advice they need in selection, the details of buying all taken from\ntheir shoulders and given into experienced hands — to those who will know\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "I024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nthe best editions, best markets, and who will make one dollar go 50 per\ncent farther in consequence. Just the very best material that is published\nand just what they want will come to them from headquarters, classified\nand catalogued, ready to be made the best possible use of. All this will\nbe invaluable to any school, but it promises to add to the capabilities of\nthe librarian in the large high school. To have a mind free from the cares\nof accessioning, classifying, and cataloguing means that she is free to spend\nher time with Johnny Jones and Sarah Smith, encouraging that little\ngrowth of literary desire to put forth leaves, and helping them the better\nto comprehend their lessons in English and history.\nCombination is the watchword of the times, and by bringing this idea\nto bear on the high-school library situation in California we expect to meet\nmany of the disadvantages which have been obstacles in the progress of\nthe work heretofore. Economy, greater resources, larger funds, and\nstandardized equipment will all come out of this scheme, and for these\nreasons it must commend itself to school boards; to students and teachers\nit means adequate facilities for good work.\nTho we are not prepared to admit that this plan can take the place of\nthe school's own librarian, we think that until all schools see the necessity\nof that member of their faculty it can help and encourage and \"nurse\"\nthe work. It can prevent what — to librarians' eyes — are crimes in the\nmatter of buying books, and encourage that gentleman, the subscriptionbook agent, to find another field of action. A book agent told me in\ntriumph the other day that he had sold three hundred dollars worth of\nbooks to a high school. \"What did they buy?\" I asked. \"O, sets of all\nthe classics,\" he answered, airily. I suppose the poor children in that\nschool have an opportunity to read all of Bulwer-Lytton's novels, and in\nthe sets I presume there is only one copy each of David Copperfield, Oliver\nTwist, and Ivankoe. I myself have seen an edition de luxe of Swinburne\nin a high-school library!\n\n• We are quite persuaded that in California the libraries of\nhigh\nschools need our care, when we learn by the 1910 report of the the\ncommissioner ofeducation that there are one hundred and eighty-one thousand\nvolumes belonging to them; these books, we feel, are not giving all the help\nthat is in them to teacher or to pupil, for lack of adequate attention. I\nventure to say that the eleven thousand volumes in the Los Angeles high\nschools are serving their ends better than one hundred thousand of the rest,\nfor each of our school libraries gives something to over five hundred people\nevery day.\n\nThe county library is not only sure to put at your command greater\nresources of material, thru larger funds and facilities, but it also hopes\nto\nmake thoroly useful the books the schools already own.\nWe cannot foresee all the minor ways in which this law will help,\nbut\none whose worth might be overlooked is that by this means we can co-\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1025\n\nordinate methods; we can make familiar to hundreds the simple methods\nof library work ; they are simple, but unusual to many people. The card\ncatalog, which is a bugbear of the public but the rock of salvation to the\nlibrary worker — this technical thing which is as simple as a dictionary to\nuse — is confusing to many now; if we can accustom students to the use of\nthis, we shall help them somewhat when they find themselves in a large\nlibrary.\nBy this law one can see in imagination the school in the country place\nbecoming the educational center of the community, for not only will it aid\nthe children, but logically it would become the cultural center for the adults;\nand is not that our aim, that everyone should be working side by side for\neducational development, some farther up the hill than others, but all the\nslopes crowded with students ?\nLibrarians are, if anything, methodical, and the criticism that they\nsacrifice inspiration to method is often well taken, but perhaps it is also\nfair to say that teachers, generally speaking, lack system; is it not possible\nthat we may, by touching each other's work more closely in the future,\neach learn something from the other, and each make our work more useful\nto the community for which we both labor?\nWe shall then serve all the people all the time.\nDISCUSSION\nW. H. HousH, principal of Los Angeles High School, Los Angeles, Cal. — ^As the\nprincipal of a high school that has a Ubrary and a trained librarian, I wish to indorse\nall movements to increase the eflBciency of school libraries.\nA properly selected and well-managed library is indispensable to every high school,\nnot only for easy and speedy acquirement of information, but for the training given in\nlearning to use the analytical outlines prepared by the teachers and posted on the walls.\nThis training has proved valuable to them when they have gone to college or when they\nhave undertaken research work in professional libraries.\nWe take our new pupils to the library at the beginning of each term and explain\nto them its working and its advantages.\nNew books are all read either by a teacher or the librarian before they are placed\non the shelves. While our books are mainly reference books, some fiction, both standard\nand modern, is furnished. An important feature is the list of periodicals consisting of\nmonthly and weekly magazines and reviews. These are afterward bound and, used in\nconnection with the Readers Guide, are among our best and most frequently used reference books.\nBesides being a comfortable place with facilities for reference, the library should be\nthe art center as well as the literary center; it should be a workroom, of course; but\nit should be the most artistically furnished room in the school.\nWe have student assistants who are given instruction in library economics and who\nin return give valuable help to the librarian. These assistants are given credit toward\ngraduation.\nOur librarian, as well as the others of our dty schools, had several years' previous\ntraining in the public library in Los Angeles. The librarians have made themselves\nindispensable. The board of education has recognized their worth by making their\nsalaries equal that of high-school teachers of two years' experience.\n\nNo high school\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "I026\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ncan afford to be without a skilled librarian. The ideal condition is a library with a\ntrained librarian holding a teacher's certificate. The certificate will give the librarian\nstanding and adequate salary.\nThe alternative is the common practice of having a teacher of English or history\nin charge of the library. Such a teacher seldom has ample time to perform the duties.\nMoreover, she needs a course in library economics, both for the technical knowledge\nnecessary for the proper handUng of the books and for the Ubrary spirit which inculcates\na love for the library atmosphere.\nMuch is expected from the new County Library Law of Cahfornia. Its supreme\nimportance is owing to the fact that it will provide expert advice and assistance in the\nchoice of books and in the best methods of distributing and using them. It remains for\nthe teachers, and especially the principals, to make the most of the opportunities afforded\nby the new law, which provides such timely and such valuable aid to the libraries.\n\nCALIFORNIA\nHARRIET\n\nG. EDDY,\n\nCOUNTY\n\nCOUNTY LIBRARY\nSACRAMENTO,\n\nFREE LIBRARIES\nORGANIZER,\nCAL.\n\nSTATE\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nThe old order changeth, giving place to the new. Churches are being\ninstitutionalized, and the individual is learning the lesson that he is his\nbrother's keeper. Playgrounds in the city are offering a substitute for\ncountry Hfe. In education, nothing is more significant than the present\nmove to break from the old order of things, to popularize and humanize\neducation. The work of Madame Montesorri in Italy in the school of\nchildhood is phenomenal. The open-air schools, or \"cold schools,\" and the\nschools for abnormals in Chicago are splendid in their conception and results.\nThe movement in Virginia alone for increasing the possibilities for secondary\neducation is remarkable. And the ideal of all open-minded educators is\nfast becoming the attainment of character, rather than success; the acquisition of wisdom rather than knowledge.\nIn California the most vast and mighty change from the old order to\nthe new is along agricultural lines. Endless tracts of land, \"Spanish\ngrants,\" where formerly grew world-famed fields of grain, are being broken\nup, thousands of acres at a time, into colonies, and settled by people bent\non intensive farming. As a consequence, California, the second-largest\nstate in the Union, is fast being filled with numberless small communities,\ncentering in thriving villages and young cities. The effect on both branches\nof education, the school and the library, has been significant. The school is\nsolving its difficulty thru the union district school, the union high school,\nand the county high school. The library is meeting its obligation of a complete library service to all people by the organizing of county free Ubraries.\nThis movement is acknowledged to be perhaps the biggest in library\nhistory. Its presentation to you today is justified for several reasons:\nbecause it deals so intimately with school work and school Ubraries;\nbecause it is a move to help better the community by providing a wellsupported reading-room, and the teacher who is not interested in the com-\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "1027\n\nDepartment]\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nCOUNTY\n\nFREE LIBRARIES\n\nmunity is not worthy the badge of his profession; and, j&nally, anything\n\"library\" is educational, and is its own excuse for being here.\nWe have passed the time when we should call for co-operation between\nlibrary and school. We have come to the time when the library should be\na living, pulsing part of every school organization. Indeed the library, to\nuse a literary comparison, is, or should be, the enveloping action of the\nwhole drama of existence. It amuses the baby with his picture-book before\nhe is even able to read. It gives the growing child his fairy stories, myths,\nhistorical stories, and healthy books of fiction. It furnishes the supplementary and research material for the high-school pupil and the college\nstudent, or the opportunity to read and study to those cut off from scholastic\nwork. It provides the scholar means to continue his research; and opens\nits doors, to the end of old age, to all seeking recreation.\nIn order to bring about this ideal of complete library service to all the\npeople, the California State Library has for years been striving to improve\nlibrary facilities. This could not be done thru the municipal library alone,\nas the majority of the people live either entirely beyond reach of the municipal library or in a town too small to support one. And it could not be\ndone thru traveling libraries, which offer only makeshift service at best,\nwith too many commimities to be served successfully from one state center.\nSo the county was adopted as the unit of library service. Tho the oldest\none in California is scarcely three years old, they are far beyond the experimental age, and are looked upon as inevitable and a wonderful success.\nThey are developing possibilities which even their staunchest friends\nscarcely foresaw, and which are winning enthusiastic support from all parts\nof the state.\nThe law making California county free libraries possible is an enabling\nact, permitting boards of supervisors (who are our coimty governing bodies)\nto establish them and provide for their maintenance by a regular tax.\nThey thus become free libraries for all the people of the county, but do\nnot include towns already supporting libraries, unless they wish to be a\npart. A person trained and experienced in library work is made county\nlibrarian, imder whose supervision the work is developed to its highest\npossible degree of eflSciency.\nThe headquarters of the county free library are at the county seat, and\nbranches are placed in every community center, so that reading-matter\nwill be completely accessible as often as a person goes to his marketing\nplace.\nCalifornia has innumerable small towns, many of which have tried to\nmaintain reading-rooms, but always have the same dire results: inadequate\nsupport, which is subscribed by a few public-spirited people; scant supply\nof books; untrained caretakers. Under the county plan the reading-room\nis maintained by the county fund, magazines are supplied, books are\nexchanged as often as the community has finished using them, additional\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "I028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nones may be called out from the coimty free library and from the State\nLibrary, and a custodian is in charge, under the careful supervision of the\ntrained county librarian.\nIn all parts of the state, the establishment of county free libraries is\ngoing rapidly on, and bringing in their service most satisfactory results.\nCounties that a year ago had no libraries within their border are now serving\nhundreds, even thousands of people; communities that a few years ago\ncomplained that the boys had no place to go but the saloons, now have\nattractive and well-maintained reading-rooms; schools that not long ago\nwere limited by their puny supply of books, now have an endless opportunity to secure supplemental books for their classes, to be used the month\nor so that the subject is taught, and then returned to the central library,\nsubject to call from another community. This benefit that the county\nfree library is to the schools is one of its most significant features. Here\nin California, high schools are rarely known to have enough books to supplement the use of their classes. They often have access to only the\nsupply of their own library, which consists at most of the purchase of one\nhundred dollars worth of books a year — ^not enough to replace the wear and\ntear of each year. By co-operation under a county system, where each\nschool has access to a large central library, and by a judicious arrangement\nof the demands in the various schools, so they will not all come for the\nsame material at the same time, each school can have the use of many times\nthe books it has had, with even less cost to the county. Some high schools\nhave had during one year the use of over two thousand dollars worth of\nbooks, where they had formerly been able to spend on their own Hbrary\nonly seventy-five dollars or one hundred dollars each year. .\nThe district schools of the various counties are also seeing that by cooperation they may have a much better service for the children, and save\nmoney by the plan. Schools usually buy very extravagantly, either because\na young and inexperienced teacher does not know how to select and purchase\nbooks, or because the school trustees fall victim to the wiles of a book agent\n— or both. The county system is offering the districts co-operation in\nany and every way. Some districts are even transferring their library\nfund to the county librarian who will make the selections and purchases,\nbuilding up a school library, which will be circulated in sections to all the\nco-operating districts. Thus each school will have the use of many times\nthe usual books, for their own money will be judiciously spent, and they\nwill have the use of the other fellow's books as well. The life of the book will\nalso be longer, for it is a rare thing to have a schoolbook mended ; but under\nthe new plan the books will be under frequent scrutiny at the central\nlibrary, and kept in prime condition. Books that also have a mysterious\nway of disappearing during the long summer vacation will now be carefully\nguarded, and taught better habits.\nI could continue indefinitely on the possibiHties for good in the working\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nCOUNTY\n\nFREE\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1029\n\nout of the county free-library plan. It is vast in its conception, but proving\nstill vaster in its realization. It is boimd to make for itself a permanent\nplace in the history of educational development, and will be a powerful\nmeans to the end that all people should have informal opportunities of\neducation and recreation provided by a perfect system of library service,\njust as is already coming from its more formal and elder sister, the school.\nDISCUSSION\nL. W. Ripley, librarian, Public Library, Sacramento, Cal. — Much has been said and\nwritten on the proper relations between schools and libraries, and the stream of language\nstill flows on. Much has been accomplished in the line of bringing schools and libraries\ninto active co-operation, but instances of successful work in this direction are not many.\nThe suspicion cannot be avoided that sometimes the feeling that they are being imposed\nupon is felt by one or the other of the high contracting powers.\nTo banish this suspicion from the mind of either party, it would be well to set definite\nlimits to the responsibilities and duties of each. Let us suppose, for instance, that it is\nthe business of libraries to select, collect, and distribute books; and that it is the province\nof the schools to teach the use and love of books. Under such a segregation of powers\neach party will do the work for which it is by training and equipment best fitted. Schools,\nas a rule, are not overly successful in the management of libraries, and while libraries\nclaim great virtue as educational institutions, their success is due more to the instinct\nand school training of their readers than to any compelling force the libraries can exert.\nHere we have a definite basis for co-operative action: the schools produce the readers\nand book-lovers, the libraries supply the books. If the Ubraries are to supply all books\nneeded within given territories, then all the hbrary resources of these territories should\nbe placed at the disposal of these libraries, thereby preventing waste of funds and energy,\nand securing better distribution.\nHow shall this managing Ubrary be selected ? It must be a library with the machinery\nand the disposition to handle the work efficiently and liberally. It may be state, county,\nor municipal, as local conditions shall determine, but whichever is chosen to bear the\nburden, must be armed with power and backfed with resources to bear it well. Under\nCalifornia conditions, the county library seems to afford the appointed means. This\nsystem is in a measure a leaf from the book of \" big business.\" It combines and centralizes,\nremoving authority from the smaller political units and placing it in the larger unit. The\ncomplete development of the system involves the expenditure of much larger srnns than\nwere ever spent within the same limits before, but the increase in efficiency is proportionately much greater. It is just a matter of adding something to your capital and\nrunning expense, and gaining an increased profit on the whole investment.\nToo much money has been spent in the past — I am speaking of California conditions— too much has been spent in the past on school libraries for the good that has\nbeen done; too little money has been spent to cover the work there is to do.\nDr. Bostwick of the St. Louis Public Library has covered this question of library\nwork with the schools very completely in The American Public Library. He says:\nEvery educational institution should have a library of its own, for its own purposes.\nEvery primary and grammar class, as truly as every great university, ought to have its\ncollection of books. But if this collection be expanded to its widest possible limits, it\nwill inevitably be found that duplication of the work of the public library is going on.\nHere arises the first necessity for an agreement between the two institutions regarding\nthe limits of the respective spheres. Librari^ have generally looked upon the plan\nadopted by the city of Buffalo as most satisfactory. Here the school and classroom\nlibraries are limited to books of reference used directly by pupils in the preparation of\ntheir lessons; and even these are selected under the supervision of the public library.\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "I030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nFor everything in the nature of supplementary reading the school depends wholly upon\nthe library — either upon the stock on its shelves or upon collections lent to the school\nor classroom for its use. This makes the school a deposit station or point of distribution,\nso far as its own scholars are concerned. In some cities this Buffalo plan has been modified, or adopted only partially or temporarily, but as a proper division of labor between\nschool and library it is probably imsurpassed.\nUnder this plan, it would appear that the school recognizes the library as the proper\ninstitution to manage library affairs, while the library looks to the school to furnish it\nwith a permanent and ever increasing supply of readers.\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Frank G. Bruner, Department of Child Study, Public Schools\nVice-President — Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of Ungraded Classes\nSecretary — Francis E. O'Donnell, State School for Deaf and Blind\n\nChicago, 111.\nNew York, N.Y.\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July ii, 191 i\nThe meeting was called to order in Pavilion Rink by President Frank G. Bruner,\nand an invocation was given by Rabbi Nieto.\nIn the absence of the secretary, Miss Olive Thomas Powell was appointed secretary\npro tempore.\nThe topic for the session was \"The School Laggard.\" The discussion was opened\nby Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFollowing Mr. Pearse's introduction, papers on the subject were given as follows:\n** Separate Schools with Separate Courses of Study for the Separate Needs of Our\nChildren,\" by S. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn.\n\"Causes of Backwardness and Mental Deficiency in Children, and How to Prevent\nThem,\" by Henry H. Goddard, director, Laboratory of Research, New Jersey Training\nSchool for Feeble-Minded Children, Vineland, N.J.\n\"Can We Eliminate the School Laggard?\" by G. W. A. Luckey, head professor of\neducation, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nSECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 12, 19 11\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the West Side Christian Church\nby the president, Frank G. Bruner, A series of papers on the topic \"The Conservation of\nVision\" were presented.\nMark D. Stevenson, M.D., Akron, Ohio, presented the subject, \"What Can Be\nDone to- Prevent Blindness in Children Under School Age?\"\nThe care of children's eyes after entering school was discussed in the second paper,\n\"The Hygiene of Vision,\" by F. Park Lewis, M.D., chairman of the Committee on Conservation ofVision, American Medical Association, Buffalo, N.Y.\n\"School Activities in Relation to Children's Eyes,\" was presented by J. A. Shawan,\nsuperintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio.\nThe discussion of the subject was opened by Edward M. Van Cleve, superintendent\nof Ohio State School for the Blind, Columbus, Ohio. He was followed by M. P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J; Mrs. A. S. Rowan; and Leonard P. Ayres, associate director.\nDepartment of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.\nF. Park Lewis, M.D., chairman of the Committee on Prevention of Blindness and\nConservation of Vision, appointed by the president of the Department of Special Education at the meeting in 1910, announced that the following persons had been serving\non that committee during the year:\nF. Park Lewis, chairman of Committee on Prevention of Blindness, American\nMedical Association, BufiFalo, N.Y., Chairman.\nJ. A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio.\nW. H. Burnham, professor of psychology, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nE. N. Bristol, secretary, Henry Holt & Co., New York, N.Y.\nE. L. Elliott, editor, \"Th^ Illuminating1031Engineer,\" New York, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "I032\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nA partial but nevertheless encouraging report followed. Dr. Lewis reported that the\nco-operation of the American Medical Society and the Russell Sage Foundation had been\nobtained and that a nation-wide movement has been inaugurated. He showed the\nproof copy of the first magazine just published by the Society for the Prevention of\nBlindness and Conservation of Vision, a society which was partially the result of the\nBoston meeting.\nThe following resolution was presented by C. S. G. Nagel, M.D., secretary of the\nCaUfornia Society for the Prevention of Blindness:\nWhereas, At the Boston meeting of this department a committee of five to investigate the relations of the teaching profession to conservation of vision was appointed; and\nWhereas, Said committee of noted experts, consisting of an ophthalmologist, a city\nsuperintendent of schools, a publisher of schoolbooks, a psychological investigator, and\nan illuminating engineer, has done a year's initial work, promising most useful results, as\nindicated in a partial report made this day to the Department of Special Education, be it\nResolved, That the committee be requested to continue its activities, and that the\nCommittee on Appropriations of the National Education Association be requested to\nprovide for the expenses incurred in the work done during the past year and to appropriate the sum of one thousand dollars for the necessary expenses of this Committee on\nPrevention of Blindness and Conservation of Vision for the ensuing year; and be it\nfurther\nResolved, That we approve the suggestion that a day be set apart in the fall of 191 2,\nto be known as Conservation of Vision Day, and pledge the department's influence in\nmaking the day a notable occasion of pubUc instruction on the care of the eyes.\nThis resolution was seconded and carried unanimously.\nThe president appointed a committee on nominations as follows:\nEdward M. Van Cleve, superintendent, Ohio State School for the Blind, Columbus\nOhio.\nMrs. Alice F. Holden, San Francisco, Cal.\nLeonard P. Ayres, associate director, Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage\nFoundation, New York, N.Y.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July, 14, 19 11\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the West Side Christian Church by\nthe president.\nThe topic for the session was \"Exceptional Children,\" and three papers were presented, asfollows:\n\"Legal Provisions for Exceptional Children,\" by Maximilian P. E. Groszmann,\neducational director, Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children,\nPlainfield, NJ.\n\"What Constitutes a Subnormal Child and to What Extent Can He Be Trained?\"\nby Vinnie C. Hicks, special psychologist, public schools, Oakland, Cal.\n\"The Physiology and Psychology of the Deaf Child,\" by Charles D. Lowry, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nThe discussion was opened by Lewis M. Terman, professor of education, Leland\nStanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nM. P. E. Groszmann made a motion that the chair appoint a committee to prepare\na petition in the name of the Department of Special Education to the Bureau of Education, asking that it collect data relative to the legal status and provision for atypical\nchildren thruout the United States. The motion was carried and the following committee was appointed:\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, educational director, Association for the Study and\nEducation of Exceptional Children, Plainfield, N.J.\nHarris Taylor, principal of Institution for Improved Instruction of Deaf Mutes,\nNew York, N.Y.\nLeonard P. Ayres. associate director, Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage\nFoundation, New York, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dep?rtment]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLAGGARD\n\n1033\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\nFor President — John W. Jones, superintendent, Ohio State School for the Deaf,\nColumbus, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President — M. P. E. Groszmann, educational director. Association for the\nStudy and Education of Exceptional Children, Plainfield, N.J.\nFor Secretary — Miss Carrie B. Levy, supervisor of classes for the blind, Milwaukee,\nWis.\nOn motion the report was adopted and the nominees were declared elected.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nOlive Thomas Powell, Secretary Pro Tempore\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE SCHOOL\nCARROLL\n\nG.\n\nPEARSE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nLAGGARD\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nWIS.\n\n{Synopsis)\nThe laggards increase in numbers as the schools grow. Conditions do\nnot fit the children and the children do not fit the conditions. The relation of those who drop out and those who fall behind is close; the dropping\nout is often caused by the very fact of their having fallen behind. Our\nproblem is to keep the backward ones in school.\nWe must study the causes of failure — the inability to learn, lack of\napplication, poor home conditions, and poor teaching.\nThe question is also an economic one. If one-fourth, one-third, or\none-half of the children repeat the work it means a great loss in money.\nIt will take three teachers to do the work of two, and this presents a serious\nquestion in school economy.\nLaggardism may be caused by overcrowding in the schoolroom; or the\nwork may be too difficult; or the teaching may be poor. The upper-grade\nwork is apt to be too heavy and too much is expected of the pupils. The\nobject in some schools seems to be to make easy the work of the high\nschools. High schools should be held responsible for their own work and\ncarry their own responsibility. Courses of study should be arranged to fit\nthe ability of the average normal child.\nNearly all children are good and capable and can do work under proper\nconditions. Individual help should be given in the case of each individual\nstudied, to prevent lagging. When a teacher notices a child losing interest\nshe should look into the matter at once and not wait until the end of the\nterm.\nIn smaller schools the supervision can be more carefully done. Some\nplan should be devised to assist the backward. In some schools the Batavia plan is followed. The speaker prefert the individual-help period. The\nwise teacher can do much in this period. Arrive, if possible, at the cause\nof failure — the missing motive.\nFind the cure for it, then apply it.\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Special\n\nThe deadening process of keeping back those who could go on and do\nmore work is another side of this question. In some schools the better\npupils are put into separate classes. I consider this unwise; it tends to\nmake them conceited, and often overstimulates.\nForeigners who are too old for the grade should be given special attention and frequently re-graded as their development or progress requires.\n\nSEPARATE SCHOOLS WITH SEP ABATE COURSES OF TRAINING FOR THE SEPARATE NEEDS OF OUR CHILDREN\nS. L. HEETER,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nST.\n\nPAUL,\n\nMINN.\n\nThis subject is expressed under three heads: first, separate schools;\nsecond, separate courses of training; third, separate needs of our children —\na threefold subject. The fundamental consideration, however, is not the\nfirst, the schools; not the second, the courses of training, but the third,\nthe needs of our children.\nThe greatest responsibility resting upon the schools of America today\nis that of recognizing first of all the separate needs of our youth, and then\nthe responsibility of providing special schools and special training to meet\nthose needs.\nThere has been no educational advance within the past ten years except\ntoward the child, and there can be no advance in ten years to come — ^no\nadvance in educational theory or practice, in the organization of our schools,\nin the development of curricula, in methods of presentation — no advance\nin education which does not recognize the child and his individual needs.\nThe American schools in the past have developed on the democratic\ntheory that all children are equal, and should have equal opportunity;\nthe American schools of the future will develop on the extended democratic\nidea that all children are not equal, never have been, and never can be.\nTo my mind the investigations and reports of the Russell Sage Foundation have brought to light the most striking inadequacy of the public\nschools of America. This private foundation has encouraged a nationwide study of the individual child, his school progress, and his needs;\nand it has made teachers, school authorities, and patrons everywhere\nmore considerate of the vast army of American children, who, year after\nyear, become misfits in our educational scheme. This nation-wide study\nof the failures of our children to make normal progress, the problem of\nretardation, the clogging of our educational machinery, the waste product\nin the loss of pupils, the accumulative effect not only upon the schools but\nupon the youth of this land, and upon subsequent manhood and womanhood— all have brought before the American mind one of the largest problems\nof the day, a problem not only educational, but social, and civic, and\neconomic as well.\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSEPARATE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR SEPARATE\n\nNEEDS\n\nWe have developed a scheme of education in this country, truly public\nand national: we have opened our five hundred thousand schoolrooms;\nhave extended our school year from three to ten months; have passed\ncompulsory educational laws; and have attempted to force a minimum of\neducation upon every American child whether he will or not. Yet it is\nnow dawning upon us that our progress has been along academic lines,\nthat we have developed our schools on the pedagogs' side; that our aim\nhas been intellectual; that we have worked almost exclusively with books\nand brains; and that the under half of American children have failed to\nkeep pace in our school courses, have found themselves at the age of fourteen and fifteen in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades of our elementary\nschools, behind time, overaged, overgrown, arrested in their development, awkward and embarrassed in the presence of younger children,\ndiscouraged, irregular in attendance, threatening truancy, applying for\nlabor permits, and finally leaving the schools in large numbers with less\nthan a common-school education, only to find the humblest places in the\nranks of toilers.\nThe National Education Association, in its meeting at Boston last\nyear, opened its declaration of principles with the following resolution:\nWe declare our faith in the schools of the Republic, believing that it is impossible\nfor the citizens of a democracy to develop in power and eflSciency without the common\nschools owned and controlled by the people.\n\nFaith in the schools of the Repubhc! Impossible for the citizens of a\ndemocracy to develop power and eflSciency without the common schools\nowned and controlled by the people! Here is still America's unsolved\nproblem in education. It is the problem of developing power and efficiency\nin the citizens of the democracy. It is a problem for her common schools,\nthe schools owned and controlled by the people.\nThe supporting public has been prone to throw its criticisms at the feet\nof the American teacher, and to make her and her methods the scapegoat\nof the inadequacy of the schools, but I am here today to maintain that\nthere is still something narrow and unbalanced in our educational aim;\nstill something weak in the organic structure of our system. For as long\nas there are natural differences in human beings, as long as the state compels by law the crowds to assemble in common classrooms, and calls upon\nthe teacher to carry all thru the same curriculum, to equalize the unequal,\nand to bring all up to uniform scholastic attainments; as long as the schools\nfor the majority are dominated by the idea of the schools for the minority,\njust so long must the state lay the blame upon itself for the failure of its\nschools, and not upon the half -million teachers of this land.\nThe American public cannot much longer deceive itself with the theory\nthat because we call our nation a democracy, a republic, a United States,\nthere results a certain equality of our children— an equality claimed for no\nother children in the world.\nThe problem of Europe may be to reform\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nher caste schools and eliminate forced conditions of society, but the\nproblem in America is to recognize natural differences in human beings, and\nthen so organize her schools that the child who is scheduled for six years of\nschool life and an humble calling shall be given the training that is his,\nand not the education that belongs to the child with the high school, the\nuniversity course, and a profession before him.\nLet them raise the cry of caste — that's the cry that we must hear in\neducation — class differences, natural and acquired. Separate schools and\nseparate courses of training for the separate needs of our people will not\naccentuate caste. Already in the modern high schools one boy pursues\na literary course, another the manual-training, another the commercial,\nand so on. There we have learned to estimate with equal dignity and\nappreciation all honest effort, whether it be from the cobbler's son in the\nshop courses or the scion's in the classical. It remains for us to carry\nthis same spirit of intelligent differentiation into our elementary schools\nand provide as effectually for the majority for whom education is a duty\nas we have already provided for the minority for whom education is a\nprivilege.\nThe problem of the development of power and efficiency in the citizens\nof a democracy thru a system of popular education must be met first of all\nby an extension of our democratic aim in education, by the realization of\nan aim that will meet the needs of every child and the whole of every child;\nan aim that will be as much concerned about the health of a boy as it is\nabout his head, as much concerned about his hand as it is about his heart.\nIt may call for a certain reorganization, reconstruction, readjustment\nof our elementary schools, but it calls first for a fuller recognition of the\nfact that there is no one routine of schooling that can possibly give all\nchildren alike that maximum of development of which they are severally\ncapable.\nThe boy whose head is in his stomach and cannot rise much higher must receive a\ndifferent treatment from the boy whose head is in the clouds and cannot come down\nmuch lower.\n\nIt should mean, first of all, a recognition of the physical needs of our\nchildren; more regard for the heating, ventilation, and care of school\nbuildings; more regard for sunlight, fresh and pure water in every schoolroom; for systematic courses of physical culture every day and every\nyear of the child's school life; for the periodic physical examination of\nevery child by which bodily ailments and abnormalities that defeat school\nprogress may be discovered, reported, and corrected; and then more\nregard for school lunches, looking toward a supply of wholesome food for\nthe underfed children in every city.\nBut this is not all; the separate physical needs of our children call for\nthe establishment of special schools of health, schools for children with\nexceptional bodies; open-air schools for our pale-faced anaemics and oxygen-\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSEPARATE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nSEPARATE\n\nNEEDS\n\n1037\n\nstarved mouth breathers; fresh-air schools for all tubercular children;\nand special corrective courses for all physically abnormal.\nThe several intellectual needs of our pupils call for the isolation of the\nexceptionally dull and the exceptionally bright, schools for children with\nexceptional brains. An ungraded room, for example, or coaching room in\nevery school building of ten teachers or more, where backward children\nmay be brought up to grade and our strongest may be helped forward;\nalso a special school for the weak-minded in every district of one thousand\nchildren to relieve our regular teachers of mental defectives — drags in\nevery schoolroom.\nThe social and moral interests of our youth demand at least one special\nroom of discipline for every five hundred children; schools for children\nwith exceptional hearts; schools that will relieve our teachers of juvenile\ndeUnquents, habitual truants, and incorrigibles.\nThe vocational needs of our youth call for special elementary industrial\nschools in every city — schools for children with exceptional hands. While\nthe traditional courses may continue to serve best a large proportion, we\nmust set aside in every large building one room with an adjoining shop\nfor our backward youth destined to fail in books and forced by circumstances or choice to go early to work.\nThe first five or six grades in our elementary schools must always offer\nthe basic training to every child; a broad basis of general culture and intelligence. These grades must always remain the school for folks in America,\nthe schools for the masses and classes alike, but we shall never meet the\nurgent needs of our industrial workers until we break away from the single\nuniform course for all, and offer a certain class of children over fourteen a\nparallel course of instruction, not the one looking toward the high schools and\nthe professions, but another toward the occupations, trades, and industries.\nThere is no break here with sound learning. This does not mean that\nthe day of liberal culture is past, that gentle manners, classic style, and\nliterary appreciation are supplanted by bread- winning methods. It does\nmean, however, that the culture aim in education is no longer sufficient,\nand that our common schools are confronted by a new demand, a demand\nmade by the Spirit of the modern world, that a common-school training\nshall prepare for service in the world life.\nThe fact is, there is still a lingering mediaevalism in too many of our\nschools, taking as its ideal worn-out conceptions of culture. The making\nof a cultured life was a sufficient aim in the days of academic seclusion, in\nthe days of Greece with its dominant, slave-owning oligarchy; but we\nlive in America, and we are called upon today to train American boys and\ngirls in an industrial democracy, and we must recognize that our system\nof universal education succeeds only as w^ focus our school activities upon\nthe concrete needs of each child enrolled in the American schools.\nThis does not mean that education has lost its elements of idealism.\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nIt is only an expansion of idealism. There is not much value in knowledge or culture for their own sake. There is no such thing as individual\nexcellence detached from human activity. Mere goodness is abstraction.\nNo man is good unless he is good for something. What the world needs\ntoday is young men and women graduating from our schools with the\ncapacity to do well something that the world wants done.\nI realize I am dealing today with an administrative problem, a problem\nfor school boards, superintendents, and the supporting pubhc. There\ncan be but one objection raised; it is the usual cry of expense. We hear\ntalk everywhere about economy in school administration, but I maintain\nthe greatest economy in education is yet to come, and it will come only as\nwe meet the needs of the less fortunate half that now clogs our educational\nmachinery. For as long as we crowd our basement rooms, hold half-day\nsessions, and congest our lower grades with an army of repeaters; as long\nas we obstruct the line of progress up thru our grades by educational\nrequirements beyond the capacity of the lower half; as long as we hold\nto the intellectual lockstep and exact the same quality and quantity of\nintellectual work from all, regardless of varying capacities and needs; as\nlong as compulsory educational laws require pupils to sit in our schools a\ncertain number of years whether they make progress or not; as long as we\nhandicap our teachers by a system which forces upon each one a half -roomfull of laggards, so long will the state fail to realize an equivalent for its\npublic expenditures in education.\nNow what is in the way? There are no legal obstacles. It requires\nonly a pubhc awakening. New conditions are already teaching us new\nduties. Our eyes are already open to the dawn of a new era in education.\nThe day will soon come when the American business man, the American\nmanufacturer, the American wage-earner, in the face of an ever-increasing\nrivalry for possession of the world's new markets; when the American\nteacher whose life is burdened and energy misdirected in her efforts to\ninterest the dullard, truant, and delinquent in culture programs; the\nfather and mother in the country and town whose sons and daughters go\nwrong under the demoralizing influences surrounding low-grade child labor;\neducational authorities engaged in the uphill business of compelling attendance of the masses in schools which do not meet their needs; municipal\nauthorities who seek to reduce juvenile idleness and crime; and the state\nthat spends its public funds almost too late on jails, reformatories, and\npenetentiaries; all religious organizations that aim at civic righteousness;\nthe body politic that stands for private and pubhc liberty — all will unite\nin a free and unanimous support of separate schools, with separate courses\nof training for the separate needs of our children. This is the step that\npromises America success in its great international struggle for educationg-1,\ncivic, and commercial supremacy, and above all, this is the step that\npromises to plant eternal hope in the heart of every American boy and girl.\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCAUSES\nHENRY\n\nCAUSES\n\nOF MENTAL\n\nDEFICIENCY\n\nOF BACKWARDNESS AND MENTAL DEFICIENCY\nCHILDREN AND HOW TO PREVENT THEM\n\n1039\n\nIN\n\nH. GODDARD,\nDIRECTOR,\nLABORATORY\nOF RESEARCH, NEW JERSEY\nTRAINING SCHOOL FOR FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN, VINELAND, N.J.\n\nFew persons realize the great changes that have come over the educational world both in material and methods during the past fifty years.\nThose who are old enough to remember the earlier conditions seldom have\ntime to turn their attention back and make comparisons. The younger\ngeneration, not having experienced the older condition, seldom think about\nit except as attention may be turned to it from an occasional glimpse at\nthe history of education.\nTime was in the memory of some of us when the country boy went to\nschool in the winter, ciphered thru the arithmetic, learned to read in the\nfifth or sixth reader, to spell at the spelling bees, and perhaps added a few\naccomplishments such as geography and possibly a little algebra. And\nhaving gone thru the allotted number of years, he acquired enough, either\nin the school or thru his experience with life in the various farm occupations, to enable him to have a farm of his own and work upon it, thereby\nearning a living and filling his place in the world.\nIf he went to town he was able to transact whatever business he needed\nto transact^most people being reasonably honest and not inclined to take\nadvantage of him even if he were somewhat ignorant and inexperienced.\nThe city boy or the boy with better opportunities and higher traditions\nin his family was of course sent to better schools and received a more\nelaborate training which might end in the college or the professional school,\nbut if he did not show an adaptation for this, there was always a place for\nhim and he was able to get along very comfortably in the world and take\nhis place and make some sort of a living.\nNow all of this is changed; we have our graded systems and we even\nhave our rural school systems, and, wtiether they are graded or not, we\nhave an elaborate course of study and know fairly definitely what a child\nshould do each year and even each month in the year. So if the boy\ndoes not progress as we say he ought, we are immediately met by the difficulty ofhaving a dull or backward child in our schools, and our problem\nis. What can be done with him ?\nThere is no longer a place for him when he leaves school to go to work\nunless he has some sort of school certificate. Indeed, the number of places\nwhich require even a college diploma, or at least a high-school diploma, is\ncontinually increasing. As someone has said it used to be that \" any fool\ncould be a farmer,\" now it is that many people are not wise enough to\nbe farmers. So the positions open to tke boy who has not made fairly\ngood progress at least thru the grammar school are becoming more and\nmore rare.\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "I040\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nTo the economist, all this only means the old law that as competition\nbecomes greater the more important become the shades of difference\nbetween individuals. Whereas in the past there was room for all and\nwork for all, and whether a boy was bright or dull there was always something that he could do, today competition in all business and all life is\nso strong that the individual peculiarities and differences often amount to\na serious matter. And the boy who comes to be recognized as dull in\nschool finds it difficult to secure work by which he can earn a living.\nIn looking about for the causes of this inabiUty to earn a living we find\nthere exist varying degrees of mental ability and there is a dead-line below\nwhich one is incompetent.\nLooking again to the past for an illustration, many of us will remember\nthe time when little attention was paid to those boys and girls who were\njust a little deaf or just a little defective in eyesight. It was found after\na good while that they did not learn well in school, they were unable to\nreproduce what had been taught by the teacher or what had been demonstrated on the blackboard. Some years ago it was discovered that these\nchildren were partially blind and had not seen clearly what was on the\nblackboard or had not been able to read aright what was in their textbooks;\nothers of them were a trifle deaf and had not heard clearly what the teacher\nsaid and consequently were unable to understand the explanations that\nwere given. We then turned our attention to the examination of all\nchildren, and the world was startled by the facts when it was found that\nsomewhere from lo per cent to 35 per cent of children were more or less\ndeaf or more or less defective in eyesight. Out of that has grown to a\nlarge extent the school physicians, the eye clinics, the ear clinics, and so\non thru the many lines which the school physician follows.\nNow, just as there are persons in whom the eye is a Httle defective or\nthe ear a little defective, so there are persons in whom the brain is more\nor less defective, and who have not the intelligence (and never can have)\nthat their more fortunate brothei^ and sisters are provided with.\nWhile these children in an earlier and simpler form of life might be able\nto learn and do enough to make their way in the world, especially if their\nneeds were not great or if their relatives assisted them somewhat, in these\ndays of stricter competition, in these days of machinery requiring judgment\nfor its management, in these days when the hundred and one occupations\nwhich used to be performed upon the farm are now performed in the shop\nand the larger part of farming and other industrial work is done by machinery, it requires a higher degree of intelligence than formerly and these\nchildren who are just a little below the line in mental ability .are no longer\nable to take their part in the world.\nThe same complicated educational system which compelled us to discover the partially blind and deaf has compelled us likewise to become\naware of those who are partially endowed mentally, and so it comes about\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCAUSES\n\nOF MENTAL\n\nDEFICIENCY\n\nIO41\n\nthat one of the greatest problems before us today is the problem of children\nwho are endowed with low mentality. They cannot do the regular work\nof the school; they are recognized as dull or backward, or in extreme\ncases as feeble-minded. First it was thought that these children were\nbad, and indeed there are yet some teachers who think that the children\nwho do not keep up with the class are willfully negligent or careless and\nthat they could if they would, but the day of such views is fast passing.\nWe are coming already into a condition of things where any teacher who\ndoes not look first at the mental and physical condition of the dull child\nis recognized as a back number.\nThe child that does not do his school work to the satisfaction of his\nteacher should be an object of study and not the recipient of a scolding.\nWhen such a study is given, it is found almost always that the child is dull\nfor reasons that are beyond his control; that someone else is responsible for\nhis failure, and not he himself.\nNow these dull children divide themselves into two main groups:\nfirst, those who are dull and backward from causes of temporary action\nthat may be removed, and having been removed, the child may progress\nat a normal rate, or at least at a rate sufficiently rapid to enable him eventually to become a respectable and useful citizen. These constitute nearly\n15 per cent of the school population. There is the other group of those\nwho are endowed with a brain too poor even to enable them to have sufficient judgment to manage their own affairs satisfactorily in any society\nas complicated as that in which we live. These are the feeble-minded.\nThey are more than 2 per cent of the school population.\nThe two ought to be sharply diagnosed and differentiated, for they are\nas different as measles and smallpox, and it is as important to note the\ndifference as it is in these diseases. Like these two diseases, it is sometimes\nin the beginning hard to differentiate; and like them, too, in one case it\nis harmless and the patient will recover, in the other it is likely to be fatal\nand nothing can save him. Indeed, this is absolutely true of the feel^leminded.\nAs has been said, the causes of backwardness are local and temporal;\nthey may be such things as malnutrition, defective sight or hearing, adenoids, a misfit, even such a thing as taking up a study before the mind is\nprepared for it, or anything that temporarily blunts the child's ability to\ndo the work that is prescribed for him. Indeed, we may go farther than\nthat and say that there are children of such slow development physically\nas well as mentally that the things that we assume that they ought to do\nbecause they have arrived at the age of six or ten are as far ahead of them\nas tho we had asked them to do the things which were suitable for a child\nof eight or twelve. Just as you can mal^ a child bow-legged by insisting\nupon his walking before he is ready, so you can spoil him for almost any\nsubject of study that you like by putting him into it before his mind has\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "I042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ndeveloped to that point; and just as the bow-legged condition once produced will always interfere with his walking and can only be corrected\nby very special attention and outlay of money and effort, so the child made\nbackward by being placed in the wrong class to start with is very difficult\nto overcome, and backwardness will impede his progress at all times unless\nvery definite measures are taken at a good deal of expense of time and\nmoney and effort on his part. We have learned to send the child that is\nphysically below par — that is, crippled or disabled or deformed in any way\n— to a specialist. In the same way we must come to the position where\nour one thought when we discover a child that is mentally below the average will be that he must go to the specialist, too. That specialist is the\npsychologist or the teacher of the special class.\nBut if we have discovered a case of smallpox and not measles — that\nis to say, if the child is feeble-minded rather than simply backward — we\nhave quite a different problem. The feeble-minded child is born with a\nbrain which does not develop to the point where he can exercise enough\nreason and judgment to enable him to take his place in any society that is\nas compHcated as that in which we live today.\nNow, this condition can be discovered in school. (The method of\ndetecting and differentiating him I leave for another discussion in another\nsection of this Association.)\nThe causes which have produced this type of defect are many. One\nhas but to read the older literature on the subject to be impressed with\nthe fact that we not only believe that there are many causes, but it is also\nevident that we are very largely ignorant of what these causes are, and\nthe percentage of cases in which the different known causes act.\nRecent studies have led us to make at least one very sharp differentiation— that is, between those cases where the mental defect is a truly hereditary matter and those cases in which it is the result of causes acting in\nthe form of acquired characteristics.\nIn 65 per cent of all cases of feeble-mindedness there is feeblemindednes inthe parents or in the grandparents or somewhere back in\nthe ancestry of the child; in the other 35 per cent we have various forms of\ndisease and accidents and injury. Most of these are in a general way well\nknown to all, such as the after-effects of scarlet fever, spinal meningitis,\nand perhaps other diseases; dangers, difficulties, and troubles at the time\nof birth; certain causes that act upon the mother previous to the birth of\nthe child. All of these give rise to a defective brain which can never develop\nto the point at which it can function normally. Whatever the cause, all\nof these cases of feeble-mindedness are incurable. They are helpless\nand hopeless so far as their ever being normal is concerned.\nNevertheless, there are certain kinds of training that they may receive\nand under the influence of which they may be made happy and somewhat\nuseful. They will not become an absolute burden upon the community.\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCAUSES\n\nOF MENTAL\n\nDEFICIENCY\n\n1043\n\naltho relatively so. So much for the causes of backwardness and feeblemindedness.\nBut I am to speak to you also on the prevention of these conditions,\nand this is a much more difficult problem. It is evident that in regard\nto the 35 per cent of feeble-mindedness that is due to what we may term\n\"accidents,\" whether it be of disease, or fall, or injury to the mother or to\nthe child at time of birth, the only prevention for that condition of things\nlies in greater care which shall prevent the accident. This would in many\ncases undoubtedly depend upon a greater knowledge and skill on the part\nof the medical profession, by which the conditions in the parents which\nunderlie the production of a defective child would be better imderstood\nand therefore prevented.\nThe method of preventing the 65 per cent of hereditary cases is manifest\nwithout discussion. It is only to prevent their being born. It is merely\na question of time when the general public understands the tremendous\nhereditary force in this particular that we shall take the necessary steps\nto prevent this type of feeble-mindedness.\nWhen we understand that if two feeble-minded persons marry, all of\nthe children must be feeble-minded; when we recognize that when one\nparent is feeble-minded the probabilities are that half the children will be\nfeeble-minded and that if the other parent is alcoholic the chances are\nthat all of the children will be feeble-minded— it is only necessary, I say,\nto understand this to make us resolve that such people shall not marry.\nNot only that — we must go farther and either provide homes for such\npeople where they can by no possibility procreate their kind, or else we\nmust by surgical interference make it impossible for them to perform that\nfunction.\nThis is the answer to the question, How shall we prevent 65 per cent\n•\nof feeble-mindedness ?\nTurning our attention to that part of the subject which is of immediate\ninterest to the schoolman— because it is his problem, the one upon which\nhe can work— we are led to ask. How can we prevent the backw^dness in\nchildren? The first step toward a prevention of the condition is to recognize it. As I have said in an earUer part of this paper, it has taken us\na long time to recognize that this was a condition over which the child\nhad no control. Now we are able to recognize backwardness at an early\nage. As the result of the studies of a Frenchman, Professor Binet, we are\nable to diagnose the case as early as three years and find out whether the\nchild is normal or subnormal, and to what extent he is subnormal or\nbackward.\nHaving recognized the case, we have before us, as was said, a case for\nthe specialist. If everything has been d(5ne that can be done to improve\nthe child's condition, then it only remains for us to fit the child to such an\nenvironment as he is able to function in. We must not put him m the\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "I044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nclass with the normal child, because, not being able to make normal progress,\nhe is sure to become quickly discouraged, and discouragement is fatal to\nall effort, either in child or adult, normal or subnormal. He must, then,\neither have individual treatment or be placed with a small group of those\nwho are like himself. We have yet to work out and solve the problem\nas to how many of these backward children a teacher can properly handle.\nWe are sure fifteen is th-e upper limit. It is more than likely ten is nearer\nthe truth.\nBut we, of course, are not satisfied to simply pick out these backward\nchildren and put them together in a small class. Each child must be\nstudied and the cause of the backwardness in his particular case determined, ifpossible, and removed. If it is a case of adenoids and tonsils\nwhich have in some mysterious way sapped his vital energy, they must\nbe removed; if it is a case of malnutrition, then that must be looked into;\nif it is malnutrition due to actual lack of nourishing food, food must be\nprovided; if the malnutrition is due to a failure to assimilate the food\nwhich has been provided in plenty, then it is a case for deep study by\nthe physician; if it is due to defective sight or hearing, then those conditions must be examined and if possible remedied.\nIn conclusion, let us look for a moment at conditions as they might\nexist if we were to take this matter in hand and act upon what we know.\nIn the first place, it sounds most encouraging and something like scientific\neducation to say that we will examine all children as they come to school\nand determine, then and there, their actual mental status, and that we\nwill separate them into the precocious, or supernormal; the normal, or\naverage; and the subnormal, the backward or feeble-minded; and that\nwe will treat each group as its condition requires instead of, as formerly,\nherding them all together and giving them the prescribed average course,\nwhether they are able to carry more or less. And were I a prophet, I\nshould be willing to predict marvelous consequences as the result of this\nearly classification of our children in accordance with their mental ability.\nTo begin at the top, the removal of the precocious children into special\nclasses where they shall be given food sufficiently strong for their exceptionally good endowment will in itself be of untold benefit to the average child,\nbecause it is the precocious child of the public schools, quite as truly as\nthe subnormal child, that disturbs the even course of events in the classroom. The precocious child is able to do the work you set for the average\nchild in half the time that the other can do it; the other half he has left\nin which he may do anything that occurs to his fertile brain. If he is of\na certain temperament, he will of course use that time quietly and calmly,\nwith no disturbance to the teacher or other children, but more often he is\nrestless and uneasy and he quickly turns to those things nearest his hands,\nand that may be something either annoying to the teacher or to the other\nchildren or injurious to himself.\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCAUSES\n\nOF MENTAL\n\nDEFICIENCY\n\n1045\n\nNow, once remove him from the regular grade and put him in a group\nwhere he is given enough to do and we not only save the disturbance in\nthe regular class but we save that child's own intellect if not his soul. At\nthe other end, as already implied in what has been said, to remove the\nfeeble-minded and then the backward children from the class will save\nthe tremendous drag which every teacher feels from the presence of these\nchildren, and the average normal child will then go on undisturbed and do\nhis work in the regular way, receiving his share of the teacher's attention,\nwhich he never does receive as long as there are one or two or three defective pupils in the room.\nI am going to anticipate the usual objection that is raised to such a\nclassification as I have suggested — namely, that it is so extremely expensive\nthat we cannot afford it— by making a suggestion. Possibly it is not\nfeasible, but it seems worth considering. While I do not admit for an\ninstant that the cost of giving special training to those special pupils\nshould stand in the way of doing it, and while I stand emphatically for the\nview that nothing is too good and no expense too great to bestow upon\nnormal children, nevertheless, if the matter can be evened up and we can\ndo just as well by these children without materially increasing the expense,\nthere certainly is no objection to doing it.\nNow, it seems a fair question whether, if we remove from the regular\nclass those who are precocious at the one end and those backward and\ndefective at the other, a teacher may not be able to handle even a larger\nclass than we now allow. In colleges and in departmental work in the\nhigh schools one teacher now instructs a much larger group than we allow\nin any single-grade room. It is true that we are dealing with older pupils,\nwho are able to get more from the lecture and from the methods of instruction used with a large group than the very young children could do; nevertheless Isubmit whether it is not possible that with the two extremes,\nwhich I have enumerated, removed, with a group of average children of\ngood intelligence who are keeping up with their class, where the interest may be maintained, some of the methods in vogue even in college\ncould not be carried on with reasonably satisfactory results ? I have no\ndoubt that the results would be more satisfactory than they are now with\nthe mixed group that constitute a grade. If this is possible, it will be no\nsmall item toward the solution of this problem from the material standpoint— ^because it is no small problem when we recall that 4 per cent of\nschool children are precocious and 2 per cent feeble-minded, while 15 per\ncent are backward. Altogether these groups make at least 20 per cent\nor one-fifth of our school population that must be in classes which are at\nleast. not more than a half or a third as large as those we now have.\nWhether this suggestion will prove practical or not 1 cannot say, but\nit is certain that the special class is coming, and before long we shall grade\nour children on a scientific basis.\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "1046\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n^Special\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThink of turning back to the old ungraded system in any of our city\nschools! Give a teacher forty to sixty children of all ages and ask her to\nproduce results! We look back upon it as upon the Dark Ages.\nYet we do what amounts to the same thing when we give a teacher\nforty to sixty children with a range of four to seven years in mental age\nand ability.\nMay the day speedily come when this shall savor as much of the Dark\nAges as the other.\nCAN WE ELIMINATE\nG. W. A. LUCKEY,\n\nHEAD\n\nTHE SCHOOL\n\nPROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nLINCOLN,\nNEBR.\n\nLAGGARD?\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF NEBRASKA,\n\nThis question is larger and more serious than may appear on first\nstatement. The treatment of the laggard is an important problem of the\nnation. It is one of the pillars on which the civihzation rests. Unfortunately the speaker has no expert knowledge to bring you, neither is he\nable to present the first or the last word on the subject. The first word\nhas already been spoken by men and women of deep conviction, and we are\nby no means ready to give the last word, even were it possible in a twentyminutes paper. What I hope to do, therefore, is to present a few phases\nof the subject which seem to point toward a solution.\nWho is meant by the school laggard ? What is the cause of his existence? Is he essential to the civilization, or simply an accident of it— a\nmisfit ?\nWe are apt to think of the laggard as the boy or girl who falls behind in\nhis school work — the slow child who requires more than the usual time to\ncomplete the grade, or who is above the normal age for the grade. This\nis only partially true. The real laggard is the one who is always behind no\nmatter what the field. He is short in every direction or completely out of\nadjustment. The so-called school laggard is short in a few lines but may\nbe the leader in others. A laggard under one teacher may be the leader\nunder another. In some lines we may all be laggards while probably but\nfew are laggards in all lines. Hence the term laggard as we use it is only\nrelative and has special reference to the system under which it develops.\nThe meaning of the term is vague and can ^scarcely be made more specific\nin our present state of knowledge, or rather want of knowledge.\nHolding in mind the more accurate meaning of laggard, I shall use for\nthe purposes of discussion the meaning commonly accepted, i.e., the school\nlaggard is the one who is behind in his studies or above the normal age\nfor the grade.\nWhen we begin to study the subject we realize how meager and inaccurate the statistics ate. There has been no general plan. Each community\nis a law unto itself and the statistics gathered are often without meaning\nor purpose.\nThese statistics later find their way to the United States\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELIMINATING\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLAGGARD\n\n1047\n\nBureau of Education, are published and scattered. But they lack coherence and without a general plan are of little or no value. Of late\nyears several commendable efforts have been made to interpret and find a\nuse for this annually recurring body of school statistics. One of the earlier\nmonographs of special note was written by Dr. Edward L. Thorndike of\nTeachers College, Columbia University. It was entitled \"The Elimination\nof Pupils from School\" and published by the United States Bureau of\nEducation. One of the more recent and best publications on the subject,\nentitled \"Laggards in our Schools,\" is by Professor Leonard P. Ayres,\nof the Russell Sage Foundation. The purpose of this book is, I judge, to\ngive a working hypothesis for gathering and interpreting school statistics.\nWe may not agree with the details but any plan is better than no plan.\nBesides, this seems to be as feasible a plan as has yet been suggested. I\nam indebted to this work for many of my thoughts on the subject.\nTurning to the conditions of our schools as we find them, about onethird of the children in the public schools are above the normal age for the\ngrade, hence they are classified as retarded. If all children attended school\nregularly and were promoted as regularly there would be found in the\neighth grade about 87 per cent of the number in the first grade. But\nowing to the failure to make grades with the class and the frequent stopping\nout that occurs after thirteen, the number that finish the eighth grade is\nonly about one-third or at most one-half of those who started. The-number who remain to complete the course in the high school is at best not\nmore than one in ten.\nOn the average, 16 to 20 per cent of the children fail from year to year\nto make the grade with the other members of the class. These become\nrepeaters, going over the same work the second year, or becoming discouraged leave school. This number becomes cumulative, occupying space,\nusing the time and energy of the teacher which belong to other pupils.\nMr. Ayres in expressing this thought says :—\nOf the entire membership 5 per cent have reached their present grades in 86 per cent\nof the normal time; 55 per cent have reached their present grades in 100 per cent of the\nnormal time; 40 per cent have reached their present grades in 128 per cent of the normal\ntime.\n\nHe states further that\nThe average child in the average city school system progresses thru the grades at the rate\nof eight grades in ten years.\n\nthus becoming retarded to the extent of two years in eight. The effect\nof such repeating when estimated in dollars and cents is surprisingly large,\nbut that is the smallest item in the loss. The greater loss is the retarding\neffect it' has on the civilization and the cumulative effect on inheritance.\nWhat is the cause of the school laggard ? Here the want of knowledge\nis one of the most noticeable features of the study. The past ten or fifteen\nyears have been exceedingly fruitful in acquainting us with the laws of life\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nand the nature of the individual. But man is more than a plant or an\nanimal, and as we ascend the scale of life the organisms become more\ncomplex and their operations more intricate. Besides, knowledge to be of\nservice must be distributed, perceived, accepted, utilized.\nAmong the causes that seem to stand out most prominently in the\nretardation of children are:\n1. Ignorance and indifference on the part of parents.\n2. Short and irregular attendance,\n\n'\n3. Late entrance.\n4. Bad physical conditions, i.e., physical defects, poor health, sickness.\n5. Bad mental conditions, i.e., want of balance, slow to perceive, weak to retain.\n6. Bad environmental conditions, i.e., overcrowded, poorly ventilated, insanitary\nrooms, lack of playgrounds, shops and laboratories, and lack of proper stimulus.\n7. Lack of interest, bad habits of study, absence of suitable ideals.\n8. Poor teaching and unnecessary discouragements.\n9. Bad inheritance, unredeemable defects — physical and mental.\n\nThere are other causes, no doubt, in producing the school laggard, but\nthese are the ones most frequently mentioned. It will be seen that most of\nthe causes are removable, and thru the slow processes of conscious evolution\nall of them may be removable.\nI believe with those who say that as our schools are now constituted,\nit would be better for the boy and girl not to begin school life until eight\nor nine. But for children of that age to be placed with children of five\nor six is bad pedagogically and morally for both classes. This is equally\ntrue whether the disparity of age is the result of late entrance or failure\nof promotion. What might be done with a room full of beginners all nine\nyears old is no criterion of what can be done with a dozen nine years old\nin company with twenty or thirty six years old, others five years, seven\nyears, and eight years.\nIn some of the large city school systems there are many more retarded\nchildren in one district or building than in another. This often happens\nin buildings wherein the environmental conditions seem to be similar.\nOn this point Mr. Ayres says :\nIn the investigation in New York, in some cases nearly twice as great a proportion\nof the children were retarded as in neighboring schools where external conditions were\nidentical.\n\nThis seems to point to remedial conditions of the teaching or of the requirements for promotion.\nWhile a large number of the children are classed with the laggards\nbecause of late entrance, there are twice as many more who become laggards\nbecause of slow progress. The latter belong more truly to the class of\nlaggards, and they are the ones who more often stop out without completing\nthe course. The lagging seems to increase as we ascend the grades, reaching about one-half of all the children from the fifth grade on.\nIn many schools where the number of repeaters is large the number in\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nELIMINATING\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLAGGARD\n\n1049\n\nthe eighth grade is correspondingly small. Many children enter upon the\nschool year several weeks or even months behind the time scheduled for\nstarting, and not infrequently the same children stop out before the\nsession is over. It does not stand to reason that such children can do the\nrequired work of the grades and be promoted unless they are overly\nbright. Even then they must interfere out of proportion to their nuni])L'r\nwith the efficiency of the school.\nWe are apt to think of the school year as nine or ten months in length.\nBut to the average child, on account of non-attendance, it is probably\nunder rather than over six months. Because of the unstable condition of\nmany parents, removal from schools may often be necessary; however, most\nof the irregular attendance is avoidable and when overcome will eliminate\nmany cases of retarded development. Even so important causes as ill\nhealth and physical defects, to which probably 10 per cent of the retardation belong, can be in part if not wholly removed. This is true of many\nother causes.\nIs the laggard essential to the civilization oi« merely an accident — a\nmisfit ? If not essential we can eliminate him as soon as we understand the\nlaws that govern his existence. Nature despises a useless organism and\nwhen acting alone will prevent its continuance thru the survival of the fittest.\nIf the laggard is not useful to the civilization, why does he continue to\nthrive ? Have we here the working or the interference of a new force — a\nforce not of nature but of mind ? Under the operations of the purely physical laws the survival of the fittest holds, but in human actions there seems\nto be a new force which often interferes with the full expression of nature's\nlaws. If these forces are working in harmony the evolution is rapid, if\nin discord there is little or no progress. Education is becoming more and\nmore conscious evolution. Man thru intelligence takes hold, as it were,\nof the great forces of life and molds them to his needs. In doing this he\nmust understand both forces and shape the lower to the higher — the physical to the spiritual.\nInstinct is a better guide than partial intelligence, but it fades into insignificance when compared with complete intelligence. In the light of\nintelligence, instinct is frequently found to be perverted and destructive\nof itself. In the matter of the laggard we seem to have reached the stage\nof partial intelligence — a cartoon stage where it is neither the one nor the\nother, and where the appearances are somewhat exaggerated. Seen in\nthis light the problem of the laggard becomes an exceedingly complex one\ncontrolled by many forces, some of which are subtle and not understood.\nBut the problem is by no means a hopeless one. Human intelligence is\nequal to the task.\nGreat help has been given toward the solution of the problem in the past\nfew years by students of biology, especially the experts in the breeding of\nBy means of selection and hybridization he is able to\nplants and animals.\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "f050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nevolve new plants. But he finds himself limited in the process within very\nnarrow lines. He can make use of fortuitous variation but he must wait\nfor nature to produce them by laws he does not understand.\nIt is difficult under the best conditions to control inheritance, and this\nproblem lies at the foundation of the school laggard. Parents whose\nheritable characteristics are bad cannot hope to produce the best children.\nIn the breeding of plants and animals we are careful in the selection and give\nevery opportunity of environment. But much as we love our civilization,\nin the breeding of men we are densely ignorant and criminally negligent.\nWe are aware of the close relation existing between the physical and the\nspiritual. The laws of the former are beginning to be understood, but the\nlatter is seen in only the dimmest outline. In the main, like begets like.\nInsanity generates insanity. Imbecility begets imbecility. Degeneracy\nproduces degeneracy. CriminaHty produces criminality. Hence to eliminate the laggard often means to change the inheritance.\nSometime we will perceive and appreciate the importance to the nation\nof having every child conceived and born under the best conditions — ^conditions oflife and health, and not those of death and decay. No greater\nservice can be rendered any civilization than that which betters the inheritance. Ina democracy, every man has or ought to have the liberty to\nperpetuate good, but no man has any inherent right to perpetuate evil.\nBesides, the truest, the deepest, and the most lasting happiness is not that\nof physical pleasure, but spiritual — not changes of the body but changes of\nthe soul.\nSince a large number of school laggards are the result of physical weakness due to heritable characteristics, they may be prevented in the future\nby a cleaner and more intelligent parenthood. But even under the best\nconditions that we know there are likely to be the physically weak and\nincapacitated. The expert horticulturist in planting a grove, selects with\nthe greatest care his stock. He tries to have a pure strain, uniform trees,\nand similar conditions of environment. But a very few years are sufficient\nto change conditions. Some of the trees have thrived, others have not,\nsome are true to name, others are not. The trees of the orchard are no\nlonger uniform. It is probable that these changes are due to definite laws\nwhich if understood might be controlled. However, the child in its inheritance imore\ns\ncomplex than the tree and the laws of its growth are less\nunderstood.\n\nIt does not seem that the laggard is essential to the civilization, but\nrather an accident. At present our knowledge of the laws of heredity is\ntoo limited to give us complete mastery of the situation. Under the\nbest conditions there will probably be from 3 to 5 per cent of the children\nphysically incapacitated for the school work demanded of the normal child.\nThese will continue to be a burden on the civilization — receiving more than\nthey return.\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\n1051\n\nBesides the laggards due to physical weakness or inheritance, there is a\nlarger number due to psychical weakness or environmental conditions.\nThe latter under favorable conditions may be largely, if not wholly, eliminated.\nOne of the weaknesses of our present civilization is the tendency to\nearly specialization. Efficiency in any line before sixteen or eighteen is\napt to mean fixation in a narrow field and consequent arrest of development.\nIt would be far better for the civilization if no child were permitted to enter\nthe commercial world to work for wage until after sixteen. It would be a\ngreat saving to the nation to protect all children who need protection during\nthe formative period when they are constructing the character that is to\nshape their future. For all racial purposes the balanced mind is the best\nmind, and the growing child should be given opportunity to develop manysided interests.\nEvery normal child ought to complete the full requirements of the\nelementary school. This is absolutely essential to citizenship, to parenthood, to commercial life, and to the minimum enjoyment of the social life.\nSuch a requirement should be demanded by every state and community. It\nis in a large measure attainable when we ehminate the laggards who have\nfallen into a class to which they do not belong.\nIn conclusion, I believe that of the 33 or more per cent of laggards now\nfound in the average school system, two-thirds can easily be eliminated\nby promotion, and in time at least 15 per cent more can be eliminated in\nthe same way. To do this we must observe more carefully the laws of\ninheritance; we must establish better home and school environments; we\nmust adapt the subject-matter of the school to the immediate needs and\ninterests of the individual child; and last but not least, we must better the\nteaching. We must have teaching that vitaUzes and awakens the soul to\nthe richness of life about it ; teaching that truly educates and fills the learner\nwith a desire to live always, to live truer, and to live purer.\nTHE PREVENTION\nMARK\n\nOF BLINDNESS IN CHILDREN\nSCHOOL AGE\nD.\n\nSTEVENSON,\n\nM.D.,\n\nAKRON,\n\nUNDER\n\nOHIO\n\nFamily units formerly banded together into larger units chiefly for\nreligious, social, military, and commercial purposes. Crime was punished\nas a retaUatory measure, not specially as a protection for the public, with\nlittle or no inquiry into its real causes and consequently with little success. The insane were punished with practically no cures; now with\nproper care there is a large percentage of recoveries. This is also true of\npast and present methods of treating inebriates and minor criminals.\nTruancy more frequently requires the removal of tonsils and adenoids\nand the proper use of lenses than of the lash.\nJuvenile crime greatly\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "105^\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ndisappears when poverty is replaced in nature's hospital with good food,\nopen air, sunshine, and playgrounds. The better understanding of questions relating to public health brought about during the last few years\nshows that the health of a community is chiefly dependent on the condition\nof the people who live in the most unhygienic manner. Very much depends\non their industrial occupation, housing, ventilation, and cleanliness. Contagious diseases, always present or epidemic, affecting people in all walks\nof life, are proportionate to the hygienic and social condition of the weakest\nlinks in a community. In the complexity of our civilization, in social, and\nespecially in health matters, each individual is important to all; in the\ninterest of good citizenship, therefore, the state is properly becoming more\npaternal. For its protection, and in order to raise the standard of its citizenship, ithas been compelled to undertake the training and education of\nits children.\nThe appreciation of the importance of preventing contagious diseases\nwhere so many are gathered in one place has resulted in medical inspection\nof school children. Physical examinations have demonstrated that the\nattention, intelligence, and success of pupils, always known to vary greatly,\ndepend in large measure on their physical condition. The vision, hearing,\nand posture of school children, and the ventilation, methods, and frequency\nof cleaning schoolrooms, have acquired a new interest. The pathologic\nimportance of diseased tonsils and adenoids is now at least partially,\nappreciated. Health is very important in acquiring an education, and\nmuch is now being done to promote more healthful, wholesome conditions\namong school children.\nThe strain and evil effects of school work fall very largely on the eyes;\na proportionate share of the burden is not borne by the other senses, as\nnearly all knowledge is acquired, to some extent, by the use of the eyes.\nOur ancestors used their eyes but little at close range; few of them could\nread, books were scarce, and methods of artificial lighting very crude.\nThe human eye, hke that of nearly all animals, is chiefly adapted for seeing\ndistant objects, as it is possible to see at close range only by a special\nfocusing effort of the muscle of accommodation. Most of the organs of\nour body are serving now much the same purposes that they have served\nfor thousands and perhaps millions of years, back thru our various\nancestors, so that the present greatly increased demands on the organs of\nvision in distinguishing objects at close range are not evolutionary, but\nrevolutionary, demanding the earnest attention of all concerned in preventing the deterioration not only of these but also, on account of their\nintimate relationship, of certain other organs.\nThe power of adjustment of the normal eye to see near-by objects\nincreases up to about fourteen years of age, and afterward declines until,\nat about forty-five years of age, close objects are seen indistinctly or with\nconsiderable effort. Unusual effort, in seeing at close range and in directing\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\n1053\n\nthe eyes simultaneously like two gun barrels on exactly the same point,\nis also required in young children, especially if their vital forces are reduced,\nas during and after any illness, especially after weakening diseases like\ndiphtheria. Small objects, like letters in fine print or threads in sewing,\nare therefore unsuited to the young child's eyes. Large letters or other\ncharacters on blackboards or charts are less, injurious. Teachers know\nthat in order to secure steady, successful work the physical condition and\nhealth of children are of the greatest importance. Recognizing this, they\nhave called to their aid various agencies, such as medical inspection, school\nand district nurses, social workers, child-welfare exhibits, special surgical,\nmedical, and dental clinics.\nThe examination of children first entering school, however, makes\nrecords of many physical ailments and deformities which could only have\nbeen relieved or corrected sometime before the child was of school age.\nThe most important period in correcting many physical deformities is very\nearly in life. Before entering school, adenoids and tonsils have often\nundermined the child's vitaUty, possibly destroyed, at least partially, its\nhearing, produced catarrhal conditions, changed the voice, deformed its\ndental arches, making the roof of the mouth encroach on the nasal spaces,\nnarrowed the face, caused crooked, projecting teeth, pigeon breast, and\ninfected cervical glands, as well as scarred, partially ruined eyes from\nphlyctenular ulcers. Squinting, crossed or turned eyes should usually be\ncorrected with proper lenses as soon as the squint appears, especially\nwhenever it appears after the first year of life, and often if this is not done\nuntil the child is five or six years old the vision in the squinting eye, in its\nuseful relation to the other, is irreparably lost. Certain cases of congenital cataract also require early operation.\nIt is very necessary that the physical condition of a child entering\nschool should be known, as much may yet be done to correct deformities.\nIf the eyesight or hearing has been partially or wholly lost, however, its\nlate detection is like discovering that the barn door was unlocked after the\nhorse was stolen. The state will have to go farther and have its agents\ninspect its prospective citizens even before school age, and equally good\nresults in lessening deformities and disease in infants and children will be\nobtained as already have been secured in lessenmg infant mortaUty. Great\ninterest is properly taken in the prevention of cruelty to the lower animals, .\nbut a Uttle of the humanity overflowing into antivivisection and other\nchannels, without any study of the wonderfully beneficent results of animal\nexperimentation not only to man, but in the prevention of disease, suffering, and death in the lower animals, especially in valuable necessary\ndomestic animals, can find great avenue* for service, not misdirected\nattempts to be useful, in the care of Uttle children, the most important\nwards of the body politic.\nThe eye, Uke other organs of the body, must be regarded as the resultant\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "I054\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntSpecial\n\nof long ages of evolutionary progress. Wherever found it is specially\nadapted thru a process of natural selection to the visual necessities of its\npossessor. Generations of inherited adaptation to environment have\nresulted in the almost numberless variations between the rudimentary\nblind eyes of certain fish in the dark caves of Kentucky to the highest\ndeveloped human eye, with its wonderful capacity for quick, silent fixation\nthirdand adjustment for distant or near-by objects, with binocular or optical\ndimension vision. Huxley, years ago, called attention to the\ndefects and imperfections of the human eye— as a microscope inaccurate,\nas a telescope imperfect, as a camera crude, but wonderful because it is\nall these in one; while it does nothing accurately and perfectly, it does\nmany things well enough for all practical purposes and has the crowning\nmerit, overbalancing all minor defects, of being able to adapt itself to almost\nevery conceivable change of circumstances.\nHereditary blindness, which some deny exists, has recently been given\ncareful study by Dr. Clarence Loeb, of St. Louis. He asserts that less than\none in every ten thousand people in any country have hereditary blindness,\nbut that there are twelve forms of eye disease truly hereditary, as well as\ncolor bUndness and refractive errors, the one of economic importance in\ncertain occupations only, the other capable of being corrected. Nearly the\nentire range of ocular disease is free from hereditary influences, and people\nbUnd from ordinary eye diseases, in marrying present only social and\neconomic problems. Dr. Loeb found, however, that the marriage of a\nperson with a hereditary blind taint to a normal person produced practi' cally as much inherited bUndness as if both parents were tainted, and he\nadvocated the prevention of marriage of anyone capable of transmitting\nbUndness. He beUeves that at least persons with normal eyes or with\nreduced vision in families tainted with hereditary blindness should be\nadvised against marriage, and parents having two children suffering with\ninherited stigmata should be warned of the danger to subsequent children.\nAttempts to better the condition of mankind have usually met with\nopposition by those to be benefited. Vaccination has its opponents to\nthis day, and so have the various antitoxins, serums, and vaccines of more\nrecent acquisition. Progressive ideas and legislative activities at first meet\nactive opposition, then receive passive obedience, and finally, axiomatic\nacceptance. Prevention is greater than cure. The pharaohs of Egypt\nmarried their own sisters. Certain states now forbid the marriage of\nrelatives as near as first cousins. Polygamy has given place to monogamy.\nIndiana requires that marriage licenses are not to be given to those having\ncertain venereal diseases. Some southern states forbid marriages between\nwhites and negroes. Probably the time is not far distant when fitness to\nmarry wiU be inquired into more carefully before being able to secure the\nsanction of the state for such an important contract, and the resulting\nbenefits to mankind wiU be almost immeasurable.\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF BLINDNESS\n\nloss\n\nAs a cause of blindness, heredity should not be overlooked, but as\nheredity usually suggests great difficulties to be overcome, it is encouraging\nto study its limitations, and not overestimate or overstate its influence. As\nDr. Woods Hutchinson remarks, the evil in things always bulks large in\nimagination and memory; the first conception of the great forces of nature\nis that they are our enemies. Much is said about hereditary insanity,\nhereditary diseases, and hereditary defects, but very Httle of the fact that\n99.7 per cent of us are sane and that hereditary powers of recovery and\ninherited vigor are handed down to us as our greatest birthright from\nhundreds of thousands of our ancestors who learned how to withstand many\nviolences and adapted themselves to their surroundings. Animal organisms\nare provided with numerous effective defenses when invaded by bacteria\nor other injurious foreign substances. Heredity is many times more frequently concerned in the transmission of health than of disease and weakness. Any family or race which tended to inherit defects and injurious\ncharacters, especially if serious, would rapidly go down in the struggle for\nsurvival and become extinct. This long, million-year battle of the human\nrace against defect and disease has left its monuments to difficulties overcome, its memorials of ancient victories, its honorable scars in various\nvestigia or. remnants which continue to cause some trouble. Among these\nancestral and experimental flaws are our vermiform appendix from our\nherbivorous days, ruptures because we assumed the erect position, our\nabsurdly misnamed, troublesome wisdom teeth from the time when we\nneeded longer jaws for eating and defense, our needless gall bladder, our\nmostly needless sebaceous glands, our frequent harelips and cleft palates,\nechoes of reptilian times. All these hereditary impedimenta, however, have\nprobably not been responsible for more than i or 2 per cent of the body's\nbreakdowns. It is also interesting to recall that only three decades ago\nthe thyroid, suprarenal capsules, and hypophysis — all vital organs, the removal of which means ruin — were considered as useless remains, so that\nfurther study may entirely change the estimated value of certain so-called\nvestigial organs. Every process fighting disease, every strategic trick\nagainst invading organisms, every step in repair after wounds or injuries,\nis an inheritance. Many of the two lowest classes of backboned animals\n— fishes and amphibians and most invertebrates — can repair not only a\nwound, but renew an entire limb, even an eye or head. Each segment of\nan earthworm forms a new head and tail, a lobster a complete gill, claws,\nor an eye; a salamander will reproduce a foot, the lens and colored part of\nthe eye, the iris, etc. Heredity is now \"considered as a comparatively\nsmall and steadily receding factor in the production of disease. Only a\nfew hereditary diseases survive, such as certain forms of epilepsy and insanity, sick headache, and possibly alcohoHsm. These inheritances are ordinarily considered to be unbalanced or defective states of certain parts of the\nnervous system rather than specific tendencies toward any special disease.\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nIf a prospective mother acquires an acute virulent infection and transmits itto the unborn child, the latter will usually be promptly killed, as in\nsmallpox or yellow fever, but if the disease is mild the child may be infected\nbefore or after birth. Such an infection would not be inherited, however,\nbut would be a congenital or acquired disease. One of the most marvelous\nthings in nature is the perfection of the barrier which the mother erects to\nprotect her unborn child against her infections. Preference is given to\nthe coming life, and if the supply of nourishment is inadequate the mother\nchiefly suffers. Not only are the inherited diseases becoming less important, only a few remaining, but congenital diseases are not considered as\nimportant as formerly. Most tubercular children acquire the disease after\nbirth, and this is largely so of syphilitic cases and other supposedly hereditary and congenital diseases. In Denmark valuable tubercular cattle are\nno longer killed, but are used for breeding purposes, as it has been found\nthat the calves are healthy if entirely removed from the cows and fed on\nnontubercular milk.\nFully one-fourth of the partially and totally blind are made so by the eyes\nbecoming infected during or soon after birth — \"babies' sore eyes.\" Germs\nof many different kinds present in the mother's discharges may secure\nentrance to the eyes and cause a violent inflammation, usually commencing\nfrom two to four days after birth, or sometime during the first week of\nlife. This disease, ophthalmia neonatorum, is characterized by swelling,\nredness, and gumming together of the lids, and by profuse discharge of pus.\nThe most destructive organism which causes the worst of these cases is\nthe gonococcus of Neisser, the cause of gonorrhea. Dr. Morrow, of New\nYork, states that.\nSocial tradition holds that it is a greater violation of conventional propriety publicly\nto mention this infection (gonorrhea) than privately to contract it and carry it home to\nthe family.\n\nIf the child's face around the eyes is cleaned with dry gauze very soon\nafter birth, and one or two drops of a proper antiseptic or germicide is\nintroduced into each eye, such as i or 2 per cent silver-nitrate solution,\nand proper care is exercised that no subsequent infection gets into the\nchild's eyes from soiled cloths or dirty fingers, this greatest cause of infantile\nblindness can be nearly eradicated. The means for its prevention, the\npossibility of which was first pointed out by Crede in 1882, are so simple,\nit is strange that all physicians and midwives do not use them, at least in\ncases where there is any probability of infection. Dr. F. Park Lewis has\nstarted a national, now an international, movement for the more constant\nand intelligent use of a prophylactic for this disease. This movement has\nrecently grown into a wider field for the conservation of vision.\nPrompt and proper treatment will usually save eyes suffering with\nophthalmia neonatorum, but prevention is incomparably easier, better,\nand safer. Ulcers or sores of various sizes and depths are likely to form\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPREVENTION\n\nOF\n\nBLINDNESS\n\n1057\n\non the cornea, leaving scars, more or less unsightly, always damaging to\nvision, and sometimes leading to infection of the eyeball and subsequent\nloss. Any discharging eye in a child one or two weeks old demands the\nattention of a skilled physician.\nAs I pointed out in a paper before this year's session of the American\nMedical Association at Los Angeles, the number of cases totally blind thru\nlife from this preventable disease, according to Keller, 25.21 per cent of\nthose who enter our blind institutions, and fully one-tenth of the blind in\nany country, is only a partial index of its evil results. Accoimt must also\nbe taken of the high mortality among these unfortunates, of the disfigured\nand disabled eyes of a far greater number of others, perhaps totally blind\nin one eye, scarred on one or both — with defective vision and therefore\nlessened earning power. It is estimated that the total annual los$ from\nthis disease alone in the United States is seven million dollars, and that\nmore than one million dollars annually is spent in partially caring for its\nvictims. The community is said to pay an excess of forty-five hundred\ndollars during the school life of a blind child. In this and other civilized\ncountries millions are spent yearly to safeguard the public against a few\ncriminals, but even paltry sums are reluctantly spent in preventing diseases and hygienic evils which are responsible for much more misery,\nsickness, and even death, and which impair the usefulness of many helpless\ncitizens. Parents or guardians are not permitted to abuse their children,\nand for the protection and good of the state children are compelled to go\nto school, and are not permitted to do injurious work while of school age.\nThe infant is entitled to protection against preventable blindness.\nSyphilis, another great venereal evil, is responsible for a large amount\nof ocular disease in children. In this disease, not only the clear anterior\npart of the eye, the cornea, may become inflamed at almost any time\nduring life, but destructive inflammatory changes take place in other\nparts of the eye — iris, choroid, retina, and optic nerve. Syphilitic keratitis,\nsyphilitic inflammation of the cornea, may not only be very painful, but\nis usually long-continued, and recovery is slow. It always causes great,\ndistress, discharge of tears, and fear of light, and leaves the visual acuity\nfinally reduced by scar tissue in the cornea, and too often by changes due\nto inflammations in other portions of the eyes.\nSpace forbids more than a mere reference to a few of the other diseases\nof children's eyes. Many of them, like phlyctenular keratitis and conjunctivitis, inflammations of different tissues, and various forms of ulcers,\nwith resulting scars, are due to slight injuries, general or infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, or to depressed states of health resulting from\nimproper or insufficient nourishment, from evil hygienic conditions, or\nlack of good air, sunshine, and exercise. Considerable infantile blindness\nresults from a preventable disease — cerebro-spinal meningitis.\nTrachoma, also called true granulated lids, or Egyptian ophthalmia.\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "1058\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nis already a scourge to our foreign element, and in recent years to our\nnatives. A large percentage of blindness, especially in certain cities and\nstates, is being caused by this disease alone. Dr. J. G. Watkins, of Little\nRock, recently stated that of sixty-two totally blind pupils in the Arkansas\nschool for the blind, thirty-six were blind as a result of trachoma. The\ngovernment has adopted a proper policy of rejecting immigrants suffering\nwith this dangerous and repulsive eye disease. It is present in the rural\ndistricts as well as in the large cities, and is communicable chiefi}^ thru\nthe use of common towels, basins, and handkerchiefs, against which physicians and teachers should wage endless warfare. On account of its prevalence, as well as that of other contagious eye diseases, e.g., \"pink eye,\"\nevery child should be warned against using the same towel, basin, or handkerchief asits companions, especially when the other children have sore\neyes.\nInfants' eyes should never be exposed to the direct glare of the sun.\nIn bed the baby's face should be turned from the window, and in its coach\nthe eyes should be protected by a parasol or awning, preferably lined with\ndark-colored material. Young children should not play with toys that\nrequire close inspection; blocks, letters, or picture-books should be so\nlarge as to be seen readily at a distance. For a small child, general physical exercise is much to be preferred to the use of the eyes at close range.\nThe improper exposure of little children to strong light, natural or artificial,\nor the equally harmful early use of books with insufficient, too concentrated,\nor unequally distributed illumination, is very injurious. The largely preventable Fourth of July accidents and those due to permitting children to\nplay with knives, scissors, forks, and other dangerous domestic utensils,\nand the horizontally carried umbrella, against which occasionally children\nrun or are forced, are needless causes of accidents to •the eye. All these\nand many other abuses and evils which contribute their share in partially\nor wholly lowering the efiSciency of this most important organ, from an\neducational standpoint, should receive the careful attention, not only of\nthe teaching and medical professions, but of all those concerned in the\nmoral and intellectual uplift of the citizenship of the future. Every agency\nshould contribute its part. The prevention and cure of infantile diseases\nof the eye present moral, social, and economic phases which demand\nconsideration of the best means for conserving the vision, not only during\nschool age, but also during the important years of preparation for entering\nschool.\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nTHE HYGIENE\nF. PARK LEWIS, M.D., CHAIRMAN\nOF\nOF VISION, OF THE NATIONAL\nBUFFALO,\n\nOF\n\nVISION\n\nIO59\n\nOF VISION\nCOMMITTEE\nEDUCATION\nN.Y.\n\nON CONSERVATION\nASSOCIATION,\n\nIn order that my meaning may be clear, I will premise this paper with\na statement of the propositions which it is especially desired to emphasize:\ni) That the nation's most valuable asset is its children. All other forms of wealth\nare of secondary importance, because later it will be thru their efforts that all progress\n— material, intellectual, and moral — shall become possible.\n2) That except for their minds and morals — and both depend in a larger degree than\nwe realize upon their sight — their eyes constitute their most valuable possession.\n3) That the present methods of book-study, especially in the large proportion of\ncases in which uncorrected organic defects are present, not only affect the eyes themselves but retard the normal development of the brain, prolonging thereby unnecessarily\nthe period of tutelage and lessening life's later opportunities.\n4) That there should be less close work for the eyes in book-study, note-taking, etc.,\nand more care of the eyes in providing conditions under which they may be used with\nthe least possible effort.\n5) This can be secured only by the organized and concerted efforts of great bodies,\nlike those representing the teachers, the doctors, the architects, the illuminating engineers,\nand, more especially, the parents of the children themselves.\n\nWords sometimes take on new meanings by reason of new conditions\nwith which they are associated. As conditions change, the old words which\nwe must employ to describe the new methods express an additional or a\nmodified thought as a new interpretation comes from new procedures.\nOur supreme court has just been obliged to recognize this fact in its most\nrecent decision; the interpretation of exactly the same words made by an\nact of Congress twenty-one years ago is today widely different from that\nwhich its framer designed. Not that the words have changed, but new\ncombinations, new adjustments, new relationships have given them a new\nsignificance. The same process which has been going on in the business\nworld in an analogous way affected all of life's relationships.\nBy reason of the new thought illuminating one old word, business combinations have been reconstructed and railroad managements reorganized.\nThere is no institution so venerable, there is no profession so firmly grounded,\nthat it has not been stirred to its foundations by this word. Industries\nthat were supposed to have been conducted under most approved methods\nwere found, when studied in the new Ught thrown on them, to have been\ndirected with prodigal indifference to the least expenditure compatible\nwith the largest possible returns. That word is \"Efl5ciency.\"\nIn medicine it is compelling the substitution of exact knowledge for\nspeculation. It insists that in the most important profession of all^ because\nit is the one upon which all others ftre based, that of teaching, the\nstandard of proficiency shall not be determined by the facts acquired but\nby the growing ability on the part of the student to meet the demands that\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nshall be made upon him; in his increased mental alertness, in his greater\npowers of concentration, of logical reasoning, of straight thinking, of his\nphysical development, and of the added keenness of all of his senses. If\nin the acquisition of certain of these factors he is losing in others, then\nthe method must be restudied and the unworkable factor eliminated.\nMeasured by the standard of efficiency, the problem of education is almost\nexactly analogous to that with which our great business interests are confronted. The children constitute a vast asset. They are the equivalent of\na certain amount of actual wealth, from which we have a right to expect\nthe largest possible returns. They constitute the machine by which the\nworld's work is to be done, and if the methods which we employ prove\ndestructive to the machine which we are endeavoring to construct, there\nmust be something fundamentally wrong with the methods. We thereby\nviolate one of the first principles of efficiency long since enunciated, \"that\nno great thing is ever accomplished by great effort.\" When a great thing\nis done it is done easily.\nWhen the wheels begin to grind, it not only means that the machine\nis being destroyed but that power is being lost and progress is being impeded.\nWhen, therefore, we find that in the process of educating the child his\nnerves give way, his eyes are used with difficulty, or his sight becomes\nimpaired, it is in itself evidence that there is internal friction and that the\nhighest intellectual results are not being conserved. The excessive use\nof books and of note-taking, which by reason of the added visual effort\nrequired for near work is the chief cause of eye-strain and of the structural\nchanges in the eyeball, is at the same time an obstacle to direct and logical thinking. The printed word is but a symbol of the thing or action\nwhich it represents, and it must be interpreted in terms of sense images.\nThe groups of letters constituting the word in and of themselves are meaningless until they are so interpreted. So definitely are the seeing of the\nword and its interpretation dual processes that when a break occurs in\nthe line of transmission in the brain connecting these two centers their\nsense of relationship is lost and the printed page carries no meaning to the\notherwise intelligent brain. The action which the word or group of words\nrepresents is immediately understood. This condition is called \"aphasia,\"\nor word-blindness. Its importance in pedagogy seems to have been overlooked. It means, if it means anything, that two efforts are required to\nconvey an idea from the printed page when but one would have been\nsufficient had the act itself been portrayed rather than the symbols used to\nrepresent the act. The human mind is incapable of performing two functions at the same time. While the attention is given to the written or\nprinted word it is diverted from the thought which it is intended to convey. Hence every hour of book-study means twice the time and twice\nthe effort that would have been needed had direct methods been employed.\nApply this to the whole long, costly period of tutelage and we can reaHze\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF\n\nVISION\n\nI061\n\nhow school life might be shortened and eyes and nerves might be saved\nby teaching the thing sought for itself without the intervention of the\nimpeding symbols.\nA student grew most expert in taking the lectures as given by his professor at college, but with added facility of transmission was proportionately\nlessened retention. The mental damage was incalculable. He was making\na sieve of his brain, and the hour that he might have spent in mental\nathletics, in grasping the thought and in following the argument which was\naddressed to his intelligence thru his ears, was lost, and another hour was\nlaboriously occupied late in the night in straining his eyes, in developing\nmyopia, mental as well as physical, in interpreting, thru visual images, ideas\nthat should have been made clear thru his auditory impressions.\nIt is the act of thinking that is the essential thing. We do not see with\nour eyes nor do we hear with our ears except as the brain understandingly\nrecognizes the impressions made upon it. We use our eyes so constantly\nthat we fail to hear much that should impress us. When immersed in\nthought or when deeply interested in a book or a newspaper we often fail\nto hear our names when called. It is not that the ears are out of function,\nbut the mind is not alert and the message is not conveyed to the receptive\ncenter. A condition quite analogous occurs when we see without intelligently noting what passes before our eyes.\nThe habit of doing anything that should require thought without thinking of it is always mentally demoralizing. The penalty sometimes exacted\nof requiring children to write the same word a large number of times when\nit has been misspelled, or as a punishment for a misdemeanor, is pernicious,\nnot only in giving added work to the eyes, but psychologically it is\ndeplorable in permitting the mind to act automatically.\nProfessor Miinsterberg recently asked the members of his class in\npsychology to watch every movement which he was going to make. As\nhe drew geometrical figures in the air with one hand, he took his watch\nfrom his pocket with the other, glancing at it meanwhile; but so fixed was\nthe attention of the boys on the unusual motions that the common, habitual,\nautomatic one passed quite unobserved.\n\" Eyes have we, but we see not.\"\nBrain-building comes from thinking, and printed books are only the\nguideposts, not the steps, from point to point.\nLewis Carll was born blind. He worked his way thru college by the\naid of his brains, and subsequently gained a life professorship in Columbia\nUniversity by the unprecedented, the phenomenal, tour de force of an\noriginal work on Differential Calculus. Mr. Carll, tho able, is not an\nastoundingly brilliant man. He visualized his impressions and he followed\neach process in this intricate mathematical labyrinth thru the chambers\nof his brain. He mentally saw the picttlre of each problem at pleasure.\nThis is what every noted chess-player does, especially those who play\nmany games at once.\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Special\n\nJust as the pictures received in the brain may be held to be recalled at\nwill, so they may be received with the rapidity of photography.\nCatharine Aiken, a very brilUant teacher, had some years ago a school\nin New England. She taught her girls what is called \"glance work\" and\nwhich is now in some form employed in many schools. Several disassociated\nletters or figures were placed upon the blackboard and the pupils were\nallowed to look at them for three seconds, when the board was turned and\nthe girls reproduced what they had seen. The next day these symbols\nwere increased in number or in complexity, and each day following they\nwere added to, until finally a line of twenty letters, complicated by various\ndistinguishing signs, was reproduced after a brief glance at them:\n1PCBX209DM4RQ8LOPTES\n0\n\nX\n\n^\n\n^\n\nX\n\n^\n\nII\n\nAn equally complicated and rapid grasp of visible symbols occurs when\nany good pianist reads, as she must, the coming phrase, in both clefs, with\nits modulations, its incidentals, its pedal markings, and perhaps the voice\npart, if she sings — and all during the brief time in which the previous phrase\nis being given. All of this is simply to urge that our present laborious\nmethod of using printed books to the extent that we do might be simplified,\nmight be replaced by brain-training, giving us thereby a larger intellectual\noutput at a lower cost of effort and without destroying the machine in the\nprocess. That these ideas are neither fanciful nor chimerical is instanced\nin the fact that many of our best teachers and wisest thinkers have applied\nthem practically with such effect that otherwise normal boys and girls\nare looked upon as prodigies. In doing this we avoid internal resistence\nand we prevent structural damage as a consequence. Just as the Tungsten filament lasts longer and gives far more light than the carbon because\nit allows the passage of the current without resistance, so the more easily\nan idea can be transmitted to the brain the less injury to the paths of transmission. In our present methods the energy that should be directly used\nin thought is used in an effort to see, and as a consequence the eyes suffer.\nSo recently as at the International Congress at Paris, 19 10, the late Professor Dufour, than whom there was no more careful observer, corroborated\nthe rules laid down by Cohn more than twenty years ago, viz. ;\n1. In all schools the number of short-sighted pupils increases from class to class.\n2. The average degree of short-sightedness increases from class to class.\n3. The number of short-sighted pupils increases with the increase of school demands.\n\nDoes it not seem imperative that such a destructive method, at least\nwhen the danger is imminent, should be replaced by one in which the same\nresults mentally can be more quickly secured without injuring valuable\neyes?\nIf we may not change the methods under which our children are taught,\nmay we not at least secure for them hygienic conditions under which their\nstudies may be prosecuted?\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nAND\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nEVES\n\n1063\n\nAs the result of a questionnaire sent generally thruout the country inquiring as to the care of the children's eyes and the hygiene of the schoolroom,\ncertain conclusions of great value were elicited. It was shown that there\nwere no accepted standards governing the construction of school buildings, no general regulatiqns as to the length of time which the adolescent\neye should devote to close work, no consensus of opinion as to the tint^\nsurface, or quality of paper to be employed. As a supplemental report, I\nwould Hke to submit the conclusions reached by the Committee on the\nStandardization of Schoolbooks of the American School Hygiene Association at a meeting held in New York, of which William H. Burnham,\nPh.D., was chairman, as the report on this subject of this committee —\nDr. Burnham, professor of psychology of Clark University, being also a\nmember of the committee of this Association. Many causes that are\ninstrumental in producing defective sight are now known to be largely\ncontrollable. In order that thought may be fixed upon this subject and\nthe public enlightened as to the necessity of wider knowledge concerning\nthe care of the eyes, it is proposed that a certain day be chosen in the fall\nof 191 2 as a Conservation of Vision Day, when the care of the eyes will\nform the subject for consideration in the schools and pubUc assemblies\nthruout the United States. This has already been taken under advisement by the Council on Education of the American Medical Association,\nand they will be prepared to confer with a like committee which is to be\nappointed by this Association on matters concerning the public health.\nThe children will be invited to consider the conditions under which eyework is carried on in their own schools and in their homes. Addresses\nwill be given by sanitarians, teachers, illuminating engineers, and others.\nThe local Hghting conditions of public buildings will be studied. The\nAmerican Association on Conservation of Vision, which has received the\nmoral and financial support of the Russell Sage Foundation, will act as a\nclearing-house, and the executive secretary, whose office is in the United\nCharities Building, 105 East 22d Street, New York City, will aid in the\nformulation of plans in sending suggestive and helpful Hterature in development of this method of educating the public on this important subject\n— the right care of the eyes and the hygiene of vision.\nSCHOOL\nJ. A.\n\nACTIVITIES\nSHAWAN,\n\nIN\n\nRELATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nTO\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nEYES\nOHIO\n\nIn these days of educational progress when school conditions are being\nso thoroly studied and work is planned according to the ability and adaptation of the individual child, it is but natural that the question of sense limitations, especially that of vision, should^be taken into account in matters\nof school activities. The study of the causes of retardation which is now\nin progress has already shown that a larger percentage of pupils are handi-\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "io64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ncapped in this respect than had ever been suspected. • Thru these discoveries,\nmany fields for special investigation have been opened.\nAt the Boston meeting of the Department of Special Education one year\nago, a committee was appointed to study and report on the \"conservation\nof vision.\" This committee consists of an opthajmologist, a psychologist,\nan^ illuminating engineer, a publisher, and a superintendent of schools.\nIts object is to study not only school conditions with reference to the use\nand abuse of vision, but other conditions, and to submit the results of its\nstudy, together with such recommendations and suggestions as may help\nto protect the eyes of children from abuse and to conserve and develop\nlimited vision by proper eye-training; in other words, to suggest standards\nof light and the proper use of the eyes. The committee has so far planned\nto investigate the following phases of the subject:\n1. The physiology and pathology of vision.\n2. Illumination, both natural and artificial.\n3. Objects of vision, including books, writing tablets, blackboards, etc.\n4. The psychology of vision, especially with reference to conduct.\n5. The legal aspects of the problem of the conservation of vision with special reference\nto legislative regulations.\n\nThis paper is intended as a partial report of one member of the committee and is confined to one phase of the subject.\nIn considering \"School Activities in Relation to Children's Eyes,\"\nit is necessary to take into account the condition imder which those activities\nare performed. Among these are the following:\n1. The amount of light admitted to the schoolroom and the direction from which it\ncomes.\n2. The effect of a shiny or glaring surface, whether it be the blackboard or printed\npage, and the possibility of getting rid of it.\n3. The size and clearness of type used and the tint and surface of the paper.\n4. The amount of use to which the eyes are put and its possible reduction so as to\nprevent eye strain which is so common.\n5. The correction of difference in refraction between the two eyes in so far as the\nschool authorities can act or suggest.\n6. The conservation of limited vision by proper eye-training.\n\nThru the courtesy of the Bureau of Education, a; study has been made of\nthe legal aspects of the problem based upon state laws and upon the ruUngs\nof state departments where the law, in many cases, places the responsibility\nof deciding as to the amount of light admitted into the schoolroom and the\ndirection from which it should come. In this regard, very material progress has been made in this country within the past few years; but standards\nused by different states still vary:\nI. As to amount of light admitted.— The. ratio of the window surface to the floor surface\nruns from one-seventh or 14! per cent in Louisiana to one-fourth or 25 per cent in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Of 16 states reporting on the ratio between the window and the\nfloor space, i requires one-seventh; 4 require one-sixth; 9 require one-fifth; 2 require onefourth. A few would allow a lower ratio of light area if strengthened by reflecting lenses.\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nAND\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nEYES\n\n1065\n\n2. As to direction from which light could come. — In placing the windows — 5 states\nallow them on the left and rear; 9 emphasize the left but allow supplemental light from\nthe rear, preferably high half-windows; Indiana admits from the left side only where\npupils are seated for study; when possible, IlUnois would have light from the north side\nonly. It is stated in many of the rulings reported that light should never be admitted\nfrom the front of the children. Even one window is very injurious. Reasoning from\nthis statement, windows should not be placed in the rear. The eyes of both teacher and\npupils should be protected. With windows in the rear, the teacher is either compelled to\nface a bright light or to change his position to the side or rear of the room. The best\nposition for instruction, government, or influence is at the front, and the schoolroom should\nbe planned with this end in view. It follows, and is rapidly becoming universal in school\narchitecture, that light should be admitted from the left only and from as near the ceiling\nas possible. This would lead to the grouping of all windows on the left. They should\nnot extend farther front than the first row of seats and the standard schoolroom should\nnot exceed twenty-five feet in width, which would prevent the crossing of shadows.\n\nThere is a difference of opinion as to the color of window shades — green,\nblue, gray, slate, or buff, each having its advocate. The general opinion,\nhowever, is that the color of shades should depend upon the tint of the walls.\nThe writer finds a Holland green or a light buff the most restful to the eye.\nThe opinion is general that each window should be provided with two shades\nso that the upper or lower half may be covered or exposed at pleasure.\nA glaring light always produces eye strain. To face a bright light or\nto allow the direct rays of sunlight to fall upon the page from which one is\nreading or a bright surface upon which one is working are exceedingly\nharmful and can so easily be avoided. From this point of view, the movingpicture show and other similar forms of exhibition, calling for sudden\nchanges in the size of the pupil, are sources of great strain to the eye muscles\nand their value may well be questioned. The direct rays of the sun should\nnever fall on the pupil's desk. A light buff-colored curtain should temper\nits glare.\nThe size, clearness, and simplicity of type are very important. The lack\nof clearness of outline which comes from overuse of plates is a condition\nfor which there should be a remedy. This is particularly true of popular\nnovels and many library sets which are run off edition after edition without\nchange of plates, and the eyes of our young people are often ruined thereby. This price for old plates is entirely too great. There should be a limit\nto their use.\nIn the manufacture of textbooks, great progress has been made, due to\nwholesome competition. But even here, further improvement is possible\nby doing away with the glazed page and using a clear, soft, white page\ninstead. We are aware that this is a problem, but it is the solution of problems that marks progress. We are glad to note that schoolbook publishers\nare showing a willingness to co-operatg in this matter. In a recent adoption\nof schoolbooks for use in a large city, the kind of paper and the number of\ncopies to be run off without change of plates were stipulated.\nIt has been truly said that the eye is a willing servant. It responds to\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "io66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nthe call for service Icjng after it has passed the point of fatigue, but in doing\nso makes heavy drains on the nervous system, often with serious afterresults. Headache, nervousness, and sleeplessness are only a few of the\nbodily ailments that come from eye strain. This phase of the subject\nrequires the most careful investigation and study by those who are responsible for the education of the young. What do statistics gathered from a\nstudy of children's eyes show ? What school work should be required to be\ndone by pupils by daylight alone ? What work may safely be continued\nby artificial light? What amount of home work may safely be required\nof pupils of the respective grades ? How much may be done by calling into\ngreater activity the other senses? How much of the instruction of the\nschools should be oral ? What limitations can be put upon written work\nand the conditions under which it is done ? These and other questions must\nconfront those engaged in school administration.\nYour committee has begun an extensive investigation of conditions in\nthis country and abroad, gathering opinions from experts and non-experts,\nbelieving that the unbiased good-sense of the non-expert will have great\nweight in the solution of the problem and in the fixing of standards.\nA comprehensive questionnaire has been prepared and three thousand\ncopies sent to superintendents and principals of schools in the United\nStates. Answers are coming in from all directions and these are being\ntabulated for comparison and study. It will be possible in this paper to\ncall attention to those facts only which have a bearing on school activities.\nOut of 736 answers it is found that 456 or 59 per cent have the eyes of\nchildren examined periodically.\nIt is interesting to know by whom these examinations have been made.\nOut of 504 answers, the following facts are deduced :\n326, or 42 per cent, of the examinations were made by teachers.\n138, or 17 . 7 per cent, of the examinations were made by physicians.\n30, or 3 . 9 per cent, of the examinations were made by teachers, physicians, and\nopthalmologists.\n10, or 1 . 5 per cent, of the examinations were made by opthalmologists and specialists.\n\nThe following question, which has a direct bearing on the subject in\nhand, is very interesting and the answers are frank and to the point.\n\" Have you ever made any investigations of the effect of different kinds of\npaper, type, printing, or other quaUties of textbooks on the eyes of pupils ? \"\nOut of 628 answers, 492 or 63 per cent stated frankly that they had not.\nBut a great many of these expressed their opinions as to color of paper,\nkind and size of type which they thought best for the children's eyes.\nDull-yellow, unglazed paper, and large, clear, black type was the predominating idea. The conclusions of the 138 or 17.7 per cent who had\ninvestigated the matter, were practically the same as to color, type, etc.,\nas those reached by the non-investigators.\nTo the question, \"Have you ever observed any effect upon the dis-\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nAND\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nEYES\n\n1067\n\nposition ot moral conduct of any pupils which could be definitely traced to\neye strain?\" 684 or 85.9 per cent had noticed that the eye strain had\ncaused nervousness, irritability, uncontrollable temper, and backwardness\nin their lessons, and as soon as glasses were worn these children made\ngreat advances in their studies, and became tractable.\nNo doubt many a happy disposition has been spoiled because of conditions ofchildren's eyes of which parents and teachers have had no knowledge.\nSuch a state of affairs is not only unfortunate but it is in a sense unpardonable. It is the object of this committee and of the American Association\nfor the Conservation of Vision to gather and to distribute such information\nas will keep parents and teachers informed on matters of this kind, which\ntouch so closely the welfare of the children.\n1. That the number of hours approximately of required eye work (including reading,\nwriting, etc.) of pupils of the following ages while in school varies from one to five, with\nchildren under 12 years old, the larger percentage having four hours; from one to seven\nhours for those between twelve and sixteen years old, the largest percentage having five\nhours; and from one to nine hours for those between sixteen and twenty years old, the\nlargest percentage having five hours.\n2. That the amount of time given to study outside of school by children of the folowing ages is, in most cases, quite insignificant and is given in detail:\nUnder 12 years, 56, or 10. 8 per cent, worked \\ hour\nUnder 12 years, 98, or 15 per cent: worked i hour\nUnder 12 years, 14, or 2 .6 per cent, worked 2 hours\nUnder 12 years, 8, or 1.5 per cent, worked 3 hours\nUnder 1 2 years, 340, or 65 per cent, worked Httle or none\nFrom 12 to 16 years, 64, or 13 . 6 per cent, worked 5 hour\nFrom 12 to 16 years, 8, or i . 7 per cent, worked f hour\nFrom 12 to 16 years, 260, or 55 per cent, worked i hour\nFrom 12 to 16 years, 96, or 20.4 per cent, worked 2 hours\nFrom 12 to 16 years, 8, or i . 7 per cent, worked 3 hours\nFrom 12 to 16 years, 34, or 7 per cent, worked little or none\nFrom 16 to 20 years, 8, or 2.5 per cent, worked \\ hour\nFrom 16 to 20 yeaft, 4, or i . 2 per cent, worked f hour\nFrom 16 to 20 years, 158, or 49. 2 per cent, worked i hour\nFrom 16 to 20 years, 54, or 17 per cent, worked 2 hours\nFrom 16 to 20 y^ars, 58, or 18 per cent, worked 3 hours\nFrom 16 to 20 years, 18, or 5.6 per cent, worked 4 hours\n3. That the amount of miscellaneous reading required outside of school is not large\nexcept in a very few cases:\nUnder 1 2 years, 50, or 2 1 per cent, worked \\ hour\nUnder 12 years, 40, or 17 per cent, worked i hour\nUnder 12 years, 56, or 25 per cent, worked 2 hours\nUnder 12 years, 140, or 59. 2 per cent, little or none\nOne school reads five books a year\nThree schools read four books a year\nTwo schools read one book a year\n\nNone of the above is really excessive for children with normal eyesight and it is far better that book^ selected or suggested by the teacher\nor thoughtful parent should be read than that the child should be left\nunguided. The quahty of the paper, the size of type, clearness of print,\nand the contents, are more likely to be considered with care.\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "io68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Spedai\n\nWhile statistics do not furnish a final answer to all questions, they do\nhelp in their solution. If they lead to an investigation of existing conditions, they accomplish much.\nThe innocent often suffer in silence because they know no better. It is\nthe duty of those who have to deal with children to find defects where they\nexist and correct them. In the Government Reports of AustraUa it is said:\nThe child finds it diflficult to express in words what he is suflfering from. He says he\nhas a headache after school, but does not talk of eye strain. He is noticed to be \"delicate\"\nand pale, but ptilmonary tuberculosis is not thought of. He is named as dull and mentally\nbackward in class, but deafness or other defect is not indicated.\n\nAs Ruskin says:\nWhen violent and external sources of suffering have been done away with, worse\nevils seem arising, evils that vex less and mortify more; that suck the blood, but not do\nshed it.\n\nA child may be half blind, yet make no complaint of the fact. Indeed,\nsuch defects are, as a rule, unsuspected, and only found by applying some\ndefinite tests. The placing of such a child in a suitable position near the\nblackboard, and, if possible, securing his attendance at an oculist's and\nfitting of glasses for reading, etc., will often make all the difference between\nan unsatisfactory, dull, lazy, miserable, \"headache\" sort of a child, and a\nbright, alert, happy pupil.\nDr. Wheatley, an eminent English physician, in enumerating the chief\ncauses of defective vision as far as school life is concerned, says:\nIf eyesight were considered of paramount importance, no children would be admitted\nto school under seven years of age. The utmost care should be observed in not allowing\nnear work except for short periods.\n\nWhile we may not agree with this eminent authority in the first part of\nhis statement — for many children in this country, if they get any education\nat all, must get it early — ^yet the second part of his statement is absolutely\nsound. Many schools of this country do watch the length of periods for\nnear eye work and make them short and to the point. The problem is to\nget the importance of the question before all schools.\nThe so-called Cohn's rules, corroborated by Dufour at the International\nCongress, Paris, 1910, have been substantially established wherever the\ninvestigations have been made. They are as follows:\n1. In all schools the number of short-sighted pupils increase from class to class.\n2. The average degree of short-sightedness increases from class to class.\n3. The number of short-sighted pupils increases with the increase of school demands.\n\nThis is not a new discovery, but seems to be a stubborn fact. In my\nown city of Columbus, twenty-four years ago a careful examination of the\neyes of four thousand seven hundred children by a specialist showed\nthe diminution in the percentage of good eyes as we ascend the scale from 80 per cent, in\nthe D primary grade (first year), to 66.6 per cent in the senior class in the high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nAND\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nEYES\n\n1069\n\nPartial examinations in recent years, also by specialists, are substantially\nthe same. We must, therefore, recognize the facts tho we may not agree\nfully as to the causes. It is but fair to say that school duties alone do\nnot account for the growing defects in vision noticed as children pass from\ngrade to grade. For, as they advance in their classes, they also advance\nin years with constant demands for the use of their eyes outside of school.\nThe reading of cheap literature on poorly printed and glossy paper, close\nneedlework and the like, late hours, and, in these days, the glaring,\nflickering, moving-picture shows all figure in the many causes outside of\neducational work.\nIt is not so much a question, however, of locating responsibility, as that\nof understanding conditions and meeting them in the most intelHgent manner. School officials and boards of education as a rule stand ready and\nanxious to use the best methods under the most favorable conditions.\nHow can the amount of work be reduced ? is a question that many will\nask. This is not always necessary. It is the method used rather than the\namount done that needs to be considered. The old way of teaching \"mental\" or oral arithmetic had its value in mental training. Are we not\ndemanding too much pencil and pen work ? Would not our pupils learn\nto think better if less were written and the mind trained to carry certain\nprocesses of thought to a final conclusion? Is not the power to think,\nafter all, the highest end in education ? . Is it not, in other words, possible\n•to accomplish as much and more by allowing the children to think more and\nto talk more, thus sparing the eye but increasing the power of thought and\nexpression ?\nThe correction of defects in vision can only be brought about by the\nsympathetic co-operation of parent and teacher in securing proper treatment\nwhen needed. Many parents object to tampering with the eyes while\nothers hold back on account of expense. The objections must be overcome\nby proper information supplied the home thru school. Where necessary\non account of poverty, treatment should be free. In most cities, such provision ismade thru some special organization, or fund. It is not necessary\nto enlarge upon this phase of the subject, for its importance, we think, is\ngenerally conceded. Attention has already been called to the effect upon\nthe disposition, attitude, and happiness of certain children, by supplying\nproper glasses.\nIt is a physical law that every power is strengthened by exercise. A\nmuscle properly used becomes strong and healthy, while overuse or strain\nbreaks down tissue and destroys power. This law applies with equal force\nto the senses. By training, the eye of the sailor detects objects in the distance long before the ordinary person is able to see them, no matter how good\nhis natural vision may be. The Indian places his ear to the ground and\nhears sounds that his civilized brother cannot hear. So in music and in\nart, the senses have been trained to bring messages to the brain which the\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "I070\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Special\n\nlatter has also been trained to interpret and appreciate. The tadus eruditus\nof the physician is but the result of sense training. It follows that, if a\nperfect sense is capable of training to such a degree, a sense with limited\npower is capable of training to some degree. Who knows how much?\nCertain it is that all that can be done should be done systematically and\nintelligently. This topic might easily be a subject in itself and cannot be\nenlarged upon here. If by proper examination those who have defective\nvision could be designated and given such an amount of work as would not\nstrain the eye, but train, develop, and conserve its power, great good would\nbe accomplished. It would be better still to segregate and train together\nthose with defective eyesight when the number is sufficient to justify such\na course. But in any system, by counting units of work instead of subjects,\nby omitting certain studies most trying to the eye, strain could be avoided,\nvision conserved, and the earning capacity of many greatly increased.\nTo summarize in conclusion:\nFirst, light should be admitted to the schoolroom from the left of the pupils with a\nwindow surface equal to not less than one-fifth of the floor surface.\nSecond, a shiny surface whether the blackboard or printed page is injurious and\nshould be avoided.\nThird, the type used for printing schoolbooks should be large and clear.\nFourth, the amount of work requiring pencil or pen should be limited.\nFifth, correction of the difference in refractive power of the two eyes should be discovered and promptly made by the use of proper glasses.\nSixth, where the power of vision is limited it should be conserved and developed by\nproper eye-training, either by segregation or by the omission of certain subjects of study.\n\nLEGAL\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nMAXIMILIAN\nP. E.\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL\n\nGROSZMANN,\nEDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR\nEOR THE STUDY AND\nEDUCATION\nOF\nCHILDREN,\n\nPLAINFIELD,\n\nCHILDREN\nOF THE NATIONAL\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nN.J.\n\nAt the Boston meeting, the Department of Special Education passed a set\nof resolutions recommending the amendment, development, and extension\nof the existing compulsory-education laws of states and communities so as\nto cover the problem of the exceptional child. The principles set forth in\nthese resolutions were to be elucidated further at the next year's meeting.\nThis paper is intended to carry out this recommendation.\nThe first of these resolutions demanded that compulsory-education laws\nshould embrace all children of school age, and provide for their training.\nThere are still seven southern states in which education is merely\noptional with the parents or guardians of children of school age. The\nother southern states have recently adopted laws similar in purport to\nthose which have obtained in the North for many years past. There are,\nthen, compulsory-education laws in forty-two states.\nThere are a few interesting facts to be noted in connection with these\nconditions:\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLEGAL\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n107 1\n\n1. In the South, it is the prevailing custom to segregate the colored\nschool population in separate schools, in some cases even going so far as to\nmake it a misdemeanor for children of one color to attend a schdol established for children of another color. This segregation is not decreed for\npedagogical reasons, and because the educational problem of the colored\nchild is considered different from that of the white (as it certainly is) ; but\nmerely from what has been called ''race-prejudice.\" In some compulsoryeducation states, like California, provision is made, for similar reasons,\nto have separate schools for children of Indian or Mongolian descent.\nThese arrangements are a long way off the appreciation of the differences in the educational problem which a closer scrutiny of child and race\npsychology may reveal.\n2. The non-compulsory states do not exclude any class of children\nfrom the public schools which are open for all children of a certain age.\nThe natural conclusion is therefore that these states cannot discriminate\nagainst defective, difficult, or feeble-minded children. Yet the provisions\nfor these classes of children do not seem to be adequate, nor is their problem\nstated distinctly. In all states, however, where a compulsory-education\nlaw has existed for some time, it is definitely stated that children whose\nphysical or mental condition is such as to make their attendance at school\ninadvisable may he excused. In some states,, medical examination is\nprovided for such cases. This clause refers not only to children suffering\nfrom temporary or infectious disease; but likewise to the deaf and dumb,\nthe blind, the epileptic, the crippled, the otherwise disabled, and also to\nchildren of defective or difficult mental development, including the feebleminded. In a number of states (and communities) there are also special\nprovisions empowering school boards to exclude from school those children\nwhose continued misconduct makes their further stay in the schoolroom\nundesirable.\nThe question now arises, What provisions are in existence to meet the\ncases of children for whom the public day school is closed ?\nThis question is not easily answered, as there is no complete compilation\nof all the school laws and provisions existing in the different states and\ncommunities. Even the publications of the United States Bureau of\nEducation do not contain complete information, or readily accessible\nmaterial, and inquiries have only shown how much need there is for a\ncomprehensive tabulation of all existing laws, provisions, institutions, etc.\nI have culled some interesting data from the material at hand, altho it is not\nimpossible that some of my details may be incomplete or even inaccurate.\nOne conspicuous defect may be mentioned first. There are states\nwhere children whose parents are too poor to send them to school decently\nclothed, are exempt from attendance, ^owhere is mentioned what is\nto become of this miserable class of children, unless it were that they will\nsooner or later be picked up by truant or police officers as ''vagrant,\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "I072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nneglected, and dependent, \" perhaps even \" criminal \" children. There seems\nto exist no legal provision for caring for these unfortunates until they come\nunder th^ control of penal law, that is to say, after they have drifted onto\nthe refuse heap of society.\nWhile the poverty plea for the exemption from school attendance is\nincorporated in the laws of such states as Minnesota and Montana, North\nCarolina has a law to allow clothing to indigent deaf and blind children\nattending school. Clothing is provided in many state institutions for\nbHnd, deaf, and feeble-minded children. But for normal children from\npoor homes it is not provided, until they are picked up as transgressors\nfrom the street.\nHere as in a number of other things pertaining to children, too much is\nyet left to the initiative and charity of private individuals and organizations.\nNaturally, provisions are plentiful when it comes to the delinquent child\n— the child whose chances for right living have already been prejudiced by\nthe neglect of those responsible for his bringing up, be they his parents or\nguardians, or the government of organized society. Penal institutions for\nthe young, whether they are called reformatories, industrial schools, or state\nhomes, or what not, have existed in all states for many years, and the\nmethod of committing children or youths to them is everywhere very much\nthe same. It is largely ^ function of courts and police, altho in some\ninstances the school authorities have the first word in the matter. This\nis especially the case where there are truant officers appointed by the school\nboards, and where there are truant schools which are often called parental\nschools.\nWith the exception of these parental schools, there is too much of prison\nregime and too little of truly educative training in those reformatories and\nindustrial schools to which the youthful criminal and what has been called\nthe \"incorrigible child\" are committed. With some notable exceptions,\neven the industrial training which the offenders receive is hardly educative\nin character. Correction is, nominally, one of the aims of commitment;\nbut the organization of these institutions is too plainly prisonlike to make\ncorrection an educational element. This judgment does not fit all, but\nmost of these places, and it is notable that few have educators as heads\nor superintendents and that they rarely form an articulated part of the\neducational system of the state or community which maintains them.\nThe establishment of children's or juvenile courts, with special judges to\npreside over them, and medical officers connected with them, and also the\nsystem of probation, have done much toward developing a better understanding ofyouthful offenders and of the causes of their delinquency. The\nmain portion of the work, however, has been done by private charitable\nsocieties, with their visiting nurses, friendly visitors, and field workers of\ndifferent kinds. Even the probation system is still too loosely connected\nwith the school system, and the methods of dealing with child delinquents\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenti\n\nLEGAL\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR\n\nEXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1073\n\nare still so unscientific that much further research and organization are\nnecessary to make a solution of the problem possible.\nTruant schools are the nearest approach to a rational treatment of the\n.habitually vagrant and idle child, as they recognize the educational character ofthe problem most readily. Even here, it is only a matter of recent\nprogress that the state of truancy is appreciated as a developmental symptom in many cases.\n\"Incorrigible,\" delinquent, or truant children are not yet recognized\nas suffering from defective potentials, physical or mental. But even for\nthose who are commonly understood to be defective, no clear system is\ngenerally followed in states and communities. To quote from a letter\nreceived from the Bureau of Education:\nA number of the states provide for the compulsory education of the deaf and the\nblind, but such provisions are not usually incorporated in the general compulsory laws.\nIt is not customary for the states to require local school corjjorations to provide\nspecial schools for their deaf and blind, since the care of those unfortunates is generally\nconsidered a state duty. Certain states, however, specifically authorize the districts to\nmaintain such schools, and some do so.\nState provision for the feeble-minded is not universal, but provision is made for such\nchildren, more or less effectively, in perhaps the majority of the states. I am not able\nto make general statements with confidence concerning the laws for the care of the mentally deficient, however, for such laws are often classified with those relating to charities\nor the insane, and I am not by any means sure that our information upon that subject\nis complete. It is not customary to establish state institutions for merely dull or backward children, nor are they excepted from the compulsory-attendance laws. So far as\nI know there is nothing to prevent any school board from segregating such children in\nspecial classes.\nConcerning children of sound mind but with crippled or deformed bodies, the laws\nare silent in most of the states. In Illinois, boards of school directors may establish\nschools or classes for them and in Wisconsin they may be sent to the state public school\nfor neglected or dependent children.\n\nstate does is to\nSuch schools are without legal* obligation, and the most that any ry\neve state require\nstitution and laws of\ncon\nthe\nt\ntha\nd\nume\nass education of all children of stated ages, and nowhere do\nIt may\nion m.be mad\ne forbe the\ntha\nizevisthe\nautthorpro\nL\nwe find that children with crooked legs are excepted. Those children are not compelled\ne\nto attend school, but if they wish to do so and if the proper authorities see fit to provid\nluous.\nfor them, there is no legal reason to the contrary and permissive laws are superf\n\nThis is certainly true, and yet we see that legislation for a suiUble\neducation of all children of school age is still imperfect and obscure, and\nthat for a great percentage of handicapped children— those that are in need\nof educational facilities— there are no laws compelling their attendance at\nschool, but they are left to the tender mercies of ignorant and often criminal parents or guardians. And even if there were compulsory laws, the\nprovisions for these unfortunates are utterly inadequate. It sUll requires\nmuch persuasion to convince legislative bodies that appropriations for\nhandicapped children are necessary; that it is false economy to save on\nthe educational end and then to spend many times as much for meeting the\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "1074\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nsituation caused by the presence of defective, ignorant, and vicious elements\nin society.\nThe next two paragraphs of the Boston resolutions scrutinize the age\nlimitations themselves. They demand that a distinction should be made\nbetween the age of a child, or person, in years, and what we may call the\n''mental\" age. While it may be difficult to determine normal standards\nwith absoluteness, we may assume that for every life year of a normal\nchild there is a corresponding normal maturity. This normal maturity\ncan be approximately ascertained by appropriate tests made on. a large\nscale, somewhat as the well-known Binet tests have been developed. It\nis now demanded that compulsory laws be so amended that they determine\nthe age limit by way of maturity tests; in other words, that they compe,\nattendance not for children between the ages of, six and fourteen, for examplel\nbut for children who are developmentally the equals of normal children of\nsix to fourteen. There are children who, at the age of six, are not farther\nadvanced than a normal child of two, and others who at fourteen have only\nreached the maturity of a child of five. It will be noticed that even when\nthere is, in the compulsory laws, a certain elasticity of legal age, no matter\nwhether a child can read or write at the extreme age limit or not, he is\nbeyond the letter of the law. But even reading and writing are deceptive\nevidences of a child's maturity. There are many who have accompHshed\nthese arts and yet are helplessly abnormal ; and others who, altho illiterate,\nare mentally more than mature. For these tests will further reveal that\nthere is a percentage of children who are mature beyond their chronological\nage, owing to a more rapid rate of development.\nIt is this fact which induced Miss EHzabeth E. Farrell, a member of\nthe committee which drafted the Boston resolutions, to suggest a modification. She fears that it would be prejudicial to the efforts of the National\nChild-Labor Committee to protect children t>f tender age from the moloch\nof industrialism whose tendency has been to fill factories, mines, and\nshops with immature children. A child mentally premature would thus\nbe delivered over into the unprotected class.\nThe Boston resolutions, however, guard distinctly against such a possibility. \"Mental maturity\" is really not mentioned. They speak merely\nof maturity and demand that \"a child's actual age be determined by\nphysio-psychological data corresponding to the normal standard for the\nage limit required by law. \" It is clearly seen that physiological, that is\nto say, body maturity is required as well as mental maturity. There is\na small number of children who are precocious both physically and mentally.\nThey would certainly not be harmed even if under the new conception the\nchild-labor laws should fail to protect them. But it would be relatively\neasy to guard against possible difficulty in this respect.\nSome kind of tests and examinations have been used wherever school\nsystems made an attempt to handle certain classes of exceptional children\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nLEGAL\n\nPROVISIONS\n\nFOR EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n107$\n\nintelligently. But my own state of New Jersey has gone on record in her\nrecent epoch-making legislative activity to be the first to make maturity\ntests obligatory in all schools of the state. Senate bill 265 provides that\neach board of education shall ascertain which children, if any, there are in\nthe public schools who are three years or more below the normal, and that\nspecial classes be established for them; likewise it provides for special\nclasses for blind or deaf children, and for medical examination of the pupils\nin the special classes at least once in every three months.\nThis last requirement is of special interest since mere intelligence tests,\nlike the Binet tests, would give only a one-sided and incomplete scale of\nmaturity. A complete system which would determine the actual stage\nof a child's development must include medical examinations, body measurements, neurological tests, physiological and pyschological data, together\nwith examinations of sensory acuteness, so as to present a complete diagnosis of the individual case. It may be impossible to make such a complete\nanalysis of every child, and it may be equally unnecessary; but in the more\ndoubtful and difiicult cases nothing short of complete data will suffice.\nEven ordinary promotion should in a measure depend upon bodily fitness.\nThe last paragraph of the Boston resolutions demands that all children\nor persons faiUng to meet a maturity test shall be permanently under\npublic supervision and control.\nThis is the most important suggestion of all. For it gives to organized\nsociety the function of control of all persons who are incapable of taking\ncare of themselves, or of competing with others for an independent place\nin life, or who might become a menace to society at some time in their\ncareer. This function means prevention instead of im'certain cure, or of\neventual pauperism or imprisonment. It means forestalling evil tendencies\ninstead of first letting them run wild and of later running after the evildoer. It means beginning at the right end of the line instead of at the\nwrong; saving money and social unrest and turmoil. In this manner,\nsociety would take the only possible positive step toward eradicating evil,\nby gradually making it impossible for immature arid dangerous individuals\nto propagate their kind.\nA few brief reflections may be added to elucidate the full significance\nof such legislation.\nThere is evidence that about 3 per cent of the entire school population\nof the union are permanently incapacitated to compete with normal individuals for an honest and independent career. They require institutional\ncare. The figures of the Bureau of Education show that there are over\ntwenty-four millions of children between the ages of five and eighteen in\nthis country. That would mean that over seven hundred thousand may\nbe found to be abnormal. Even takings only the actual enrollment in\npubHc schools as a basis (seventeen and a half millions in 1909) we have\nover five hundred thousand abnormal children.^\nNote that this number\n' The term is used in the sense of the author's tentative classification of exceptional children.\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "1076\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ndoes not count in the many adults needing similar care. Investigations\ninstituted by the Church of Help, in New York, in reference to the causes\nwhich lead women into a life of prostitution, make it probable that at\nleast one-half of these women are distinctly feeble-minded. Here you\nhave the problem of prostitution looming up before you.\nFurther, in the reform schools, you are apt to find among the inmates\nquite a percentage of weak-minded persons. A recent examination of\none hundred inmates of the Rahway Reformatory (New Jersey) throws\nan interesting light upon this condition. Testing them with the Binet\nscale, it was found that 41 per cent were decidedly subnormal or even\ndirectly abnormal. One boy of nineteen proved himself mentally the\nequal of a child of five years. But as the Binet scale does not go higher than\nthirteen years, and the natural age of inmates admitted to the reformatory\nis fixed by law at sixteen to twenty-five years, it is evident that a more\nthoro test would reveal much more startling figures.\nThe statistics of the Bureau of Education show, on the other hand?\nthat less than eighteen thousand feeble-minded persons are in public\nor private institutions, or less than 4 per cent of the entire abnormal\nschool population. Certainly a most horrifying consideration! Even if\nthe total were lower than has here been estimated, even if only one child\nin a hundred were feeble-minded or otherwise abnormal, the figures would\nbe appalling.\nNecessary as it is to fix attention upon the urgent need of dealing\nintelligently and effectively with the abnormal, I dislike to approach the\nproblem of the exceptional child from this point of view. It tends to\nstigmatize all exceptional development as leaning toward degeneracy —\nwhich is certainly not true. There is a vastly larger percentage of handicapped children who are potentially, or even plainly, normal, yet whose\ndifficulties are such that they are in danger of derailment. They represent a valuable asset which under present circumstances is too often lost.\nThe science of saving waste material must be learned in dealing with human\nbeings as well as it has been learned in industry and manufacture.\nThis large class of children comprises not only the blind and deaf, the\nepileptic, the crippled and deformed; but also those who suffer from minor\ndefects of vision and hearing, those who are in delicate health, or neurotic\nand neurasthenic, or merely slow in their rate of development. In other\nwords, all those children whom I have called atypical, subnormal, and\neven the pseudo-atypical. Brother Hutchinson wrote one of his latest\nmagazine articles on the difficulties of the \"deUcate child\"; and in another\nmagazine of recent date, Algernon Tassin showed the relation of eyestrain to immorality. Those who have followed the trial of the Camorrists in Italy with any degree of attention must have been struck with\nthe many instances of fainting spells, convulsions, and emotional outbreaks which were recorded during the proceedings.\nIt seems plain\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILD:\n\nHIS\n\nTRAINING\n\n1077\n\nthat the prisoners belong to a mentally and emotionally unstable class.\nNeurologists know that persons of epileptic and neurotic tendency have\nan inclination for exciting as well as underhanded activity; that they\noften live in an atmosphere of overstrain, excessive imagination, intrigue,\ntrickery, slander, secrecy, and even violence. These facts may throw\nlight also upon the problem of the Black Hand, of the underground world\nin general, and perhaps even upon the plots hatched out by mentally\ndiseased members of otherwise legitimate organizations. A closer scrutiny of certain classes of children, those that I have called the submerged\nclasses, and children of rudimentary and atavistic development, may\ndisclose valuable facts which would help us in solving the problems of\nsocial unrest and social development.\nOf these difficult children there is a very large percentage. To say\nthat 25 per cent of the entire school population belong in this large group,\nis certainly conservative. Following the same method of calculation used\nin the previous figures, we may say that there are between four and six\nmillions of them in this country. Will you undertake to deny the magnitude of their problem ? Will you be ready to assert that the schools, and\nschool legislation, have done all that can be done for them ?\nNo further justification is needed for the adoption of the Boston resolutions. They have found favor with many thinking men and women who\nhave been asked their opinion about them. Yet we may assume that the\nfar-reaching wisdom of these resolutions will perhaps be but slowly grasped\nby the general public and by legislative bodies. They embody in terse\nform the demands growing out of a thoro understanding of the vast problem\nwhich the presence of the exceptional child in our modern civilization\nforces upon human society. This problem must be faced intelligently\nand resolutely, and nothing short of thorogoing measures will succeed in\nsolving it definitely.\n\nWHAT\n\nCONSTITUTES A SUBNORMAL CHILD, AND\nEXTENT CAN HE BE TRAINED?\n\nVINNIE C. HICKS, SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGIST,\n\nTO WHAT\n\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS, OAKLAND,\n\nCAL.\n\nYou who are speciahsts in the study of atypical children need no review\nof their many definitions and classifications. Every psychiatrist, every\npsychologist interested in such children, has had his own individual opinion\nconcerning the best basis for a description of them. Read de Sanctis,\nTredgold, Barr, Calkins, de Croly, Ireland, Holt, Seguin— every one of\nthem adds his quota to the sum total of our knowledge of the subnormal\nchild. Some, Uke Shuttleworth, classify etiologically, under subgroups\nof arrested development and accident; some, like Bourneville, classify\nmorphologically or anatomically; some, Uke Noyes, classify purely psy-\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "1078\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nchologically; Binet describes by suggestibility; Beach divides into anomalies—congenital, appearing during early development, or acquired. All\nof these are good.\nBut we are members of an educational association rather than experts\nin psychiatry; and my topic includes not only the definition of the subnormal child, but the possible extent of his training. If, then, our interest\nin this subject hes so definitely along developmental lines, we should have\na definition of subnormal children which will be a foundation for training.\nSuch a working definition does not seem to appear in any practical form\nin the classifications just mentioned.\nNor can we depend upon separation of subnormal from normal children\naccording to retardation in school. The twelve-year-old child in the first\ngrade is usually subnormal. But foreign birth or long illness may place\nhim in the badly retarded class without his being subnormal according to\nthe standards of any of us.\nSuppose we estabHsh a norm from study of our ordinary children,\napply this to our questionable ones, and call those subnormal who fall\nbelow. Then probably Sir Isaac Newton, Harriet Martineau — in fact, a\ngoodly company of the world's great ones, would have been subnormals\nin their childhood.\nSuch a result does not appeal to our common-sense.\nThis is not said to discredit the psycho-physical examination of the\nchild, however, for it is our best method of arriving quickly at a judgment\nconcerning his normality or subnormaUty. It is merely a warning against\nletting an hour's study of a case in clinic lead to an irrevocable decision\non it. Moreover, the examination may sometimes be actually misleading.\nFor instance, a Mongol idiot girl once passed in my office a better examination than many of the children of much higher type. A devoted mother\nhad given her heart's blood to teaching her to read, write, figure, dance,\nplay the piano, cook, embroider, etc. Yet the most casual observer could\nsee that the future held nothing of independent effort for that girl.\nAnd this very phrase, \"independent effort,\" introduces naturally what\nI believe is a good working definition for the subnormal; viz., such a child\nas may with special training become self-supporting, but who, without\nthat training, will probably be an economic dependent.\nWe expect our normal children to become producers, adults who earn\nenough for their own support and possibly for that of others. If the adult\ndoes not reach this standard, he is not a normal citizen. If he does not\nreach it because he cannot, he is below the normal.\nAs forerunner of the man of tomorrow, our child of today becomes of\nimmense economic importance. If he develops into the producing class,\nall well and good. If he becomes a state charge, we producers bear the\nburden. But if he is in the possible class, depending on our wise teaching\nto keep him from dependence, we are economic fools to put him thru the\ncommon-school mills until he sinks into prison or asylum pauperism.\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILD:\n\nHIS\n\nTRAINING\n\n1079\n\nGranted that this economic side is the practical, working side of the\nsubject, we may go more into the details of judging a child on the economic\nbasis.\nWhen the subnormal child comes to the clinic for examination, we may\nfind his subnormality marked by some one much aggravated condition,\nor by several adverse characteristics which combine to work mischief.\nThe latter is usually the case.\nThe most common and portentous characteristics are:\n1. Bad physical conditions. These may be eyes out of order, causing nerve strain;\nclogging of breathing apparatus by adenoids and enlarged tonsils, with resulting deafness;\na condition of malnutrition, congenital or environmental; bad habits of Uving, such as\ndrinking stimulants, keeping late hours, no bathing, foul air at night, masturbation,\nsmoking, etc.\n2. We commonly find inability to cope with sodal necessities. This includes timidity\nwith other children, lack of self-protective sense, fear of physical things like loud noises,\ndescending stairs, a swiftly thrown ball. The child can't \"make good\" with other\nchildren in ordinary play relations, yet he may be able to run errands and to do some\nwork at home and in school.\n3. He very often shows a peculiar clogging of his mental processes when subjected\nto questioning or to any observation which arouses his fear or self-consciousness. The\nolder he grows the more strongly he feels his inability to cope with his environment,\nand the worse the nerve-clogging which results from rousing his timidity. It is almost\npsycholeptic.\n4. The subnormal child usually has poor muscular co-ordination, fatigues quickly,\nand has nerve signs. While able to read and write, he has hazy and limited visual and\nauditory images, gets comparatively little from what he reads, and can reproduce verbally\neven less. So common as to be almost a rule is lack of mathematical ability. The\nsubnormal mind lacks the clear imagery, the power of persistent concentration which\nlead to ability in abstract thinking. If it were possible to have only one glimpse of a\nchild and to ask him one question, I should invariably ask, \"If you had 16 pennies and\nlost 4, how many would you have left?\" varying the figures to suit the child's actual\nschool experience with numbers.\n5. The subnormal is both slow and poor about reacting to new conditions. His\nassociational processes are not so well defined that they can lead cumulatively to a new\nconcept. He uses the trial-and-error method, like an animal, and sometimes arrives\nat results contrary to common-sense.\n6. With some subnormals there is a lack of moral sense, a real, practical inability\nto feel the moral necessities of life. Once in a while this is coupled with a disregard of\neven the common-sense limitations on conduct. The dark closet and long-honored rod\nseem utterly meaningless, not so much because the child wills to repeat the wrong, after\nthe deliberate fashion of the ordinary child, but because he is unable to will not to. When\nthe sensibility to moral judgments seems absolutely lacking, we must drop the child\nfrom the subnormal class into that of the true defective, or the morally imbecile.\n\nNow all of these are characteristics which are likely to appear in the\nsubnormal child under clinical examination. A normal child may show\nany of them to a certain extent, but not so plainly that they prohibit his\nprogress in school, his development at ^ome, or his ability to keep up with\nthe average of his comrades in their relations. The idiot too may show\nthese characteristics. In him they are so accentuated that he fails utterly\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nto keep pace with his mates in their games, their contests, their errands,\nand money-changing, their common-sense judgments of men and affairs.\nHe has neither initiative nor inhibitions. He is a follower. The normal\nchild opposes him with originality, energetic leadership. Between these\ntwo opposites lie the subnormals, having some inhibitions, some ability\nto form original judgments, and best of all, practical educabiUty.\nGiven now certain stigmata of the subnormal, let us see what the future\ndemands of him. The adult to be self-supporting must:\n1. Be able to labor reasoningly.\n2. Be able to reckon his wages and expenditures.\n\n'\n\nIf the child under examination is too dulled by bad physical condition\nto work well; if he cannot hold his own with his fellows socially; if he\ndoesn't understand their ethics; if he can't figure in terms of money and\ntime: then he is subnormal and needs special training to become independent.\nThis limitation of the word \"subnormal\" indicates the trend of the\nnecessary training. First and foremost, the child must be taught to work\nreasoningly. Most of the subnormals found in our pubUc schools have\nlearned to do some work. At home they wash dishes, clean floors, chop\nwoody feed animals, tend baby, or even make lace. In school they learn\nto read, write, and perform certain mathematical operations. Suppose\nthey enter the special room at ten years, having had four years of school\nand coming from high first or low second grade. The probabilities are that\nthey will have four years more of schooling. We meet the questions. Of\nwhat use up to date have been their home and school work to teach them\nto labor reasoningly ? and. How can we supplement it in the four years\nremaining so that they will become self-supporting ?\nFirst, encourage the home work. It has practical value both for\npresent development and future vocation. Many have made livings as\ndish washers, cleaners, nurse maids, stable hands. But the fact that the\nchild does this practical work at home does not mean that he does it unsupervised. The training-room must stimulate independence. Not mere\nmanual labor, but labor performed reasoningly is our aim. In every\ncooking-lesson, every problem in bench work, even in the study of the\nthree R's, there must be the effort toward independent thinking. This\ndoes not mean that Jane crochets after a flighty jumble of ideas of her\nown, or that John idly hammers nails into wood for the sake of the noise\nand the action. The ideal of a definite, perfect bit of work is held before\nthe child, and he is led to try for that ideal himself. The first work is\nnecessarily simple. The subnormal child is always the discouraged child,\nthe child so used to failure that the idea of doing anything well in school\nis a novelty. There is no better beginning for his training than by supplying him this novel feeling of success. Under the spell of its attractiveness,\nmore complicated work will follow.\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILD:\n\nHIS TRAINING\n\nlo8l\n\nThe vocational outlook must be kept in mind in all of his training.\nHalf of his probable school time is already passed and without progress.\nThe remaining half must be cleared of all educational frills and devoted\nwithout shame or concealment to such training as will make of him an\nhonest, wage-earning citizen. The. exact vocational lines to be followed\nmust depend on the kinds of manual labor offered in the child's home town,\non his own individual proclivities, and on the business and social status\nof his father.\nFor instance, in the training-room at the Lincoln School in Oakland is\nan eleven-year-old colored boy, the only living child of elderly parents.\nHis father is a bootblack; his mother works out by the day. Neither one\ncan read or write. The boy has a marked fondness for making things neat\nand orderly, and loves to help with all kinds of housework. He has been\nhaving cooking-lessons with the girls and we hope to make a good houseman out of him.\nGood general training for the boys is bench work. It is almost invariably interesting, can be correlated with their mathematics, teaches them\nthe use of tools, and leads to original thought. Its value is enhanced if\narticles can be made and sold so that the young workmen may gain an\nidea of the money value of materials and labor and of resulting profits.\nIts direct vocational value is not so great, for many subnormals will never be\ncapable of doing independently the figuring incident to a carpenter's trade.\nBrick-laying and stone-mason's work can be acquired by more. Plumbing is not beyond some, and a surprising number have a real facility for\nwiring electrical apparatus. Weaving is good for both sexes in the trainingroom. It necessitates concentration and forethought, leads to appreciation of aesthetic values as well as to general knowledge of textiles, and has\nthe same possibility of sale as the bench products.\nIt will be noticed that none of the suggestions just made lead to factorywork. Yet there are many, many kinds of factory work quite within the\nmental powers of the subnormal. One could count a dozen in as many\nminutes. Still the factory is not a desirable place for the subnormal to\nfind employment. Help him physically and mentally as best we can,\nhe is still a creature of unstable nerves, and the excitement of the factory,\nthe noise of its whirring machinery, make for him a most undesirable\nenvironment.\nThe very best vocational training for our subnormal boys is that which\ntakes them out of doors and teaches them the care of trees and animals,\nthe cultivation of the soil. It makes for good health, freedom from bad\nhabits, courage in facing life's demands. The ideal training school for\nsubnormals will be a farm where the boys do everything from shingling\nthe roof to currying horses and pruning trees, and the girls wash,\ncook, sweep, sew, crochet, make butter, and weave rugs, as their greatgrandmothers did before them.\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "io82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nAlong such vocational lines, most of those who go from the cHnic to\nthe special room, adjudged subnormal according to the economic definition\ngiven at the beginning of this paper, will be found educable. Only now and\nthen will there be an erratic one, knowing one day, unknowing the next, in a\nfashion we could not predict from our clinical examination. He too will be\neducable but must always be supervised. His ultimate bourne must be an\ninstitution, along with the child who never learns our ethical inhibitions.\nIf we admit that the vocational training just described is possible for\nthe subnormal child, and that under it he satisfies our demand for \"reasoning labor,\" we must still require of him some number sense. He may be\na good farmer and never read or write, but he must be able to count his\nincome and his output, even if he has to do it on an abacus or on his\nfingers. He must be able to multiply his bushels of potatoes by their\nprice per bushel, or the hours he works by his wages per hour.\nThis matter of mathematical calculation is the most difficult we have\nto deal with in the teaching of our subnormals. Yet it is not hopeless, if\nwe are willing to cast aside pedagogical convention and teach according\nto psychological analysis and our own common-sense. In the ordinary\npublic school, the child may learn his number combinations with considerable accuracy. He may even be as far as decimals, yet if I say, \"I\nhad $1.03 and spent $.07, what have I left?\" he will ask, \"Do I add or\nsubtract?\" What he has learned are literally \"number combinations,\"\nbut abstract reasoning is lacking. He is safe with 8+4 and 9+4 and 10+4\nbecause he has memorized them like so much blank verse. Inability to\ncope with 9+4 under any other title shows that any actual concept of the\nmathematical fact is lacking. This must and can be built up by starting\nwith the simplest mathematical concepts, increasing and decreasing them\nby visual, tactual, articulatory, and auditory methods, yet always keeping\nthem so small that the child is not afraid of them. My own eyes have seen\nthis number power grow where there seemed to be absolute lack. It is\nsimply a case of using every means of approach to a child's consciousness.\nHis mind will unwittingly but successfully choose the stimuli best fitted\nto its pecuharities and work with them.\nWhile the vocational work and that with numbers form the crux of\nthe subnormal's training, much else is of importance if he is to develop\nsatisfactorily toward ultimate independence. His chances are materially\nlessened by bad health and environment. It is as much the trainer's duty\nto have out his adenoids, treat his running ear, see that he is scrubbed\noccasionally, has fresh air at night, and stops his coffee or Dago Red, as\nit is to teach him his a-b-abs. Moreover, she must build up his physical\nand social courage by all manner of games and exercises, widen his outlook\nbeyond petty personalities by a discussion of civic affairs, and create in\nhim some ethical ideals by illustration in the schoolroom morale and its\ndestruction by wrongdoing.\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILD:\n\nHIS\n\nTRAINING\n\n1083\n\nMany an idiot child has been a worse idiot because he was deprived of\nhis natural right of contact with the world around him. Much undreamedof development may go on in the subnormal mind if we are not afraid to\npour our stores in upon it. Even the pet dog or cat who is the boon\ncompanion of a lonely mistress becomes an unusually knowing animal.\nThe baby whose mother talks to it much and rationally early acquires\na vocabulary. Why not give the subnormal a chance? Trace for him\nthe geological history of the world he lives on. Tell him tales of bygone\nnations instead of prim stories of little Mabel and the lark. He can understand the ways of birds and moths and ants, the erosion of a river, the\ngliding of a sand dune. Much he will forget. So do we all. But his\nmind's portals will have opened a little wider. Then the processes going\non behind the portals we may quicken by Yogi exercises in attention and\nconcentration, with a variety of interest-begetting exercises in quick\nreactions and accurate reproduction manufactured by our own ingenuity.\nOne encouraging fact in the training as outlined is that the total effect\nof the mental exercises — the manual training, work with number concepts,\ndestruction of fear — is stimulating to a surprising degree and shows itself\nin all branches of the child's activity. If you will pardon another personal\nillustration — there was in our training-room this year a thirteen-year-old\ngirl. She .was with us only a few months when I had to send her back to\nher own school because she was too irresponsible to come downtown alone\nto the special room. She was absent half the time of her enrollment on\nour books. Yet in a final talk with her mother, she said, \"I'm so sorry\nJane can't stay with you. She has learned more in these few weeks than in\nall her life before. She does her housework better. She can do her examples all alone, and she even picks up my letters and reads them, which\nshe could never do before.\"\nThe interesting point of this was that Jane had almost no teaching in\nthe reading of script while in the training-room, nor had she any assistance\nwhich would affect directly her work at home. It was just a case of general stimulation.\nOne cannot say with authority how far these subnormal children admit\nof training, because up to the present we have not done this work according\nto the dictates of either common-sense or scholarship. We have not\nlearned to look upon the training-room as a laboratory where methods are\nopenly experimental. We are afraid to speak frankly of essentials, to own\nup with candor that not only is sixth-grade grammar quite unessential to\nditch digging, but third-grade reading is, as well. When we are bigminded enough to look straight at the educational necessities for enabling\na man to put bread into his mouth, clothes on his body, a roof over his\nhead, then we shall be able to train with<true wisdom our subnormals,\nthese Uttle men who have not \"made good,\" not to be doctors, clerks, or\nbookkeepers, \"but to be laborers out of doors where their minds shall deal\nwith the simple, primary facts of living.\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\nCHARLES\n\nD. LOWRY,\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nDISTRICT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE DEAF\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\n[Special\n\nCHILD\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe literature on the deaf is extremely voluminous. It would seem as\nif nothing new could be said. Indeed, this brief paper claims to say nothing\nnew, only to bring together a few old ideas in a form that, so far as I know,\nthey have not heretofore taken; the justification for so doing being the\nconviction on the part of a comparative outsider that with all the loving\ndevotion and expert skill that have been given to the care and education of\nthe deaf, these most unfortunate folk are still not getting all the advantage\nthat modern science and pedagogy could give them.\nIt is a self-evident proposition that the deaf person is not a normal\nindividual. The deviation from the normal may be noted in his body, in\nhis mind, and in his emotions. He is abnormal, first, as the result of the\ninjury or defect that caused the deafness; second, as the result of the\nunusual living conditions brought about by his infirmity.\nThe first sort of abnormality has been very extensively treated and will\nhere merely be touched upon. Hereditary deafness is generally occasioned\nby defects in the inmost parts of the ear. Acquired deafness is usually\nthe result of changes in parts of the middle or parts of the inner ear, brought\nabout by inflammation. The inflammation may have been a primary one,\nor it may have been a secondary effect of scarlet fever, meningitis, or other\ngeneral ailment.\nAll these pathological conditions, besides producing deafness, may have\nother unfortunate effects.\nHereditary influences that produce malformations of the inner ear seem\nto be closely related to those which result in brain defects. A child born\ndeaf is many times more likely to be deficient mentally than is a hearing\nchild. Moreover, defects of the inner ear are likely to disturb that deficate\nfunction, the sense of equilibrium.\nThe diseases which produce the inflammation causing deafness may leave\npermanent effects of an unfortunate sort in other parts of the body, as well as\nin the ears, and thus decrease the general efficiency of the individual.\nScarlet fever, like all intense febrile diseases, induces an inflammation of the\nmembranes covering the brain and spinal cord. This affects the gray matter\nbeneath, producing irritability, nervousness, and lessened resistance to all\nnervous disorders. Such an after-effect is peculiarly likely to follow spinal\nmeningitis, the most frequent cause of adventitious deafness.\nThe inflammation itself, involving as it does tissues in close proximity\nto the brain, is a constant cause of danger to that organ. In many cases\nit gives rise to a very distressing ringing in the ears. In some cases the\nringing is continuous and of a fixed pitch; in other cases it is intermittent\nand may run thru a considerable range of pitch. In the lightest cases\nthis tinnitus distracts attention and interferes with the clearness of all\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF THE\n\nDEAF\n\nCHILD\n\n108$\n\nsensations. In the most severe cases it may cause insanity or drive the\nvictim to suicide.\n\nMoreover, irritation in the hearing apparatus may set up many sorts\nof subjective auditory sensations. These may be still more troublesome\nthan simple tinnitus. The latter is distressing, but is seldom misunderstood,\nwhile these other subjective auditory sensations often are mistaken for\nreal sounds, which may take the form of words and develop into grave\nhallucinations. Hock states that the ear takes first place among the\norgans of sense in so far as delusions are concerned.\nThe importance of this relation between ear affections and mental\ndisturbance is indicated by the statement of Amberg that \" 50 per cent of\nthose mentally unsound have defective auricles.\" MacMillan and Bruner\nreport that of one hundred sixty pupils examined in the classes for the deaf\nin the Chicago schools thirty, or nearly 19 per cent, were found of so low a\ngrade of mentality they had to be excluded from the public schools.\nThe physiological effects upon the individual that result from the mode\nof life consequent upon his deafness have not, so far as I have learned,\nbeen so extensively studied as have other matters pertaining to his wellbeing.\nOne of the foundation-stones of the theory of evolution is the doctrine,\n\" The function produces the organ.\" A child may be defined as an elaborate\nand marvelously sensitive apparatus for reacting upon sensations. These\nreactions are the chief agencies in the growth, development, and education\nof the various organs participating in them, and consequently they condition the physical and emotional life of the individual. If, therefore, a child\nby reason of deafness is shut off from one of the two most important avenues\nof sensation, it must follow that he is also deprived of the beneficial effects\nof those reactions that accompany these sensations. The bodily tissues\nthat in a normal child would be stimulated by such actions ought, therefore,\nto show the evil effects of this deprivation. Experimental evidence of this\npoint is not extensive tho items pointing to this conclusion may be found\nin the notes of several observers. Miss Garrett says that from two to\nseven years of age the deaf child is at a standstill in the matter of gaining\nnew ideas and as a result his head is smaller than the average. Currier\nstates that teaching the deaf to speak diminishes the tendency to consumption. MacMillan and Bruner quote experimental studies by Binet, St.\nHilaire, Farrai, and others which indicate physical and mental inferiority\nof deaf children. But by far the most important evidence is found in a\nstudy of the deaf in the public schools of Chicago, made some years ago by\nMacMillan and Bruner.\nAbout two hundred forty children wer^ examined thoroly, and, for\ncertain tests, measurements made from some one hundred more were\nincluded.\nNearly all were between the ages of six years and eighteen years.\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nThe measurements included those of weight, height sitting, height\nstanding, size of head, strength of grip, lung capacity, motor ability, perception time, and some others.\nIn all save one of the particulars investigated, it was found that the deaf\nchildren were inferior to the average of hearing children, tho this inferiority\nwas more striking in some lines than in others. The exception was in the\ncase of weight, deaf boys being found slightly lighter than the average of\nhearing boys, while deaf girls were noticeably heavier than normal girls.\nThe most important results were the following:\n''Deaf children have smaller heads than do hearing children, taking as\na criterion the length-breadth product, and they are more broad-headed,\"\nor, to state it in another way: In length of head 68 per cent of the boys and\n71 per cent of the girls are below the average of hearing children of corresponding age. In the breadth of head, 60 per cent of the boys and 69\nper cent of the girls are equal to or in excess of the average.\nIn strength of grip the deaf were found to be somewhat inferior to the\naverage of hearing children, the differences for the right hands being\nnoticeably greater than for the left hands. In other words, the deaf are\nmore nearly ambidextrous.^ Earlier studies of these same* investigators\nindicate that there is a close relation between ambidexterity and mental\ninferiority.\nThe tests for motor ability were of two kinds. The first consisted in\nnoting the number of taps that could be made with an electric tapper in\nthirty seconds. The second consisted in noting the time required to draw\na line with a pencil thru each of a group of one hundred a^s distributed\nuniformly over a page. In both these tests the deaf showed marked inferiority and a tendency toward ambidexterity. In the tapping test, 74 per\ncent of the deaf were below the average of normal children of corresponding ages. In the test of crossing out letters 82 per cent made records\npoorer than the average for normal children. The motor ability of a\nnormal child was in general found to be about the same as that of a deaf\nchild two or three years older than himself.\nThis feature of the investigation is most significant. Both of the above\ntests are really measurements of reaction time. It is natural that a reaction\napparatus which is least used will be least efficient. The nervous mechanism of the deaf being shut off from one of the great avenues of sensation will\nnaturally react less often than will that of a normal individual, its efficiency\nwill be correspondingly less.\nThe most striking of all the tests concerned lung capacity. By this\nis meant the greatest amount of air that can be expelled from the lungs\nafter a forced inspiration. It was in this particular that the deaf showed\nthe greatest inferiority. In general, their lung capacity ranges from\n15 per cent to 25 per cent less than that of normal children of corresponding\n» Reports II and III, Department of Child Study, Chicago Public Schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF THE\n\nDEAF\n\nCHILD\n\n1087\n\nages. Expressed in another way, 88 per cent of the boys and 60 per cent\nof the girls were inferior in lung capacity to normal children.\nThis condition might have been expected. All the consequences that\ninfluence the physique of the deaf child unfavorably are concentrated on\nthe lungs. The flood of sound stimulates to reaction no part of the body\nof a normal child more than it does the lungs; the diseases that cause inflammation ofparts of the ears very often affect the lungs directly and still more\noften modify unfavorably the passages leading to the lungs; finally, the deaf\nchild, until he is taught to speak, loses that ceaseless exercise that comes\nfrom the talking, shouting, laughing, and crying so characteristic of normal\nchildren.\nIt is interesting to notice that in this test the girls from ten years on\nmade a better showing than the boys. Indeed, the deaf girls in several\nparticulars showed a nearer approach to the standards of ordinary girls\nthan the deaf boys did to the records of hearing boys. May not this be due\nto the fact that the girls by their work in the home find a larger relative\nmeasure of activity than do the boys ?\nThe mental and emotional life of deaf children, as of all human beings,\nis intimately bound up with the subject of language.\nWe have stated above that every sensation must be followed by an\naction. Another statement of the same law is that every impression must\nhave an expression. With an infant, any sort of expression will do, any\none of a thousand sensations may cause him to shout, move his hand,\nor kick up his toes. But even the infant soon begins to have a purpose\nin his expression. He wants it understood that he is calling for food, or\nwants to be picked up, cfr wants comfort in some other particular. His\nlanguage is forceful, but not always clear. With the patient mother it is\nlike the game of magic music, she tries one thing after another until she\nknows by the cessation of the music that she has found the prize.\nThis will do very well as long as the child's wants are few, but with his\ngrowth of interest comes the need of clear expression that may readily be\nunderstood by his fellows.\nNothing is more distressing to the human mind than to be unable to give\nadequate expression to one's thoughts and emotions, to be unable to make\noneself understood by his fellows. Such inabUity may, according to the\nnature of the case, produce paroxysms of rage or stagnation of will.\nThere are several forms of languages, such as gesture, and the making\nof pictures, but the written or spoken word is immeasurably superior to all\nothers.\nA word is the means whereby an idea can be isolated so that it can be\nexamined. In a very real sense, a word crftites an idea. It may be true\nthat thinking can be done without words, but certainly very little is done\nof a very exact or elaborate nature. We can hardly be said to think about\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "io88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\na thing at all until we have a name for it and then have names for every\none of its attributes or relations.\nWe constantly ignore things in our environment for which we have no\nnames, such as certain trees, birds, plants, forms of clouds, etc., and as\nconstantly notice them, think about them, and enjoy them when once they\nare named for us. What is true of material things is vastly more important\nwhen applied to the realm of intangible ideas, as force, honor, history.\nNow, the mind is that which thinks, and its growth is due to its performance ofits proper function. Without words, the mind would remain\nvery nearly a blank, it would have few tools or materials with which to\nwork, no means of isolating, testing, examining, labeling ideas, no means of\ncomparing its conclusions with those of other minds of this age or of past\nages. It could appropriate no ideas from the stock accumulated by other\nminds. Each individual would very largely live unto himself and die unto\nhimself.\nThe means of using oral language are the vocal organs and the organs\nof hearing. Of the use of both of these the deaf are deprived, the use of\nthe hearing apparatus is permanently lost in most cases. The use of the\nvocal organs is attained by a labor of loving devotion on the part of the\nteacher and of infinite patience on the part of both teacher and pupil. The\nimmeasurable gain in happiness and efficiency that comes from being able\nto converse with one's fellows by word of mouth amply justifies all the effort\nspent in the effort to give speech to the deaf child. It should be begun\nmuch earHer than at present is the practice. The age at which children are\nadmitted to the kindergarten is certainly none too soon for the commencement of such instruction. But even this advantage should not stand in\nthe way of giving a large vocabulary in some other form where the oral\nmethod is slow in accomplishing this all important end.\nThe great loss of mental power suffered by the deaf is shown in the\nfollowing test made by MacMillan and Bruner. Each child was given a\npage filled with printed words, or rather groups of letters, containing one\nhundred a^s. The child was asked to mark off all the a's as quickly as he\ncould. From the time taken to do this task was subtracted that required\nto mark out the one hundred a^s in the test noted above, the reaction-time\ntest, and the remainder was called the \"perception time,\" that is, the time\ntaken to discriminate the a^s from the other letters in the various word\nforms on the page. The younger children required nearly twice as much\ntime as did the hearing children of similar ages, and the older children\nrequired about one and one-half as much time as hearing children; 82.5\nper cent required a longer perception time than the normal. Here, as in\nthe reaction- time test, the deaf children made records just about equal to\nthose of hearing children two or three years younger than themselves.^\n» The children subjected to these tests were a selected group from which those mentally defective had\nbeen excluded. This makes the results the more significant.\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF THE\n\nDEAF\n\nCHILD\n\n1089\n\nThe emotional experience of a deaf person is relatively barren. Whatever theory of emotions we adopt, we know it to be true that imitation,\nwhether conscious or unconscious, of the acts of others stimulates in us\nfeelings and emotions akin to those associated with the actions imitated.\nOne person in a group yawns, several others are likely to do so visibly,\neveryone else is sure to do so in suppressed fashion, and all will be conscious\nof a feeling of weariness; on the contrary, a smiling face and a merry tune\nwill cheer up any company.\nWe become aware of the actions and attitudes of others chiefly thru sight\nand hearing, probably much more thru the latter than the former. We\ncan know by sight of those actions performed in front of us and in good\nlight, by hearing we are made aware of the acts of persons all about us and\nin darkness as well as in the light.\nNo activity so commonly or so adequately expresses emotion in all its\nkinds and shades as the spoken word, and of even more importance in this\nrespect than the word itself, is the tone in which it is uttered. By long\npatience the deaf child may learn to interpret the spoken word, and an\nincomparable advantage as a means of social life is thus given him; but\nhe is still unable to know the words of any but the one person to whom he is\nattending. The give-and-take of conversation, with all its stimulus to\nalertness, is shut out from him, and the tones of the voice in speech or in\nsong he can never know.\nHis emotions, therefore, lack the stimulus and the corrective effect\ncoming from all sounds, and particularly that interchange of emotions which\nis effected by the human voice, and which is the chief means of bringing\nabout unity of thought and action, sympathy, and that quality or sum of all\nthose qualities that are best in us, which we may call humanness.\nAsk any teacher of the deaf in what respects the dispositions of deaf\nchildren differ from those of other children, and she will probably say that\nthey are not as gentle, or they are a little more savage, or in some other way\nshe will indicate that she notices a gap in the character that shows emotional deficiency. Watch a ball game where deaf boys form one or both\nteams. Instead of being the quiet, noiseless performance you might\nexpect, you wUl find it punctuated with such a wealth of fierce noises and\nsavage grimaces and gesticulations, you are sure the whole thing will soon\nbreak up in a general m^lee.\nClouston says that no member of the body can be injured without producing an effect on the mind. St. Paul tells us that when one member\nsuffers, all the members suffer. Surely, we see these laws acUng to their\nfull limit in the case of the deaf child.\nWe have noted that the conditions yhich produce or are associated\nwith deafness, whether congenital or adventitious, have a close relation with\nDeaf children were found inferior to\nthose which cause brain defects.\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "logo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nhearing children in height, length of body, size of head, motor ability, lung\ncapacity, quickness of perception, and in other physical and mental tests.\nTheir emotional life is narrow and unbalanced.\nPerhaps some of those burdens cannot be lifted from the shoulders of\ndeaf children, but surely something more can be done even than is now\naccomplished.\nThe general inferiority of the deaf in so many lines of growth, strength,\nkeenness of sense, quickness of action, point to the necessity for a great\namount of motor training thru games, gymnastics, manual training, and\nall forms of expression. These cannot be left to the instincts of the children\nor given a few minutes a day, as is very sadly the case in the schooling of\nnormal children. The play and the work must be scientifically planned\nand systematically carried out. They should combine exercises of strength,\nof dexterity, of quickness, and of endurance, that all the body may be\nbrought into action, the heart strengthened, and the lungs expanded.\nThis paper has already emphasized the importance to the deaf of training in oral language. It would be difficult to overestimate its value, but\nof still greater value is training in thinking. Thinking can make little\nprogress without words, and words the deaf child should be given in large numbers while he is still very young. They should be taught by word of mouth,\nif possible, but if not, in some other way — I could almost say any other\nway — else the dormant intellect may never be aroused to a point where\nspeech can be mastered, for it is conceded that without a fair share of\nintellect, speech never can be mastered by the deaf.\nNo one can read the biographies of Laura Bridgman and Helen Keller\nwithout being forcibly impressed with the wonderful way in which the loss\nof one or more senses may be supplied by the remaining ones. But we\nmust also note that Miss Bridgman had the personal care of a great genius.\nDr. Howe, and that Miss Keller has enjoyed the lifelong devotion of that\nvery talented teacher. Miss Sullivan.\nNow the triumphs of modern civilization have consisted in giving to all\nthe privileges once enjoyed by the few. This should be done in the case of\nthe deaf. Is this possible ? Yes, and more is possible.\nSeashore said recently that the most significant development in the next\ndecade would be the coming of the consulting psychologist, who would\nstudy a given situation and, from carefully determined data, formulate a\ncourse of action that should be successful because it would be in conformity\nto well-established laws of the mind. Surely in the care of the deaf is need\nof the consulting psychologist. Every deaf child should be subjected to a\ncareful psycho-physical examination to determine accurately his physical,\nmental, and emotional status. Upon this diagnosis should be founded a\ncourse of care and instruction designed to meet his special needs. At\nfrequent intervals, the examination should be repeated to determine how\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nCHILD\n\n1091\n\neffective the treatment had been and to prescribe a new course of action.\nThis plan has been put in practice in the treatment of subnormal pupils\nin the Chicago public schools with good results. If applied to the deaf, not\nonly would the best of modern science and pedagogy be given to all, but\nmany problems such as the development of the remains of hearing and the\nutilizations of islands of hearing which have been scarcely touched would\ndoubtless be systematically studied and great good could not fail to, result.\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nPATRONS\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— MviS. O. Shepard Barnum, Cumnock School\nVice-President — Mrs. H. Rosenberg, president, Council of Jewish Women\nSecretary — Mrs. Orviixe T. Bright, president, Illinois Congress of Mothers\n\nFIRST\n\nLos Angeles, *ckl.\nPittsburgti,\\^a.\nChicago, 111.\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July ii, 19 ii\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Physical Education\nin Scottish Rite Hall, San Francisco.\n(For program and minutes see Department of Physical Education.)\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July ii, 191 i\n\nThe department met in roimd table conference for the discussion of the subject of\nsex hygiene.\nAt the preceding luncheon four hundred and fifty guests were entertained, but as\na still larger number was waiting in the audience room before two o'clock, the meeting\nwas called to order by the president, Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, half an hour before the\nappointed time, that all might enjoy the after-dinner speakers, who were as follows:\nKate Starr Kellogg, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.; Very Rev. Walter\nT. Simmer, member of the Board of Education and chairman of the Vice Commission,\nChicago, 111.; William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111.\nFormal discussion of the subject of the day was opened by Romilda Paroni, M.D.,\nlecturer in hygiene. University of California, Berkeley, Cal., who was followed by Lillian\nE. Ray, M.D., Physical Training Department, Los Angeles High School, Los Angeles, Cal.;\nC. E. Rugh, associate professor of education. University of California, Berkeley, Cal.;\nDr. Spencer, of San Francisco, Cal.; William C. McClure, San Francisco, Cal.; and\nR. W. Corwin, M.D., of Colorado, member of the American Medical Association Conference Committee.\nDr. Frances M. Greene closed the discussion of the subject of her paper.\nThe intense interest of nearly one thousand persons in attendance thruout the day,\nmany of them crowded or standing, was evidence of the general anxiety felt concerning\nthis subject.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 12, 191 1\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president. The minutes of the last annual\nmeeting were approved as printed. The report of the secretary for the year, including\nthe financial statement, was read and adopted.\nThe report of the Committee on Revenue for School Purposes was presented in\nprinted form and distributed. The summary of reports from state joint committees\nand aflSliated organizations was presented in printed form and distributed.\nThe chairman of the nominating committee, Mr. A. L. Hamilton, reported the\nfollowing nominees for vice-president and secretary, the officers whose terms, by the\narrangement of the department, expired at 1this\n093 collvention.:\nVice-president — Mrs. William S. Hefferan, National Congress of Mothers, Chicago, 111.\nSecretary — Katharine E. Dopp, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "I094\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nOn motion the report was accepted, the secretary instructed to cast the ballot, and\nthese officers were declared elected for the coming two years.\nA vote of thanks was extended to the National Education Association officers and\nto the Convention League of San Francisco for generous aid in providing a hall under\nsudden difficulties; to the California joint committee and local committee for indefatigable efforts thruout the year of preparation and for hearty co-operation; also to the\nlocal HospitaUty, Hotel, and Press Committees,\nA motion was made and carried that the Executive Committee be empowered to\ncarry on the work of the department during the coming year.\nj^e first speaker on the program was William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal\nSchool,, Chicago, 111., who spoke on \"Co-operation Between Home and School.\" Discussion followed by Mary Farnham, dean of women, Pacific University, Forest Grove,\nOre., chairman of the Oregon joint committee.\nThe second address was by Very Rev. Walter T. Sumner, chairman of the Vice\nCommission, Chicago, on \"Child Protection and the Social Evil.\"\nIn the absence of William H. Allen, director, Bureau of Mimicipal Research, New\nYork, N.Y., his paper was read by title and placed on file.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nMary E. Prichard, Secretary pro tempore\n\nPAPERS\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE SCHOOL REVENUE COMMITTEE\nDEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nThis committee was appointed in the fall of 1910, at the suggestion of\nMrs. Ella Flagg Young, president of the National Education Association,\nin response to the request of members of several joint committees of the\nDepartment of School Patrons, asking for a definite vi^ork on which they\nmight unite.\nThe subject of school revenue is one which has scarcely been touched by\nschool patrons and yet it is a subject which has to do in the most vital way\nwith the welfare of the schools.\nIt is interesting to note that school patrons are always eagerly clamoring\nfor better schools, better equipment, and better teachers, but rarely concern themselves with the source from which these must come, namely,\n\"school revenue.\" It is high time that school patrons bestir themselves\nto become better acquainted with the manner of obtaining funds for school\npurposes and unite in each state to obtain, thru intelligent legislation,\nmore revenue.\nIn short, it is the duty of every citizen, who is interested in the progress\nof the public schools, after self-examination, to answer honestly the following questions:\nDo I pay my own taxes and use my influence to prevent tax-dodging ?\nDoes the large corporation in my state contribute its proportionate share of the\ntaxes ?\nAm I willing to bear a little larger burden of taxation that the schools may be improved?\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n-\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nREVENUE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n1095\n\nAn earnest,.intelligent woman, who has sent four children thru the public\nschools, says:\nIn this day of demands upon teachers and schools — demands which arc perfectly\njustifiable, but which require all kinds of special training for the teachers — the general\npublic must be made to realize that special training requires time and money, and, when\na teacher makes the larger investment, a larger return in the way of salary is only reasonable.\nThis can never be until the public conscience is sufficiently aroused to return an\nhonest schedule and to pay its taxes.\nThe men who demand most from the schools are often the ones who are the most\ndelinquent about their taxes.\nA man was heard to say recently that he thought teachers were laying up money all\nthe time. He met them everywhere in Europe and they seemed to have plenty of money.\nNo need of raising their salaries.\nNow we know that these same teachers have struggled for years to make such a trip\npossible and by short meals, poor clothes, and shabby rooms have managed to save\nenough money to get that which would be invaluable in their work. In some places the\nteachers ha-ve been asked to make a statement of their income and expenditures to prove\nto some of these recalcitrant tax-dodgers that teachers are not making money.\n\nEven a casual observer must see how much sacrifice is required if, in\naddition to the bare living, a teacher is to have any sum to spend on fresh\nand helpful matter for inspiration in his work.\nPeople may differ as to how the revenue for school purposes is to be\nobtained, but the fact remains that better schools and teachers will cost\nmoney. How can this money be secured ? By every school patron taking\nan interest in school-revenue questions and working for helpful legislation\nin the matter. After due consideration by the committee the following\nquestionnaire was sent to every state superintendent of public instruction in\nthe United States for the purpose of forming a working basis along schoolrevenue lines for the state joint committees:\nFebruary, 191 1\n,\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction of the state of\n.\nDear Sir: The Department of School Patrons of the National Education Association\nis endeavoring to co-operate with forces already at work, to bring about better legislation\nin the different states, in regard to revenue for school purposes.\nMr.\n\nTo this end a committee called the \"School Revenue Committee\" has been appointed\nto ascertain, if possible, conditions in regard to school revenue in the different states, the\nneeded legislation along these lines, and suggestions as to how the school patrons may\nco-operate.\nWill you therefore kindly answer the following questions:\nFirst, How is the revenue for school purposes obtained in your state ?\nSecond, Do you have both state and local taxation for school purposes ? If so, which\nfurnishes the greater part of the revenue ? Do you approve the plan ?\nThird, What is the basis for the distribution of the school revenue? Do you think\nthere is a better plan ? If so, what would you sugggst ?\nFourth, Is the present revenue sufficient to meet the needs of the schools ?\nFifth, What legislation has been attempted (and has failed), having for its purpose\nthe getting of better revenue for the schools ?\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nSixth, Is there, at present, legislation pending in your state to increase the school\nrevenue ?\nSeventh, Have you a minimum-salary schedule and a classification and plan of certification which will tend to improve the qualifications of those who are to be protected by\nthis minimum-salary schedule ?\nEighth, How are you securing the co-operation of school patrons in working for\nincreased school revenue?\nThe undersigned would be grateful for suggestions as to how such a \"school revenue\ncommittee\" could be of value in arousing pubUc sentiment in favor of increased revenue\nfor the schools and other needed educational legislation:\nHelen M. Hefferan\n(Mrs. W. S.)\nAcHSAH Brill\n(Mrs. G. M.)\nCornelia B. Eggers\n(Mrs. G. W.)\nMadeline Sikes\n(Mrs. G. C.)\nJames E. Armstrong\nFulton B. Ormsby\nW. P. Morgan\n\nA brief summary was prepared from the answers of this que^iohnaire\nand is included in a small handbook prepared by the committee to be sent\nas a suggestion to the joint committees for further work. This handbook\nalso contains a bibliography of such reports, books, and other literature\nas will furnish adequate information to those who may want it.\nSome very definite work was done in Illinois by the co-operation of the\nschool principals and teachers and the school patrons, which suggests what\nmight be done in every state. The Illinois State Teachers Association and\nthe Chicago Principals Club united in their efforts to ask the legislature\nto raise the annual appropriation of $1,000,000 to four times that sum. A\nbill to this effect was introduced in the legislature. The two teaching bodies\nprinted much enlightening literature on the subject and sent it (together\nwith lists of the legislators) to all parents' associations and women's\nclubs asking that letters urging the larger appropriation be sent to all\nlegislators and the Committee on Appropriations. A school patron also\nwent to Springfield with a number of teachers to talk for the measure before\nthe house and senate committees. The appropriation was raised from\n$1,000,000 to $2,000,000 per annum and a campaign of enlightenment on\nschool-revenue questions was well started in Illinois.\nYour committee proposes to study work that might be done along schoolrevenue lines in each state and earnestly recommends that a place on the\ngeneral program at the meeting of the National Education Association in\n191 2 be given to the subject of school revenue in the United States and\nthat it be treated by an expert on the subject who will make definite recommendations ofwhat might be accomplished by school patrons in providing\nmore revenue for the schools.\n. Respectfully submitted,\nHelen M. Hefferan, Chairman\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSUMMARY\n\nSUMMARY\n\nOF JOINT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nREPORTS\n\nOF STA TE REPORTS OF JOINT COMMITTEES\nORGANIZATIONS, igicy-ij\n\nAND AFPILIA TED\n\nThe object of the Department of School Patrons is threefold: first, to ascertain from\n•highest educational authorities the needs of the schools and approved methods of meeting\nthem; second, to transmit this educational message systematically to strong volunteer\norgam'zations, national and state and local, which can do tremendous good by such\ndirected and united effort; third, to collect in convenient form, for mutual suggestion\nand encouragement, brief statements of co-operative work accomplished or under way.\nMost important imdertakings require the concerted effort of the entire community.\nWhen possible to segregate the work of individual organizations from general results, in\naccordance with reports sent in, specific credit has been given.\nAlabama. — The joint committee has carried on a legislative campaign for state\ncompulsory education; rural libraries; dormitory for women at the State University;\nand for placing women on school boards. In preparation for this campaign admirable\ninvestigations were conducted; statistics concerning illiteracy, proportional school\nenrollment, and average attendance were obtained. The convincing results were sent,\nwith a strong individual appeal, to the legislators — also facts concerning the relative\ngrades of certificates held by elementary- and high-school teachers, and the great need\nof increased faciUties for equipping teachers.\nArizona. — Committee membership completed in February and preparing for work.\nArkansas. — Continuing along Hnes reported last year.\nCalifornia. — ^Joint committee has been very active in assisting with preparations\nfor the 191 1 convention of the National Education Association, in San Francisco. The\nchairman and three members have served most eflSciently as the local committee of\nthe Patrons Department.\nStrenuous work was done for the teachers' pension bill and for important successful\nmeasures, particularly the law raising the age of compulsory school attendance from\nfourteen to fifteen.\nFlorida. — Committee membership completed in March; members in touch with\neducational leaders, volunteer and professional, notably with the School Improvement\nAssociation of Florida; meetings planned in connection with the Conference of Education of the South.\nGeorgia. — Close co-operation with the state school commissioner and the state\nsupervisor of rural schools. Comprehensive plan made for unifying the educational work\nof volunteer orgam'zations; in pursuance of this plan leaflets have been printed for distribution thruout the state, and to the Educational Conference at the State University;\nthe program suggested has already been adopted by some organizations as a working\nbasis; statements of progress are to be requested from all next year. Measures advocated comprise six specific state needs and important general improvements.\nIdaho.— Work reported as progressing finely. Many county superintendents are\nwomen. Chairman has asked to have work made a recognized part of state educational\n\nplan. The state superintendent has been asked to be ex officio a member of the committee. One of the best departures in the normal school is a class in rural training;\nstudents are trained to organize parent-teachers work in the country districts where\nthey shall be called as teachers.\nIllinois.— The members of the joint committee in Illinois have been of great\nassistance to the department's Committee on Revenue for School Purposes and have\nactively aided its chairman. They distributed and sent to their state legislators individual y aconvincing appeal for the passage ^f a bill \"to restore the tax of two mills\non the dollar for the state common-school fund,\" which would provide four miUion five\nhundred thousand doUars a year. They have reported for their respecUve organizations\nas follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "1098\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nThe women's clubs have for many years directly aided in introducing manual training,\ndomestic science, special instruction in the arts, more intelligent methods of physical\nculture, progress, and sanitation, medical inspection, school nurses, the bubbUng drinkingcup, etc. In some towns they have secured supervised playgrounds; in others they have\nsuccessfully maintained school lunches; in others a healthful social life for the students*\nhas been estabhshed, helping to solve the fraternity problem. In one suburb the ladies\nof a parents-teachers association take turns at the high school in serving afternoon tea\nto the teachers. \"Over the tea-cups\" a delightful and helpful social spirit is being\ndeveloped between teacher and school patron.\nIn Chicago, the women's clubs have turned over to the Board of Education a fine\nsystem of vacation schools. Open-air schools for anaemic children, and especially those\nthreatened with tuberculosis, have absorbed the efforts of the Chicago Public-School\nExtension Society, an organization composed of delegates from about seventy clubs.\nThese children are supplied with proper food, and with extra clothing when necessary.\nThe results in the improved health of the children and their abiUty to continue school\nwork are most gratifying.\nThis year the clubs of the state are urging the following legislation: The two-mill\ntax and a sufficient appropriation for the State University to insure a needed addition\nto the Woman's Building, which houses the Department of Domestic Science, and provides for the social life of the girls — also for residence halls for women students, the need\nfor which grows more evident each year.\nCongress of Mothers. — Fourteen new parents' clubs have been organized, doing social\nextension work especially in high schools as a substitute for sororities and fraternities.\nOther work not reported except legislative: Two-mill tax bill, bill for the protection of\nchildren in the street trades, amendment for the ten-hour labor law for women.\nCouncil of Jewish Women. — Chicago conference, including thirty clubs, contributed\nto the maintenance of a kindergarten for four years; furnished typewriters to evening\nclasses; contributed to Permanent Public-School Extension Committee, and PublicSchool Aid Society, out-door schools, to the support of a trade school, and to scholarships.\nOne established the first school lunchroom, formed the Public-School Aid Committee\nfor needy children, and is now employing a visiting housekeeper to teach mothers to\nprepare food properly. All are furthering the cause of social centers, free kindergartens,\nopen-air schools, and improved legislation.\nAssociation of Collegiate Alumna Legislative Report. — ^A College Women's Industrial\nCommittee was organized to raise money for the ten-hour bill; several hundred dollars were\nraised, and members attended the hearing at Springfield; \\ permanent committee was\nformed for assistance in future industrial legislation. Other bills aided were for the\ntwo-mill tax, regulation of child labor, suffrage, and increased appropriation for the\nChicago PubHc Library.\nIowa. — Continuing Unes of effort reported last year.\nRepresentative for the Federation indicated an organized plan for the furtherance\nof vacation schools, free lectures, scholarships, pubHcity for educational needs, improvement in moving-picture shows and other amusements, plans by which mothers and\nteachers can co-operate where the school course does not provide for domestic-science\ntraining, where classes are needed for working boys and girls, where enjoyable hours are\nneeded by working women; co-operative work with county superintendents for rural\nteachers' meetings and other activities.\nKentucky. — ^The joint committee has been intensely interested, with others, in\nthe extension of school improvement leagues, and is now rejoicing in the outcome, which\nthey helped to bring about. The leagues have been placed directly under the control\nof the state department of education and a paid officer has been placed in the office of\nthe superintendent of instruction, to organize and supervise leagues. The Southern\nEducation Board assists with the expense.\nThe officer chosen is a member of the joint\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSUMMARY\n\nOF JOINT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nREPORTS\n\n1099\n\ncommittee. By co-operative effort, medical inspection has been obtained in two cities\nand promised in another; two women have been elected on the school board in one city;\nsanitary improvement has been made. The representative of one organization reports\nthe equipping and maintaining of a model school, and the providing of six scholarships.\nLouisiana. — The chairman reports work of the afTiUated organizations and of local\nsocieties as follows: Club women: Penny lunches, participation in the women's auxiliary\nof the juvenile courts, assistance in gaining public baths, better school buildings and\nteachers' salaries, special teachers, introduction of manual training and domestic science,\nand women on school boards. Jewish Women's Council: Penny lunches, girls' clubs,\nboys' clubs, sewing school, free gymnasium. Mothers' clubs: Co-operating with school\nauthorities for the betterment of conditions. Local or state societies. Public-School\nAlliance: Arousing public opinion for better pay for teachers, open-air schools, vocational\nschools; instrumental in securing three new high schools and one normal school. Playground Association: Five well-equipped and supervised playgrounds — aided by the StoryTellers' League.\nMaine. — ^Joint committee organized and membership completed in May. Plans\nto make a careful study of the field to find out what ground the agencies already at work\nare covering; especially to find out how it may be of assistance to school improvement\nleagues and the Traveling Library Department. By request of the chairman the representative ofthe Federation reports in part: \"This, the first year of service, has been\na very active one and our aim has been to concentrate the work on the points emphasized\nby your directing body. Stress has been laid upon the subject of personal hygiene in\nall the schools of the state, and the state superintendent has co-operated. This subject\nis taught in the normal schools and also at the summer institutes. A lecture on personal\nand sex hygiene has been requested by our committee to be presented before the Teachers\nAnnual Association.\" Other objects reports are: scholarship fund to provide specially\nequipped and superior teachers for rural schools; schools of these \"Federation teachers\"\naided by gifts of furnishings and supplies; university extension aided. Household\neconomics is to be added to the curriculum of every state normal school this fall. Five\nhundred circulars were mailed to club women all over the state and special attention was\ndirected to \"physical upbuilding, in co-operation with your department.\"\nMaryland. — ^The active work of the Maryland state committee has been largely\nco-operative in character; but a specific effort has been made to arouse a state-wide\ninterest in educational advance and civic improvement, especially in rural communities.\nCircular letters were sent to the editors of the newspapers in each county which have\npresumably the largest circulation, requesting the estabUshment of a department or a\ncolumn devoted to education and civics; and a list of topics upon which it was proposed\nto secure brief, readable articles was inclosed. Favorable replies were ultimately received\nfrom editors in ten out of twenty counties; and through the co-operation of the affiliated\norganizations a number of articles have been secured. Copies of each article were sent\nsimultaneously to fifteen editors.\nThe committee has kept in touch with the activities of various organizations which\nare interested in school-attendance legislation, moral education, sex hygiene, sanitation,\nimprovement in school buildings, the use of schoolhouses as social centers, directed\nplay, the study of the problems of the rural community, child labor, the juvenile court,\nand the probation system.\nThe Federation has concentrated its efforts upon plans to secure a satisfactory state\nschool-attendance law. Nineteen lectures and talks have been provided during the\npast year, newspaper articles have been written and prominent county educators, school\ncommissioners, and influential citizens have%been interviewed.\nThe Southern Association of College Women has devoted the year to efforts to standardize the high schools of this state and to arouse interest among girls and boys in higher\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\neducation. Committees have been at work investigating the causes and extent of ifliteracy\nin the state.\nThe Council of Jewish Women has been making a study of the system of medical\ninspection in vogue in the city of Baltimore and will devote considerable time next year\nto means of obtaining more adequate medical inspection.\nOne member-at-large reports for thirteen parent and teacher clubs which held monthly\nmeetings in the schools, discussing educational topics and raising money to equip several\nschool yards with playground apparatus.\nNineteen counties report similar clubs.\nMassachusetts. — ^The reports of the joint committee and of the afl&liated organizations show methods particularly constructive and valuable. State educators were consulted,\nnotably Dr. David Snedden, state commissioner of education, and asked to suggest a\nline of work that would be most helpful to the community of the various organizations\nwho should incorporate it in their yearly programs. As that of vocational training\nwas strongly recommended, the joint committee arranged a conference which brought\ntogether those who were experienced and informed, and those who would be interested\nin learning the needs and furthering the work. The committee was most fortunate in\nsecuring the wise and efficient aid of Dr. Laura Drake Gill, well known in many educational\npositions of prominence and the past president of the Patrons Department, who presided\nat the conference. The principal speakers were Dr. Snedden; Mr. Meyer Bloomfield,\nchairman of the vocational bureau; Miss Florence Marshall, of the state Board of Industrial Education; and Mr. Stinson, master of the Agricultural College in Northampton.\nMuch general co-operative effort is reported, from campaigns against the housefly to\nthose for conservation of national resources. The committee wishes to thank the affiliated\norganizations of thfe state which have contributed funds for the joint committee's work.\nThe representative of the Federation refers to the preparation for educational work\nmade some years ago by a questionnaire investigation of the condition of the public\nschools thruout the state, which led to definite suggestions and recommendations that\nare still the objects of club effort; special interest in industrial and moral education.\nThe Congress of Mothers reports eleven parent-teacher associations added to the\nfifty organized the year before, with 'more in prospect. A state convention has been\nheld and a free-lecture service list prepared. Boston branch of the Association of Collegiate\nAlumnae has a committee on rural education, and one on local education which serves\nas an outlook committee in educational affairs. Thru this it has made investigations\nand been represented on the Massachusetts Council of Education, which is working on\nsuch questions as the pension system, the part-time vocational school, state aid, and\ncertification of teachers; it has followed the work of the School Voters' League; and has\nhelped keep open the Hospital School for tubercular children.\nMichigan. — Persistent and strenuous efforts for improved common-school legislation in co-operation with State Teachers Association and State Grange, also for the\nremoval of school affairs from politics. Under the auspices of the Ann Arbor Branch\nof the Association of Collegiate Alumnae a very representative meeting of school patrons,\nmaking an audience of three hundred, was addressed by the state superintendent of\npublic instruction on needed school laws. Labors of the committee devoted to a bill\nto give commission government to all city and town districts; also to textbooks and supply\nlegislation; also to measure prohibiting fraternities in public high schools; assisted the\nFederation in furthering a measure to aid indigent parents in obeying the compulsory\nschool law. One member-at-large is closely associated with the State Grange numbering\nsixty thousand members, and has been instrumental in securing the appointment of\na co-operating grange committee on rural-school interests. Many county granges have\nconsidered school topics at their meetings and have aided the school commissioners in\ncorn contests by pupils; some local granges appoint committees to visit all neighboring\nschools and report with suggestions; at least one repeatedly invited teachers and school\nboards to their meetings and did much to improve school grounds and buildings.\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nSUMMARY\n\nOF JOINT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nREPORTS\n\niioi\n\nMinnesota. — The chairman's words are memorable, because they express combined\nenthusiasm for the good done with a rare appreciation of the unimportance of minute\ndistribution of credit among the doers.\nShe says:\n\"I am reporting a few things which oiu- committee has pushed in the state of\nMinnesota. Just how much of the progress made is due to our efiforts is problematic.\nThe Song Celestial points out that 'The fool saith \"This I did and that I wrought.\"\nThe better-lessoned mind knowing the play of things invisible standeth aloof even from\nhis own acts.' Without attempting therefore to discriminate the work we have accomplished from that we have watched with pleasure, we note some lines of progress in the\nstate: The individual drinking-cup, sanitary soap, and sanitary towels have appeared\nin our schools during this year. The temperature of our schoobrooms, which used to be\nkept dangerously high in the cold Minnesota winters, has been lowered, and fresh air\nfrom windows and doors substituted for the air supposed to be made pure by ventilating\nsystems.\nThe medical inspector and school nurse are now a part of our school system.\nPlaygrounds are multiplying\nThe school census has been taken by members\nof\nwomen's\nclubs\nand\nnormal\nstudents\nin\ntruant, theThe\nbackward\nchild, the\nsick child have been discovered and relieftraining.\nhas been The\nundertaken.\nsocial assistance\nrendered in quiet fashion by the best women in the community to young adolescent boys\nand girls without social opportunity, has been the result of circulars sent out through\nthe clubs. This work was planned by the joint committee last year. Results show\nthat continued work in this direction will bring an abundant harvest.\"\nMississippi. — ^Last year did successful state-wide work toward securing the establishment by the legislature of a Teachers Normal Training School. This year have\nworked for the establishment of a juvenile reformatory. Requested that local organizations consult and assist school authorities. As a result library books have been supplied,\nalso pictures, attractive programs, valuable prizes for various forms of school improvement. Articles on sanitation and hygiene have been furnished for educational columns\nin county newspapers. Improvement of health conditions in local schools is to be\nemphasized next year.\nNew Hampshire. — After organization, the needs of the schools and desirable changes\nin school laws were ascertained by the committee in conference with the state superintendent of public instruction. A bill was introduced in the legislature to remedy one\nof the indicated deficiencies. The representative for the Federation reports extensive\neducational work, approved by the state superintendent, adding that \"the dubs have\nbecome almost a unit in their steady giving of both sympathy and financial aid.\" Clubs\ncontributed from one to fifty dollars toward a scholarship fund for normal-school students. Widespread and varied efforts have been enlisted in the cause of improved\nindustrial, moral, and rural education and the health of school children.\nNew Mexico. — Chairman made careful comparative study of educational provisions\nin state constitutions, consulting state and national authorities, as well as the territorial\nleaders. Committee took active interest in the report of the Education Committee of\nthe Constitutional Convention; secured signatures and sent petition requesting specially\ndesired provisions. Plan to collect information concerning the school lands of the prospective new state, thus preparing themselves intelligently to oppose any selfish disposal\nof school lands. Chairman has drawn up far-reaching working program for committee\nand recommends to the department the adopting of uniform constitution and by-laws\nfor state committees. Is emphasizing the Health Comniittee subjects of ventilation\nand sex hygiene. Has arranged to have its annual meeting in connection with meetings\nof the Territorial Educational Association, and in preparation therefor is studying questionnaire regarding the proposed constitutional provisions for handling school lands.\nNew York. — Committee studying local conditions to determine field for most\neffective work; considering definite plans for state- wide work for the estabhshment of\nsocial centers.\n•\nOregon. — ^The subject of hygiene has enlisted the efforts of the Oregon joint committee for two years, in co-operation with the grange and the county superintendents;\nthis year the chairman conducted a special investigation of the work in hygiene among\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 102\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nthe higher schools. At a meeting of the committee held by invitation of the state superintendent, plans for the improvement of country schools were discussed, lantern slides\nurged for exhibits in various school districts, and active co-operation was begun for two\nprojects: one to secure greater interest in school elections and better support from taxpayers; the other to popularize the \"Annual School-Meeting Day,\" when by invitation\nof the state superintendent the people of each district shall meet in an annual picnic,\ndiscuss school questions, visit the school grounds and buildings of the vicinity, and aid\nby improvement of poor conditions, or by expressed approbation of good ones. The\nsuperintendent had prepared leaflets, including a statement of the qualifications of voters\n(male or female) and the committee heartily acceded to his request to distribute these\nleaflets with urgent letters to all the affiliated organizations.\nTennessee. — Chief work has been for adequate medical supervision of school\nchildren. The Federation has been greatly interested also in a school for mountain\nwhites. The Council of Jewish Women, besides much beneficent work, is trying to develop\nproperly supervised playgrounds. The Congress of Mothers is organizing associations\nwhere parents and teachers may learn better how to do the work they have in common.\nThe chairman is also a general officer of the Southern Association of College Women,\nand has prepared and sent to all the representatives of that organization on the various\nstate joint committees a very suggestive list of twenty-four questions relative to the\nPatrons Department work for the schools, the effect of which in information, instruction,\nand stimulated interest should be very great.\nVermont. — ^The chairman reports that the educators of Vermont are making a\ncomprehensive study of conditions and most advanced methods whereby the standard\nof its schools may be high and its youth receive an education that will best fit them for\nlife — the training of the hand as well as the mind and a higher conception of what constitutes citizenship. The problems involved in the preponderance of rural schools have\nbeen met to some extent by the concentration of the rural schools in the central village\nschools, the consolidation of adjacent commimities in one school, and the supervision\nsystem. Results are manifest in improved school buildings, supplies, teaching, and\nattendance; the greatest problem as reported is the provision of high-school training\nbetter suited to a larger percentage of the pupils. Among important new legislative\nenactments are mentioned: the establishment of a State Normal School, a State School\nof Agriculture, with additional instruction in domestic science and manual arts; teachers'\ntraining courses in high schools and academies to provide trained teachers for rural\nschools, medical inspection, and teachers' pensions. The Federation is reported as doing\nstrong civic and educational work, as supporting a scholarship fund for the training of\nteachers for rural schools, as hearing at its recent convention six educational addresses,\nincluding one on social hygiene. Appended to the report is a very comprehensive and\ninstructive leaflet from the State Teachers Club on ways and means of helping schools,\nschool children, and teachers.\nWashington. — ^As a result of a meeting called by the retiring chairman after conference with the state superintendent, the members decided to work through their\nrespective affiUated organizations for amendments to the Child-Labor Law, teachers'\nretirement fund, and higher appropriation for salaries in the State University. The\nchairman recently appointed is the president of the Washington Congress of Mothers,\nand reports that that organization has persistently brought before the public the need\nof concerted action in regard to children's health. It has included the discussion of sex\nhygiene, open-air schools, playgrounds, and medical inspection of school children on its\nprograms. Next year an effort will be made to have sex hygiehe taught in the public\nschools.\nWest Virginia. — Committee has worked to further the cause of industrial training\nin the state. Will be represented at the National Education Association by its chairman\nand decide therefrom the plans for the coming year.\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1103\n\nWisconsin. — Committee has worked individually for all bills tending to improve\nthe rural schools and those permitting a wider use of school buildings and grounds. The\nCongress of Mothers has recently been organized and expects immediately to take up\nwork outlined by a meeting of the faculty of the State University.\nWyoming. — Requests any Uterature available from the National Education Association and reports the Federation as active in beautifying the schoolhouses and groimds\nand having bubble fountains installed.\n\nCO-OPERATION\nWILLIAM\n\nBISHOP\n\nOWEN,\n\nBETWEEN\n\nHOME\n\nPRINCIPAL,\nCHICAGO\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe problem of the relation of home and school is, in its entirety, too\ncomplex and extensive for adequate treatment, even in outline, within the\nlimits of an address suitable for this occasion. It is my privilege to speak\nto you about the need of co-operation between home and school, as viewed\nfrom the standpoint of the school. By way of introduction, I should like\nto recur to a bit of educational history.\nThe great modern movement in education which was inaugurated at\nthe turn of the nineteenth century with the work of Pestalozzi, had from\nthe outset as one of its fundamental aims the promotion of co-operation\nbetween the home and the school. There were phases of the movement\nin its earliest stages which would justify one in calling it a home-education\nmovement. Attention was directed, on the one hand, to the strategic\nposition of the mother in the child's education. Pestalozzi's Leonard and\nGertrude succeeded in arousing the world to a realization of thQ opportunities, the duties, and the actual and inevitable influence of the mother\nin determining the education of the children in the home. With the\nrecognition of the importance of the mother and the home came the realization that the mother needed a better method of procedure than that\nsupplied by tradition or suggested by instinct or affection. This was the\nbeginning of the attempt to work out a method of infant education. When,\non the other hand, attention was directed to the school as an existing\ninstitution, it was found to have made little provision for the early years\nof childhood. The school and the home were both engaged in the task of\nsupervising and directing the education of children. But in the individual\nchild's life there was a period when the directing hand of the home was\nwithdrawn and that of the school had not reached out tp lay hold and guide.\nMoreover, this was not only actually so in the existing historical situation,\nbut the break in continuity threatened to be greatly emphasized and\nincreased if the movement for the betterment of the work of the home\nproved successful in method and result.\nIt was to meet and solve this situa4ion that Froebel organized the\nkindergarten. His work permanently changed our educational system,\nby extending the school downward to cover the years not specifically\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 104\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nunder organized educational control and by supplying an educational\ntheory and practice for this period that has proved itself sound by reason\nof its capacity for progressive modification to meet the advance of scientific thought as well as the demands of school practice. With Froebel's\nwork accompHshed, one might well have concluded that the problem of\nschool and home had been solved. The child received its education at\nhome until it entered the kindergarten, when the school assumed control\nand retained it until formal education ceased. Moreover, the theory and\nmethod according to which the home and the school were to do their separate tasks were in harmon}^ thruout.\nIf we return to the present situation, which is the direct outcome of\nthe movement just referred to, we find that the division of labor and of\nresponsibiUty between the home and the school has remained essentially\nunchanged, but that there is a growing conviction that a new sort of cooperation between the two must be worked out if our educational scheme\nis to be effective. I shall attempt to show why this co-operation is necessary, what the nature of this co-operation must be, and by what means it\nmay be brought about and maintained.\nFirst, then, co-operation between home and school is necessary because\nthey are at work on a common problem and are pursuing a common aim,\nthe education of individual, specific boys and girls. The commonplace\nnature of this declaration may at first lead to a ready acceptance that would\nreduce it to a truism. What I mean to say is this: The life of an individual\nchild is an organic, continuous whole. It passes thru countless phases,\npresents infinite variety and traces out its own curve of progress. But\nthese phases are not unrelated; this variety is not fortuitous; the curve\nof progress is not without its law. In a word, we cannot understand or\nwork successfully with a child if we attempt to regard him as fragmentary,\ndivisible, unstable, and changing. He may be all of this and more at times\nand for certain purposes. But he is at all times and for our main purposes\nto be regarded as being what he really is, an organic whole. Now, this\nintegrity and unity of the child's life is not an abstract or logical thing, a\nconcept or a name by which we economize effort in our thought of him.\nIt is a practical unity and integrity which the child himself is aware of and\nseeks to maintain and further. The most obvious evidence of this unity\nof the child's life is his physical body, which is, at the same time, the basis\non which his own sense of personal identity rests and which serves us as\nground for personal identification. We do not think of the physical\nchild as fragmentary, divisible, and discontinuous, in spite of the obvious\nchanges which it undergoes. He is the same child from birth to maturity,\nin the home, in the school, on the playground. He bears one name, has a\nrecognizable countenance, carriage, and disposition. All our purely unreflective attitudes toward him make the unconscious assumption of the\nunity and integrity of his physical life. Again, his consciousness is a unit\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1105\n\nand a whole. To the child, his mind is one just as his body is one. His\nmental identity is less obvious and tangible than that of his body, but\nit is also more intimate and real. We, too, as we learn to know his mind\nin action, judge of it as if it were one and the same mind at work. Moreover, the unity of the body and the unity of the mind are not separate and\ndifferent, but are summed up together in experience.\nNow, there are three important facts about this unity and integrity of\nthe child's life that have direct bearing on the subject under discussion.^\nThe first is this. The unity is not fixed and static, but progressive. It\nreorganizes itself. It is always there, but constantly differing from what\nit was an hour, a day, a year before. It begins in early childhood in the\nform of a sort of equilibrium of physical impulses and instincts with which\nthe babe is endowed at birth. It maintains itself under favoring circumstances with little show of disturbance and with favorable results in the\nhealth and comfort of the child. As time passes, with physical growth\nand mental awakening, the reorganizing goes on apace. Sometimes there\nare periods of storm and stress. New forces surge into the consciousness\nof the child and where just now there was order and control, there suddenly\nseems to be nothing but chaos, and unity seems the last word that could\nbe justly applied to the situation now under the domination of conflicting\nand unknown forces. Again, a period of calm and confidence follows.\nAll the past seems to flow into the present, conserving all the results of\nprevious effort and thought. There are few surprises, no sudden lapses,\nno failures. The current of life moves on in ways foreseen and desired\nand under perfect control. But it is always the same child — the same to\nhim, the same to us. The same, yet ever new. Yet within the scope of\nthis reorganizing unity are found all the possibilities of education, all the\ndegrees of success or failure, all the values of our moral world, all the desires of the human heart. On its intellectual side we call it wisdom; on\nits moral side, character.\nIn the second place, it is an ideal unity. That is, the ideal form of it\nis always the object of our endeayor. We are trying to realize it. It is\nnot ideal in the sense that it cannot be made real, but in the sense that it\nis being made real. There is always a unity that the child's life does have,\nand one that it ought to have. These two are not unrelated save in thought.\nIt is out of the unity that we have that we construct the ideal that we seek.\nSo we are always dealing with a life in some sense organized, while at the\nsame time our aim is to organize it. Our language bears ample testimony\nto our sense of the totality, the unity, the integrity of individual life and\nexperience. We say that men are \"broken up\" by trying experiences,\nthey are \"distracted\" by cares and anxieties, they \"go to pieces\" under\nexcessive moral strains. That is to say, tjje whole which they have constructed isno longer intact and the product of its activity can no longer\nbe traced.\nIn short, we may say that education is just the process of\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 106\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nconstructing and organizing such an ideal unity in the life of every child,\nbeginning with a few primitive impulses and instincts and ending with a\nmatured mind and character in possession of self-knowledge and its own\nideals.\nIn the third place, this unity is social. That is to say, it is social in\nits origin, social in its meaning and reference, social in its function. In\nplain words, the sort of unity that comes to a child's life will depend entirely\nupon the social group or groups in which that life finds its place. In the\njudgments of everyday experience, we reveal clearly that we recognize,\nand act on this view. We put the individual back into his family group\nand excuse or blame him as he remains true to or departs from the life of\nthat group. \"What would you expect?\" is the instinctive excuse offered\nfor one whose life is constructed in a different social medium than our own.\nA degenerate is one who has fallen below the standard of his class, physically or morally. The actual separate stimulations to action come from\nthe group environment. Those that are repeated in the group life produce\nin the individual his habits and his ideals. The standards of morality,\ntaste, and efficiency of the group become the standards of the individual.\nSo in a modified, but very true, sense the individual reproduces in himself\nhis own family group. For this reason, if we wish truly to understand\nanother, we must read him in the light of the group life that has infolded\nhim from earliest years. The basic unity of his life is a miniature of the\nlarger group unity. So, too, he can act and most freely in the group\nwhere he first learned action. He is at home there. He has reached out\nto sound the sympathy, test the authority and try the wisdom of that\ngroup. He has found himself in finding the group and is only truly himself when he is acting within it. So the dominant social group to which a\nchild belongs is the most constant and effective agent in organizing, maintaining and elevating his life. To ignore this fact is to neglect the means\nof promoting educational progress, while we stupidly lament the lack of\nmoral training in the public schools and discuss the gap between the home\nand the school.\nNow, the two social groups that encompass the child's life are the\nfamily and the school. They not only officially and formally divide\nthe child between them, but they actually monopolize his time, absorb\nhis energies, and furnish his mind. That the family, as a social group,\nis a dominant influence in a child's life, is a commonplace of our social\nand educational doctrine. But it is not so well recognized that the school\nis also a social group of almost, if not quite, equal influence. Yet this is\nnot only true as a matter of fact, but it is a truth that should be the starting-point ofour educational theory and practice, as well as of our school\norganization and administration. That the origin of the family is in the\nunfathomable past and that of the school within the historical period\ndoes not prove the school to be less effective as a social group.\nIts actual\n\n"}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "1107\n\nDepatttnent]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nHOME\n\nAND SCHOOL\n\npresent function in the life of the children is the only basis on which an\nestimate of its worth and value can rest. That it does rank with the family\nin importance and scope cannot be doubted.\nPerhaps I may now draw the practical conclusions toward which all that\nI have said has been pointing. The school needs the co-operation of the\nhome for the same reason that the home needs the school. They have,\nI have already said, a common aim. Both are striving to organize the\nlife of the children as they pass from infancy to maturity so that confusion,\nuncertainty, weakness, and failure shall be superseded by clearness, decision, strength, success. Both profess to make character-building paramount.\nBut this common aim must be achieved thru work. with individual children\nin concrete situations and in the solution of definite problems. If the two\nsocial groups do not work in harmony, the life of the child is torn asunder;\nthat which constitutes from birth to maturity the fundamental aim of\neducation, the creation of a unified and organized personality, is not only\nnot furthered, but is actually thwarted by the very agencies that alone\ncould secure the desired results. The child must be able to pass from one\nsocial group to the other without experiencing a conflict in demands, a\nrelaxation in authority, a lessening of sympathy. The fundamental social\nactivities of both groups must be in harmony, that the continuity of the\nchild's experience may be unbroken and that his life may have unity,\nintegrity, and real progress. So you see that it all comes to this, that the\ncommon aim of home and school is not common because both chose it,\nbut because it is one child that goes in and out among them.\nAgain, the school and home must co-operate because they have also\ndifferent subordinate aims. If the home could do what the school does\nwe should not have schools. But it is to be noted and emphasized that\nthese subordinate aims can be attained only as the common aim of both\nis at the same time subserved. The school cannot neglect the larger life\nof the child on the plea that its task is to give intellectual instruction. More\nthan ever before in the history of education is it clear that to deal successfully with any aspect of child life you must take into account the whole\nchild. What a child lives at home determines what he will do in school.\nJVhat he lives in the school determines what he will do at home.\nWe may now proceed to state briefly what the nature of co-operation\nbetween home and school should be. It should be one of concerted and\nharmonious action in determining the larger social life of the child with a\ndefinite and clearly recognized division of labor in the matter of specific tasks\nand activities.\nThe school should have this for its principle of co-operation.\nThe home, working directly or thru society, must create and maintain\nthe conditions under which the specialized tasks of the school may be\nsuccessfully prosecuted. The principle of cc^operation for the home should\nbe this: The school must guide the home in its efforts to create and maintain the conditions under which the child may succeed in the specialized\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "II08\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nwork of the school. It is the business of the home to utilize the school in\nsecuring the education of the child, not to turn over the task to the school.\nNo parent is so humble in station, so mean in fortune, so deficient in knowledge, that he may excuse himself for not supervising and directing the\neducation of his children. What he needs for the fulfillment of his duty\nin this regard is not special and technical knowledge, but common-sense\nand determination and love. Failures in school are not due to technical\ndiflSculties in subjects studied, nor often to stupidity of children; they are\ndue to an unregulated life which it is in the power of the humblest parent\nto restore to order. The school is the consulting specialist for the home.\nOn the other hand, it is the business of the school to put itself at the service of the home and in season and out of season to insist on the kind of\nco-operation that will make individual and social success possible. It is a\npoor and degrading conception of the school that limits its function to the\nclassroom work of a few hours each day. To the school has come the social\nopportunity of the centuries. It may reach out with knowledge and wisdom and encouragement to the homes whose supreme chance for realizing\ntheir ideals lies in the education of the children.\nI have time for only a word about the methods of co-operation between\nhome and school, and what I shall say is designed to complete the analysis\nof the problem rather than to discuss the subject. There are two general\nmethods of co-operation between home and school. Both are necessary,\nneither alone is sufficient. The one method is the indirect, thru social\neffort and organization; the other direct and immediate. We are just\nbeginning to realize the possibilities and necessity of the indirect method.\nUnder this head may be mentioned the movement for the increase of\nschool revenues, the care and ventilation of school buildings, medical\ninspection of school children, the care of the teeth and eyes of the children,\nthe inspection of schools, the elaboration of efficiency tests, the promotion\nof the playground movement; in a word, all that we class under child\nwelfare. Here all who have the good of children and the race at heart\nmay co-operate with others to make the school what it ought to be. But\nI should like to point out that valuable and indispensable as this work all\nis, it amounts at best to creating the necessary conditions under which th^\nwork of the school may best be done. The direct co-operation of the\nindividual home, the father and mother, with the school, the teacher, is\nthat form of social interaction which alone guarantees to the child moral\nprogress and stability, intellectual growth and self-realization.\nDISCUSSION\nMary Frances Farnham, dean of women, Pacific University, Forest Grove, Ore. —\nIt is indeed a privilege to speak as a school patron to the Department of School Patrons\non the subject of community co-operation. Co-operation is now a great social force.\nAs a result wonderful achievements are accomplished. We have The Brotherhood,\nfraternal orders, \"Get Together\" clubs, and\n\nthis great\n\nco-ordinated\n\ndepartment of\n\n"}
{"page": 1125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCO-OPERATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 109\n\nwomen's organizations. In the annual calendar of \"The Service\" fifty or more conferences were listed, with the request that omissions be supplied. To give greater efficiency we have auxiliary organizations, of which a notable one is the Bureau of Municipal\nResearch, with its expert corps of workers under the direction of Dr. W. H. Allen, who\nwe hoped would present today the opportunities for effective citizenship thru the relation of school patrons to the public schools.\nIn the solution of the problems before our school patrons and their affiliated organizations, we must intelh'gently co-ordinate right thinking and well-directed action. Such\nas we have we must give to this service — even ourselves — if we would have our city, or\nour rural community, a happier place in which to live. Miss Strong's \"Know Your Own\nCity\" campaigns in the Pacific Northwest resulted in concrete action. Yesterday's\nconference revealed appalling conditions that imperil the children. We are not to sit\nstill as tho confronted with the impossible, but this intimate knowledge should stimulate\nto intelligent and concerted activity. The civic call in many of our cities is not so much\n\"the bigger city,\" but the better city. In a conversation the other evening a gentleman\nsaid that in his home city extension of the mimicipal boundaries was under consideration,\nnot so much with the idea of enlarging the census returns as to secure the votes of rightminded suburban citizens.\nIn a very real sense we may affirm that what the people collectively want they will\nhave; whether, as in Chicago, the school children insist that the council uproot poison ivy\nfrom vacant lots, or, thruout the country, the citizens demand a saner Fourth of July. Both\nto forestall evil and to provide counter-safeguards are alike civic responsibilities. But\nthe scope of school patrons is prevention rather than reform. In rural communities\nespecially the school should again become a true neighborhood center. The first achievement of the joint committee of Oregon was co-operative work with the women's clubs\nto secure the passage of a bill for the use of school buildings as neighborhood centers.\nOne great source of our municipal shortcomings is the indifference of good citizens;\nwe know of many cases where the- \"rainy-day vote\" has elected the inefficient mayor\nor coimcilman. There is another and perhaps more insidious peril — that of ignorance\nand mental confusion. In an Oregon town the citizens were called upon to vote for\nthe issuing of bonds for a new high-school building; the bill was voted down by the taxpayers, who alone are entitled to vote on school questions. The alleged reasons were\nthe already heavy indebtedness of the town for other school buildings, for a new water\nsystem, and for proposed paving of the streets. The facts were that school bonds had\nbeen paid as fast as they matured, and the only reason they had not been paid in full\nwas the reluctance of bondholders to relinquish profitable investments before the time\nfor maturity; that the water system was a source of profitable revenue; and the paving,\nexcept crossings, would be done by property owners. This case of mental confusion is\nprobably paralleled in many cities. To promote intelligent interest in school matters\nthe superintendent of public instruction in Oregon has co-operated with the school patrons\nin calling attention to the importance of the annual school meeting. He proposed to\nmake the occasion a festival with a basket luncheon, inspection of school buildings and\ngrounds, and a general discussion of needed improvements to precede the business meeting.\nThe joint committee assisted in distributing printed circulars with these plans, and the\nqualifications of voters; the result anticipated was a more generous budget. Memphis\nhas taken the initiative in budget reform by printing it in full in the papers.\nOur department is manifestly increasing in importance as a co-operative agency.\nWe have for our constituency the strongest and most intelligent organizations of American womanhood; we are allied with superintendents of public instruction and school\nboards; we have the confidence of parents and teachers; the Grange, which as an organization aims to develop public life, gives us its hearty support. In the renaissance of our\npublic schools, it will be our compensation to have shared with all these forces in \"the\nconservation of the human child. \"\n\n"}
{"page": 1126, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 lO\n\nCHILD\nVERY\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nPROTECTION\n\nREVEREND\nWALTER\nTION, CHAIRMAN\n\nTION\n\nAND\n\nT. SUMNER,\nOF THE VICE\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\nTHE SOCIAL\n\n[School Patrons\n\nEVIL\n\nMEMBER\nOF THE BOARD\nOE\nCOMMISSION,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nEDUCA-\n\nI did not understand until a few days ago that I was to speak at this\nconference. I shall bring to you, therefore, thoughts that are not correlated, and possibly at times not closely connected with the special phase of\nthe subject which I have chosen.\nI shall speak very frankly and very plainly. I hope that you will not\nbe offended. This is the time when we must speak frankly and we must\nuse language which is understood.\nI am going to speak on \"Child Protection and the Social Evil,\" and\nwhat I have to say you will find amply covered in the Vice Commission\nReport of Chicago, a commission appointed by Mayor Busse and the Chicago City Council for the work for which ten thousand dollars was appropriated; a commission appointed to study the social-evil conditions in\nChicago.\nOne thing that impresses those who are studying the social evil is the\nignorance of the average citizen, and yet the certainty and the finality with\nwhich he will express himself in regard to an absolute solution of the\nproblem.\nProstitution is not only afflicting the vicious and the sinful, but it is\ncontaminating the innocent as well. It is leaving in its wake steriUty?\nparalysis, insanity, the bUnded eyes of little babes, the distorted limbs\nof deformed children, physical rot, and mental decay. It is time that we,\nthe educators of the country, should take up in some way, either as a body\nor as individuals, some movement looking to the stoppage of this awful\nphysical, moral, and social degeneration of the race.\nThere are two kinds of prostitution. There is the \"commercialized\nindustry,\" if you please, and clandestine prostitution. It is impossible\nto speak at any great length of the latter. It is subtle, and tho less known,\nprobably exists to quite as large an extent as the first. It is more dangerous in some respects, perhaps in all respects. Both have their dangers to\nchildren, but it is the commercialized industry as it has a bearing upon\nchildren that I desire to emphasize.\nI desire to say here at the outset that I stand absolutely, as do the thirty\nmembers of the Commission unanimously, for constant repression of the\nsocial evil as the present remedy, and absolute annihilation as the ideal.\nAfter this Commission had seen the awfulness of the human wreckage and\nthe awfulness of the social and vicious condition which existed because of\nthis evil, the vote was absolutely unanimous for this decision of which I\nspeak.\nLet me say a few words with regard to the immensity of the problem.\nSome of you come from smaller towns and feel that it is not your problem.\n\n"}
{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nPROTECTION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nEVIL\n\niiii\n\nYour towns and villages are sending the supplies to the larger cities. What\nis more, you probably have the social evil right in your midst and yet are\nignorant of it. There are very few communities of five thousand inhabitants or over that have not a more or less commercialized institution of\nprostitution. Your first duty is to learn of local conditions. The immensity of the problem, because it is the most tremendous problem we have to\nface, should not discourage us. As we have met the great plagues and\ninfectious diseases, and have cut down the mortality so tremendously by\neducation and preventive measures, so we can take this social problem and\nby wise, honestly administered repression change the conditions and cut\ndown the awfulness of it to a minimum.\nSo long as the hearts of men are bad, so long as men are the chief\noffenders, as they are, there is going to be more or less of a residue, even if\nwe carry on a campaign of repression. I say again, in this my impromptu\naddress to you, that the ultimate goal to which we must all point is a\nreligious and moral solution to this question. We may approach the problem from an economic or social point of view. Such an attitude will help.\nBut the final solution will come only in the raising of the public conscience\nto a certain ideal of morality where open or clandestine prostitution,\ncommercialized or socialized, will not be permitted to exist.\nThere are two standards of morality in every community. Those of us\nin the larger cities, I think, perhaps see it the most. For instance, we allow\ncertain dances to take place upon the stages of exclusive halls by women\nmore or less naked, all under the guise of art. At the same time we condemn similar dances, not any worse in many respects but held in less\nrespectable surroundings. On the one hand, we allow certain people in\nthe gilded palaces, the finer hotels, who flaunt their viciousness in silks and\nsatins; and on the other hand, we close up the resorts which are catering\nperhaps to the lower grade of society, and drive from the streets the poor\nworking-girl in shabby clothes who is trying to eke out a living which her\nscanty wage does not provide.\nThe social-evil problem is one that the public does not care to discuss\nopenly. But open discussion and frank exchange of opinion must take\nplace in the interest of enlightenment. Knowledge of the problem is the\nfirst requisite. It is such statements that I made to you yesterday, taken\nfrom the Vice Commission Report, that startle us into a desire to know,\nand, knowing, to do more to fight the evil. I repeat some figures which\nI gave yesterday. They apply to the city from which I come — a city\nno worse than the other large cities, and not so bad as some others.\nDo we realize the immensity of the commercialized evil until we know that\nthe profit in one city is fifteen million dollars a year, on a basis of only onequarter of the known prostitutes, or sixty million of all of them; how the\npolice force, which has the absolute cont?bl of the social evil, in the face of\nsuch a sum of money can become absolutely degraded; how any policeman\n\n"}
{"page": 1128, "printed_page": null, "text": "III2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n■ [School Patrons\n\nstarting out honest and efficient to handle a certain definite phase of the\nsocial-evil problem is almost bound to become corrupted; and how we, a\nlittle group of people trying to fight it from a moral, civic standpoint, find\nthere is a tremendous force where financial gain is the one consideration,\nand where mortals are of no account ? It is no wonder that we are fighting\nan uneven and unequal battle, even tho we are making great progress thruout the country.\nWhat are some of the causes for the downfall of girls ? First, the lack\nof ethical and religious teaching. I do not know if it is possible — ^perhaps\nnot at the present time — to put into our public schools the teaching of morals.\nGod grant the time may come when we can. It is difficult to separate morals\nfrom religion. It is impossible to put reHgion into our public schools. That is\none of the great problems in the teaching of sex hygiene in our public schools.\nI, personally, do not think that the teaching of sex hygiene simply on\nthe grounds of hygiene or physiology is going to bring us very far. I think\nmorals must be coupled with it. But ignorance of ethics and morals is one\nof the greatest, perhaps the greatest, cause for the downfall of girls, and in\nsome way they should be taught.\nSecond, the economic condition of the unskilled worker in industry.\nI wish I might enlarge on this.\nThird, the large number of seasonal trades for women.\nFourth, abnormality.\nFifth, unhappy home conditions.\nSixth, careless and ignorant parents.\nSeventh, broken promises.\nEighth, the love of ease and luxury.\nNinth, the craving for excitement.\nTenth, ignorance of hygiene.\nThese are some of the reasons for the downfall of girls, leading to a life\nof prostitution.\nA few words with regard to the source of supply: One of the greatest\nsources of supply is from the ranks of the immigrant. It is a pitiable thing\nto see the exploitation of the unprotected, unknown strangers in a strange\nland, who are met in New York or some seaport town, like San Francisco,\nI presume, by panderers and procuresses, who simply carry them off to\nwhat is commonly called \"white slavery.\"\nAnother source of supply is the crowded tenements of the great city.\nThe bad housing conditions of our communities furnish a great supply to\nthe industry. Let me illustrate: Take the poor people in the congested\ndistricts; they rent rooms in a little tenement of three or four rooms.\nThey take in roomers, these roomers being generally unmarried men.\nIf there are children in the family, then we know what the result is so apt\nto be. The bad housing condition is the cause of a large part of the supply,\nand is worthy of your consideration.\n\n"}
{"page": 1129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nPROTECTION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nEVIL\n\n1113\n\nOne other great cause is divorce. Until society is rid of this awful\ncurse pf divorce and the easy remarriages of divorced people, this constant\nmenace to society is bound to lower the morals of society and make prostitution— especially the clandestine type — easy and semi-respectable.\nUntil the curse of divorce and remarriage is taken away, we are going to\nhave not only the lowering of the public conscience, but a constant source\nof supply which is a very important part of the social-evil problem.\nA fifth cause is the economic question. Now we come to one of the most\nimportant; it is almost inexhaustible, and it is almost unanswerable. If\nyou know anything about the department stores, if you know very much\nabout the industries, the factories, you will understand that the factory\ngirl is paid a very much better wage than the department-store girl. Her\naverage is about nine or ten dollars a week; the department-store girl's\nsix or seven dollars a week. The department-store girf is the one to be\npitied. It is a clear case of arithmetic ; so much wage, so much for her room,\nso much for her board, and when you get thru, there is not a penny left\nfor even a newspaper, to say nothing about dressing; and where is the\ndifference coming from ? We do not wonder that there are thousands of\ncasual prostitutes in Chicago and New York who are simply existing because\nof the fact that they are underpaid. Yet we must be fair and just. There\nare many girls who are in industrial life today who are having an uphill\nbattle constantly and yet are keeping themselves pure, even tho the battle\nis a hard one. All honor to them that they can and do succeed. But it is\nfor us to face this economic condition which exists in the department stores,\nand remove one of the greatest menaces to the young girl.\nAnd I want to speak here with regard to the children in connection with\nthe economic conditions — the boys and girls who are peddling newspapers\nand gum on the streets in the large cities, and especially to the messenger\nboys. We find the messenger boys are being used thruout the so-called\nred-light or segregated districts in the large cities, and are being used for\nall sorts of purposes: they are sent to get liquor; they are sent to get\ncocaine or other kind of dope; they are sent on all sorts of errands, to one\nplace and another; and we have instances where on last New Year's Day\nor last Christmas Day, these boys were invited into the resojts that they\nmight have a Christmas present from the girls, who state that it is the\ncustom on Christmas Days to render service to the messenger boys, free of\ncharge, as a gift to them. And these are boys fourteen to sixteen years of\nage! The little street venders are out on the streets nights, seeing all the\ndebauchery and vice which comes after nightfall, and being brought into\ncontact with vicious conditions and people. Here is one of the menaces\nto childhood — the economic question of a child on the street.\nAnother menace is the five-cent theaters. Here is a force — a constructive force— which might make for a great deal of good for childhood, and\nyet wherever children are congregated, even for a good object, there is\n\n"}
{"page": 1130, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 14\n\nN^ TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nalways the danger of vicious conditions and people. The five-cent theater\nat one time in the city from which I come was most dangerous to children.\nAt the present time it is not so dangerous. At any time it may become a\nmenace, however, and must be watched. Where there are hundreds and\nhundreds of these theaters, in which the lights are extinguished; where\nchildren are all huddled in with older people, there is bound to be a more\nor less immoral influence. If there is a moving-picture show in your\ntown or a cheap theater, do something to investigate, first, the kind of\npictures that are being shown; and second, the surroundings, the atmosphere into which these children are going. You may find conditions which,\nif changed, may save many a child.\nAnother danger to the working child is the temptation to have some of\nthe — to her — ^beautiful things which she handles in her daily routine,\nwhich her scanty wage will not allow. I recall one instance of a girl who\nwent thru two years of high school and had to go to work at the age of\nsixteen. She worked two years and was then getting four dollars and a\nhalf a week. One night she took a little pin from the department in\nwhich she worked, to wear to a dance, and returned it in the morning. She\nwas foimd out and reported, and was arrested. The manager and several\nother ofl&cials of the store came into the Juvenile Court and demanded that\nthe girl be sent to some reformatory. Now, we may have, and I hope we all\nhave, condemnation for theft, but certainly we have more condemnation\nfor a soulless corporation or company which would demand the ruining of\na girl simply because when she was underpaid, when she did not have even\nenough for the necessities of life, she took some little bauble in order to\ndecorate herself; and I am glad to say that the judge of the Juvenile Court\ndischarged the girl with an admonition, and gave to the manager of that store\nsuch an exposition on the economic condition under which the girl worked,\nand his attitude toward her while under temptation, that it will be a long\ntime before he will forget the lecture which he got.\nAnother source of supply is our employment agencies, which send help\nto resorts — ignorant help, girls who do not know where they are going,\nand are lured into an evil life. We find many employment agencies quite\nwilling to send colored help to resorts where they will not send white help.\nThis brings us to a phase of the evil where a tremendous injustice is being\ndone. Why is it that we discriminate between the colored people and the\nwhite people in this social-evil problem? If there is a district that is\ngiven up to prostitution, you will find crowded in it and around it and about\nit, the colored people of the community. We seem to think that the\ncolored people are as undesirable as those engaged in the social evil. We\ntake a people which is not able, perhaps, to raise itself and which needs the\nsupport and the aid of the white people, and we compel that people to live\nin the most vicious conditions and in the most vicious neighborhood in\nthe whole city. It is]^an injustice to a race which needs our support\n\n"}
{"page": 1131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nCHILD\n\nPROTECTION\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nEVIL\n\n1 1 15\n\nrather than our unjust discrimination which is forcing them downward in\nthe social scale.\nAnother great menace is the midwife. If you know nothing about those\nconditions in your community, then investigate them. The medical men\nor women who are here this morning will bear me out in the statement that\nthere is a tremendous danger to society in this group of people alone.\nThe most vicious thing in a community in connection with the social\nevil is the saloon. Now, I am not what might be called an extreme temperance advocate. I believe in temperance, and the greatest curse on society\ntoday is intemperance, and I heartily indorse all that Dr. Jordan said\nyesterday at Berkeley; but in the last year I have become convinced that\nthe most vicious influence in connection with the social evil is the saloon.\nIt supports and exploits it. No greater step could be taken than the separation of these two institutions.\nThe next most vicious influence is the dance hall; and I mean by that\nthe dance hall patronized by the working classes. If I had the time today,\nI could give you instance after instance of investigation which we made in\nsome two hundred sixty or two hundred seventy dance halls in Chicago, of\nthe awfulness of the situation that obtains there. The girls come in simply\nfor a social evening; they have no other place to go to; their home-life\nis not happy. Perhaps they are boarding in some boarding-house, which is\nnot, as you can imagine, a pleasant place to spend an evening; they cannot\nstay in their attic room; they are hungry for pleasure. They should have\nit. They go to the dance hall ; there they find the cadet, the panderer, and\nthe man about town; and there begins the downfall of many and many,\nwe might say hundreds, even thousands, of girls. Nearly all the vicious\ndance halls have a bar in connection; and you know, as well as I know,\nthe moment that a young girl commences to drink that is the beginning\nof her downfall. And so the dance hall is the second most vicious influence\nin connection with the bringing into existence of these unfortunate women.\nWe talk about changing the amusements — the pubUc amusements.\nChildren are going to play; if they cannot get moral surroundings, they are\ngoing to find immoral surroundings. As I have said before, we have heard\na great deal about keeping the children off the streets. We have got to\nmake the streets decent for the children to play in. Let us open up the\nschoolhouses as social centers. Where can we find such beautiful roomy\nhaUs for dances, for theatricals in the evening, and clubhouses for play\nhours? Where can we find better constructive work than using the\nschoolhouses ? Last year we tried that in Chicago. It has been a wonderful success. They have been crowded night after night, and the children\nhave been kept off the streets. Given healthful amusement along constructive lines, and it will do much. And I say*the same about the churches.\nHow absurd to keep them closed. Let the parish houses and the buildings\nwhich are used for Sunday-school rooms be open; let them ring with the\n\n"}
{"page": 1132, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIl6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nlaughter of children constantly. Let the tired mothers use them at night.\nLet them be the forums for the expressions of those who feel that injustice\nhas been done. Let them be everything that is necessary to furnish\nhealthful amusement and playground for the community.\nI have said that the greatest contributing factors in the social evil were,\nfirst, the saloon, second, the dance hall. I want to add one more — men.\nMen! the whole problem is a man's problem. We are all the time putting\nup rescue homes. We are all the time bringing the girls into juvenile\ncourts. We are all the time sending them out to the bridewell or county\nprison, or whatever it may be called in your community. We are all the\ntime hammering down on the women. It is not a woman but a man\nproblem.\nGo with me some night from the department store; go with the little\ngirl who came from your country town thinking she could earn a livelihood\nin the city, a stranger to everybody, unloved, unprotected, uncared for;\ngo with her to that little cheap boarding-house, and see the little cold attic\nto which she goes. The house is filled with men and women, coarse,\nvulgar, and in many cases, immoral. She is hungry for the necessities of\nlife. I do not believe that girls go wrong for luxuries to any great extent;\nthey go wrong for the necessities of life; they are hungry for food, hungry\nfor necessary clothing, hungry for companionship, hungry for love. I see\nthat girl in that attic; and see her as she is preyed upon by unscrupulous,\nmen, who are not sportsmen enough to get out and hunt a fair prey, but\ntake this defenseless girl as their game and ruin her.\nTo repeat, this is a man problem, not a woman problem; and until\nmen realize this and until men are conscience-stricken, we are not going\nto get very far in its solution.\n\n"}
{"page": 1133, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident—jAuzs A. Barr, superintendent of schools\nVice-President— BintijAuiH M. Davis, Miami University\nSecretary— E. E. Balcomb, Rhode Island Normal School\n\nStockton CaL\nOxford Ohio\n.Providence, R.I,\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July ii, ign\n(Joint session with the American Nature-Study Sodety and the School Garden\nAssociation of America.)\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by President Barr. In the absence\nof the secretary, L. A. Robinson of New York University was appointed as acting secretary. The program was taken up as follows:\n\"Agricultural Nature-Study,\" Clayton F. Pahner, Gardena High School, of Los\nAngeles, Cal.\nDiscussion, E. D. Ressler, professor of industrial pedagogy, Oregon Agricultural\nCollege, Corvallis, Ore.\n\"School Gardening in Hawaii,\" Vaughan MacCaughey, College of Hawaii, Honolulu.\n\"Potentiality of the School Garden,\" Cyril A. Stebbins, Department Agricultural\nEducation, University of Caliform'a, Berkeley, Cal.\nReport of Committee on Course of Study in Agriculture, E. C. Bishop, Department\nof Agricultural Extension, State Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa, chairman.\nThe president appointed the following committee for the nomination of officers for\nthe following year:\nE. D. Ressler, State Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore.\nC. F. Palmer, Gardena Agricultural High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nV. MacCaughey, College of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.\nDue to the fact that the Committee on the Course of Study was unable to report\nfully upon its work, it was moved and carried that the committee be asked to continue\nits work for another year and that the general council of the National Education Association be asked to appropriate the sum of two hundred and fifty dollars for carrying\non the necessary investigations of the committee.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 13, 191 1\n\n(Joint session with the Department of Normal Schools and the Department of\nPhysical Education.)\nThe meeting was called to order by President Barr and the program was taken up\nas follows:\n\"Agriculture and Domestic Science in High Schools with Special Reference to\nCommunity Work,\" E. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of public instruction, Topeka,\nKans.\n\"Agriculture and Domestic Science in Normal Schools with Special Reference to\nPreparing Teachers for Commimity Work,\" John R. Kirk, president, State Normal\nSchool, Kirksville, Mo.\n\n1117\n\n♦\n\n"}
{"page": 1134, "printed_page": null, "text": "Iii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agrkultura\n\nDiscussion, Riley O. Johnson, State Normal School, Chico, Cal.; Susan B. Sipe,\nWashington Normal School, Washington, D.C.\n\"Physical Education in Elementary Rural Schools,\" L. R. Alderman, state superintendent ofpubUc instruction, Salem, Ore.\nDiscussion was led by Edwin L. Holton, professor of rural education. State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans.\nThe Committee on Nominations recommended the following oflScers for the ensuing\nyear:\n\nFor President — B. M. Davis, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.\nFor Vice-President — Cyril A. Stebbins, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nFor Secretary — E. E. Balcomb, State Normal and Industrial School, Greensboro, N.C.\nThe report was adopted, after which the department adjourned.\nL. A. Robinson, Acting Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nCLAYTON\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nNATURE-STUDY\n\nr. PALMER,\n\nGARDENA AGRICULTURAL\nLOS ANGELES,\nCAL.\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe history of nature-study has exempHfied, as well as any one subject\ncould do so, one of the most predominant characteristics of the American\npeople, and one by no means confined to the teaching fraternity. I refer\nto our national tendency to be \"off with the old love, and on with the new,\"\nor more explicitly, to snatch at every new idea, working it for all there is in\nit, then casting it aside when a new one appears. This apparent instability\nis at the same time our weakness and our strength, as a nation. It is but\nan expression of the restlessness of our time — the price that we pay for our\nreputation as the most progressive nation.\nTo those patient souls who were largely responsible for the vitalizing\ncurrent introduced into our curriculum thru the nature-study idea, there\nwas, no doubt, much discouragement because teachers were so slow in\nadopting the newer conceptions. But that was soon to be made up for\nby such a grand rush to enlist under the nature-study banner as the outside\nworld has seldom witnessed in the introduction of any school subject.\nFor nearly a score of years now, the grade pupils of the United States\nhave borne up bravely imder the greatest variety of experimentation imaginable. Teachers with little or no first-hand knowledge of natural history\nhave been inoculated with the abiding enthusiasm of such able leaders as\nBailey, Hodge, Bigelow, and others, and with the most admirable intentions, have courageously plunged into the maelstrom of life histories of\ninsects, habits of birds, seed germination, calendar studies, etc. — not to\nmention the physical and chemical atrocities — all committed in the name\nof nature-study. Doubtless we have each of us done our part toward\namplifying these results, but we will trust that they have really done more\n\n"}
{"page": 1135, "printed_page": null, "text": "II19\n\nDepartment]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nNATURE-STUDY\n\ngood than harm.\nOur failures have certainly served as stepping-stones to\na more sane conception of what nature-study stands for.\nIn earlier days, culture was gained principally from classical education.\nThe development of science has been largely responsible for the practical\nturn which education has taken in these latter days of vocational training.\nBut progress in this direction has been accomplished only thru hardfought contentions between the old and the new. Insurgent and regular\nhave always been pitted against each other, even in the comparatively\ntranquil development of our educational systems.\nWe spent many years in going thru the experience of educating the man\nfirst and the specialist afterward. Because a long course was necessary\nbefore it was possible to specialize in any given subject, a large proportion of pupils dropped out of school without being fitted properly for any\nsort of life work. All trades suffered from this, and its effect upon agriculture was especially unfortunate. The rich farms of our ancestors became\nimpoverished thru ignorant methods of farming, and many were abandoned.\nThe young people preferred the hazards of day labor in the city to the long\nhours and hard work of the farmer. Powell says, \"In 1895, there were\nforty thousand able-bodied men found going into the city of New York\nfrom the country.\" The rural schools were in a serious state of decline,\nand many were closed for want of pupils. The number of abandoned farms\nwas on the increase each year, and big-minded men saw danger ahead.\nBut how could the farms best be improved, and intelligent men be kept\nupon them ? Surely in no way but by making farming more remunerative,\nand country life more attractive.\nClearly, education of some sort must be depended upon to bring about\nbetter conditions among our agricultural classes. That was early recognized by our educational leaders, bul^they were also convinced that it was\ntoo late to do much for the farmers themselves, directly. For many years,\nthe government, agricultural colleges, and experiment stations had been\ntrying to help them, but only a few availed themselves of the assistance\noffered. The masses were not being reached, and attention was therefore\nturned toward the boys and girls attending the rural schools.\nBailey tells us.\nThe direct application of nature-study to agricultural education appears to have\n, been started by the Agricultural College of Cornell University.\nThis was in 1895 and\n1896. It is advisory and propagandic.\nIts object is to interest teachers and pupils of\nthe public schools in nature-study work with special reference to the agricultural conditions.\n\nAgain the movement is described as being\nto create a larger public sentiment in favor of agricul^e, to increase the farmer's respect\n'for his own business.\n\nCornell led in this movement from the first, sending out nature-study\nleaflets which directed and inspired the teachers, not only of New York\n\n"}
{"page": 1136, "printed_page": null, "text": "II20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nbut of other states as well. Later, the propaganda was turned in favor\nof agricultural education in a more direct way.\nIn any discussion on nature-study as to the nature and content of the\ncourse to be offered, one is continually bound to consider certain limiting\nconditions. In the first place, we all realize that the greatest weakness\nlies in the lack of properly trained teachers. We must naturally look to our\nnormal schools to supply the demand. But in these institutions, which are\nefficient for the most part, not enough attention is given to these particular\nsubjects which are necessary to the training of successful nature-study\nteachers. There has been too much exploiting of the erroneous idea that\nanyone with a little knowledge of plants and animals, with a little of method\nthrown in, can teach nature-study. To be sure, some strong teachers of\nthis subject have taken up the work with little or no training, but they\nhave possessed certain other qualities which have greatly helped in making\nup the deficiency. They have succeeded where the average teacher would\nhave failed, but that doesn't recommend the method.\nFew of our higher institutions of learning seem to have grasped the\nsignificance of the nature-study movement. A teacher may be graduated\nfrom a college or university where good technical training has been given\nin botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, geology, etc., and yet fail in an\nattempt to teach agriculture or nature-study, tho both are founded upon\nthese very sciences. The trouble lies in the fact that they are applied\nsciences, and one has to sort over his information, rearrange it, correlate it,\nand flavor it with spirit and sympathy. Then, and only then, can he\norient himself with respect to these subjects as they relate themselves to the\nlives and interests of grade pupils. Nature-study, which is really worthy\nof the attention of the would-be teacher of today, should be offered only\nafter the student has had a grounding, in the essentials of several sciences.\nThe college instructor in biological or physical sciences is not expected\nto concern himself, in the teaching of his subjects, with the possible difference of viewpoint of those of his students who may later teach naturestudy. He is not concerned in pointing out to his students the interesting\nrelationships which exist between his subjects and those of related sciences.\nUpon whom, then, rests the responsibility of correlating these subjects\ninto a harmonious unity ? Manifestly, upon the student himself or herself,\nimless perchance some kind Providence provides the opportunity for one\nto take a good course in nature-study, based on the supposition that the\nstudent has already had the elements of the sciences upon which the subject\nis reared.\nIt is the lack of understanding of this mutual relationship of the biological and physical sciences that constitutes one of the chief weaknesses in\npresent day nature-study teaching. Our colleges and universities are too\noften not concerned with the business of training teachers of any sort.\nBut their graduates fill the positions in our high schools and normal schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nNATURE-STUDY\n\n1 1 21\n\nWhat is the result ? The college graduate naturally tends to duplicate his\nor her college course in these lower institutions. To be sure, in a few years,\nexperience and common-sense will bring about an adjustment; but what\na loss is entailed meanwhile!\nIn some states this condition has been remedied to a considerable degree\nthru the extension of the normal course to three, four, or more years.\nSuch an arrangement gives the college graduate or normal-school student\nsufficient time for working over the more technical courses into presentable\nform for use in primary or secondary schools. Many times, however, the\nprospective salary does not seem to warrant the teachers-to-be in making\nany further preparation for their work than the law requires.\nThe demand for teachers of nature-study for our grades, and of agriculture for secondary and normal schools, is greater than the supply. Already\nit is clearly apparent that in order to carry on the good work without further\ndelay, many agriculture teachers will, for some time to come, have to be madeover science teachers. Some of our ablest teachers of secondary-school agriculture were not trained specifically for such work; but they were well trained\nin the sciences, and recognizing the demand for agricultural education, have\nleaped into the gap and done good work. They have succeeded in spite\nof the lack of special training, because of experience and hard work; but\nthat does not make the need of that training any the less important for\nthe rank and file of would-be teachers of agriculture.\nAfter much experimentation and discussion, extended thru two decades,\nwe have come pretty generally to recognize what nature-study stands for.\nThe purpose, briefly stated, is to develop and preserve an intelligent attitude toward nature. This of course implies a spirit of sympathetic investigation, coupled with an endeavor to make a proper and profitable use of\nthe information gained in the study of any of her innumerable forms.\nAny division of nature-study must, from the nature of things, be largely\nartificial. Yet we must classify objects for convenience of study, and\nnatural objects are no exception to the rule. No course can be a complete\nunit by itself, or remain entirely divorced from others. If there is any\none word that comes nearer to expressing the great truths in nature than\nanother, it is the Httle word \"unity.\" All life is one and related; everything has its influence upon everything else, and is in turn influenced by all\nthat exists. The physical sciences, alone, are dead, while the biological\nsciences without them are \"confusion worse confounded.\" To say that\nthe one is more important than the other is like saying that the heart is\nmore important than the lungs. To be sure, the function of the one is\npurely physical, while that of the other is more difficult to understand;\nbut if either one were to cease performing its functions for a short time,\nthe other would be incapable of action, and death would promptly ensue.\nIn pedagogical circles, we hear a great deal to-day about nature-study,\nbiological nature-study, agricultural nature-study, school-gardening, ele-\n\n"}
{"page": 1138, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 22\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nmentary agriculture, general science, and so forth. To each individual\nteacher, each of these has a different significance, while at the same time\nbeing closely related. It might therefore be worth one's time to consider\nthese briefly in their relationship to each other, and to a rational scheme\nof education along the lines of natural history. Moreover, I assume that\nany of these will aid in interesting the child in nature, and make life fuller\nfor him, whether he spends more of his life in the city or in the country.\nMost of us will probably admit that the subjects under consideration\njustify their place in the curriculum from either one or both of two standpoints— the propagandic or the educational. I am inclined to believe that\nthe original purpose of nature-study holds as true today as it did at the\nbeginning. To be sure there are the valuable by-products, but may we\nnot assume that increased interest in agriculture is the logical and desired\nresult of the introduction of these subjects into the grades? If this be\ntrue, there arises the all-important question of determining, if possible, the\nparticular phases of work best adapted to the different grades. And this\nis one of our most difficult problems.\nIt is pretty generally conceded, I think, that some phase of nature-study\nmay profitably be taught in each grade below the high school. The teacher\nof the lower grades gets her cue from the natural interests of her pupils.\nThe skillful teacher of nature-study draws out her pupils; their interests\nbecome hers. For the time being, she becomes a child again with them,\nat the same time attempting to enlarge and intensify their interests.\nIf, as teachers of nature-study, we would endeavor more earnestly\nthus to grasp the interests and outlook of the pupils in the different grades,\nwe could lay out a less artificial course in nature-study. Such would\ncertainly present a more natural succession of topics; for after all, we\nshould rather guide the pupil in his investigations than attempt to force\nupon him the study of forms which may not be of natural interest to him.\nWe should take his interests as we find them, and make the best use possible of them, as the capital stock of our enterprise.\nAt first, the curiosity or interest of the child is easily satisfied, because\nit is superficial, and local, as one might say. He is incapable of recognizing\nthe far-reaching relationship of universal truths. As he passes from grade\nto grade, his study of his environment may naturally lead to a deeper\ninquiry into some of the many problems that confront him. The proper\nsphere of activity which the teacher may exercise is largely confined to\nassisting the pupil in sustaining his interests. This is accomplished by\ndirecting his attention to the more important things, and pointing out the\ninteresting relationships.\nIt thus becomes evident that objects and discussions which might fail\nin arousing interest in one grade, might find a ready response in another.\nThe recapitulation theory applies, here, in an interesting way; the child,\nin the few years of his mental (as well as bodily) development, rapidly\n\n"}
{"page": 1139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deparimentl\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nNATURE-STUDY\n\n1 1 23\n\npasses thru the stages which untold centuries have required for the human\nrace to encompass in its ascent. The viewpoint of the young human\nanimal has much to recommend it to our serious consideration, but it is\nvery difficult for the adult to put himself in the child's place.\nOf all innovations which have been introduced into our schools in the\ninterests of nature-study, the school garden doubtless deserves first place.\nIntroduced into our schools for the first time about twenty years ago it\nhas adapted itself to many and varying conditions. At the present time,\nit bids fair to prove our most important agency for the teaching of agricultural nature-study. Its aesthetic value is recognized everywhere, and\nunlike most other forms of nature-study, it is destined to become of considerable economic value as well.\nThe school garden, if large enough, might well be employed for the use\nof all grades, at least up to the seventh or eighth. But in that event, great\ncare must be exercised to vary the work in an orderly way from year to\nyear. This probably constitutes, if not the best means, at least the basis,\nfor agricultural nature-study. An excellent opportunity is here afforded\nfor the growing of our national forage and fiber crops, cereals, etc. If\npossible, this sort of agriculture should be carried on in connection with\nrelated work in geography. In addition to these crops, much instructive\nwork can be done in the propagation of plants, planting of bulbs, making\nof cuttings, potting of plants, making of lawns, etc.\nIn discussing this portion of my subject, I desire to express the opinion\nthat many schools are neglecting one most important phase of naturestudy work. I refer to the proper planting and care of our public-school\ngrounds. There are few where no planting can be done because of lack of\nspace; at least a narrow border might usually be planted next the building,\nand a few corners are usually also available. The average teacher of naturestudy too often lacks the initiative, and because it is understood that there\nwill be no one to care for the plants during vacations, this bit of planting\neven is not done. Probably the teacher is not so much to blame as the\nconditions that prevail in many of our city systems, for it is chiefly the\ncity schools that I have just now in mind. If a city is to build up naturestudy that is worthy the name, it must be the duty of some properly qualified person to devote at least a large part of his time to the work. Courses\nshould be carefully planned, the strongest teachers placed in charge of the\nwork at the different schools, and the supervisor should have plenty of\ntime to visit the schools often. A nature-study teacher who is responsible\nfor her results to one who knows what good work is, will be quite likely to do\nbetter work than she will do when responsible only to the principal of her\nschool, who is generally no better informed upon the subject than she, if\nas well. Definite work to be done, mnd intelligent and sympathetic\nencouragement from those to whom she is responsible, will do much toward\nmaking her efforts a success.\n\n"}
{"page": 1140, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 24\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nMany schools experience considerable difficulty in securing suitable\nplants for use in ornamenting their grounds. The teacher of nature-study\noften has no very clear ideas as to just what kinds are best suited to the\nneeds of her particular school, or if she has, it may not prove such an easy\nmatter to secure the kinds wanted, on account of the expense involved.\nIt is frequently possible to secure cuttings of desirable plants from homes\nin the neighborhood, but unless the school has facilities for rooting them,\nthey avail nothing. And as a rule, the plants which one is likely to receive\nat the hands of really well-intentioned people, who give because they are\ninterested in the work of the school, are a motley lot of specimens. Not\nonly are they most likely to be of inferior sorts, but also of all colors of the\nrainbow, and not enough of any one kind to be of any real use. A few\nof the more desirable wild flowers are far superior to scrubby, cultivated\nsorts. It is time enough to enlist the aid of the pupils in protecting the\nplants about the school when the latter are of a character that will naturally\ncommand their interest and respect.\nIf the majority of our city children came from homes where good taste\nis displayed in the planting and care of the dooryard, we might be able, with\nless misgivings, to overlook the unfortunate lack of such in connection\nwith our schools. If we are ever to develop an appreciation of the refining\ninfluence that comes from properly planted and attended home grounds, we\nmust begin the good work in our public schools. There we hang copies of\nmasterpieces upon the walls to teach good taste in art; we play from the\ngreat composers to instill a love for the best music; we go to the works of\nthe masters of our language, in an attempt to teach power and beauty of\nexpression; and many of our newer school buildings are models of architecture, but alas for the grounds about our schools! When will our school\nofficials awaken to an appreciation of this great opportunity that is being\nneglected ?\nBut the situation is really not so hopeless. The problem of ornamenting\nour school grounds is already being solved, in part, at least, thru the services\nof our city park departments. And what could be more logical? The\nparks and schools belong to the city, and it would seem that the latter might\nproperly be regarded as belonging to the former, so far as the grounds are\nconcerned. The parks grow large quantities of plants of all sorts, and\ncould supply the schools with abundance of them at very little cost to the\ncity. Moreover, in Los Angeles, at least, the foremen seem glad to render\nthat service. If need be, the work of caring for school grounds, during\nsuch times as the janitor is not on duty, could easily be left to the park\ndepartment. If some provision could be made for the care of plants on\nschool grounds the year round, doubtless our teachers would take more\ninterest in ornamenting them. Here again, the great need of a supervisor\nof nature-study, who is also a well-trained horticulturist, to look after these\n\n"}
{"page": 1141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nNATURE-STUDY\n\ninterests of a city school system becomes apparent. Without such, all\nefforts looking toward the building up of strong nature-study work will\nbe seriously handicapped.\nI have apparently recommended that the planting and care of our city\nschool grounds be given over to the city park departments; but I do not\nbelieve that to be a wise move, except in cases where, for some reason,\nteachers and pupils are found incapable of handling the situation. Here\nis one of our best opportunities for teaching the sort of co-operation which\nleads to the development of much-needed civic pride. We are justly\nproud of our free schools, but our boys and girls must not be allowed to\nsuppose that they are therefore released from all obligations to society.\nIf we receive freely, freely we must be willing to give. Eventually each\nindividual is by justice and duty bound to return to society at least the\nequivalent of what he has received from it; otherwise he becomes a parasite\nand an impediment. These facts should be borne in upon the inner consciousnes ofevery boy and girl, and the sooner, the better.\nMoreover, the habit of interesting oneself in the affairs of the community— the broader altruism — should be formed while the citizens of\ntomorrow are yet in school. It will then become second nature, and\nthey will more naturally enter upon the duties of citizenship in later years.\nAs a matter of fact, every boy and girl always has duties of citizenship;\nthat they do not recognize them is our fault, not theirs. Much of our\neducation is unfortunately out of harmony with this idea, and it is time that\nwe began actively to correct the fault. And where can this community\ninterest, and spirit of generous co-operation be stimulated better than in\nthe planting and care of our school grounds by the school citizens themselves— the children ?\nHere is a task for all that one has of tact and perseverance; but if his\ncourage holds out, the reward will prove gratifying. More difficulty will\nlikely be experienced in dealing with the upper grades, because as children\ngrow older, the overmastering desire for ownership takes possession of them.\nThis, aided by the fact that as a nation we have become so highly commercialized inour dealings with each other, makes it difficult to secure the\nServices of even our boys and girls unless substantial remuneration is\nforthcoming.\nTwo things are certain; a change in the attitude of our young people\ntoward community interests is imperative, and the sooner the campaign\nopens, the easier will the problem be solved. We have taken this stand\nat the Gardena Agricultural High School of Los Angeles, and tho our ideas\nhave been tried but one year, the results have been very encouraging.\nDifferent portions of our school grounds are assigned to the care of certain\nstudents. It gives us an excellent oppor^jinity for teaching responsibility\nby the most natural method by placing it definitely upon the individual.\n\n"}
{"page": 1142, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAgricultural\n\nDISCUSSION\nE. D. Ressler, professor of industrial pedagogy, Oregon Agricultural College,\nCorvallis, Ore. — ^The writer of the paper has had particular reference to the teaching of\nagricultural nature-study in the city schools. Our special problem in Oregon is to accompUsh some results of value in the rural schools. The Oregon school law makes the teaching of elementary agriculture compulsory in the elementary grades, but does not examine\nthe teachers in the subject. While the content and method of the course and the administration are necessary and important phases of the subject, our first duty is to provide\nsome means of preparing the teachers who are compelled to teach agriculture. We are\nundertaking to provide this instruction by summer sessions in our Agricultural College\nand hope to be able to supplement this next year by extension courses, both for teachers\nand pupils. Our new law providing for rural-school supervisors presents an opportunity\nto secure expert direction in the field if these supervisors can receive some training. The\nlaw requires all counties having more than sixty school districts to appoint one supervisor\nfor not less than each twenty districts. Many counties have already selected such supervisors, only a few of whom have had any scientific training in agriculture. If public\nsentiment and educational leadership in Oregon can be brought to bear, gradually these\nsupervisors may be trained or replaced by especially trained people and thus the supervision side of the question be taken care of. ' There remains, of course, the much greater\nproblem of providing competent and interested teachers. It will be some years before\nwe can hope to make any advance here, but we mean to keep on trying. Our Agricultural\nCollege realizes both its opportunity and responsiblity in the matter of leadership and\nhas earnestly set to work.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENING\n\nIN HAWAII AS RELATED\nTURAL EDUCATION\n\nVAUGHAN\n\nMACCAUGHEY,\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nOF\n\nHAWAII,\n\nTO AGRICUL-\n\nHONOLULU,\n\nHAWAII\n\nThe general nature of school-garden work in Hawaii has been stated in\na paper published in the Southern Workman, July, 1910, and later reprinted\nas a bulletin of the College of Hawaii. The present discussion will be\nconfined to the particular relationships in Hawaii between school gardening\nand agricultural education in general.\nIn order to understand the educational situation in Hawaii with\nreference to school gardens, one must know the general conditions of life.\nThe population of Hawaii consists, approximately, of thirty-five thousand\nHawaiians and part-Hawaiians; twenty-seven thousand Latins, chiefly\nPortuguese; ninety-five thousand Orientals, chiefly Japanese; and twelve\nthousand Teutons, chiefly Americans and English. The natives have been\nfarmers and fisher-folk since the dawn of their history. Indeed, the\nnature of their island world was such that there were no other means of\nlivelihood. Their food supply came almost wholly from the fertile lowlands that engirdle the islands, and from the bounteous ocean.\nThe limited area of the islands restricted nomadism; the entire lack of large game\ncut off hunting; and the absence of grazing domestic animals prevented pastoral life.\n\nThe Hawaiian was comp2lled, perforce, to accept a stable agricultural\n.existence.\n\n"}
{"page": 1143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENING\n\nIN HAWAII\n\n1 127\n\nThe Americans and English have been the exploiters, developers,\npromoters, of the the agricultural resources of the islands. To their\nability is due the phenomenal growth of the sugar industry, which has\nsystematically fostered the importation of large masses of cheap labor,\nmainly the Orientals and Latins above-mentioned. The sugar industry\nwas also the main factor in the annexation of Hawaii by the United\nStates. The immigrants brought in to supply the plantations were\nnaturally drawn from agricultural classes, accustomed to country life\nand to farm labor. They live very simply, receive small wages, and\nraise large families, as do similar classes the world over.\nThe indigenous and immigrant population of Hawaii is therefore, both\nby heredity and necessity, almost entirely agricultural. Living on a relatively low plane of life, they have desired but scant education for their\nchildren. With the exception of those in Honolulu and Hilo (the only\ncities in the territory) the schools are country schools, usually near sugar\nplantations. With the exception of a few large ones in the above-named\ncities, the schools are almost entirely primary schools, covering only the\nwork of the first four grades. Of the 20,245 pupils in the public schools\nin 1 9 10, 17,369 were in grades one to four inclusive; 2,486 in grades five\nto eight inclusive; and but 254 in high schools. There is but one firstgrade public high school in the territory.\nIn 1 9 10 the nationalities of the children in the public schools was as\nfollows: Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian, 30 per cent; Orientals, 40 per cent;\nLatins, 20 per cent; Teutons and others, 10 per cent. Hawaii's great\nschool problem is therefore to furnish primary education to non-Englishspeaking peoples of the lower classes. It is in the solution of this problem\nthat the school garden, as a part of agricultural education, can play so\nimportant a role.\nAgricultural education in the strict sense of the word has never received\nadequate attention in Hawaii's schools, any more than it has in other\nschool systems. The reasons are the same here as elsewhere — inappreciation of manual activities, lack of trained teachers, etc. In addition, the\nnecessity for teaching English to non-English-speaking peoples has tended\nto make the curriculum lean toward drill work in language.\nThe majority of the white men who first came to the islands were\nunfamiliar with agricultural processes, especially those connected with\ntropical agriculture, and for a long time had little interest in it. The\nsugar industry, and other farming enterprises, are managed by large corporations on the plantation system, employing principally alien labor.'\nIn Hawaii there has never developed a permanent community of white\nfarmers working their own land; indeed^ social and industrial conditions\nhave been prohibitive to such development. There are no \"farmers'\nchildren\" in the sense in which that phrase is used on the mainland; there\nis no \"country life\" equivalent to that of \"the States.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1144, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nThe white people have, in general, favored the education of the lower\nclasses along industrial lines, for several reasons — to furnish indigenous\nskilled labor for the various trades, thus making them independent of the\nmore expensive coast supply; and because of a prevalent attitude that\nthe American public-school education was not suited for, in fact might\nbe considered \"too good\" for, the children of the lower classes.\nPrincipal Edgar Wood, of the Territorial Normal and Training School,\nis strongly urging the adoption of the following system of industrial education, with which school-garden enterprises will be closely articulated:\nThere is at the present time considerable agitation thruout the United States, in\nfact in most countries where the development depends upon the agricultural resources\nand the related industries, toward the establishment of continuation schools of the industrial type. This agitation seems to be in a general way taking hold of Hawaii. Many\nof our leading citizens have expressed their behef that such schools would be applicable\nto our- conditions, and would prove of great benefit in training boys and girls, who have\npassed the compulsory school age, into productive workers of the community. It is\nbelieved that these schools would tend greatly to reduce the number of boys and girls\nnow in our reformatory schools\nA plan is proposed which in brief asks for the establishment, on each of the four\nislands, Kauai, Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii, of schools contiguous to important centers of\nindustry, these schools to give instruction in agriculture, home economics, trade, and\nindustries. This instruction to be given in field, garden, kitchen, and shops, and to be\nof such a practical nature as to enable the pupils at the end of the course to take up\nwork in connection with the respective industries at remunerative wages.\nThe type school for such a system is as follows: A school shall be established in a\ngiven locality when twenty-five students can be assured. The attendance of all boys\nand girls between the ages of fourteen and eighteen, both inclusive, who are not otherwise wisely and profitably employed, shall be required. It shall be incumbent upon all\nparents, guardians, and others having the responsibility and care of children of all ages,\nto send them to the school established in the locality if they are within four miles, or\nfarther if suitable transportation is provided. Others may attend at the discretion of\nthe Department of Pubhc Instruction, e.g., men who may wish to improve as workers.\nThe equipment of the school shall consist of a farm of not less than twenty-five\nacres, to be increased in proportion to the number of boys attending by two and one-half\nacres per boy, and to be equipped with essential hand-tools. Shops equipped to meet the\nneeds of the industries of the environment. Residence buildings provided with sanitary\nand culinary equipment for properly housing and feeding the pupils.\nStudents shall be remunerated for their work in accordance with current value, to\nbe determined by some schedule such as time, profit-sharing, or piecework. Students\nshall work the first two years on the farm or in the shops of the school, and the last two\nyears one-half of each day in the fields or shops of the industry of the locaUty. The rest\nof the day will be devoted to the study of related academic subjects — ^mathematics,\ngeography, or industry, reading and writing.\nThe Department of Public Instruction will engage and pay all instructors. The\nindustry will supply lands, buildings, and equipment, and pay the students working for\nthem in fields, shops, etc. The school shall cultivate the land set apart by the industry\nand pay the pupils out of the proceeds of the crop, — From Report of Superintendent of\nPublic Instruction^ igio.\n\nThe majority of the country schools are on areas of land sufficiently\nlarge to permit the development of school gardens.\nSuch gardens are\n\n"}
{"page": 1145, "printed_page": null, "text": "II39\n\nDepartment]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENING\n\nIN HAWAII\n\nencouraged by the Department of Public Instruction, and in many cases\nthe teachers themselves are, by training, proficient gardeners. It is noteworthy that of the total 501 public-school teachers, 225 are Hawaiians or\npart-Hawaiians; 41 Portuguese; and 18 Orientals.\nIn general the school gardens of Hawaii differ markedly from those of\nthe mainland, in that they are not divided into individual plots, but are\ncommon property, the individual pupils not having specific areas. This\nis doubtless due to several factors— the overcrowded condition of many\nrural schools, making individual assignments impracticable, and to the\nfact that many of our most important and interesting crops are longseason plants. Indeed many of the mainland annuals are perennial or\nnearly so— here, for example, cabbage, parsley, egg-plant, peppers, tomatoes, etc. Moreover, the school gardens of Hawaii are rural rather than\nurban, and there is lacking that brisk demand for garden plots that characterizes our city populace.\nThe School Fund Commission, in its recent report, makes the following\nstatement regarding agricultural work in the public schools:\nNine thousand three hundred and nine pupils engaged in gardening. Practically,\nall children doing some yard work. More than 125 schools actively engaged in agricultural work. Two schools planting sugar-cane on commercial basis. Work consists of:\nclearing and preparing land; keeping grounds in order; vegetable-gardem'ng; flowergardening; tree-planting. The plants most commonly raised are: taro, potatoes, tomatoes; pineapple, cabbage, carrots, parsley, egg-plant, lettuce, corn, onions, string beans,\nbeets, cucumbers, melons, turnips, sisal, various flowers. The trees and ornamentals\nmost commonly planted are: silver oak, monkey-pod, bougainvillea, algaroba, pride of\nIndia, pepper-tree, orange, avocado, banana, poinciana, palms of various spedes, ironwood, eucalyptus, camphor, lemon, lime, mango, papaia.\n\nPrizes have been effectively used as a stimulus to agricultural work in\nthe public schools. Mr. C. E. Copeland, of Wailuku, Maui, says that\nIn 1907 the Evening Bulletin offered five prizes of twenty-five dollars each. Some\ntwenty-five schools entered the contest, the pupils reporting weekly, under the follo>/ving\nheads: the work done; condition of soil; name of crop grown; methods of cultivation,\nwatering, weeding, etc.; amount of growth made; extermination of pests, and general\nremarks. At the close of the season a tabulated statement of work done and results\nobtained was rendered. The vegetables grown were selected from the following list;\nlettuce, onions, cabbage, beets, tomatoes, beans, egg-plant, carrots, cucumbers, turnips,\nmelons, sweet potatoes, parsley, Japanese cabba .e, and peppers. Official committees\nawarded the prizes at the various exhibits. The competition was very satisfactory to all\nconcerned, and demonstrated that in many, if not all, of our schools, vegetable-gardening\ncan successfully be done.\nAll of our pupils have abundant opportunity for outdoor work and play all the year\nround. Practically all have space and means at home to grow flowers and plants. Practically all take advantage of these opportunities. The fondness of the Hawaiians for\ntrees and flowers is well known; the Portugese%re mostly agriculturalists and gardeners;\nand many of the Japanese are expert horticulturalists. Thus it happens that the most\nof our pupils are already familiar with the growth of vegetables, flowers, and trees. The\nteachers* chief work in agriculture is to guide the pupils in the application of knowledge\nalready possessed; to encourage their natural fondness for plant life; to develop in\n\n"}
{"page": 1146, "printed_page": null, "text": "II30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nthem a desire to own and cultivate the land; to form habits of thrift and industry, and\nto make the school premises models ol neatness, order, and sympathy upon which they\nmay pattern their own dooryards.\n\nIn addition to this gardening work of the elementary grades, agricultural work of a more advanced nature is carried on regularly in the industrial\nschools. The Lahainaluna School reports systematic classroom studies\nof soils and fertilizers; the various economic plants, their culture and uses;\ncare of farm animals; and studies in economic entomology. The students\nsupply the commissariat with a variety of vegetables and fruits. In\naddition to the smaller gardens there are large plantings of sorghum, sisal,\npineapples, and upland taro.\nThe Boys' Reform School reports the following plantings since May,\n1910: taro, 13 acres; bananas, 2; sweet potatoes, 8; squash, 3.5; other\nvegetables, 2 ; alfalfa, 2 ; other grasses, 3 ; sorghum and corn, i ; cotton,\nI ; sugar cane, 30. The methods employed are those of a modern diversified\nfarm, the boys doing the work under competent instruction.\nThe Farm Department of the Hilo Boarding School is well organized,\nwith an agricultural-college graduate at its head. Thirty acres of land\nare under cultivation. The farm contributes nearly half of the upkeep of\nthe dining-hall. The main crops are taro, bananas, pineapples, broom\ncorn, cowpeas, vegetables, fruits, and fodder. The Federal Experiment\nStation has just established a substation on land adjoining the school farm,\nand the work on this station is to be done by the school.\nThe Territorial Normal and Training School, at Honolulu, gives a large\nplace to nature-study, elementary agriculture, and school gardening. A\nportion of the school land is laid off into gardens, and here the cadets are\ngiven practical instruction in the raising of crops. They are also instructed\nin the supervision of garden work, pupils from the grades carrying on work\nunder their direction. The crops are used by the Domestic Science Department in the preparation of the noon lunches, which are sold at cost price\nto the pupils and teachers. In the kitchen the cadet is thoroly trained\nin the best methods of cooking and serving the products of her labor in\nthe garden. The kitchen is on a self-supporting basis. Some typical\nlunches, illustrating the use of garden-products, are as follows:\n1. Tomato soup; mince pie.\n2. Meat stew; papaia sherbet; buttercup cake.\n,3. Vegetable salad; creamy rice pudding.\n4. Corn chowder; strawberry ice-cream; cake.\n\nIn the classroom, the cadets are given subject-matter and methods of\nteaching the important plants and animals, and similar subjects comprising elementary agriculture. The plants include such types as banana,\ncotton, coffee, guava, papaia, rice, sugar cane, sisal, taro. The industrial\nphases of crop-prpduction are emphasized, the studies including all of the\nstages from the selection and preparation of the land to the final transportation and marketing of the crop.\n\n"}
{"page": 1147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENTIALITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDEN\n\n1131\n\nTeachers who are interested in school-garden work can avail themselves\nqf assistance from a number of sources. The College of Hawaii offers\nseveral correspondence courses in this field, in soils and crops, plant life,\nand practical horticulture. The Normal School, in 19 10, issued a Synopsis\nof Nature-Study Work for the Elementary Schools of Hawaii , of 150 pages.\nThe publications of the Federal Experiment Station contain much practical\ninformation and are widely used. The Department of Public Instruction\nissues a monthly, Hawaii's Young People, a portion of which covers naturestudy subjects. The Territorial Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry furnishes\nseedling trees, vegetable seeds, and similar material gratis to teachers.\nThe school gardens of Hawaii are a part of the \"forward movement\"\nin education. They are supplanting the mediaeval bookishness of former\ndays. They stand for the beauty and dignity of real things. 'Wiey are\nsimple. They are within the child's realm. Their pleasant influences\nreach into his heart thru the happy labor of his hands. They typify\nfundamental institutions.\nThe school garden has a broad outlook toward life. It is optimistic.\nIt is bound to survive.\nPOTENTIALITY\n\nOF THE SCHOOL\n\nGARDEN\n\nCYRIL A. STEBBINS, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,\nOF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY,\nCAL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe theory of evolution, or the theory of a driving force for good,\nmakes one optimistic.\nHere I have a poppy, perfect in flower in order that cross pollination\nmay take place thru insect visits, thus to insure perpetuation of the species;\nperfect in stem that the blossom and, later, the seed may be lifted high\nin the air for cross pollination and wide dispersal of the seed, again insuring perpetuation of the species; perfect in leaves and in root that the air and\nsoil food may best be utilized. Thus for hundreds of years the force of evolution, or some mysterious driving power, has been at work perfecting\nthis plant in order that it might live.\nFor ages the sun has offered its light and heat; the earth has been in\npreparation for thousands of years; the ocean has ever §ent its water to\nstimulate the endless chain of embryonic tissue which binds this plant\nwith all the generations of plants that have gone before. All have assisted\nas agencies thru which this driving power has expressed itself in this plant.\nJust as this driving force has been at work in this plant so it is at work in\nall plant life.\nThis is a mole, with which you are all familiar. Again we find a perfect organism; life best fitted for Wts surroundings. The front feet\nare particularly fitted for digging, the outer covering is smooth, the head\nis flattened, the snout sharp and prolonged: all are adapted to the\n\n"}
{"page": 1148, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlAgricultural\n\nunderground life of the animal. Thus we find the driving force at work in\nthis animal, perfecting it in order that it might live. The evolutionary\nforce has not only been at work in this animal, but is at work in all animal\nlife, including man. In man, however, we find higher evolution, the evolution of the ideal. The slow push of the driving power forced all animal\nlife to a certain plane, then came the evolution of the ideal in man to pull\nhim away and above the other animals. The concrete, partially \" realizable\nideal\" is an essential factor in the development of mankind.\nThus in all life, in individuals and in groups, this driving power exists\nin a greater or less extent. In man it is as evident as tho visible to the\nnaked eye. It lies in reservoirs. \"The Rosary,\" \"The Messiah,\" \"El\nCapitan,\" Niagara Falls, may tap them. One's whole being quivers; there\nis an intense desire to do something. This is inspiration, and inspiration is\nthe awakening of the soul-power within, the driving power for good. If\nthe responsibility for the perpetuation of the species rested upon a weakling poppy, mole, or man, the species would fail to exist. It is only the\nindividual that has been able to enhance and express this driving power\nthat has helped the species to live. Therefore, it is the responsibility of\neach one of us to nurture and to make of ourselves media or agencies\nfor the expression of this force. The unselfish far-seeing man who lives\nfor service to his neighbor, who gives more than he takes; the mother who\nrears a child for service to the world, are making agencies of themselves for\nthis driving power.\nNature is the greatest exponent of this driving power. It will express\nitself in the future thru the doctor in preventing abnormaUties, rather than\nin curing them; thru the lawyer it will moralize politics; thru the preacher,\nthe teacher, and the parent it will help to form character. Therefore, I\nsay, believing in this evolutionary power for good, one can only be optimistic. No matter the sharpened eyes for the immorality of a city, no\nmatter the evident weaknesses of an individual, there is within each a\ndriving force for betterment which cannot be denied eventually. No\ndoubt at times it seems to us that this power needs a Washington, a Lincoln, aRoosevelt, to quicken it, for Nature works so slowly for us who have\nsuch a short stay to observe her. We grow weary and narrow as Nature's\nmoving picture passes so slowly before us for the film is ages and ages in\nlength.\nThere was a time when I was ashamed to be introduced as a teacher,\nbut now, like Roosevelt, I am glad of my job, for there is no one with so\nmuch opportunity to enhance this driving force as a teacher.\nOur first and largest aim for the school garden, then, is to build a whole\nman to enhance this driving power for good; secondly, to create a sentiment\nfor farming, for country life; and lastly, to readjust the school work — to\nlink school and community life — to give new direction to the old subjects\nin the curriculum.\n\n"}
{"page": 1149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENTIALITY\n\nOF THE SCHOOL GARDEN\n\nMan and his environment are comparable to the ear drum and sound.\nWithout the drum there is no sound. Without sound \"waves\" there is no\ndrum functioning as such. Man is such a tense drum ever reacting to\nthe vibrations and sensations that reach him with the mind as the refining\ninfluence. He is entirely dependent upon his environment. Without the\nstimuli from without, man would not exist. From an environment normally friendly to his -needs, man at birth is thrown into another partly\nfriendly, partly hostile, and indifferent to his wants. He may mark his\nenvironment as he in turn is marked by it. The narrower the surroundings the more positive the surroundings, the more a man's habits take\nthe impress of them. We are all of us largely copies of our environment\nand are continually under its suggestions.\nHistory tells of two Abes — Abe Ruef and Abe Lincoln. They are only\nalike in first name, and in being absolutely different. How can we account\nfor the one so negative in the driving power for good and the other so\npositive ? Abe Ruef was a city-bred youth. He saw and heard nothing\nthat was natural aside from his neighbors. Nearly everything that confronted him from morning until night was artificial. He continually\nmet allurements and pleasures which bid for his attention. There was\nsomething in the superficial life of the city which this man could not deny.\nAn environment of sky-scrapers, of pavements, of lights, of music, of hurry,\ndoes not tend to build character. On the other hand, Lincoln lived close\nto the soil and obtained therefrom vitality, courage, stamina, and all the\nqualities which made for vigorous manhood. He saw each day paintings\nbeyond the brush of a Raphael, miracles beyond the art of the magician of\nthe lamp, heard music beyond the throat of a Patti. He came in touch\neach day with the work of the Creator. Here he absorbed the urging of\nthe driving power for good and enhanced it in himself. An environment of\nmountains and trees, of soil and growing things, of birds and other animals\nis conducive to character building.\nDr. Prince and Boris Sidis have proved that man is a synthesis of many\npersonalities. His normal personality may be disintegrated into the\nreligious, the economic, the social, the educational, and the aesthetic.\nWith any one of these complexes functioning excessively, there is mental\ndisease. The school garden is potential in building these several complexes\nto make a well-balanced man, a whole man.\nToo often science leads the superficial student away from the spiritual\nuplift and makes him antagonistic to the driving force which is within\nhim, and which is forcing the world to higher things. A real student of\nnature must feel this force. He cannot fail to have faith. The sun has\nrisen each morning for ages, for ages man has faith that tomorrow it will\nrise again. The potential acorn ever fulfills its promise of an oak. The\nrobin's egg ever satisfies the longing of the mother's being. Thus, to all\nloyal to Nature, she writes faith. Each astonishing act of the plants,\n\n"}
{"page": 1150, "printed_page": null, "text": "II34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\neach humanistic thing that is done by the animals, the wonderful changes\nin life histories, the faithfulness and justice in Nature's activities, touch\nthe souls of the children as if by the finger of the Great Teacher. Froebel\nsaid \"Nature is the garment of the invisible God.\"\nWhatever constitutes the common measure of the life and work of\nman, to that the world kneels. Apparently for the present generation,\nmoney is that common measure, hence the economic side of the child's\nnature must receive careful, sane development. While there are many\nthings out of the reach of money, there is nothing quite so fundamental\nto daily living. In the city of New York a great clock directs the activities\nof millions of people, so does money influence and direct our living. We\nrise from our beds at the call of the alarm clock. The morning bath directs\nour attention to the costly plumbing. Our clothes and the breakfast\ntable jingle with money. The cars on which we ride to the schoolroom\nspeak in terms of dollars and cents. In fact, on every hand there is the\npull of money. Stop the work of money and the work of the world stops.\nWith money man has pierced the bowels of the earth, bringing up sparkling\nstreams of water; he has led his railroads over rivers and thru valleys and\nmountains; with money he has used the wind to pump his water, has\nharnessed the waters to run his mill; with money he has ever carried on\nthe fight against harmful animals and plants. The economic complex\nshould receive serious consideration. The proper handling of soil and\nseeds, the control of insect pests, the prevention of fungus diseases; all\nculminate in the perfect fruit, a representation of man's energy both\nmental and physical, standing for dollars and cents.\nThe school garden offers opportunities for forming a correct social\npersonality early in life. A score of individual gardens, community gardens, public paths, public tools, public water, and many other factors,\nboth private and public, make a social life none the less complex and\ndifficult than that of a city. Early in their garden life the children learn\nto respect those things that belong to their neighbors; to realize that community property belongs to the whole, not to a part, but that each must\noffer his support; to understand that the policy which is the best for the\nmajority must be supported; to see justice in ten of a class insisting that\nthe eleventh remove objectionable weeds from his garden; to feel, in\ngeneral, that each represents but one small part of a great whole and that\neach must do his best to fit in smoothly and laugh with the world rather\nthan to be shoved aside to cry alone.\nOur lives are colored or colorless according to the mental pictures\nconserved. If the ideal is built from the best things in one's environment,\none will be led into success and happiness; if, on the other hand, the ideal\nis formed from pictures which reflect sordidness, filth, and distress, one will\nbe led into failure and unhappiness. The mind is never at rest, it is following a destructive architectural plan or a constructive one. Thru the\n\n"}
{"page": 1151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENTIALITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDEN\n\n113$\n\ngardens, the children should be led to the fountain of the aesthetic sensenature. In bringing the children in contact with nature, the daintiness\nof the flowers, the strength of the oaks, the joy of the lark's song, the\nbrilliancy of the butterfly's cloak fill their beings and prepare them for\nthe inspiration of the great trees and the lofty mountains. The splendid\ncoloring of the autumn leaves, the rainbow wings of the birds, the general\ncolor arrangement of flowers and trees flow into the subjective sense and,\nsome day, will make themselves manifest, for \"to see and to know the\nbeautiful is to desire to create the beautiful.\"\nEducationally the garden is a potent factor, for it not only educates,\nbut educates sanely, by taking into consideration the satisfaction of the\nracial body and the racial mind of the child. The diagram aims to show\nthat a school garden may be made a little world in itself patterned after\nthe universe. It may be made an embryo community. The children\nmay be brought naturally in contact with those factors which they will\nmeet later in life. Insects may be studied as they affect the garden products. Thus the garden becomes a unifying element and the child is\nimpressed with the wholeness of life. Thru the garden, the child may\nrepeat the civic evolution of his race; thru primitive farming, the market,\nthe bank, and the factory. He may be brought in contact with the world\nforces: for example, flax may be grown, later the fiber may be separated\nand used in weaving. It is but a short step from this process to a study\nof the world's work in clothing its people. Any system of education\nwhich does not consider the evolution of the child is not sane. The first\nbusiness of a child is to grow. Let us grow vegetables, flowers, and children in our school and home gardens. Thus the garden is potential in\nbuilding a whole man. The city tends to one-sided development. It\nbuilds an overbalanced economic complex which leads a man to live in\nterms of dollars and cents as did Ruef .\nThe garden is potential in joy. Not long ago, two parents stopped me\nand spoke enthusiastically of their little girl of seven years. Her campus\ngarden had so stirred her heart that its momentum was carried into the\nhome. Now each evening finds the mother, the father, and the little\ngirl working side by side in the back-yard soil.\nFrom the viewpoint of pleasure alone the school garden has its reason\nfor being. If red cheeks, abounding joy, and interest are indicative, the\ngarden work is worth while as a pleasure-giver. Many a tired housewife\nhas drawn from her little back-yard garden comfort and rest and has been\nrejuvenated thereby. The soil and plant life are very suggestive of vitality,\ncourage, and peace. But there are too few home gardens and too many\ntin cans in the back yard. Shall we not inoculate the boys and girls with\nthe garden spirit which makes for vigorous manhood and womanhood\nand which is so potential in joy ?\nThe second great aim of the garden work is to create a sentiment for\nfarming,yor_country life.\n\n"}
{"page": 1152, "printed_page": null, "text": "1136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nThe school garden results in the home garden. No doubt many boys\nneed saving but shall we forget the girls ? Very much of the responsibility\nfor the betterment of this world lies in the potentiality of woman. Apparently she is losing sight of the simple Hfe. We want our girls to drink in\nthe garden air and sunshine, we want them to dig in the soil, to grow\nplants and to get their hands and faces dirty; we want them to learn to do\nthings for themselves, to be home-builders. There is little use for the\nexcessive hobble skirt, the silk stockings, and the many frills in the garden.\nJust as is the citizenship of the individual, so is the citizenship of the\nstate. Not long ago, the writer had occasion to visit two small sawmills.\nThe engines in both mills were of similar horse-power. The one had a\nsmall balance and driving pulley. During the cut the engine puffed and\npounded. With release from the cut it almost ran away. The other,\nwith a large, heavy balance and flywheel, took the cut with little trouble\nand with release ran steadily. With individuals in sympathy with farmers\nand farming, the farm will act as the balance wheel of the state, giving\nsteadiness and power. We care more to get the majority in sympathy\nwith country life than to send a few directly to the farm. We cannot hope\nto make many farmers of our grammar-school boys, but we can make the\nfuture doctor, lawyer, legislator, sympathetic with the needs of the farm.\nAt the present time, we need a law to put agriculture in its largest phase\non an elective basis in the schools, and once elected, to act as a substitute\nfor some other subject in the curriculum, not as an added subject. Thus,\na dozen legislators sympathetic with educational and farming conditions\ncan be more potential than a hundred farmers.\nOur third large aim of agriculture in the elementary school — and the\nwriter is most interested in the elementary school, for just as is the citizenship of the boy in the home and in the school, so will it be in the city and\nthe state — is that of readjustment of the school system, is that of linking\nschool and community life, is that of giving new direction to the old subjects.\nThere is a great deal of adverse criticism on the present school system.\nAdverse criticism should not rest so much on the subjects in the curriculum and the school system as on their direction — they face away from\ncommunity life. Thru the school garden, arithmetic, geography, history,\nbookkeeping, art, manual training, and the other subjects may be given\nnew direction and new meaning to the children.\nARITHMETIC AS IT IS\nI. After a discount of 5 and 10 per cent off for cash, $95.00 are left, what was the\noriginal price ?\nARITHMETIC WITH NEW AND VITAL DIRECTION\n1. If lettuce sells 3 heads for five cents, and the heads are grown four inches apart;\nhow much can I make off of one row of lettuce, if the plot is 10 feet long ?\n2. If the garden plot is 20X60 feet, how many individual gardens 4X5 feet can be\nlaid out leaving a two-foot path on the four sides of each plot ?\n\n"}
{"page": 1153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOTENTIALITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDEN\n\n1 137\n\nAS IT IS\n\n\"New Hampshire. — Because of its beautiful scenery, New Hampshire has been\ncalled the Switzerland of America. The forests and the granite quarries give rise to\nimportant industries. The state ranks third in the manufacture of boots and shoes.\nCotton manufacture is centered chiefly at Manchester and Nashua, which are located\nat the falls on the Merrimac. Concord, the capital, also has cloth mills, wagon and carriage factories, and granite quarries. The fine water-power of Dover is utilized by large\ncotton- and woolen-mills.\"\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nWITH\n\nNEW\n\nDIRECTION\n\nExamine the activities of the community. If it grows fruits, start a nursery in the\ngardens. If it is a manufacturing district, start economic plants, sugar beets, flax, etc.\nHarvest these for sugar and fiber, visit the community factories and thus study geography\nwhich is vital to the life of the children.\nART\n\nAS IT IS IN MANY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDrawing and painting artificial types foreign to the lives of the children.\nART\n\nAS IT MAY\n\nBE\n\nDrawing and painting vegetables and flowers which the children have grown and\nwhich are theirs.\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nAS IT IS IN MANY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe making of a penholder, a bookrack, in which the boy has little interest.\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nWITH\n\nNEW\n\nDIRECTION\n\nWith new direction, manual training may be the mending of a tool, the preparation\nof the stakes for the garden, the making of apparatus for which the boy feels the need.^\n\nIn a California school, this linking of school and community life, this\nthought of correlation was given a successful trial. The supervisors of\nart, arithmetic, elementary agriculture, etc., met in regular conferences.\nOne illustration will suffice to index the results of these meetings. The\nsupervisors of art and agricultural nature-study drew up weekly outlines\nin such a manner that as the third grade was studying the jay's activities,\nin art it would color the same bird. Thus art studies were aimed at factors found in the child's environment.\nThus the garden is potential in leading the child to those elements\nwhich make for his community life. iEsthetically, socially, educationally,\neconomically, and religiously, he receives sane development which builds\na normal personality with good as the driving power. The garden satisfies the racial body and the racial mind of the child, giving him proper\ngrowth and much happiness. It makes him in sympathy with the work\nof the farmer and, lasjtly, it teaches him the oneness of his environment\nand the universe.\n'The writer does not wish it understood that the arithmetical, the historical, the geographical, etc,.\ncontent will be furnished entirely by the garden. It will oflfer typical problems and activities, and will continually point toward the problems and activities of the world.^\n\n"}
{"page": 1154, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 138\n\nREPORT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF\n\nE. C. BISHOP, IOWA\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCOMMITTEE\nON COURSES\nAGRICULTURE\nSTATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE\nAMES, IOWA\n\nOF\n\n[Agricultural\n\nSTUDY\n\nAND MECHANIC\n\nIN\nARTS,\n\nLack of expense fund has prevented such investigation by and meetings\nof the committee as has seemed necessary to secure the results desired in a\nreport on this subject.\nSuch study of the subject and such investigations as have been possible\nenable your committee to report definitely on some phases of the subject\nand to report insight into some other phases which exhibit an open field\nfor further research and conference. No attempt has been made to consider vocational courses in agriculture. The report concerns only courses\nof agriculture offered in schools maintaining the usual general public-school\ncourses of study.\nThis report is more a representation of some of the governing influences\nin the arrangement of courses of study in agriculture than it is of specific\ncourses of study. Your committee has reached some conclusions, but aims\nto present herewith more of inquiry into the subject than of conclusive\nstatement.\nMechanically constructed courses of study arranged without reference\nto the principles and methods of teaching involved and the community\nserved are useless machinery. The procedure of a modern corn-husking\nmachine, operated by a man skilled in running a potato-digger, is not liable\nto result in satisfactory work in a wheat harvest field.\nThe \"how,\" the \"which,\" and the \"who\" relations have much to do\nwith the \"where,\" and the \"what\" in the arrangement of courses of study\nin agriculture. Courses of study already established cannot be dealt with\narbitrarily. To inaugurate successfully a course of study in agriculture, a\ndefinite understanding must be had of its purpose and of its relation to other\nestablished subjects. Agriculture must \"make good\" pedagogically before\nit will be given a cordial hearing by teachers, school administrators, and\npatrons.\nPresent needs. — The establishment of right courses of study in agriculture is delayed and obstructed by the following conditions:\n1. We need a readjustment of elementary science teaching and courses of study in\nscience.\n2. We need an organized correlation of agricultural topics with other branches of\nstudy.\n3. The other sciences cannot give complete treatment of agriculture; we need a\nseparate place in the course of study for such overflow collateral work in agriculture as\ndoes not find satisfactory correlation with other subjects in the program of studies.\n4. Pedagogy needs to recognize some new values which are concerned especially\nin the teaching of agriculture. Such recognition will be worth as much to pedagogy as\nto agriculture.\n\n"}
{"page": 1155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON COURSES\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nSTUDY\n\n1139\n\nSome general inquiries. — ^A few inquiries of a general nature have commanded the attention of the committee. Some of these we have endeavored\nto answer in full or in part. They are here submitted for the suggestions\nthey may carry:\n1. Shall the topic method be used, and if so, with what limitations?\n2. Shall a text be placed in the hands of the pupils?\n3. Shall leading topics be followed in order and extent according to local importance\nand other topics be carried in their relation to these ?\n4. How far may topics, to advantage, be made seasonal and at the same time\nsequential and be correlated with other work ?\n5. To what extent shall the selection of units of agricxiltural interest depend upon\ngeographic control and local interest ?\n6. In what order shall the economic, cultural, and local interest phases of each topic\nbe presented?\n7. To what extent should agricultural topics be taken from their present places imder\nother subjects as now taught and be organized and taught imder agriculture as a separate\nsubject ?\n8. In an agricultural community, should the course of study be formed around agriculture as a basic interest, or should agriculture be merely attached to the general course\nof study?\n\nSome present-day principles in education, — The teaching of agriculture\nrests upon the recognized foundational principles of education which have\nguided the shaping of pedagogic procedure in the organization of every\nother branch of learning which has become a recognized part of the publicschool curriculum. It also applies to some of the more recently developed\nmethods used in good teaching in other subjects. The whole idea of teaching agriculture is no more than the application of what has already been\nrecognized in some other fields of pedagogy.\nThe following statements should be kept in mind in formulating courses\nof study and in teaching agriculture:\n1. The whole child should be trained.\n2. All education should include ideals of social efl&ciency.\n3. All school as well as all home work should be motivized.\n4. Applied education vitalizes all school work and all home interests.\n5. Strength comes thru doing something recognized by the doer as worth while.\n6. Live personal interest in the subject taught is necessary for effective teaching.\n7. The child must be taught in terms of his own life at the time he is being taught.\n8. Education which trains the child to live best in the present provides the best\nfoundation for further education.\n9. The child should be taught to think in terms of action, application, and accomplishment.\n10. Education which omits home and community relationships has a defective\nfoundation and a weakened superstructure.\n11. Each life is made of real problems. The child's education should help him to\nsolve his own present problems before he is burdened with artificial problems.\n12. Education which dignifies honest labor, w^ch sends the individual to his task\nwith personal interest and joyful attitude, and which idealizes the home and all its duties\nand relationships — such is always good education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1156, "printed_page": null, "text": "II40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\n13. Practical education in its proper application provides a high degree of culture\nwith skill, efl&ciency, and character-training added. It fits the individual for all the duties\nof life.\n14. Industrial education as a cultural and ias a practical (not vocational) training,\nincluding agricultiure, home economics, and manual training, provides general education\nnecessary to the best development of citizenship for this country.\n15. As a general subject of scientific or economic study, agriculture properly taught\nmakes better citizens socially, morally, intellectually, and economically.\n\nPrinciples to he observed in the formation of courses of study and in the\nteaching of agriculture. —\n\n*\n\n•\n\n1. Agriculture is a cultural as well as an economic subject.\n2. Agriculture, as a vocation, is a home-making as well as a business pursuit.\n3. Agriculture teaching, so far as possible, should be seasonal in its presentation.\n4. Agriculture teaching should vitally connect the knowledge of the child with some\nof his life-interests.\n5. The teaching of agriculture should be scientific in its nature, economic in its\napplication, and cultural in its aim and effect.\n6. Agriculture is also informal in its nature and should be taught in an informal way.\n7. Agriculture teaching should be definite in its purpose; definite in its method;\nand definite in its results.\n8. Agricultiure teaching must have enough of science teaching in it to make it worth\nwhile to students, as students; it must have enough of the practical in it to make a test\nof its experiments on a farm produce better results than are being secured in the locality\nin an unscientific manner; and it should have enough of the aesthetic in it to make it\nvaluable as cultiural training.\n\nSome governing principles in the class recitation in agriculture. —\n1. Always conduct the lesson when possible in the presence of the living or real\nobject.\n2. So far as possible each pupil should have in hand a specimen of the thing studied.\n3. Approach structure from the viewpoint of function.\n4. Introduce new subjects when and where they touch the life of the child most.\n5. Remember that you are teaching the child, not the subject.\n6. Tell the pupil absolutely nothing which he can find out for himself by a reasonable\nexpense of time and effort.\n7. See that every pupil is actively employed during the entire class period.\n8. Make all questions definite; avoid so far as possible questions which may be\nanswered by \"yes\" or \"no.\"\n9. Thru inquiry directed to individual pupils, establish facts as to local conditions,\npractices, and results.\n10. Review principles as often as necessary to keep them clearly established.\n11. Keep the pupils reasonably close to the main line of thought. Make note of side\nlines for later development.\n12. Establish the economic phase of the work as often as possible when pupils or\nparents will appreciate its application.\n13. Settle disputed points by experiment and observation — the only scientific way\nto settle them. Keep the Hving or real plant or animal in the schoolroom or apartments\nif possible for continuous observation until study of the particular subject has been discontinued.\n14. Conduct the recitation and assign investigations which will lead the pupil to\nvoluntary action in the home.\n\n"}
{"page": 1157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nSTUDY\n\n1141\n\n15. Establish principles — not mere memories or detailed facts. Close the lesson\nwith a problem within the comprehension of the class to be solved by them before the\ntime of the next lesson.\n\nPlace in the course of study. — ^Any purely \"agricultural theme has phases\nwhich have educational value for every grade of public-school work. The\nchild's mind and body rather than materials should be the directing factors\nin determining courses of study. Agriculture is strong in environmental\ninfluences. The pure sciences must reach out into agricultural applications ifthe child, not the subject, is to have first place in teaching.\nThe pupil should see purpose in all work and should make some application of what he learns at the time he is learning. This principle applies\nin the teaching of agriculture thru the entire course of study, beginning\nwith the nature-study work of the primary grades, continuing the same with\nhome and industrial geography thru the intermediate grades, and elemental\neconomic agriculture in the grammar grades, and ending in scientific and\neconomic agriculture in the high school.\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nGRADES\n\nSome phases of agriculture teaching apply especially to the elementary\nschools. With respect to the teaching of agriculture in the elementary\nschools, the committee believe:\n1. That (for the reason that there seem to be portions of the subject adapted to\nchildren of all school ages) agriculture should be taught in all grades of the elementary\nschools.\n2. That the agriculture work given in the primary and intermediate (1-6) should\nbe of a different character from that given in the advanced grades (7-8); that in the\nprimary and intermediate grades, emphasis should be laid more on a study of things than\nof processes, while in the advanced grades, the study of processes should receive a greater\nprominence.\n3. That the aim in grades 1-6 should be largely cultural and that in grades 7-8 the\naim should be the practical rather than the cultural alone.\n4. That there should not be more than two classes at the same time in the subject\nin the ordinary one-teacher school of eight grades.\n5. That in the earlier grades (1-6) agriculture be taught largely as practical naturestudy and correlated as closely as possible with home and industrial geography while at\nthe same time taught as a separate subject from geography, especially after the third\ngrade.\n6. That elemental agriculture should run thru the seventh and eighth grades and that\nhere the subject should be approached from the viewpoint of its economic value to the\nfamily, the community, and the country.\n7. That comparatively few topics, one at a time, be attempted each year and that\nthese be taught intensively, rather than a large number of topics taught superficially.\n8. That no class exercise should be for a shorter period than 20 minutes and that the\ntotal time of recitation work per week should not be less than one hour.\n9. That the materials to be studied ought, in general, to be those which figure prominently in the life of the community in which the school is located, and that, where possible,\nthe work given in agriculture should be based upon the things found and the operations\ncarried on in the school garden and in the homes of the pupils.\n10. That the method to be followed in presenting the formal classwork should be that\n\n"}
{"page": 1158, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nknown as the developed method, and that the laboratory and fieldwork should take the\nform of problems to be solved by observation or experimentation.\n11. That a minimum course should be put into the hands of teachers of the oneteacher rural elementary schools for the following reasons:\nFirst, a glance thru a complete course of study in this subject tends strongly to discourage the great majority of teachers who are yet unacquainted with the materials of the\nsubject and with the literature bearing upon these materials; such, for instance, as the\nexperiment station bulletins. Any complete course would contain a great many topics\nof which the teacher is either entirely ignorant or with which she is only remotely\nacquainted. Also, the Hterature bearing on these topics is so scattered that it can be\nbrought together only with considerable difl&culty and expense of time and effort, and\neven when collected is very difficult to organize because fragmentary or technical, or\nboth. Second, the general results to the pupil in interest aroused and strength acquired\nfrom a comparatively few topics studied somewhat intensively will be found far superior\nto these results when a greater number of topics are studied but more superficially.\nThird, the teacher can adapt such a course more easily to the needs of the particular\nlocality. Fourth, there is less likelihood of unnecessary time being spent on relatively\nimimportant topics. Fifth, a minimum course will consume all the time which can be\nfound at present in the crowded curriculum of the rural school, and the course can be\nexpanded as this condition changes in response to the demand for more time.\n12. That the minimum suggestive course should be appUcable to local agricultural\nconditions, and should be a definite, practical working course in agriculture as a separate\nsubject, tho closely related to other school subjects.\n13. That the course in agriculture should contain suggestive correlative work with\neach of the other subjects taught wherever such correlation will intensify, vitalize, and\nutilize the work in such other subjects to the advantage of the child's interests.\n14. That a number of fines of work accessory to the work in agriculture proper should\nbe suggested for the use of the teacher to further stimulate interest in the work; such\nwork to be largely observational and experimental and to relate closely to the home and\ncommunity interests.\n15. That it is very desirable to have the work under each topic divided into lesson\nunits, each outHned as to material, aims, method of procedure, and citation of Hterature.\n\nPlace in course of study as related to nature-study and geography. —\nNature-study\nGrades 1-6.\na) Informational.\nGeography\n\nRelationships.\n\nEthics.\n\na) Grades 1-3.\nInformal teaching of nature-study units in home geography and oral geography.\nh) Grades 4-7.\n1. Practical nature-study of geographic units in home and industrial geography.\n2. Type studies of geography units.\n3. Comparative agricultural relationships.\n4. General geography.\nAgriculture\na) Grades 1-3.\nInformal nature-study.\nHome geography.\nh) Grades 4-5 (or 4-6) (taught as separate subject).\nPractical nature-study teaching of agricultural units, and of home and industrial\ngeography units of agricultural education.\nc) Grades 7-8 (or 6-8).\nElemental, economic agriculture.\n\n"}
{"page": 1159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON COURSES\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nSTUDY\n\n1 143\n\nPurposes\na) Nature-study.\n1. Proper aesthetic development of child.\n2. Development of reasoning faculties.\n3. Gathering material for future use and enjoyment.\n4. Accumulating experiences for use in present and future judgments and choices*\nh) Geography.\n1. I, 2, 3, and 4 of nature-study.\n2. Knowledge of relationships.\n3. Interpretation of unseen thru seen world.\nc) Agriculture.\n1. I,\" 2, 3, and 4 of nature-study.\n2. 2 of geography.\n3. To know agricultural processes.\nGaining knowledge of the why, how, and\nwhen of agricultural operations in order to increase profit and pleasure.\n4. Improvement of individual, family, school, and society.\n\nGeneral method of work. — In the elementary schools, especially in a\nfarm community, the relation of school and home work is very close in\neducation in agriculture. Agriculture is plainly not a book subject. It\nis a subject of the home, the field, the garden, the meadow, the stream, the\nroads; of domestic animals, household interests, and other home relations.\nThe relation of school and home work in teaching agriculture may be represented bythe following enumeration of parallel activities:\nAT SCHOOL\n\nAT HOME\n\nI. Observing\n2. Experimenting\n3. Demonstrating\n4. Studying\n5. Reporting\n6. Reciting\n7. Reading\nWHERE\n\nTO\n\nI. Observing\n2. Experimenting\n3. Demonstrating\n4. Recording\n5. Working\n6. Conversing\n7. Reading\nBEGIN\n\nIN TOPIC\n\nSTUDY\n\nBegin with that topic or subject which will enlist the interest of pupils\nand the co-operation of parents, which can be effectively taught, and the\nteaching of which will bring desirable activity and results in the community.\nAn outline by A. V. Storm furnished rural teachers in Iowa illustrates this\nidea. It is in part as follows:\nWhy study corn first ?\n1. Most general and valuable crop.\n2. Popular among patrons.\n, 3. Much to be learned.\n4. Information easily obtainable.\n5. Is easily handled in school.\n6. Is easily improved.\n7. Teacher easily becomes sufiSciently proficient.^\n8. Something for each month.\n9. Requires only home- or school-made apparatus.\n10. Leads community to act.\n\n"}
{"page": 1160, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWhat to study about corn. —\n1. What is wrong with the corn crop?\n2. Counting the stand\n3. Saving and storing seed corn\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n....\n\n4^ Judging— studying corn\n5. Testing seed corn\n6. Preparing seed for planter\n7. Preparing planter for seed\n8. Preparing the seed-bed\n9. Cultivating corn\n10. How the corn plant grows\n11. History of the com plant\n12. Kinds and varieties of com\n13. Improving the com crop\n14. Corn arithmetic\n15. Friends of the cornfield\n16. Machinery for the corn crop\n17. What becomes of the corn crop\n18. Com and the rotation of crops\n19. Weed enemies and how to eradicate them .\n20. Insect enemies and how to defeat them\n...\n\n[Agricultural\n\nSeptember\nSeptember\nSeptember and October\nDecember and January\nFebruary and March\nFebruary and March\nFebruary and March\nApril, May, and June\nApril, May, and June\nApril, May, and June\n\n/ Any time during the year\nI\nafter interest in the subject\n/has been aroused\n\nTopic study. — The foregoing represents a brief general outline for topic\nstudy of the various divisions of farm crops, garden and orchard crops,\nand other similar subjects. Elementary teachers have been more troubled\nwith the study of farm animals. The general outline furnished Iowa rural\nteachers has been used effectively. The following quotations illustrate:\nPOULTRY\nDivisions:\nChickens:\n\nChickens, Turkeys, Geese, Ducks, Pigeons.\n\nTypes: meat, egg, general purpose.\nBreeds: Brahma, plymouth rock, wyandotte, orphington, leghorn, etc.\nSize, conformation, color, judging, parts, uses, improvements, selection, feeding, care,\nmanagement, housing, prices, profits, diseases, products: \"picking\" and dressing, cooking,\ncarving, serving, marketing, care of eggs, incubators, chicks, composition of egg,\ntesting eggs, trapnesting, records, markets, origin, history, distribution, arithmetic of,\npictures, essays.\nCATTLE\nTypes: Beef, dairy, dual purpose.\nBreeds: Shorthorn, angus, jersey, holstein, red polled, etc.\nSize, conformation, quality, parts, correlation, judging, improvement, selection, care,\nfeeding, management, recording, housing, prices, market products, cuts of meat, preparation for food, by-products, packing-houses, testing for butter fat, common diseases, testing .\nfor tuberculosis, cleanliness, care of milk, origin, history, distribution, pictures, arithmetic\nof, essays.\n\nTopic outlines of this character, with the application of such of the\nfollowing as may be used to advantage, will enable any good teacher to get\nsatisfactory results in agriculture, to vitalize the work of the entire school,\n\n"}
{"page": 1161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON COURSES\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nSTUDY\n\n1145\n\nand to arouse the patrons to good thinking and to activity which will uplift\nthe home life, and lead to the betterment of community interests. This is\neffective teaching of agriculture.\nTHE\n\nHOW\n\nOF\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nIN ONE-TEACHER\nSCHOOLS\n\nRURAL\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nA summarizing of successful practice in teaching agriculture in the rural\nschool of one teacher and the ordinary governing conditions brings the\nfollowing suggestions to teachers. All these may not apply in any one\nschool, but many of them may be applied in every school.\n1. Study things.\nUse books and other printed matter as aids only.\n2. Remember that your first duty is to teach the child, not the subject.\n3. Avoid miscellaneous exercises.\n4. Have a regular time and place for work.\n5. Have one class in agricultural environmental work; grades 4 and 5 (or 4, 5. and\n6) combined.\n6. Have one class in elemental, economic agriculture; grades 7 and 8 (or 6, 7, and\n8) combined.\n7. Alternate with other studies if necessary.\n8. Recite two to five times per week, with 15- to 25-minute recitations.\n9. Use some time out of school hours, but do not make it burdensome.\n10. Use the topic method.\n11. Choose one important topic (e.g., corn) and follow it thru the school year, or such\ntime needed to complete the topic study.\n12. If desired, carry some other subjects (e.g., weeds, soils, poultry, trees) to fill in\nor supplement work with principal topic.\n13. Have work, so far as possible, seasonal and sequential.\n14. Take up each topic when pupils feel the need of it.\n15. In upper grades approach the subject from viewpoint of more profitable faiming.\n16. Correlate with other studies at vitalizing points.\n17. Use arithmetic of each topic for arithmetic classwork, if possible, at the time\nthe topic is being studied.\n18. Use agriculture material (e.g., reports, facts, experiences, comparisons, investigations, accounts, local items, and other data) for English composition, spelling, geography, booklet work, and in other correlative relations so far as possible when topic is being\nstudied; reserve other parts for later use.\n19. Have pupils report on actual farm conditions, practice, and results.\n20. Have schoolroom experiments showing fundamental principles. *\n21. Have schoolroom and school-garden laboratory experiment work.\n22. Assign definite home experiments for pupils.\n23. Assign definite home observation work^for pupils.\n24. Call for, and consider in class, reports from Nos. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23.\n25. Discuss farm conditions and practices in class, with view of gaining knowledge\nof best methods of farm procedure.\n26. Have pupils gather and organize statistics from each farm; e.g., size, breed,\nweight, color, type, value, cost of feeding, etc., o^ horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, poultry;\nalso acres, yield, variety, quality, value, etc., of all crops on farm.\n27. Have pupils bring samples of worst local weeds; name them; tell harm done,\nhow propagated, disseminated, eradicated.\n\n"}
{"page": 1162, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\n28. Have picture gallery of best animals, plants, buildings, crops, birds, etc.\n29. Have rogues' gallery: worst weeds, insects, birds, animals, scrub stock, scrub\ncrops, etc.\n30. Have school museum: crops, soils, weeds, insects, etc.\n31. In fall, collect and save weeds, weed seed, etc., for future study.\n32. Have contests, exhibits, etc., of school work and interests, for district, township,\ncounty, and other occasions where people may see results of work.\n33. Bring plants, animals, machines, soils, etc., to school for study.\n34. Have scales, measures, samples of feeds, etc., in school and work out balanced\nrations.\n35. Make Manila charts of data, tables, etc.\n36. Have a set of tools at schoolhouse and teach use by making needed articles for\nschool and home.\n37. Put up bird houses at home and school.\n38. Raise plants at schoolhouse, but no crops needing vacation attention.\n39. Have class visit farms for definite purpose; take notes and make written reports.\n40. Have class visit fields and make written and oral reports.\n41. Have pupils write many timely reports and essays.\n42. Work toward good form, systematic arrangement, and neatness in all written\nwork.\n43. Use written work for display at school for information and reference of pupils\nand visitors.\n44. Send best articles to local papers.\n45. Have debates on important questions; e.g., \"Special vs. dual-purpose cattle.\"\n46. Have special day programs; e.g., corn day, clover day, bird day, milch-cow\nday, etc.\n47. Have successful patrons address the school.\n48. Make spraying mixtures; spray crops for patrons.\n49. Test seed corn, grass and garden seed for patrons.\n50. Test quantity and quality of milk of local cows.\n51. Add books, bulletins, papers to school library; classify and label.\n52. Use travehng Ubrary.\n53. Decorate schoolroom appropriately; change occasionally.\n54. Landscape school grounds.\n55. Take pictures of school, its work and surroundings.\n56. Organize club or grange in neighborhood.\n57. Develop your own rural knowledge and sympathies.\n58. Leave record of work done for successor.\n\nSlightly adapted from aforementioned Iowa outline.\nIN THE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nGRADES\n\nIn the ordinary secondary course of study which generally begins with\nthe ninth grade, agriculture may occupy from one to eight semesters of\nwork, according to the local conditions and the possibilities for securing\nproper equipment and skilled teachers.\nThe committee has gathered considerable data on secondary courses\nof study but is able at this time to report only progress. Study of the\nsubject, however, has developed some general problems which appear yet\nto be very much unsettled.\nThe following inquiries are placed before you:\n\n"}
{"page": 1163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON COURSES\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nSTUDY\n\n1147\n\n1. If taught as a separate subject:\na) In what year or years ?\nh) To what extent ? What phases of the subject shall it include ?\nc) In what order shall topics be arranged ?\nd) Which related subjects shall precede and which follow agriculture ?\n2. Should agriculture be correlated with other science branches ? If so:\na) Shall we use the established science courses in their present form and adapt\nagriculture to them ?\nh) Shall we rearrange the science subjects in order to best adapt agriculture?\n3. Shall agriculture be taught as a required part of each subject in the curriculum\nwith which it is naturally related or as an optional division of such subject ?\n4. Should texts be placed in the hands of pupils ? If so, should a general text be\nused or should there be several special topic texts?\n5. What modifications should be made where the high school does not carry full\nscience courses ?\n\nYour committee does not attempt at this time to solve these problems\nexcept as indicated in the following conclusions, suggestions, and information:\nUse of texts. — If only one or two semesters of simple work are offered,\nand especially where the teacher has not been well trained, a good general\ntext in the hands of pupils may be used to advantage as a guide with\nthese cautions :\n1. Omit such portions in the text as are not pertinent to local agriculture or to the\nnecessary general knowledge.\n2. Amplify far beyond the contents of the text in those topics pertinent to local\nagriculture.\n3. Keep in mind that the study of agriculture is primarily a study of things, not\nprinted matter, and that books are merely aids.\n\nTeachers. — The simple courses in which a general text is used could,\nif necessity required, be taught 'by one who is not educated in an agricultural college, provided he or she has five qualifications: First, farm experience; second, good training in general science; third, sympathy with the\nwork; fourth, initiative capacity; fifth, teaching ability.\nThe longer courses using special texts and going more fully into special\ndivisions should be taught by one prepared in an agricultural college.\nEquipment. — In all courses in agriculture, large use should be made of\na well-selected agriculture library. Laboratory facilities as to room and\nequipment should be ample for thoro individual work by each pupil, with\nmuch material. A large amount of systematic seasonal fieldwork should\nbe done.\n•\nCourses of study. — In the present stage of development, it appears that\nthe best plan for reaching effectively the great mass of students in the\nusual public secondary schools is to have an elementary course in agriculture offered as an elective course or as elective studies, giving along with\nthe work in agriculture the same general training which all students in the\nsame school receive, and placing the course in agriculture on an equality\n\n"}
{"page": 1164, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nwith the other courses, allowing considerable freedom as to what other\nstudies shall be omitted for the agriculture; requiring, however, considerable work in English, history, and civics as a general preparation for\ncitizenship.\nTwo-semester courses in agriculture are bringing good results in some of\nthe middle-western states. In 130 accredited high schools maintaining\nnormal training courses for preparing teachers for the rural schools in\nNebraska, the following course in agriculture is offered for all students:\nTWO-SEMESTER COURSE — NEBRASKA\n. Synopsis\n\nLaboratory Work\nClasswork Number of Double\nNumber of Periods\nPeriods\n32\n8\n,20\n5\n12\n3\n\n_ . ._\n,\nFirst Semester\nI. Farm Animals\nII. Milk and its products\nIII. Soils\nTotal\nSecond Semester\nI. Soils (continued)\nII. Field Crops\nIII. Orchard and Garden Crops\n\n...\n\nTotal\n\n64\n\n16\n\n12\n18\n18\n\n8\n12\n12\n\n48\n\n32\n\nIn 160 accredited high schools in Kansas maintaining courses in normal\ntraining for rural teachers, the following two-semester course in agriculture\nis offered:\nTWO-SEMESTER\n\nCOURSE — KANSAS\n\nSynopsis\nA. Introduction.\n1. Definition of agriculture.\n2. Divisions of agriculture.\n3. Forces controlling plant and animal gro wth.\nB. Soils.\nC. Propagation of Plants.\n'\nD. Farm Crops\nE. Orchard and Garden Crops.\nF. Enemies of Plants.\nThree recitation periods and two laboratory periods per week are recommended.\nThe outline for classroom instruction is based upon the text, Elements of Agriculture,\nby G. F. Warren, and for laboratory work upon A Unit in Agriculture, by EUiff.\n\nA four-year course in agriculture which has demonstrated its value in\nvery effective service is offered in the Albert Lea, Minn., high school.\nThe cojiplete course is as follows:\nALBERT\n\nLEA HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEntrance: Eighth Grade\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nElementary Algebra\nEnglish\nBotany\nFarm Crops\n\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\n\nPlane Geometry\nEnglish\nZoology and Physiology\nAnimal Husbandry\n\n"}
{"page": 1165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nTHIRD\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON COURSES\n\nYEAR\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\nFOtJRTH\n\nPhysics\nEnglish\nEnglish History\nFarm Mechanics\n\nSTUDY\n\n1149\n\nYEAR\n\nAmerican History and Civil Government\nEnglish\nChemistry\nSoils and Horticulture\n\nPupils may take manual training, sewing and cooking, music, and freehand drawing.\n\nAnother good four-year course is in operation in New York state. The\nwork in agriculture is outlined as follows:\nCOURSES\n\nOF\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN AGRICULTURE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS\nOF NEW YORK\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nEach Subject, Half -Year — i Credit\n1. Cereals and Forage Crops.\n2. Poultry Husbandry.\n3. Animal Husbandry.\n4. Potato Growing.\n5. Fruit Growing.\n6. Apple Growing.\n\n<\n\nEach Subject, Full Year — 2 Credits\n1. Dairy Husbandry.\n2. Mechanical Drawing, Farm Engineering.\n3. Optional (2): from Physics (i), Chemistry (i), Biology (2), Farm Work (2).\nTHE JOHN\n\nSWANEY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nA high-school course of study which is bringing results in a rural community and one which offers some good ideas on the arrangement of science\ncourses, is that of the John Swaney School in north-central Illinois. This\nschool is in the country, three miles from McNabb, a country station. The\nschool has a campus of twenty-four acres which includes land imder cultivation and a tract of open timber with a large variety of trees. The school\nbuilding is provided with domestic science, natural science, and physical\nscience laboratories and manual-training rooms. The school was opened\nin January, 1907. It ofifers the following courses of study:\nFIRST\n\nSEMESTER\n\nFirst Year\n\nEnglish I\nAlgebra\nPhysiology\nAgronomy I or Latin I\nHousehold Science or Manual Training\n\nSECOND\n\nSEMESTER\n\nEnglish I\nAlgebra\nPhysical Geography\nHorticulture or Latin I\nHousehold Science or Manual Training\n\nSecond Year\nEnglish II\nAlgebra, 10 weeks\nGeometry, 10 weeks\nZoology\nAncient History\nDrawing\n\nEnglish II\nGeometry\nBotany\nAncient*History, 10 weeks\nAnimal Husbandry, 10 weeks or Household\nScience, 10 weeks\nMusic\n\n"}
{"page": 1166, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 so\n\nNA TIONAL\nFIRST\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\nSEMESTER\n\nThird Year .\n\nSECOND\n\n[Agricultural\n\nSEMESTER\n\nEnglish III\nEnglish III\nChemistry\nChemistry\nAgronomy II or Latin II or Household Animal Husbandry or Latin II or HouseScience\nhold Science\nEnglish History\nEnglish History\nFourth Year\nEnglish IV\n,\nPhysics\nAgronomy FIT or Household Science\nAmerican History\n\nEnglish IV\nPhysics\nBookkeeping, lo weeks\nArithmetic, lo weeks\nCivics\n\nTwo semesters of agriculture and two semesters of manual training are\nrequired of all the boys, with an option of four semesters of agriculture.\nThe girls are required to take four semesters of some phase of household\neconomics, with an option of two more.\nPhysiology and physical geography are required in the first year of all\nstudents; botany and zoology in the second; chemistry in the third, and\nphysics in the fourth; making a total of four years of science required,\nbesides the agriculture and home economics.\nThe laboratory sciences (all except those of the first year) have three\ndouble periods and two recitation periods given them. A good measure of\noutside laboratory work is done. The classes in agronomy have practice\nin picking weed seeds and properly labeling them; in sorting out the red\nclover, alfalfa, and other seeds of the clover group which have been mixed\nwith radish, rape, timothy, grass seeds, etc. The class has exercises in\ncom judging and testing. The class in horticulture plants trees and does\ngrafting in a near-by orchard.\nEvidences of results are indicated by the activity of the pupils in pruning\nfruit and shade trees at home, in budding and grafting, and in other work\nrelative to home interests.\nIllustrating the correlation of agriculture with other science branches\nand showing how a pure science may be made to minister to an agricultural\neducation — reference is here made to some abstracts of reports taken from\nthe notebooks of several students. These abstracts are condensed accounts\nof field trips taken by members of the zoology class.\nZOOLOGY REPORTS\nI. \"Pield trip, September 4. Purpose was to catch insects for study. Insects found\nwere grasshoppers, potato bugs, caterpillar, and a spider.\" \"Field trip, September 6.\nTo look for insects on trees. Found tent caterpillars and gall flies.\" \"Field trip, September 9. To watch tent caterpillars work. Also gathered some insects, as worms on\nelm leaves, pyramidal gall, soiu^-bug, cox-comb gall, measure worm, cicada, grasshopper,\nkatydid, black bug, butterfly, and spiders.\" \"Field trip, October 7. To look for insects\nin a cornfield. Found caterpillars, corn stalk borer, green plant Hce, ants, corn-root\naphis.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON COURSES\n\nIN AGRICULTURE\n\nSTUDY\n\n1151\n\n2. \"Field trip, September 4. On this trip we found three species of the old-fashioned\npotato bug. It is also known by the name of Spanish fly or bUster bug. These bugs\nwere working on potato and raspberry vines and grasses. One species was a plain black\nbug (sic) about three-quarters of an inch long. Another was about the same length, but\nit was black with a white stripe down the middle of its back and white stripes around its\nwings. The last one had dark brown stripes running lengthwise on its back.\"\n3. \"Field trip, September 13. We then went to a truck patch just across the road\nfrom the campus. We examined the stem of the pumpkin and in it found several squashvine borers. They are very injurious to the plant and often destroy it entirely. They\nare of a whitish color. One of the passage-ways of the borer was measured and it was\nfound that it had bored over 3 feet, which destroyed the vine. The adult form of the\nborer is a moth but is not injurious, only that it lays eggs that hatch into one of the gceat\npests of the pumpkin patch.\" \" Field trip, October 7. The zoology class went to a cornfield north of the campus and examined some of the cornstalks. In them we found small\nbrownish worms, called the cornstalk borer, which is the larva of a moth. In one stalk,\nwe found punctures in every joint, in the first seven joints from the ground, two or three\nin every joint. We found another small stalk with no ears on it being worked on by the\nborer. The class thought that the borer was getting ready for the pupa stage, as they did\nnot seem to be working much. We found some green plant lice on a com leaf, some with\nwings. A small stalk of corn that had an ant hill at the base was pulled up by the roots\nand it was found that all the dirt had been worked away from them. The corn-root\naphis were thick on the roots. They were a greenish color. We shook them and some\nfell off on the ground.\n\nThe ants began carrying them away immediately.\"\n\nThis is in direct contrast to a prominent eastern school system where,\nduring the last year, the eighth grade began the study of a series of animal\ntypes with the amoeba.\nGUTHRIE\n\nCOUNTY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL — IOWA\n\nAn illustration of the idea of introducing the study of agriculture early\nin the high-school course with that division of the subject which is of\ngreatest interest to the community is offered by the Guthrie County, Iowa,\nhigh school. Stock raising is here the principal industry of the county.\nLocal interest centers aroimd animal husbandry and the related subjects of\ncorn growing and animal feeding. For this reason all such work is taught\nin the earliest year of the agricultural course. This arrangement enables\nthe school to justify the work in the eyes of the patrons and it appeals to\nthe liveliest interest of the pupils.\nThe work in animal husbandry includes stock raising with score-card\npractice, visitations to near-by stock farms, and the study of animals from\nthe standpoint of the farmer and professional stock man. In agronomy,\nthe beginning work takes up the study of com and other grains. Considerable time is given to the securing and judging of seed corn and to\nmaking germination tests of samples of seed corn to be used in the spring\nplanting by farmers who send their seed corn to be tested.\nThis school takes up the subject of«farm mechanics. The student\ndevotes considerable time to setting up the various machines and farm\nimplements and to gaining a knowledge of the working principles of farm\n\n"}
{"page": 1168, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nmachinery.\nThis work provides excellent opportunity for correlating with\nphysics later.\nChemistry and soil physics come in the first semester of the fourth year.\nThe chemistry and composition of soils, plant food, sources of fertility,\ntexture, moisture, with the causes affecting its movement and conservation,\nand similar topics are discussed and investigated in the laboratories, each\nstudent gathering and testing his own samples.\nIn the spring months of the senior year the students give attention to\nhorticulture, .'embracing ^the most important principles of fruit growing,\ngrafting, cross-breeding, and allied questions.\nYour committee has been able to hold but one meeting with part\nattendance only during the year. What has been done has been largely\nby^correspondence. We are indebted to Dr. C. H. Robison, Montclair\nState Normal School, N.J.; Professors P. G. Holden and A. V. Storm,\nState College of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa; and Professor E. E. Balcomb,\ntate Normal School, Greensboro, N.C., for valuable assistance.\nThe foregoing is submitted as a suggestive opening for discussion,\nfurther investigation, and such recommendation as the Department of\nRural and Agricultural Education may direct.\nE. C. Bishop, Chairman\nE. C. Bishop, Schools Section, Extension Department, State College\nof Agriculture, Ames, Iowa\nB. M. Davis, Department of Agricultural Education, Miama University, Oxford, Ohio\nC. L. Howe, Director Agricultural Education, Department of Public .Committee\nInstruction, Albany, N.Y.\nRiley O. Johnson, Department of Biology and Agriculture, State\nNormal School, Chico, Cal.\nJosiAH Main, Department of Agricultural Education, Western State\nNormal School, Hays, Kans.\n\nAGRICULTURE\nAND\nDOMESTIC\nSCIENCE\nIN NORMAL\nSCHOOLS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PREPARING TEACHERS FOR COMMUNITY WORK\nJOHN\n\nR.\n\nKIRK,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nKIRKSVILLE,\n\nMO.\n\n{Synopsis)\nAll efficient instruction by the normal school in agriculture and domestic\nscience tends toward desirable attitudes of mind in the future teacher and\nthe drawing together of the school as if it were itself already a community.\nThe making of the curriculum becomes the shaping of community\nthought. Industrial education in the normal school, properly conducted,\nleads the intending teacher's mind out of the old grooves and traditions.\nThe efficient normal school or teachers' college is itself a community. Its\nstudents are characterized by identity of purpose, by a common spirit of\n\n"}
{"page": 1169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\n1 153\n\nself-help, and by readiness to help others. The right-minded normal-school\npresident and faculty members live largely among the students, including\nthe practice-school children of the various grades. They associate with\nthe students, talking, listening, and enjoying life with all the curious, inquisitive, anxious, unpurposeful younger ones, as well as' those of mature years\nand well-defined ambitions.\nThe well-equipped normal school of high character has courses in\nagriculture, farm architecture, machinery, sanitation, art, and household\neconomics. It has vegetable and flower gardens and a farm close by.\nProspective teachers spend many hours on the farm studying together the\ncrops, the soil, the testing of seeds, the dairying, the dairy herd, the sheep,\nthe chickens, and. all the usual products of the garden and the farm. The\nfaculty and the students of the good normal school live a strenuous and\nhappy life. Their interest never flags. New conditions and new problems\ndaily arise to draw faculty and students together in the common struggle\nto master the situation in view of future possibilities.\nIn the efficient, up-to-date normal school the farm work and the garden\nwork are done by the students. Those students not living on the farm and\nnot in immediate daily contact with its necessary labor make frequent trips\ninto the farm and the gardens. The work during these trips constitutes\npart of the laboratory work of the students. Those students who have\nnever lived on a farm must, of course, depend upon their observations and\nexperiments while students, such observations and experiments being supplemented and regulated by Readings. Those who have lived on a farm\nhave already a good basis laid for the more efficient work and study while\nstudents.\nClassroom reports of the farm observations and experiments are secured\nthru a sort of parliamentary practice. The most efficient instruction\nimplies that the teacher is somewhat in the place of the chairman of a\nmeeting. The discussions are direct, economical, and animated. No time\nis wasted; no one gets sleepy or tired. No one indulges in long scientific\nor theoretical lectures. The teacher takes his turn at opportune times.\nHe guides and directs energy thru good classroom tactics. He never talks\nwhen the student is saying or going to say what ought to be said. He\neven allows students to struggle in the delivery of their ideas and for a\nmoment even to go wrong, in* order that he may induce the highest wakefulness in their minds and ultimately produce the clearest possible conceptions. In such a scheme of instruction there is little of mere learning\nand reciting. There is rather a right direction of student activities. The\nteacher t)rpifies a leading citizen in a species of community interests, a real\ndemocracy of effort.\nThis give-and-take community struggle m the laboratory, the field, and\nthe classroom produces a sympathetic open-mindedness and a student attitude which will not patiently tolerate verbose or pseudo-scientific lectures.\n\n"}
{"page": 1170, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nThe fruitage is a teacher who will never indulge in a typical lecturing\nmethod perpetrated by many college professors. Such a teacher is an\nefl&cient force in a new community, because of having lived a few months\nin a sort of bona-fide farmer community and having become habituated\nto farm experiences, experiments, and thoughts. The students become\nindependent thinkers and readers, seeing things with the eyes of a farmer,\nspeaking the farm language, not a dialect, but genuine, clean-cut English\neasily understood by the farming community.\nThe farm and the real farmers are the best concrete source from which\nto draw matter for use in the agriculture class. The road is never too dusty,\nthe sun is never too hot for students of a rightly directed normal school to\nmake a trip into the farm or the garden and always with cheerfulness and\nlithesome vigor.\nOne day when the thermometer stood at 90, I saw some forty normalschool students, men and women, leaving a laboratory to visit the middle\nof the farm a half-mile away. They carried notebooks, pencils, and eyes\naccustomed to use. Some wore hats; some did not. They were actual\nteachers, strong of limb, clear of complexion, buoyant of mind. On returning, some of the young women Were gathered at a pump refreshing themselves. They were asked whether they were not fagged out. The answer\nwas: \"We hadn't thought of it.\" The further question was: \"What\nwould have happened had you made such a journey on such a day five\nyears ago ?\" The answer was: \"A lot of girls would have gone to bed for\nabout two days.\"\nThis example shows the student attitude and the mental trend under\nwholesome management. The call is for idealists who have bone and\nsinew and will, who have tenacity to do things. Farm preachers are not\nneeded; sentimental teachers who deliver lectures about farming are\nnot needed.\nBy using the farm and garden as laboratories, the students learn the\nsoil conditions; they understand the growing crops, why planting is done\nin various ways at various times, how the soil is revitalized. Knowledge\nso obtained is community knowledge. The normal school becomes a disseminator of information coming from the experiment stations, from\npractical farmers, and from research laboratories. Instruction that is best\nfor community life is informal. It leads to 'much of original experiment\nand observation. It encourages personal initiative and freedom of expression, yet caution as to positive dogmas.\nWorking on the farm in groups, observing, feeding, and experimenting\nwith nearby herds of domestic animals, reporting to and exchanging views\nwith entire classes — these things accustom young prospective teachers to\nwork almost wholly as a community works. I have seen a half-dozen young\nmen working together an hour a day for two weeks on a simple but muchworn steam-engine before getting it into operation.\nThese students acted,\n\n"}
{"page": 1171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nAND\n\nDOMESTIC\n\nSCIENCE\n\n1155\n\nto all intents and purposes, like so many farmers working around a reaper,\nor a silo, or a water filter on the lower side of a pond.\nGroups of practice-school children are brought before the classes of\nteachers in agriculture. The children are told to make observations in\ntheir homes and to discover and report and discuss in the presence of the\nteachers the sanitary and insanitary conditions which they discover.\nStartling revelations are sometimes made. The children and the prospective teachers have an awakening. Thru knowledge they acquire growing discontent with insanitary conditions. They are unlikely ever to live\nin a community and remain silent and contented where insanitary conditions prevail.\nIt hardly seems necessary to discuss this natural and wholesome\nprocedure with special reference to preparing teachers for community work.\nIt seems practically impossible to give such courses naturally and eflftciently\nwithout leading directly and unavoidably into that attitude of mind which\nwill never be content without using the knowledge acquired for the\ncommunity interest. It is impossible for me to discuss satisfactorily the\ndomestic-science or household-economics phases of this subject, but it\nseems to me that the whole trend of household economics, like that of\nagriculture, leads directly and unavoidably into those habits and attitudes\nof mind which culminate in community work.\nDISCUSSION\n\n•\n\nRiley O. Johnson, State Normal School, Chico, Cal. — The institutions to be found in\nany community find justification for their existence only in so far as they minister to the\nneeds of that community. Otherwise they are an economic dead loss. The degree of\nsuccess which any institution attains is properly measured by the contribution which it\nmakes to the needs of the community in which it is placed. This is just as true of the school\nand even of the church as it is of the grange, the agricultural fair, or the co-operative marketing organization. However beneficent may be the aims of the church, that institution has no\nmoral right to exist in any community where it does not really meet some vital need. And\nhowever noble may be the aims of the school, the school has no moral right to exist in any\ncommunity where it cannot or does not minister in as large a way as possible to a need that\nis real and vital. At a passing glance it appears strange that we have been so long in recognizing the truth of this proposition. We seem to have come by its recognition now only\nbecause this is an age of conservation — an age in which the economic seems about to overshadow everything else. (Let me say here, parenthetically, that however much the latter\nfact may be deplored by some, the general result is good. The idea of conservation may\nbe applied with as great benefit to the things which are spiritual as to those which are\ntemporal, and conservation always rests upon the economic idea.)\nPresident Kirk has told us that the school curriculum should be based upon the\nexperiences of the children to be taught. This statement is universally conceded from\nthe point of view of the psychologist, because it is a well-recognized fact, to use President\nKirk's words, \"that instruction should lead from old experiences to new ones.\" But\neducationists seem to have overlooked a fact equally important in support of the first\nstatement. The experiences of children are n^de^p in large part of, at least are strongly\ncolored by, the things which vitally concern the welfare, the life, of the community in which\nthey live. Hence leading the children from their old experiences to new ones is a positive\n\n"}
{"page": 1172, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nguaranty that the instruction given shall minister directly to the needs of the community\nin which the children live. And, as from the psychologist's point of view the new experiences are not only interpreted by, but react upon, the apperceptive mass, changing its\nentire organization, so do the new experiences gained in the school also react upon those\nof the community, bringing about in time a complete reorganization of the community's\nlife. Basing rural instruction, therefore, upon old-time village experiences or upon anything else than community life, not only renders the new ideas and experiences given by\nthe school less- significant to the child, but the reaction of the instruction upon the daily\nlife of the community is lost, and the child is burdened with only so much useless stuff.\nFrom this it follows that unless the school can offer courses in agriculture and domestic\nscience and sanitation — the things which function to the greatest extent in rural districts;\nthat is, unless it ministers in a direct and large way to the needs of the community in which\nit is placed, it has a right to existence only by sufferance of its patrons and supporters.\nPresident Kirk seems to me to have dwelt largely upon the preparation which the\nteacher obtains incidentally from having lived for a number of months in an actual community (that afforded by the good up-to-date normal school) and having entered as fully\nas possible into, and taken part in, its life. He has given us some most excellent ideas\nconcerning the equipment and administraCtion of such a school in order that it shall be an\nideal community. The plan whereby the class work (if such it may be called) becomes a\ndemocracy of effort, in which the teacher merely figures as a leading citizen, is worthy of\ngeneral acceptance and imitation. I wish to raise the question, however, whether such\npreparation is in itself sufficient. It appears to me that the plan would be akin to the\npreparation offered to teachers by a normal school in which there were no academic classes,\nand which offered only so much academic instruction as would be obtained in preparing\nthe lessons to be taught in the training-school. Would the preparation be sufficiently\nbroad ? Is it possible, from the standpoint of time and in the way indicated, to give to\nstudents in a normal school a preparation which will enable them to go into such a large\narea as normal schools usually serve and do well the various kinds of work that different\ncommunities need ? Might not the student, with all his ability to carry on the work in the\nway indicated, lack the preparation necessary to give him the standing of \"a leading\ncitizen\" in the community ? I would submit, as my opinion, in answer to these questions,\nthat the plan outUned by President Kirk is most excellent as far as the method of doing\nthe work is concerned, but that the time for this work at the disposal of students in our\nnormal schools, unless they are going to be specialists, will permit of their covering comparatively very few topics in an agricultural course. It seems to me to call too much for\nexperimentation as a means of finding out how to do things and seems too much like the\nleading of pupils in science classes to rediscover all the truths of science. The time is\nshort. I would advocate a larger use of the lecture method and demonstrations by the\nteacher where the facts could not be worked out by the student with a reasonable expense\nof time and effort.\n\nPHYSICAL\nL. R.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nALDERMAN,\n\nSTATE\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\nSUPERINTENDENT\nSALEM,\nORE.\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThere need be no argument made for physical education, for the conviction that the body is in need of training is as firmly fixed as is the belief in the\nnecessity for training in the intellectual and the moral life. But when one\nspeaks of physical education for the rural schools, he is met with k questioning and indulgent smile, just as if the rural schools were never included\nwhen we speak of education. Music, drawing, and close supervision are\n\n"}
{"page": 1173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1157\n\nessential for the town and the city, but they are not needed in the country.\nThe country children draw pictures on the barn doors and sing with the\nlarks ! They do not need close supervision, because they have bom teachers,\nbecause they are born in the country! They have no need for physical\neducation, for they get plenty of exercise without it. And so on, ad infinitum.\nI am glad to see, however, that this attitude toward the rural school is\nchanging very rapidly. In some states, even now, drawing other than the\nbarn-door variety is taught to country children; music is being given to\nthose children who love music and desire to learn how to sing; and rural\nsupervision, too, is being introduced. It is a source of great satisfaction\nto me to know that in Oregon, next year, the rural schools in most of the\ncounties will have at least a half-day's visit from a supervisor every six\nweeks, instead of an hour or so once a year, as formerly. These things\nsome country schools now have; but so far, no physical education. Exercise they have in abundance, 'tis true, but no physical training.\nThere are those who say that to offer physical education in the rural\nschools is carrying coals to Newcastle. To a very slight extent only is that\ntrue; for, altho in most cases these children do not need exercise, they do\nneed physical training. If teaching is for the purpose of developing the\npowers of the individual and giving these powers direction, then certainly\nphysical education is highly important, both in the country and in the city.\nAll good teaching begins by studying the needs of the individual to be taught.\nA glance at almost any group of rural-school pupils will reveal some of their\nneeds — that many have stooped shoulders, flat chests, that some are\nanaemic, that some others are uncouth and awkward and ineffective in their\nmovements, indicating that thru an excess of mere exercise thru work and\na dearth of recreation, thru play and improper physical exercise, they have\ndeveloped the bulk and strength of the body at the expense of its graces.\nIn considering this vital subject, a clear distinction should be drawn\nbetween physical exercise and physical training. The two employ the same\nphysical forces, but not in the same way, and the results are vastly different. Serving as a spellbinder or as auctioneer or calling the pigs gives\nabundant exercise to the voice, yet it is the reverse in effect of voice-training. Keeping the mind busy during most of one's waking hours in flitting\nfrom one to another of the innumerable subjects that come to the average\nperson, affords a kind of brain exercise, yet it is anything but intellectual\ntraining. And so it is with the child — mere movement or exercise of the\nmuscular tissues does not operate to produce a strong, supple, symmetrical,\nwell-disciplined body with the habit of effective action.\nAgain, physical education should be defined broadly. It is not enough\nto prescribe certain games, gymnastics, and the like. The course in physical culture must be so broad and comprehensive as to include also adequate\neducation in the way of diet, eating, and drinking ; both external and internal\ncleanliness and purity of the body thru frequent bathing and timely elimi-\n\n"}
{"page": 1174, "printed_page": null, "text": "1158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nnation of waste matter from the body; sleeping; the care of the eyes,\nteeth, hands, nails, and so on, and by no means least, a certain amount of\nsexology.\nCountry children, therefore, despite their favorable surroundings, do\nneed physical training. They do need to have their bodies well looked\nafter. The theory that their environment will attend to that matter has\nbeen tried altogether too long, and has been found to be too expensive in\nimpaired health, suffering, disease, and death. I take it that the health\nof the child should be the central thought in every scheme of education,\nwhether in the city or in the country. In my opinion, however, physical\neducation in the rural districts will be different from that of the city, as it\nwill have to be more in the nature of teaching the care of health, good form\nin sitting, standing, and walking, rather than giving much exercise for\nbodily development. The country boy needs to be taught that to go to bed\nwithout a bath when he has exercised to the limit is not conducive to\nsound sleep nor to a fresh and rested feeling in the morning. He needs to\nbe instructed about the importance of proper mastication, following the\nselection of proper foods, and the importance of keeping his teeth in good\ncondition. He should be taught the necessity for an abundance of fresh\nair at night, as well as in the day time. Most country children could\neasily sleep out in the open air in summer, and they would sleep out if they\nbut knew the joy of it. It is not my claim that good health is the only\nthing in life, but I do argue that the conservation of the health of children\nis at least as important as is the conservation of the national forests; that\nto avoid tuberculosis in children is fully as important as to prevent the\nsame disease in cattle; that any system of education which does not provide adequately for the physical child is absolutely unworthy; and that\nany law is cruel and unjust that compels children to attend school to the\ninjury of their health.\nAnd yet again, if the country child is to receive the benefits of physical\ntraining, it must be thru the medium of the school. As it is, he has play\nenough at school, but he needs something else. He needs a wise and welltrained teacher to give him regular and varied calisthenic drills, breathing\nexercises, instruction in regard to the care of the body, to inspire him with\na just pride in a good carriage and in the cultivation of the faculties he has.\nHe requires such drills and exercises as will result in ease of bearing, grace,\ndignity, poise. There should be a gymnasium for use in bad weather, and\nfor practice in certain games and prescribed gymnastics, as well as to provide the essential bathing facilities. And with an awakened sense of the\npresent neglect of the rural-school child, and a keen consciousness of his\nneeds, the time is near at hand when the rural school will be equipped to\ncarry out a course in physical education wholly adequate to the needs of\nthe country boy and the country girl.\nThen, too, there should be medical inspection in these schools. Indeed,\n\n"}
{"page": 1175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1159\n\nthe need for such inspection is even greater in the country than in the city;\nfor there the schools are not so well organized, and social-settlement work\nis unknown. Defective hearing, defective sight, and the neglect of teeth\nare strikingly common in the country. The fact that the country child has\n' less than $13 yearly spent on his education, while the city child has about\n$39, does not lessen the need for medical inspection and instruction. I\nfeel sure that medical inspection of the right kind for the public schools\nwould receive the hearty support of the rural population of the state of\nOregon. Medical inspection is not physical education, 'tis true; but it is\na necessary step toward physical education, if we mean by the latter the\nsymmetrical development of the individual.\nAside from the argument for physical education in the rural schools for\nthe resulting physical improvement, I also argue for it as the best approach\nfor moral teaching and for socializing country life.\nMost if not all immoral practices spring from ignorance, idleness, some\nbodily weakness, solitude, or lack of a conscious incentive to conserve the\nbodily powers thru virtuous living. Likewise, these immoral practices\nweaken the body. We gain a great victory in the individual when we\neducate him on the physical side and show him what will strengthen him\nand what will weaken him, at the same time arousing his ambition to make\nthe best of his physical powers. \" Don't do this if you want to win the\ngame,\" is a much stronger argument for the average child, than to say\n*' Don't do this, because it is not right; and you wish to do what is right.\"\nSmoking, for instance, is bad for the adolescent. I have seen more boys\ncured of the smoking habit thru athletics than thru all the moral lectures\nI have ever heard given. The only reason why smoking is bad, aside from\nits cost of money, and its offensiveness to others, is because it undermines\nthe health of the smoker. And to show this to the boy will, in many cases,\ncause him to discontinue its use, if one really convinces him of the injurious\neffects. Secret vices, which, according to reports, are very bad in the\ncountry, will greatly decrease with a proper knowledge of the effects upon\nthe system, and with the inspiring and exhilarating feeling that comes with\nthe proper physical exercises and the accompanying bath. I believe that\nsex physiology, if given at the proper time, in the proper way, is more\nimportant than geography to the average child. It does away with the\nimmoral whispering, immoral note-writing, and, I think, much immoral\nmusing.\nAll writers on sociology agree that one of the reasons why so many of\nthe rural population leave the country for the city is because of the hunger\nfor more social life. That many of them go to the city to their own injury,\nand to the greater misfortune of their families, is evident to all. The\ncountry sections, however, can provide^or social intercourse of a high and\nvaried order, as has been demonstrated by many of such rural communities.\nIt is largely a manner of education in an appreciation of games and exer-\n\n"}
{"page": 1176, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ncises in which physical activity and dexterity play an important part.\nThis play instinct is common to all of us, and thru it some have found the\nsolution of the country-life problem. I am told by a supervising superintendent ofthe Philippine Islands that baseball, which is practically a new\ngame there, has done more within the last few years for the civilization of\nthe adult Filipino than have the army, the navy, commerce, and the\nschool. Baseball has appealed to them as has no other game, not even\nexcepting cock-fighting. It has brought together many tribes formerly\nhostile to one another; it has shown them that they are much alike, and\nthat they really have a common interest; it has taught them to give and\ntake without arousing enmity, has taught them that they need an umpire\nwho is just and truthful, and has led them to desire that fair means only\nshould be used.\nIt is said that the Mormon handcart immigration held evening dances\nafter each day of fifteen or twenty miles of wearisome marching. Rest\nfrom physical exercise by more physical exercise may seem paradoxical, but\nthe spirit was revived by the dance to such an extent that they felt their\nsocial unity and forgot their weariness. And thus it ever is. It is the play,\nthe recreation, the association, the change, that relieves the tension on body\nand mind and spirit, giving a sense of relief, a feeling of exhilaration and\nbuoyancy that leads to a consciousness of the kinship of man to man.\nI take it that what the country districts need is more games when the\nwhole population is present. We need some new games in which more\npeople can take part. Baseball is good, but many young men are on the\nside lines, and there is no place in it for the girls. Kite-flying is a good\npastime, and we hear that in the old countries adults, as well as children,\nget much pleasure from it. It makes one look upward, which is a good\nthing, for the reason that too many of us look too much to the ground.\nPushball is said to be a great game, but the attendant expense is almost\nsuch as to make it prohibitive.\nOne Oregon teacher who takes the physical side of school work seriously,\nand whose school is noted for the large number of well-grown boys who\nattend it, has all the children take part in physical games for a part of the\ntwo hours of noon intermission. Promptly at twelve all the pupils go to\ntheir different fields for an hour, after which all return to their respective\nshower-bath rooms, which rooms were made by the pupils themselves.\nAn old airtight heating-stove serves to heat the water that has been pumped\nby the boys into barrels, which are used for the hot-water tanks. When\nthe bath is over, the pupils eat their lunch; after which they rest for a\nwhile, and then return to their studies much refreshed and the better able\nto do effective work. Under this plan, there are no stragglers home at\nnight with chores undone, and there is no play not under supervision.\n\nIn my judgment, physical education ought to be outlined in the teachers'\nmanual, and delegated authority should see that the course is followed.\n\n"}
{"page": 1177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIi6i\n\nReports should be required, showing measurements from time to time, the\nweight, and other physical conditions, particularly defective conditions.\nThen every child in the land should be subject to competent medical\ninspection at least once each year. Medical and dental aid should be\nprovided for the indigent, and this assistance should be extended to furnishing glasses for those of this class who have defective vision. Every\nchild should be considered the child of the state, for improvement purposes\nas well as for punitive purposes.\n\n"}
{"page": 1178, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1179, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL INDEX\n[Names of authors of formal papers are set in SKAIX capitals.\n\nAchievement from the Southland, A message of, 1 66\nAct of Incorporation, i\nActive Members, Minutes of Annual Meeting of, 27\nAdams, R. T. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Secondary Education, 555\nAddresses of Welcome (Hiram W. Johnson), 67; (P. W. McCarthy), 67;\n(Benjamin Ide Wheeler), 69; (R. B.\nHale), 71\nAgricultural education, Report of the\nnational committee on, 706\nAgricultural education, School gardening\nin Hawaii as related to, 11 26\nAgricultural nature-study (Clayton F.\nPalmer), 1118\nAgriculture and domestic science in normal\nschools with special reference to preparing teachers for community work (John\nR. Kirk), 1152\nAgriculture, Report of committee on\ncourses of study in, 1138\nAlderman, L. R. — Physical education in\nelementary rural schools, 11 56\nAley, Robert J.— Needed adjustments\nbetween secondary schools and colleges,\n461; Response to addresses of welcome,\n72; The health of school children, 544;\nSecretary's\nNational Council\nof Education,Minutes,\n336\nAll-year-round schools. The balanced\ncourse of study and the, 267\nAllen, E. T. — Forest conservation, 952\nAmerican\neducation, Reorganization\nof,\n94\nAmerican Indian Education of the, 252\n\nA t indicates a memorial sketch.]\n\nAswELL, James B.— fWarren Easton, 179\nAvery,\nLewis 944\nB. — General science in the\nhigh school,\nAvery, Samuel — Can we shorten the term\nof years without decreasing efficiency of\neducation in American schools? 126\nAyres, Leonard P. — Health and ventilation, 885; Open-air schools, 898; The\ntraining of the mentally and physically\nunfortunate, 242; Discussion, 220\nBacteriological tests of methods of cleaning (W.D. Frost and V. A. Armstrong),\n985\nBaker,\nH. — Reorganization\nof\nAmericanJames\neducation,\n94\nBalanced course of study and the all-yearround schools (G. W. A. Luckey), 267\nBall,\n— ^The development\nof theKatherine\ncolor sense, M.484\nBarnes, Clifford W. — Relation of moral\nand religious training, 397; Status of\nmoral training in the pubUc schools, 400\nhimself, H.\n576M. — ^The high-school teacher\nBarrett,\nBaylor, Adelaide Steele — Discussion, 476\nBecht, J. George — Discussion, 221\nBentley,\nRufus\nC. — Extra-classroom\nactivities in the high school: their place\nand their importance, 581\nBenton, Guy Potter — Education in the\ncolleges and universities, 191\nBernhard,\nC. a. — ^To what extent are\nteachers responsible for failures of students in the classroom? 861\nWilson, 155\nBicknell,\nThomas W. — fjames Ormond\n\nBishop, E. C. — Report of committee on\ncourses of study in agriculture, 1138\nAn appreciation (Alfred Roncovieri), 91\nBlack, WiUiam H. — Discussion, 414\nAndrews, Mrs. Fannie Fern — The peace\nmovement and the public schools, 247;\nBlaine, Mrs. Emmons — The opportunity\nof the teacher, 103\nDiscussion, 418\nAnnual\nMeeting\nof Active\nMembers,\nBlair, Francis G. — Progress in public\nMinutes of, 27\neducation, 146\nArmstrong, V. A., and Frost, W. E. —\nBlake,\nKatherine\nD. — Peace in the\nBacteriological\ntests of methods\nof\nschools, 140; The proper supervision of\ncleaning, 985\nthe reading of school children, 1016;\nDiscussion, 1019\nArt education in public schools a necessity\nBlindness in children under school age.\nof civic perfection (Arthur B. Clark),\n769\nThe prevention of, 1051\nArticulation of high school and college,\nBookkeeping fundamentals (Winfield S.\n*\nMcKinney), 829\nReport of the committee on, 559\nArt's service as a basis for classified knowl- 1163 Boone, Cheshire L. — Art's service as a\nbasis for classified knowledge (scientific\nedge (scientific development) (Cheshire\ndevelopment), 778\nL. Boone), 778\n\n"}
{"page": 1180, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBoone, Richard G. — ^The kindergarten:\nits influences upon higher education, 490\nBrecheen, Thomas L. — To what extent\nare teachers responsible for failures of\nstudents in the classroom? 857\nBrink, Gilbert N. — School publications,\nliterary and musical organizations, dramatics, 588\nBrittain, M. L. — Discussion, 221\nBrookman, Miss — Discussion, 635\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth — Educational\nadvance in the nation, 215\nBrown J. Stanley — Discussion, 460\nBruce, Frank\nM. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of School Administration,\n993\nBrumbaugh, M. G. — Moral education:\nthe problem stated, 347\nBruner, Frank G. — The influence of\nopen-air and low-temperature schoolrooms on the mental alertness and\nscholarship of pupils, 890\nBuilding up of professional education on a\ncollegiate foundation from the viewpoint of the professional schools, (David\nStarr Jobdan), 670\nBuRK, Frederic — ^The teacher's part in\nconservation, 970\nBurke, Mrs. L. K. — Discussion, 418\nBusiness English — what? why? how?\n(Sherwin Cody), 839\nButler, Louis C. — Discussion, 746\nBy-Laws, adopted July 10, 1907, 5; Art. I,\nMembership, s; Art. II, Officers and\nCommittees, 6; Art. Ill, Duties of\nOfficers, 6; Art. IV, Board of Directors,\n7; Art. V, The National Council, 7;\nArt. VI, Departments, 8; Art. VII,\nMeetings, 8; Art. VIII, Amendments, 8\nCaldwell, Otis W. — Needed adjustments\nbetween secondary schools and colleges,\n471; The new University of Chicago\nplan for college admission, 572\nCalendar of meetings, 10\nCalifornia county free libraries (Harriet\nG. Eddy), 1026\nCall, Arthur Deerin — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Superintendence, 161\nCampbell, P. L. — ^The future of intercollegiate athletics in the western states,\n688\nCan we eliminate the school laggard?\n(G. W. A. Luckey), 1046\nCan we shorten the term of years without\ndecreasing efficiency of education in\nAmerican schools? (Samuel Avery),\nT26\n\nCarpenter, Estelle — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Music Education, 787\nCarr, John W. — Moral education thru\nthe agency of the public schools, 351\nCary, Charles P. — Educational advance\nin the state, 210\nCause of education (Helen Marsh Wixson), 83\nCauses\nof backwardness\nand\nmental\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ndeficiency in children and how to prevent them (Henry H. Goddard), 1039\nChadsey,vance inCharles\nE. — Educational adthe city, 203\nChamberlain, Arthur H. — Discussion, 474\nChapman, Frederick E. — Discussion, 807\nChild protection and the social evil\n(Walter T. Sumner), mo\nChilds, C. W. — Commercial-economic\ngeography, 842; Discussion, 855\nClark, Arthur B. — Art education in pub769lic schools a necessity of civic perfection,\nClark, Fran es Elliott — Public-school\nmusic and our national speech, 813\nClark, George A. — Shorthand — its educational and practical value, 845\nClark, Matie P. — The public-school\ndomestic-science department as an influence in the community for enforcing\npure-food laws and civic cleanliness,\nClifton, H. partment\nT. of—Science\nSecretary's\nMinutes,\nInstruction,\n939 DeCody, Sherwin — Business English —\n760\nwhat?\nwhy? how? 839; Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Business Education, 827; Discussion, 840, 841\nCoE, George A. — ^Virtue and the virtues:\na study of method in the teaching of\nmorals, 419; Discussion, 418\nCollege admission. The new University of\nChicago plan for, 572\nfor, 567\nCollege\nadmission. The new Harvard plan\nCollege-entrance\nrequirements,\nReport of\nthe committee on,\n729\nCollege of liberal arts. Relation of, to the\nprofessional and practical schools, 664\nCollege students, Moral training of, 425\nColleges and universities, Education in, 191\nColor sense. The development of, 484\nComing of the humane element in education, A (Sherman C. Kingsley),\n236; B (Leonard P. Ayres), 242;\nC (Fannie Fern Andrews), 247;\nD (H. B. Peairs), 252\nCommercial-economic geography (C. W.\nChilds), 842\nCommercial\nideal, 865 teacher, The essentials of the\nCommittee of nine on the articulation of\nhigh school and college. Report of, 559\nCommittee on a system of teaching morals\nin the public schools. Tentative report\nof, 342\nCommittee on a universal system of key\nnotation. Report of, 323\nCommitteements, on\ncollege-entrance\nrequireReport of,\n729\nCommittee on cosmopolitan high-school\ncurriculum. Report of, 591\nCommittee on courses of study in agriculture, Report of, 1138\nCommittee on economy of time in education, Preliminary report of, 222\n\n"}
{"page": 1181, "printed_page": null, "text": "I165\n\nINDEX\nCommittee on efficiency of janitor service,\nReport of, 977\nCommittee on simplified spelling, Report\nof, 704\nCommittee on terminology, Report of, 802\nCommittee on the Mexican centennial.\nReport of, 255\nCommittee on uniform records and reports,\nPreliminary report of, 271\nCompensation of teachers (Joseph Scott),\n121\n\nCoNNELLEY, CLIFFORD B. — ^To what extent\ndoes manual training aid in adjustment\nto environment? 711\nConservation, The teacher's part in, 970\nCook, George B. — ^The state superintendent and the General and Southern\neducation boards, 305\nCook, John W. — Discussion, 414\nCo-operation between home and school\n(William B. Owen), 1103\nCorwin, R. W. — Discussion, 657\nCosmopolitan high-school curriculum. Report of committee on, 591\nCounty superintendent and the rural communities (Edith A. Lathrop), 303\nCowan, Fred H. — Discussion, 950\nCowen, George A. — Elementary or general science from the standpoint of the\neastern schoolmaster, 940\nCrabtree, James W. — Discussion, 418\nCrane, Julia E. — Some mistakes of the\nmusic teacher which the viewpoint of\nthe child would correct, 794\nCropsey, N. — Discussion, 413\nCuMMiNGS,\nHorace H. — Report of the\n255\ncommittee,\non the Mexican centennial,\nCurricula for high schools of commerce in\nthe United States (Charles H. Murphy), 852\nCurriculum, The need of a new standard\nof measurement for the various subjects\nof the, 518\nCurry, James S. — ^Teaching typewriting\nfor the best results, 834\nDavidson, Percy E. — Results and impressions of a preliminary study of pedagogical retardation, 878; Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Child Hygiene, 869\nDavidson, William M. — Discussion, 443\nDavis, Grace — Discussion, 656\nDavis, Harvey N. — The new Harvard\nplan for college admission, 567\nDeaf child, Physiology and psychology\nof the, 1084\n\nDepartment of Business Education, 827;\nof Child Hygiene, 869; of Elementary\nEducation, 517; of Higher Education,\n659; of Kindergarten Education, 477; of\nLibrary, 1015; of Manual Training and\nArt Education, 709; of Music Education,\n787; of National Council, 331; of Normal\nSchools, 695; of Physical Education,\n905; of Rural and Agricultural Educa-\n\ntion, 1 17; of School Administration,\n993;\nof School\nPatrons,\n1093;\nof\nScience Instruction, 939; of Secondary\nEducation, 555; of Special Education,\n1 031; of Superintendence, 161\nDeutsch, Monroe E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Higher Education, 659\nDevelopment of personality thru educa116 tion (Margaret E. Schallenberger),\nDevelopment\nof the484color sense (KathERiNE M. Ball),\nDrew, William J.— Discussion, 655\nDuNiWAY,\nC. A. — The separation and\ndevelopment of the junior college as\ndistinct from the university, 660\nDwan, Stephen H. — Discussion, 841, 856\nDye, Charity — Discussion, 418\nDynamic value of manual\narts in the\nSensor), 719 system of education (T. D.\npublic-school\nEddy,\nHarriet\nG. — California county\nfree libraries, 1026; Secretary's Minutes,\nLibrary Department, 1015\nEducation\nThe kindergarten\nas a factorforin,efficiency.\n507\nEducation in the colleges and imiversities\n(Guy Potter Benton), 191\nEducation in the elementary schools (Ella\nFlagg Young), 183\nEducation in the secondary schools (Ellis\nU. Graff), 186\nEducation of the American Indian (H. B.\nPeairs), 252\nEducational advance in the city (Charles\nE. Chadsey), 203\nEducational advance in the nation (Elmer\nEllsworth Brown), 215\nEducational advance in the state (Charles\nP. Gary), 210\nEducational\nepoch\nin New\nAmerica\n(George E. MacLean), 226\nEfficiency of education in American schools.\nCan we shorten the term of years without\ndecreasing, 126\nEfficiency,\nas a factor in\neducation The\nfor,kindergarten\n507\nElementary or general science for high\nschools as it appears to a western college\nprofessor (W. C. Morgan), 948\nElementary or general science from the\nstandpoint of the eastern schoolmaster\n(George A. Cowen), 940\nElementary\nrural schools, Physical education in, I 156\nElementary schools, Education in, 183\nElliott, O. L.— Secretary's Minutes, Department of Secondary Education, 555\nEllis,\nW. Round\nF., Jr.—\nSecretary's\nMuiutes,\nClassical\nTable,\n556\nEngineering graduates in the United States,\nThe supply of and demand for, 681\nBnglish education. Present problems in,\n132\n\nEssentials of the ideal commercial teacher\n(P. M. Fisher), 865\n\n"}
{"page": 1182, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEvans, Lawton B. — The glory of children\nof the South, 175\nEvans, W. A.— The health of the child the\njoint concern of parents and teacher, 913\nExceptional children, Legal provisions for,\n1070\n\nExtra-classroom activities in the high\nschool: their place and their importance\n(RiiFus C. Bentley), 581\nFagge, Ethelwyn H. — ^High-school Ubraries, 1019\n\nFamham, Mary Frances — Discussion, 1108\nFelmley, David — High-school preparation of candidates for normal-school\ntraining, 445; The normal school and\nthe training school, 700; Discussion,\n,657 aim of modern foreign-language study\nFinal\nin secondary education (J. Henry\nSenger), 639\nFisher, Ida M. — The relation of music to\nschool activities, 808\nFisher, P. M. — ^The essentials of the ideal\ncommercial teacher, 865\nFitzpatrick, Frank A. — Discussion, 418\nFlagg, Etta P. — Some actual needs for\nintelligent purchasing of household commodities and practical methods of keeping household accounts, 765\nFooTE, Arthur — Music in the college, 803\nForest conservation (E. T. Allen), 952\nFoster William T. — Discussion, 653, 655\nFrost, W. D. — Our short course for\njanitors, 990\nFrost, W. D., and Armstrong, V. A. —\nBacteriological tests of methods of cleaning, 985\nFuLLERTON, C. A. — ^Thc opportunity and\nthe responsibility of normal schools in\npublic-school music, 822\nFuture of intercollegiate athletics in the\nwestern states (P. L. Campbell), 688\nGarlick, Mr. — Discussion, 655\nGavett, G. Irving — Discussion, 630\nGearhart, May — ^What has art in the\nschools done to preserve and cultivate\nthe imagination ? 783\nGeneral science in the high school (Lewis\nB. Avery), 944\nGerwig, George W. — ^The requisites of the\nefl&cient teacher in industrial schools,\nGibson,\nCarleton B. — Progress in voca722 tional\ntraining, 260\nGideon, A. — Simplified spelling from the\nscholarly standpoint and with reference\nto the masses: the argument for simplified spelling, 645; Secretary's Minutes,\nModern Foreign Language Round Table,\n557; Discussion, 680\nGlory of children of the South (Lawton B.\nEvans), 175\nGoddard,\nHenry H. — Causes of backwardness and mental deficiency in children and how to prevent them, 1039;\nTwo thousand children tested by the\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBinet measuring scale for intelligence,\n870\nGraff, Ellis U. — Education in the secondary schools, 186\nGrant, A. — Discussion, 634\nGraves, Walter H. — Making Latin composition ofgreater value, 637\nGreene, Frances M. — Sex hygiene, 917\nGreenwood, James M. — ^The home and\nschool life, 377; Discussion, 443\nGreenwood, Mrs. James M. — Discussion,\nGroszmann, Maximilian P. E. — Legal\nprovisions for exceptional children, 1070;\nDiscussion, 418\nGuerard, Albert Leon — Literary appre458 ciation inthe study of foreign languages :\nits opportunities and limitations; with\nspecial reference to the study of French,\n641\nGuiLLOU,\nAlfred — Some present problems in the literature of the manual arts\nand vocational education, 756\nGwiNN,\nM. — The ideals of people of the\nSouth, J.169\nHagel\nthorn, Signe\n— ^Secretary's\nMinutes,\nDepartment\nof E.\nPhysical\nEducation,\n905\nHale, R. B. — Address of welcome, 71\nHall, H. C. — Discussion, 653\nHanna, John Calvin — Social functions,\nHarford, Mrs. L. L. — Discussion, 856\nHart, B. F. — ^Discussion, 857\nHartley, Victorine — Discussion, 801\nHealth\nAyres),and\n885 ventilation (Leonard P.\nAley),\n586 544\nHealth of school children (Robert J.\nHealth of the child the joint concern of\nparent and teacher (W. A. Evans), 913\nHealth, Playgrounds and, 549\nHeeter, S. L. — Separate schools with\nseparate coiurses of training for the\nseparate needs of our children, 1034\nHewett, Miss — Discussion, 634\nHicks, Vinnie C. — What constitutes a\nsubnormal child, and to what extent\ncan he be trained ? 1077\nHigh school, Extra-classroom activities in\nthe; their place and their importance, 581\nHigh-school libraries (Ethelwyn H.\nFagge), 1019\n\nHigh-school preparation of candidates for\nnormal-school training, I (David Felmley), 445; II (John R. Kirk), 450\nrett), 576teacher himself (H. M. BarHigh-school\nHiNES,\nN. — ^The ideal school\nof view,Linnaeus\n994\nboard from the superintendent's point\ngarten, 479 R. — Music in the kinderHoFER, Mari\nwood), 377\nHome and school hfe (James M. Greenissue, 592\nHosic, James Fleming — The questions at\n\n"}
{"page": 1183, "printed_page": null, "text": "1167\n\nINDEX\nHousehold arts, Requisites for the eflfective\nteaching of the manual and, 747\nHoush, W. H, — Discussion, 1025\nHuggins, Harriet E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education,\n477\nHuLST, Cornelia Steketee — Organization of the course in literature in secondary schools, particularly with a regard\nto history, 598\nHumane element in education, The coming\nof the, 236\nHunting, W. J.— Secretary's Minutes,\nEnghsh Round Table, 555\nHygiene of vision (F. Park Lewis), 1059\nHypothesis in education (Ella Flagg\nYoung), 87\nHyre, Mrs. Sarah E. — Unity of ideals\nand purposes as gained from school\nadministration, 319\nIdeal school board from the superintentendent's 994\npoint of view (Linnaeus N.\nHiNEs),\nIdeals of the people of the South (J. M.\nGwinn), 169\nImprovement of teachers in service in city\nschools (Harlan Updegraff), 433\nIn Memoriam — James Ormond Wilson\n(Thomas W. Bicknell), 155; Milton\nBradley (A. L. Webber), 488; Warren\nEaston (James B. Aswell), 179; William Wallace Stetson (Payson Smith),\n180\n\nIncorporation, Act of, i ; certificate of, 9\nIndiana accounting board to the public\nschools. The relation of, 1002\nIndustrial education in Europe, The new\nstandard of present-day, 740\nIndustrial education in London (Kate\nStevens), 523\nIndustrial schools, The requisite of the\nefficient teacher in, 722\nInfluence of open-air and low-temperature\nschoolrooms on the mental alertness\nand scholarship of pupils (Frank G.\nBruner), 890\nInskeep, L. D. — Discussion, 856\nIntercollegiate athletics in the western\nstates. The future of, 688\nIntroduction of President Young (Josiah\nL. Pickard), 74\nJames Ormond Wilsonf (Thomas W.\nBicknell), 155\nJohnson, D. B. — Discussion, 415\nJohnson, Helen Louise — The requisites\nfor the effective teaching of the manual\nand household arts, 747; Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Manual Train67 ing and Art Education, 709\nJohnson, Hiram W. — Address of welcome,\nJohnson, Riley O. — Discussion, 1155\nJordan, David Starr — 'Moral training\nof college students, 425; Temperance\nand society, 75; The building up of\nprofessional education on a collegiate\n\nfoundation from the viewpoint of the\nprofessional schools, 670\nJournal of Proceedings of General Sessions,\n61\nJunior\ncollege as distinct from the university, The separation and development of,\n660\nKane, Thomas F.— The relation of the\ncollege of liberal arts to the professional\nand practical schools, 664\nKerr, M. R. — Discussion, 657\nKey notation, Report of committee on a\nuniversal system of, 323\nment, 340\nKeyes, Charles\nH. — Introductory state-\n\nKindergarten as a factor in education for\nefficiency (Bertha M. McConkey), 507\nKindergarten as an ethical laboratory\n(Evelyn Pluss), 503\nKindergarten\nParlin), 511of the future (Fran^ Edson\nKindergarten, The; its influence upon\nhigher education (Richard G. Boone),\nKiNGSLEY, Clarence D. — Report of the\ncommittee of nine on the articulation of\nhigh school and college, 559\nschool,\nKiNGSLEY,\n490 236 Sherman C. — ^The open-air\nKirk, John R. — Agriculture and domestic\nscience in normal schools with special\nreference to preparing teachers for community work, 1 15 2; High-school preparation of candidates for normal-school\ntraining, 450; Discussion, 416, 443\nKreuzpointner, Paul — ^The new standard\nof the present-day industrial education\nin Europe, 740; Discussion, 728\nLange, Alexis F. — Some phases of university efficiency, 672\nLathrop, Edith A. — The county superintendent and the rural communities, 303\nLatin in the lower grades (below the high\n1\n059 (H. C. Nutting), 635\nschool)\nLegal123provisions for exceptional children\n(Maximilian P. E. Groszmann), 1070\nLewis, F. Park — ^The hygiene of vision,\nLife of the teacher (Charles Zueblin),\nLiterary appreciation in the study of foreign\nlanguages: its opportunities and limitations; with special reference to the study\nof French (Albert Leon Guerard), 641\nLittle, C. N. — The supply of and demand\nfor engineering graduates in the United\nStates, 681\nLong, Edith — Discussion, 634\nLowRY, Charles D. — Physiology and\npsychology of the deaf child, 1084\n267\nLucKEY, G. W. A. — Can we eliminate the\nschool laggard? 1046; Needed adjustments between secondary schools and\ncolleges, 466; The balanced course of\nstudy and the all-year-round schools,\n\n"}
{"page": 1184, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMacCaughey, Vaughan — School gardening in Hawaii as related to agricultural\neducation, 1126\nMacDonald, John — Discussion, 417\nMacLean, George E. — An educational\nepoch in new America, 226\nMaking Latin composition of greater\nvalue (Walter H. Graves), 637\nMaltby, Mrs. Adelaide Bowles — Discussion, 1017\nManual and household arts. Requisites\nfor the effective teaching of the, 747\nManual arts and vocational education.\nSome present problems in the literature\nof the, 756\nManual arts in the public-school system of\neducation, Dynamic value of, 719\nManual training, To what extent does it\naid in adjustment to environment, 711\nMarsh,. J. Frank — The state superintendent, the county superintendent, and\nthe\n67 state normal, 304\nMcCarthy, P. W. — Address of welcome,\nMcCoNKEY, Bertha M. — ^The kindergarten as a factor in education for\nefl&ciency, 507\nMcKiNNEY, WiNFiELD S. — Bookkeeping\nfundamentals, 829\nMeans of moral training afforded by the\npublic schools (John W. Carr), 367\nMeetings, Calendar of, 10\nMessage of achievement from the Southland, A (Henry J. Willingham) 166;\nB (J. M. Gwinn), 169; C (Lawton B.\nEvans), 175\nMexican centennial. Report of the committee on the, 255\nMillspaugh, J. F. — Discussion, 418\nMilton Bradley t (A. L. Webber), 488\nMinutes of Annual Meeting of Active\nMembers, 27\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors,\n1910-11, 37\n\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Trustees,\n59\nMinutes of Meeting of New Board of\nDirectors, 1911-12, 54\nModern foreign-language study in secondary education, The final aim of, 639\nMonroe, Edwin S. — Discussion, 444\nMoral and religious training. Relation of,\n397\nMoral\neducation:\nthe problem\nstated\n(M. G. Brumbaugh), 347\nMoral education thru the agency of the\npublic schools (John W. Carr), 351\nMoral instruction in the public schools —\nA tentative course by grades (John W.\nCarr), 351\nMoral instruction of the child (Charles\nE. Rugh), 497\nMoral\ntraining afforded by the public\nschools. Means of, 367\nMoral\ntraining in the public schools.\nStatus of, 400\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMoral training of college students (Davh)\nStarr Jordan), 425\nMorals in the public schools, Some instinctive roots upon which the teaching of\nmay be grafted, 426\nMorals in the Public schools, Tentative\nreport\nteaching,of 342committee on a system of\nMorgan, W. C. — Elementary or general\nscience for high schools as it appears to\na western college professor, 948\nMorse, A. G. — Discussion, 855, 857\nMotivation of the children's work in the\nelementary schools. Report on the, 528\nMott, Thomas A. — Discussion, 417\nMurphy,\nCharles\nH. — Curricula\nfor\nhigh schools of commerce in the United\nStates, 852; Discussion, 856, 857\nMusic in the college (Arthur Foote), 803\nHofer)in, 479\nMusic\nthe kindergarten\n(Mari\nR.\n\nMusic of the community, PubUc-school\nmusic in relation to the, 790\nMyers, W. A. — ^The relation of the Indiana\naccounting board to the public schools,\n1002\n\nNational committee of fifteen on geometry\nsyllabus. Provisional report of, 607\nNational committee on agricultural education. Report of the, 706\nNational Council of Education, Constitution, 331; Officers for 1911-12, 333;\nMembers,\n334; (William\nSecretary'sF.Minutes,\n336\nNational\nvitaUty\nSnow), 965\nNeed of a new standard of measurement\nfor the various subjects of the curriculum\n(Edwin R. Snyder), 518\nNeeded\nadjustments between\nsecondary\nschools and colleges, I (Robert\nJ.\nAley), 461; II (G. W. A. Luckey),\n466; III (Otis W. Caldwell), 471\nNelson, A. C. — Discussion, 418\nNew Harvard plan for college admission\n(Harvey N, Davis), 567\nNew standard of the present-day industrial\neducation\nin740 Europe\n(Paul Kreuzpointner),\nNew University of Chicago plan for college\nadmission (Otis W. Caldwell), 572\nNormal school and the training school\n(David Felmley), 700\nNormal-school training, High-school preparation of candidates for, 445\nNormal\nschools in public-school music,\nThe opportunity and the responsibiUty\nof, 822\n\nNoyes, George R. — Discussion, 655\nNutting, H. C. — Latin in the lower grades\n(below the high school), 635\nOfficers of General Association for 1910-11,\n12; of Departments for 1910-11, 13;\nof General Association for 1911-12, 16;\nof Departments for 1911-12, 17\nO'Keefe, Nellie M. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\n517\n\n"}
{"page": 1185, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 169\n\nINDEX\nOpen-air and low-temperature schoolrooms, Influence on the mental alertness\nand scholarship of pupils, 890\nOpen-air school, The (Sherman C. Kingsley), 236\nOpen-air schools (Leonard P. Ayres), 898\nOpportunity and the responsibility of\nnormal- schools in public-school music\n(C. A. Fullerton), 822\nOpportunity of the teacher (Mrs. Emmons\nBlaine), 103\nOrganization of the course in literature in\nsecondary schools, particularly with a\nregard to history (Cornelia Steketee\nHulst), 598\nOur educational advance and improvement over the past, A (Charles E.\nChadsey), 203; B (Charles P. Cary),\n5\n210:\nC (Elmer Ellsworth Brown),\nOur short course for janitors (W. D. Frost),\nOwen,\n990\n\nWilliam B. — Co-operation between home and school, 1103\nPalmer, Clayton F. — Agricultural naturestudy, 1 1 18\nPardee, George C. — Water-powers, lands,\nand minerals, 958\nParlin, Frank Edson — The kindergarten\nof the future, 511\nParoni, Romilda — Discussion, 923\nPatton, Normand S. — Present-day tendencies of school architecture, 1009\nPeace in the schools (Katherine D.\nBlake), 140\nPeace movement and the public schools\n(Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews), 247\nPeairs, H. B. — Education of the American\nIndian, 252\nPearse, Carroll G. — ^The school laggard,\n1033; Discussion, 265, 441\nPersonality thru education, The development of, 116\nPhillips, John H. — Discussion, 456\nPhysical education in elementary rural\nschools (L. R. Alderman), 1156\nPhysical training for girls of high-school\nage — the biological point of view (John\nM.\nTyler), 933\nPhysiology and psychology of the deaf\nchild (Charles D. Lowry), 1084\nPiCKARD, Josiah L. — Introduction of President Young, 74\nPlayground movement in America (L. H.\nWeir), 925\nPlaygrounds and health (L. H. Weir), 549\nPluss, Evelyn — The kindergarten as an\nethical laboratory, 503\nPotentiality of the school garden (Cyril A.\nStebbins), 1 13 1\nPowell, Olive Thomas — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Special Education,\n103 1\nPreliminary report of the committee on\neconomy of time in education (Henry\nSuzzallo), 222\n\nPreliminary report of the committee on\nuniform records and reports, 271\nPresent-day tendencies of school architecture (Normand S. Patton), 1009\nPresent problems\nin English education\n(Kate Stevens), 132\nPresent status of education in America, A\n(Ella Flagg Young), 183; B (Ellis\nU.\nGraff),191 186;\nC (Guy\nPotter\nBenton),\nPrevention of blindness in children under\n105\n1\nschool\nage (Mark\nD. Stevenson),\nPrichard, Lucy E.— Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment\nof School Patrons, 1093\nProceedings of General Sessions, Journal of,\n61\nProfessional Hfe as applied to teaching.\nThe standards of, 199\nProfessional\ntraining, Unity of ideals and\n267\npurposes as gained from, 309\nProgress and the true meaning of the\npractical in education, A (Carleton B.\nGibson), 260; B (G. W. A. Luckey),\nProgres in public educat\n(\nion Francis G.\ns 146\nBlair),\nProgress in vocational training (Carleton\nB. Gibson), 260\nProgress of schools of the South (Henry J.\nWillingham), 166\n60\nProper7 supervision of the reading of school\nchildren (Katherine D, Blake), 1016\nProvisional report of the national committee of fifteen on geometry syllabus,\n\nin, 146\nProgre\nPublic educatio\nPubHc\nhealth n. educatioss committ\nof\nee\nn\nAmerican\nMedical Association, Report\nof, 909\nPublic-school domestic science department\nas an influence in the community for\nenforcing pure-food\nlaws\nand\ncivic\ncleanliness (Matie P. Clark), 760\nPublic-school\nmusic and our national\nspeech (Frances Elliott Clark), 813\nPublic-school\nmusic in relation to the\nmusic of 790the community\n(Elsie M.\nShawe),\nPublic-school music. The opportunity and\nthe responsibility of normal schools in,\n822\nPupil self-government as a training for\ncitizenship (Richard Welling),\n1005\n697\nQuestions\nat issue, The (James Fleming\nHosic),\n592\nRelation of academic and professional work\nin a normal school (Homer H. Seerley),\nRelation of moral and religious training\n(Clifford W. Barnes), 397\nRelation of music to school activities (Ida\nM. Fisher), 808\nRelation of the college of liberal arts to\nthe professional and practical schools\n(Thomas F. Kane), 664\n\n"}
{"page": 1186, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 7©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nRelation of the Indiana accounting board to\nthe public schools (W. A. Myers), 1002\nReligious training, Relation of moral and,\n397\nReorganization of American education\n(James H. Baker), 94\nReport of Board of Trustees, Twenty-fifth\nannual, 23\nReport of committee on a system of teaching morals in the public schools, Tentative, 342\nReport of committee on cosmopolitan\nhigh-school curriculimi (Spencer R.\nSmith), 591\nReport of committee on courses of study\nin agriculture (E. C. Bishop), 1138\nReport of committee on efficiency of janitor\nservice, 977\nReport of committee on terminology, 802\nReport of public health education committee of American Medical Association,\n909\n\nReport of the committee of nine on the\narticulation of high school and college\n(Clarence D. Kingsley), 559\nReport of the committee on a universal\nsystem of key notation, 323\nReport of the committee on collegeentrance requirements, 729\nReport of the committee on simplified\nspelling, 704\nReport of the committee on the Mexican\ncentennial (Horace H. Cummings), 255\nReport of the national committee on agricultural education, 706\nReport of the school health committee of\nthe Department of School Patrons, 906\nReport of the school revenue committee\n1094the Department of School Patrons,\nof\nReport\nof Treasurer, Annual, for 1910-11,\n20\nReport on the motivation of the children's\nwork in the elementary schools (H. B.\nWilson), 528\nRequisites for the effective teaching of the\nmanual and household arts (Helen\nLouise Johnson), 747\nRequisites of the efficient teacher in industrial schools (George W. Gerwig), 722\nResponse to addresses of welcome (Robert\nJ. Aley), 72\nResults and impressions of a preliminary\nstudy of pedagogical retardation (Percy\nE. Davidson), 878\nRipley, L. W. — Discussion, 1029\nRobinson, L. A. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Rural and Agricultural\nEducation, 11 17\nRoNCOViERi, Alfred — An appreciation, 91\nRoss, E. Atiielstan — Discussion, 728\nRound tables: Classical, 635; EngHsh,\n592; mathematics, 607; modern foreign\nlanguages, 639; state and county\nsuperintendents, 303; superintendents\nof smaller cities, 309\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nRowell, Percy E. — Discussion, 951\nRuGH, Charles E. — Moral instruction of\nthe child, 497; Some instinctive roots\nupon which the teaching of morals in the\ncussion, 924 may be grafted, 426; Dispublic schools\nRural communities,\ntendent and the, 303The county superinSCHALLENBERGER,\nMARGARET\nE. — ^Thc\ndevelopment of personality thru education, 116\nSchool activities in relation to children's\neyes (J. A. Shaw an), 1063\nSchool activities, The relation of music to,\n808\nSchool\narchitecture, Present-day tendencies\nof, 1009\nSchool garden. Potentiality of the, 1131\nSchool gardening in Hawaii as related\nto 1033\nagricultural education (Vaughan\nMacCaughey), 1 1 26\nSchool health committee of the Department of School Patrons, Report of the,\nSchool laggard. The (Carroll G. Pearse),\nSchool publications, literary and musical\n1094\norganizations,\ndramatics (Gilbert. N.\nBrink),\n588\n906\nSchool revenue committee of the Department of School Patrons, Report of the,\nScientific basis for ventilation standards\n(C.-E. A. WiNSLOw), 977\nScott, Joseph — The compensation of\nteachers, 121\nSecondary schools and colleges. Needed\nadjustments between, 461\nSecondary schools. Education in, 186\nSeerley, Homer H, — Simplified speUing\nwith reference to the masses, 651; The\nrelation of academic and professional\nwork sion,\nin460 a normal school, 697; DiscusSenger, J. Henry — ^The final aim of\nmodern foreign-language study in secondary education, 639; Discussion, 653\nSensor, T. D. — Dynamic value of manual\narts in cation,\nthe719 pubUc-school system of eduSeparate schools with separate courses of\ntraining for the separate needs of our\nchildren (S. L. Heeter), 1034\nSeparation and development of the junior\ncollege as distinct from the university\n(C. A. Duniway), 660\nSeward, Samuel S., Jr. — Discussion, 604\nSex hygiene (Frances M. Greene), 917\nShawan, J. A. — School activities in rela459 tion to children's eyes, 1063; Discussion,\nShawe, Elsie M. — Public-school music m\nrelation to the music of the community,\nShorthand — its educational and practical\nvalue (George A. Clark), 845\n790\n\n"}
{"page": 1187, "printed_page": null, "text": "I171\nINDEX\nSimplified spelling from the scholarly\nstandpoint and with reference to the\nmasses: the argument for simplified\nspelling (A. Gideon), 645\nSimplified spelling, Report of the committee on, 704\nSimplified spelling with reference to the\nmasses (Homer H. Seerley), 651\nSkilling, W. T. — Discussion, 952\nSmith, Mr. — Discussion, 635\nSmith, Payson — fWilliam Wallace Stetson, 180\nSmith, Spencer R. — Report of committee\non cosmopolitan high-school curriculum, 591\nSnow, William F. — National vitaUty, 965\nSnyder, Edwin R. — ^The need of a new\nstandard of measurement for the various\nsubjects of the curriculum, 518\nSocial fimctions Qohn Calvin Hanna),\nSome586actual needs for intelligent purchasing of household commodities and practical methods of keeping household\naccounts (Etta P. Flagg), 765\nSome instinctive roots upon which the\nteaching of morals in the public schools\nmay be grafted (Charles E. Rugh), 426\nSome mistakes of the music teacher\nwhich the viewpoint of the child would\ncorrect (Julia E. Crane), 794\nSome phases of imiversity eiGSdency\n(Alexis F. Lange), 672\nSome present problems in the literature of\nthe manual arts and vocational education (Alfred Guillou), 756\nSouthland, A message of achievement\nfrom the, 166\nStamper, Alva W. — ^Discussion, 633, 634\nStandards of professional life as applied to\nteaching (Henry Suzzallo), 199\nState reports of joint committees and\naffiliated organizations, 1910-11, Summary of, 1097\nState superintendent and the General and\nSouthern education boards (George B.\nCook), 305\nState superintendent, the county superintendent, and the state normal (J. Frank\nMarsh), 304\nStatus of moral training in the public\nschools (Clifford W. Barnes), 400\nStebbins, Cyril A. — Potentiality of the\nschool garden, 113 1\nStevens, Kate — Industrial education in\nLondon, 523; Present problems in English education, 132\nStevenson, Mark D. — The prevention\nof blindness in children under school age,\n1051\n\nStuart, R. R. — Discussion, 856\nSummary of state reports of joint committees and afl&liated organizations,\n1910-11, 1097\n\nSumner, Walter T. — Child protection\nand the social evil, mo\n\nSupply of and demand for engineering\ngraduates in the United States (C. N.\nLittle), 681\nSuzzallo, Henry — Preliminary report of\nthe committee on economy of time in\neducation, 222; The standards of professional life as applied to teaching, 199\nTaylor, F. C. — Discussion, 638\nBurk), part\n970 in conservation (Frederic\nTeacher's\nTeaching typewriting for the best results\n(James S. Curry), 834\nTemperance\nJordan), 75and society (David Starr\nTerry, H. L. — Discussion, 952\nThompson, Alfred C. — Unity of ideals\ntraining,\n309 as gained from professional\nand\npurposes\nTo what extent are teachers responsible\nfor failures of students in the classroom?\nI (Thomas L. Brecheen), 857; II (C. A.\nBernhard), 861\nTo what extent does manual training aid\nin adjustment to environment? (Clifford B.-Connelley), 711\nTower, Willis E. — ^Discussion, 951\nTraining ment for\nPupil self-governas a, citizenship,\n1005\nTraining of the mentally and physically\nunfortunate (Leonard P. Ayres), 242\nTraining school. The normal school and\nthe, 700\nTreasurer's annual report for 1910-11, 20\nTrustees, Board of. Twenty-fifth Annual\nReport of, 23; Minutes of meetings of, 59\nTwo\nthousand\nchildren tested by the\nBinet measuring scale for intelligence\n(Henry H. Goddard), 870\nTyler, John M. — Physical training for\ngirls\nage— rthe biological\npoint of\nof high-school\nview, 933\nUniform records and reports. Preliminary\nreport of the committee on, 271\nUnity of ideals and purposes as gained\nfrom professional\ntraining (Alfred C.\nThompson),\n309\nUnity of ideals and purposes as gained from\nHyre),\n319\nschool administration\n(Mrs. Sarah E.\nUnity of ideals and purposes as gained from\nschool supervision (E. C. Warriner), 311\nUnity of ideals and purposes in teachers,\nA (Alfred C. Thompson), 309; B (E. C.\nHyre),\n319 311; C (Mrs. Sarah E.\nWarriner),\nUniversity efiiciency. Some phases of, 672\nUpdegraff,\nHarlan — Improvement\nof\nteachers in service in city schools, 433\nVentilation standards. The scientific basis\n\n•\nVirtue\nand the7\nvirtues:\na study of method\n7\nfor, 9\nin\nthe 419\nteaching of morals (George A.\nQoe),\nVocational education, Some present proband, lems\n756in the literature of the manual arts\n\n"}
{"page": 1188, "printed_page": null, "text": "II72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nVocational training, Progress in, 260\nWard, May A. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Normal Schools, 695\nWarren Eastonf (James B. Aswell) 179\nWarriner, E. C. — Unity of ideals and\npurposes as gained from school supervision, 311\nWater-powers, lands, and minerals\n(George C. Pardee), 958\nWebber, A. L. — fMilton Bradley, 488\nWeir, L. H. — Playgrounds and health,\n549;' The925 playground movement in\nAmerica,\nWelling, Richard — Pupil self-government\nas a training for citizenship, 1005\nWest, Mr. — Discussion, 635\nWestcott, Mr. — Discussion, 635\nWhat constitutes a subnormal child and\nto what extent can he be trained?\n(ViNNiE C. Hicks), 1077\nWhat has art in the schools done to preserve and cultivate the imagination?\n(May Gearhart), 783\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWheeler,\nBenjamin\nIde — Address\nof\nwelcome, 69; Discussion, 841\nWilliam Wallace Stetson f (Payson Smith),\n180\n\nWiLLiNGHAM, Henry J.— The progress of\nschools of the South, 166\nWilson, H. B. — Report on the motivation\nof\nthe children's\nwork in the elementary\nschools,\n528\nWiNSLOW, C.-E. A. — ^The scientific basis\nfor ventilation standards, 977\nWixsoN,\nHelen\neducation,\n83\n\nMarsh — ^The cause of\n\nWork, Cree T. — Discussion, 419\nWorks, George A. — Discussion, 316\nYoung, Ella Flagg — Education in the\nelementary\neducation, 87schools, 183; Hypothesis in\nZueblin,\nCharles — The\nteacher, 123\n.\n\nHfe\n\nof\n\nthe\n\n"}
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{"page": 1191, "printed_page": null, "text": "L13\nN3A13\n1911\n\nNational Education\nof the United StatesAssociation\nAddresses and proceedings,..\n\nPLEASE DO NOT\nCARDS\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"}
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